Unit1-16

Prehistoric Art What does “prehistoric” mean?

Prehistoric people concerned first with survival – why might they have created “art” objects with no obvious functional purpose?

What might different prehistoric art objects from different parts of the world have in common?

How might they be different?

Prehistoric Art Prehistory includes all of human existence before the emergence of writing.

Dates: BCE/CE vs. BC/AD

Art, pollen, fossils, and artifacts – clues to understanding early human life and culture.

- BCE = Before Common Era, CE = Common Era BCE is the same as BC CE is the same as AD

No written language – unable to understand art’s meaning – we must speculate meaning (be careful of biased assumptions) based on available evidence.

-“C.” before a date stands for circa, meaning “approximately” (indicates that the exact date is unknown).

Art & humanity spread forth from Africa. Oldest art dates to apprx. 75,000 to 100,000 years old.

The Stone Age • Why is it called “the Stone Age”?

• Stone age divided into 3 main parts: Paleolithic (paleo = old, lithic = stone) - Lower (emergence of tools) - Middle - Upper (emergence of art) Mesolithic (meso = middle, lithic = stone) Neolithic (neo = new, lithic = stone)  What world event occurred that lead to the transition (mesolithic era) from the Paleo to Neolithic cultures?

• Dates vary depending upon area, but span about 30,000 BCE to 2300 BCE.  Paleolithic = hunter/gatherer  Mesolithic = domestication of dogs  Neolithic = farming

Prehistoric Cognition  Why do we care about early tools and other non-”art” objects in art history class?  Did prehistoric peoples have the concept of “art” as we do today?  Representational vs. Non-Representational (i.e. geometric patterning, wearable art, etc)

Handaxe, lower paleolithic, about 1.8 million years old, hard green volcanic lava (phonolite), 23.8 x 10 cm, found at Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania, Africa

 Evidence of the evolution of human thinking: abstract/symbolic thought and the development of language Incised ochre from Blombos Cave, South Africa.

C. 70,000 – 100,000 BCE

Apollo 11 Stones  Huns Mountains, Namibia, Africa  c. 25,500 – 25,300 BCE  Charcoal & ochre on quartzite (type of sandstone)  4.25” x 5” (small scale)  Paleolithic  Discovered in 1969 (named after moon landing mission)

Apollo 11 Stones  Schist – stone that flakes off in flat pieces How was this dated?  Oryx (gazelle) horns, feline (?) body, human hind legs = therianthrope (shape-shifter)  Dominance of the profile view – why?  Focus on animals instead of humans (other stones at site = striped zebra-like animal and a giraffe or ostrich)

Oryx

Schist Ochre

The Woman of Willendorf Describe what you see.

What might have been the function of this figurine?

• Discovered in Willendorf, Austria • Dated c. 24,000 BCE • Approximately 4.5” tall • Carved of limestone, reductive process

CAVE PAINTINGS

Cave Paintings • Dated approximately 30,000 to 15,000 BCE • European cave paintings centered in southern France and northern Spain.

• First discovered in 1879 (Altamira) • Images typically included depictions of animals, humans (male and female), handprints, and patterns • Depictions were either contour drawings (outlines) or silhouettes (solidly filled-in shapes) • Major cave painting sights in France & Spain: -Chauvet-Pont-d’Arc (32,000 BCE) -Pech Merle (25,000 BCE and 15,000 BCE) -Lascaux (15,000 BCE) -Altamira (15,000 BCE)

silhouette

contour outline

Cave Paintings • Many of the paintings are in deep, hard to reach areas of the cave (the caves were not residences).

• What are some possible reasons people went through the effort of making these paintings?

• How did they see in the dark? How did they reach the high places?

• Why do the images overlap?

Pech Merle (“pesh mell”) Altamira

Great Hall of the Bulls, Lascaux

Horns are frontal view

• Discovered in 1940 in southern France.

• Dated c. 15,000 BCE • Composite Pose – When a side view (profile) and a frontal view are combined in the same image.

Also called twisted perspective.

• abstraction • undulating cave walls & flickering light helps to create sense of animism

Head is side view

Camelid Sacrum in the Shape of a Canine  Tequixquiac, Mexico  c. 14,000 – 7000 BCE  Carved bone  Discovered in 1870 during the digging of a drainage canal. How did the first humans get to this site?  Mimesis  Mask? Housed animal spirit?

Human sacrum Modern awl (above) Ancient awls (right)

Tassili N’Ajjer, Algeria (N. Africa, Sahara Desert)

Saharan Rock Art  Tassili N’Ajjer, Algeria (N. Africa, Sahara Desert)  c. 6000-4000 BCE  Tassili N’Ajjer means “plateau of chasms” (eroded stone formations)  Was once a green, fertile land with many animals.  People lived in woven grass huts under cliff hangs More than 15,000 rock paintings and engravings found in region (var. animals & human activities), in many different types of sites, incl. residential  Variation in size from several inches to 13 feet.  Pigment (mineral oxide paints made by mixing the powdered minerals with animal fat/blood) on rock  How are these similar/different to the cave paintings of France and Spain?  Preservation efforts

Running Horned Woman Left image: original.  Right image: digitally restored. Describe what you see in the image.  What else might the woman be doing besides “running”?  Is this an example of twisted perspective (also known as composite view)?  What else is in the image besides the woman?

Was everything drawn at the same time?  What might be the significance of the horns?  “Round-head figures” are from the archaic period of Tassili rock art, which was later replaced by the Bovidian period, which was made by herders and focused on herds and scenes from daily life.

Stonehenge • England, c. 2900 – 1500 BCE (dates based on bits of bone and antler tools found within site, since stone cannot be radio-carbon dated).

• A henge is a circular bank or ditch, often containing a circular arrangement of wooden or stone posts.

• Megalithic architecture (mega = large, lithic = stone) • Neolithic era • 320 feet in circumference • The largest stone is 24’ tall and 50 tons (100,000 lbs).

Aerial view (seen from above)

Stonehenge • Phase One (3100 BCE): Stonehenge was a ceremonial cremation burial place which consisted of a large circle of holes (Aubrey holes), 3 ft diameter, dug into a raised mound, surrounded by the “Domain of the Ancestors” • The Aubrey holes were filled with upright bluestones or wooden beams (bluestones were brought in from Wales, 250 miles away, and weight about 4 tons each).

• How did they transport them? Why did they do it?

Stonehenge • 100-200 years after first phase began Phase Two. • More upright wooden posts set up near center, possible making a roof structure.

• At least 25 of the Aubrey holes were emptied and reused to hold cremation burials and another 30 cremation burial pits were dug into the ditch around the henge.

• Burials during this phase were predominantly of adult males, aged 25-40 years, in good health with little sign of disease or hard labor.

• This was a major project. Who built the henge? Was it an egalitarian project, or one that required forced labor?

Sarsen stones

Stonehenge

• Phase Three of construction (2500 BCE): introduction of the large sarsen stones (sarsen is a grey sandstone), from 25 miles away. • Stones arranged into outer circles (one bluestone, one sarsen), and inner horseshoe-shape (one bluestone, one sarsen).

Stonehenge Lintel • mortise-and-tenon • post and lintel • The posts are slightly wider at the top.

• The stones vary in height. The tallest is 24’.

Posts • What do you think was the function of this site?

• Main entrance to site was accessed from “The Avenue”, a processional roadway that lead to the nearby River Avon.

Stonehenge

trilithon

• The entire formation is oriented so that the rising sun shines upon the central altar stone at the summer solstice.

• trilithons • Continuous lintel • Heel stone – ceremonial entryway • Bronze Age (2200 BCE – 1500 BCE) barrows (round burial mounds) found in vicinity. Included cremations and inhumations, with weapons and jewelry.

Beaker with Ibex Motifs

Beaker with Ibex Motifs  City of Susa, modern day Iran, c. 4200-3500 BCE  Painted terra cotta, about 1 foot tall, impressively thin walls What kinds of animals do you see? What types of geometric decorations?  Animal Style ŸHow do the shapes of the animals match the form of the vase itself?  Below: Susa acropolis

Anthropomorphic Stele ď‚&#x; All three of these were found together, yet have very different styles. How are they different?

Anthropomorphic Stele  Arabian Peninsula  c. 4000-3000 BCE  Sandstone. 3 feet tall. Simplified/abstracted yet still expressive  Similar funerary stelae found throughout Arabian Peninsula, with differing styles  Found near Ha’il in the north-central region of the country, the statues were erected in an open-air sanctuary, and served as funerary markers.  Based on these stelae, how do you think this culture felt about death and the afterlife?

Jade Cong  Liangzhu, China, c. 3300-2200 BCE  Pronounced “tsong”  Precisely carved jade, very valuable, hard material Variations in size, but most have similarities in designs and form (square outer with round hole)  What type of person would be buried with a cong?  Describe the designs. Do you see anything representational?  Shape may have originated from bracelet form, or from early navigational instrument Some burials had congs arranged in circle around body Often found with discs called “bi”

Jade Cong  May represent heavens & earth, or transition to/from spirit world People with congs also often buried with jade jewelry and jade weapons. Why?  Symbolic or ritual function? Later examples smaller, less decorative = diminishing importance of congs in burials  Square corners may relate to directions on map

The Ambum Stone ï‚&#x; Ambum Valley, Enga Province, Papua New Guinea

The Ambum Stone  Ambum Valley, Enga Province, Papua New Guinea (Pacific Islands region). Found in a cave.  c. 1500 BCE. 8” tall.  Graywacke sandstone (gray-wack-uh)  Used as a pestle, possibly for fertility ceremonies/rituals Believed to represent an echidna embryo  Echidnas thought to be revered (prior to introduction of pigs) for their fat deposits  Other mortars and pestles found from same culture feature animal, bird, and human decorations, but this one is unusually sculptural and detailed  Dated based on organic material found in a crack in the sculpture.

Terra Cotta Fragment from Lapita  Solomon Islands, Reef Islands  c. 1000 BCE. Terra Cotta (incised).  Made by the Lapita, ancestors of the Polynesians, including Maori  Lapita settled in the remote Pacific Islands between 1200 1000 BCE. Travel by canoe between islands (Solomon, Fiji, Samoa, Tonga), trading amongst themselves. How do archaeologists know they traded with each other?  Known for ceramics featuring mostly geometric patterns, & some anthropomorphic faces & figures.  Patterns incised using comb-like stamp tool pre-firing  Each stamp had 1 design element. Combined with others to make elaborate patterns.  Ceramics mostly used for cooking/storing/serving food  Designs likely related to early Polynesian tattooing

Tlatilco Female Figurine  Central Mexico, site of Tlatilco (modern day Mexico City), Mesoamerican region  c. 1200-900 BCE  Painted ceramic, about 4 inches tall.  People lived in mud/reed huts and lived on maize, and birds/fish from nearby large lake Most of the figures like this are female. What might that suggest regarding function?  Found in burial plots (often accidentally, by construction workers)  Unusual proportions, elaborate hairstyles  Also found: ceramic vessels, masks, musical instruments, house floors, trash pits

Art of the Ancient Near East

Present day political borders

Historical Context • First development of agriculture in the Fertile Crescent between Tigris and Euphrates rivers (Mesopotamia) • Development of city-states around 4000 BCE • City-states become extremely powerful, with a centralized ruler. What conditions are necessary for this to happen?

• What cultural benefits can result from having strong, centralized leadership?

Historical Context • Each independent city-state has own gods, social hierarchy, and government • Development of specialized labor, trade, irrigation • Agricultural wealth + no natural defenses = centuries of political upheaval (SANB HANP): 1. Sumerian 2. Akkadian 3. Neo-Sumerian 4. Babylonian 5. Hittite 6. Assyrian 7. Neo-Babylonian 8. Persian • Religion plays important role. People worship multiple gods (polytheism) and believe in afterlife.  Each CS has its own patron god. Ruler of CS was delegate from god, or part deity themselves.  Rulers used their connection to the gods (often illustrated in art) to validate their authority.

Great Lyre with Bull’s Head c. 2600-2500 BCE Royal Tomb, Ur (present day Iraq) Gold, lapis lazuli, bitumen, wood

Historical Context • Each independent city-state has own gods, social hierarchy, and government • Development of specialized labor, trade • Agricultural wealth + no natural defenses = centuries of political upheaval • Religion plays important role. People worship multiple gods (polytheism) and believe in afterlife.  Each CS has its own patron god. Ruler of CS was delegate from god.

Sumer • Southern Mesopotamia, 3500 – 2340 BCE • Invention of cuneiform (“wedge-shaped”) writing on clay tablets using pointed stylus • World’s first literary epic, the Epic of Gilgamesh, about the king of Uruk’s quest for the secret of immortality

Sumerian Ziggurats • Huge, stepped structure with white-washed temple on top • Central hall of temple called a cella, which included a stepped altar to the deity • Corners of temple oriented to compass • Raised structure protected against flooding. May have been result of successive rebuilding.

• Made of dried mud brick (no stone available) • What symbolic, religious, or political meanings can be inferred, based on the overall design of the ziggurat and temple? What is the message of the ziggurat?

White Temple Anu Ziggurat

White Temple and ziggurat, Uruk c. 3300 BCE (present day Warka, Iraq) Temple dedicated to sky god Anu

Inside the White Temple • Cella = central hallway, with rooms on right & left sides. Only large enough for a select few (who would that be?).

• Bridge from heaven to earth. Proclaimed wealth and stability.

Glorified CS’s gods.

• Statues of gods and donors placed in temples.

• Top of ziggurat coated with bitumen, then laid with bricks to make a waterproof foundation for temple • Temple coated in whitewash (lime + water)  Temple – 3 entrances which did not face ramp… why?  White Temple and ziggurat, Uruk c. 3300-3000 BCE (present day Warka, Iraq) Temple dedicated to sky god Anu Temple 57’ wide x 73’ long Bent Axis

Inside the White Temple ď‚&#x; Inside the white temple were: - staircases in the northwest and east corners - wooden shelves in the walls - doorways between rooms - podium (elevated surface to stand on) accessible by staircase at the north end of the cella - 19 tablets of gypsum with cylinder seal impressions detailing temple accounting - buried bones of a leopard and a lion under the floor ď‚&#x; Outside of the White Temple, on top of the ziggurat, was a flat terrace with a huge pit with traces of fire. ď‚&#x; A series of conduits (channels) ran from the terrace into the temple, possibly for poured liquids to run into the cella.

Sumerian Votive Offerings • Carved of limestone, gypsum, or alabaster, with inlaid lapis lazuli (bright blue stone) eyes • Approximately 1 to 2.5 feet in height • What do these figures appear to be doing?

• How would you describe their demeanor?

• What about them seems distorted? Why might they be designed that way?

Sumerian Votive Offerings c. 2700 BCE Square Temple, Ishnunna (present day Iraq)

Sumerian Votive Offerings • Figures were placed in temples in a shrine facing a larger, more elaborate cult statue (or idol) of a god.

• Figures were commissioned or patronized by citizens (note: “patroned” is not a word).  Different sizes?

• Surrogate for the patron • A votive offering is any offering to a deity. What other kinds of votive offerings are there? Contact with the god inhabiting the cult statue could only be done through the votive statue, and with the elaborate rituals of a priest.  Based on the style of the votive statues, how did the Sumerians feel about their gods and the afterlife?

Sumerian Votive Offerings c. 2700 BCE Square Temple, Ishnunna (present day Iraq)

Standard of Ur • Discovered in the royal tomb of Ur-Pabilsag (king) • Originally thought to be a standard, but no proof.

• Mosaic of shell, lapis lazuli, and red limestone imbedded in bitumen on wooden frame. Were these items locally available?

• One side, dubbed War, depicts military campaign • Other side, dubbed Peace, depicts a banquet.

• Example of hierarchical (or hieratic) scale, where the most important figures are largest.

• Contains three registers (bands of imagery) • Imagery forms a narrative

Standard of Ur c. 2600 BCE Tomb of Ur-Pabilsag, Ur (present day Iraq)

Royal Tombs of Ur • Both the Great Lyre with Bull’s Head and the Standard of Ur were discovered by archaeologist Leonard Woolley in the 1920s.

• 100s of smaller graves, but 16 larger, more elaborate shaft tombs were dubbed the “Royal” tombs, and probably housed royalty or holy-persons • Larger graves included bones of additional people (human sacrifices). One grave had up to 74.

• Lyre from grave of Pu-abi (priestess or queen), along with 10 sacrificial women in fine jewelry.

• One woman had her hands positioned to play the lyre.

• Shows importance of funerary rituals and afterlife, as well as power of the elite.

Great Lyre with Bull’s Head c. 2600-2500 BCE Royal Tomb, Ur (present day Iraq) Gold, lapis lazuli, bitumen, wood

Standard of Ur c. 2600 BCE Tomb of Ur-Pabilsag, Ur (present day Iraq)

Akkad • Neighbors to the north of Sumer • Adopted Sumerian culture, but spoke a different language • Under Sargon I (c. 2300 BCE), Akkadians conquered most of Mesopotamia.

• The Akkadian empire ended around 2180 BCE to the Guti, who were then replaced in 2112 BCE by the Sumerians again.

Victory Stele of Naram-Sin

Victory Stele of Naram-Sin c. 2200 BCE 6’, 6” tall Found in Susa, but originally from Sippar

• A stele (plural: stelae) is a large stone or wooden slab that is carved or inscribed in commemoration of a person or event.

• This stele is an example of bas relief (low relief) • Naram-Sin was Sargon’s grandson • Which figure do you think is Naram-Sin? • What are the figures to the left of Naram-Sin? • What is happening to the figures in front of Naram-Sin? • What is in the sky?

Larger and higher up than others

Symbols of Naram-Sin’s Religious and Political Authority

Three suns

Mountain echoes his shape

Horned helmet

Idealized, muscular physique

His pose is mimicked by his soldiers, who are looking upward at him

Varied arsenal

Victory Stele of Naram-Sin • The stele depicts Naram-Sin’s victory over the Lullubi people, one of his important military victories • This was the first example of a king giving himself godly attributes (such as the horned helm) • Inclusion of recognizable native trees indicates that this depicts a real event, not a generic battle.

• Artists continued to use twisted perspective and hierarchy of scale.

• Made of pink sandstone

Neo-Sumerian Art

Ziggurat of Ur (reconstructed) c. 2100 BCE (present day Iraq)

• In 2112 BCE, Sumerians, under the leadership of King Urnammu of Ur, regained control of the region.

• Built a new ziggurat in Ur dedicated to moon god Nanna • First ziggurat that was not the accidental product of successive rebuilding.

• Base was rectangular, with angled retaining walls, and three sets of stairs rising up to converge at an entrance gate on the first of three platforms.

Gudea of Girsu

Fleece hat

• Girsu was a Sumerian city-state that remained independent during the Neo-Sumerian era.

• Gudea was a pious king of Girsu, and restored many temples, into which he placed votive figures of himself.

• Cuneiform inscriptions on his clothing state that he dedicates himself, the temple, and the figure to the poet goddess Geshtinanna.

• Carved out of diorite, a very hard stone, which may have dictated the compact, simplified form.

Lifegiving water

Votive Statues of Gudea c. 2090 BCE (present day Iraq) Diorite. 29”

Stele of Hammurabi • King Hammurabi reunited the region after years of political turmoil. He ruled from 1792 to 1750 BCE from the city of Babylon.

• Hammurabi devised a systematic codification of the rights, duties, and punishments for all of his people, known as Hammurabi’s Code.

• Hammurabi’s Code was inscribed on the Stele of Hammurabi.

• At the top of the stele, there is a relief carving of two figures. Which do you think is Hammurabi?

Stele of Hammurabi c. 1750 BCE Susa (present day Iran) Basalt. Height approximately 7’

Code of Hammurabi

Stele of Hammurabi • Now that you know who the two figures are, what do you think is taking place in this image?

Hammurabi

Shamash (sun god)

Stele of Hammurabi • The sun god is depicted presenting Hammurabi with his symbols of authority/law – the rope and measuring stick.

• God-given authority • First ruler to have clearly defined rules and punishments (instead of leaving punishments up to local officials) • Punishments were not the same for everyone.

Rights of some supersede others: men over women, wealthy over poor, citizens over slaves.  Over 300 laws listed, and their punishments  What does this stele convey about Hammurabi?

Pose of prayer

Rope and measuring rod

Sun rays

Hittites • Established capital in Hattushash (present day Turkey) c.

1600 BCE (destroyed 1200 BCE).

• Empire reached along coast of Mediterranean through Syria and Lebanon (conflict with Egyptians).

• First people to work with iron (used for tools, weapons, and armor).

• Fortified capital at Hattushash built from locally quarried stone blocks, decorated with relief sculptures of lions that measured seven feet in height, blending with the colossal scale of the building.

• Example of high relief.

Lion Gate c. 1400 BCE Hattushash (Turkey)

Assyria • Assyrians rose to dominance in northern Mesopotamia between 1400 BCE and 600 BCE. • Assyrian kings built huge palaces atop high platforms inside different fortified cities that served as capitals.

• Palaces were made of mud brick covered with a veneer of alabaster or limestone (a more durable and impressive material).

• Relief sculptures, depicting the king participating in religious rituals, war campaigns, and hunting expeditions, were carved into the veneers.

Citadel of Sargon II c. 700 BCE Dar Sharrukin (Iraq)

Lamassu • Sargon II was an Assyrian ruler (721-706 BCE) • Built his capital in Dur Sharrukin (Citadel of Sargon II) • Within the citadel, Sargon’s palace complex stood on a raised, fortified platform 40 feet high, guarded by two towers.

• The lamassus guarded the gate between the courtyard that served as a waiting area for visitors and Sargon’s throne room.

• Can you identify the different components of a lamassu?

What do you think was the function of the lamassus?

Lamassus (Guardians of the Gate of the Citadel of Sargon II) Limestone. 13’ 10” tall c. 700 BCE Dar Sharrukin (Iraq)

Lamassu • Lamassus had head of a man, wings of an eagle, body of a bull, and horned headdress of a god.

• Functioned as propaganda by demonstrating the might of Sargon and Assyria to visitors.

• What can you interpret about Sargon and/or his citadel based on the lamassus?

• Do you notice anything unusual about the legs?

Lamassus (Guardians of the Gate of the Citadel of Sargon II) Limestone. 13’ 10” tall c. 700 BCE Dar Sharrukin (Iraq)

Palace of Assurnasirpal II • Assurnasirpal II ruled from 883-859 BCE and established his capital in Kalhu.

• Kalhu included a fortified protective wall, and an irrigation system.

• The image on the right is a relief panel that shows archers of Assurnasirpal II pursuing enemies in an important military victory. There’s a lot going on in this image, so let’s look at it more closely…

Assurnasirpal II Archers Pursuing Enemies (relief from Palace of Assurnasirpal II) c. 850 BCE Alabaster, approximately 39” in height Kalhu (Present day Nimrud, Iraq)

Dressed in standard Assyrian soldier garb

Cuneiform inscription

Smaller size = farther away

Lack of beard probably = eunuch

Overlap indicates spatial relationship

Long robes indicate higher status

Ruler of enemy citadel. Note lax weapon pose.

Caught by surprise – still inflating floatie

Gesture of despair

Palace of Assurnasirpal II • This is another low relief from the Palace of Assurnasirpal II. Describe what you see.

Assurnasirpal II Killing Lions (relief from Palace of Assurnasirpal II) c. 850 BCE Alabaster, approximately 39� in height Kalhu (Iraq)

Palace of Assurnasirpal II

• This scene depicts a ceremonial hunt by the king.

• The king (while being protected by bodyguards with swords and shields) rode back and forth on a chariot, shooting lions that were released one by one into the chamber.

• Compare how the depiction of Assurnasirpal II differs from depictions of previous kings, such as Gudea, in tone. How are they different?

Palace of Assurbanipal II • Assurbanipal II ruled Assyria from 669 to 627 BCE, three generations after Sargon II • He made his capital at Nineveh • Like Assurnasirpal, he decorated his palace with alabaster reliefs depicting hunting and battle, and occasionally palace life.

• The scene to the right depicts Assurbanipal and his queen in their palace garden.

Let’s look more closely…

Assurbanipal and his Queen in the Garden (relief from Palace of Assurbanipal II) c. 650 BCE Alabaster, approximately 21” in height Nineveh (Iraq)

Who is depicted?

Musician

Servants with food

Queen

King

Servants with whisks to deter bugs

Well, maybe not.

Neo-Babylonia • Babylon again rose to power in 612 BCE (people known as Neo-Babylonians) • Most famous Neo-Babylonian ruler was Nebuchadnezzar (ruled 605 to 562 BCE) • Nebuchadnezzar built many temples to Babylonian gods, and restored Babylon into a splendid city.

• The Processional Way, a wide avenue through the eastern half of the city, provided a route for religious processions honoring Marduk (patron god).

Ishtar Gate, c. 575 BCE. Babylon (Iraq)

Ishtar Gate

crenellations

• The Processional Way ran from the Euphrates river bridge, through the temple district, and up to the Ishtar Gate (the ceremonial gate to the city) • The walls along the Processional Way, as well as the Ishtar Gate itself, were decorated with glazed blue ceramic tiles (glazing is when clay is covered with a glass coating before being fired, resulting in a glossy outer coating).

• The tops of the Ishtar Gate are crenellated (notched for military defense).

Ishtar Gate, c. 575 BCE. Babylon (Iraq)

Ishtar Gate • In addition to the blue tiles, the Processional Way was decorated with lions, and the Ishtar Gate with dragons and bulls.

• The lion was symbol for goddess Ishtar (goddess of love, beauty, and war). Dragons were sacred to god Marduk (the patron god of Babylon). Bulls were symbol of Adad, the storm god.

• The animals are sculpted in low relief.

Persian Empire • Around 550 BCE, under the leadership of Cyrus II, the Persian Empire emerged out of Iran, and eventually expanded to include Mesopotamia, Babylonia, Media, and even some Aegean Islands. At its height, it reached from Africa to India.

• The dynasty of Persian leaders is referred to as the Achaemenids, as they believed their ancestry traced back to the mythical King Achaemenes.

• Darius I ruled 521-486 BCE. He: -Set up 20 tribute-paying areas under Persian governors, but - Left local rulers in place beneath the governors.

- First empire to allow local customs and religions to continue, which lead to loyalty from his subjects.

- In 518, he began building a new capital called Parsa, now known by its Greek name, Persepolis.

Persepolis

Persian Empire • The imperial complex at Persepolis was built on a raised platform (40 feet high), and laid out on a rectangular grid. • Darius imported materials and artists from around his empire to work on Persepolis, leading to a new multicultural style that combined many different traditions. Why did they do this? What did it say about the Persian Empire? • Upon his death, only the treasury, Apadana (audience hall), and a small palace for himself were built.

Persepolis (Iran) c. 500 BCE

Persepolis • Darius I was succeeded by his son, Xerxes I. • Xerxes expanded the treasury, added a new, larger audience hall called the Hall of 100 Columns, and built a sprawling palace for himself.

• The palace was decorated with many reliefs.

• The relief below is on the central staircase to the Apadana. What is depicted? What message was Darius sending to those who saw it?

Apadana (audience hall) of Darius and Xerxes Persepolis c. 500 BCE

Persepolis Reliefs • Originally, the reliefs were painted with bright colors, and decorated in some places with gold leaf (a thin layer of hammered gold).  Various ethnicities of tribute-givers were shown.

• Although in 334, the Greek ruler Alexander the Great defeated Darius III and nearly destroyed Persepolis, the Persian style of art continued to influence Greek artists and later became one of the foundations for Islamic art.  Alexander adopted the Persian tradition of adopting the local traditions of his subjects, even burying Darius III in a lavish and respectful way in the Royal Tombs near Persepolis (also helped legitimize Alexander’s control over the Persian Empire).

Darius and Xerxes Receiving Tribute (left) and Tribute Bearers (above) Persepolis c. 500 BCE (Iran)

The Art of Ancient Egypt

Geographical Context • The Nile River, the longest river in the world (over 4000 miles), begins in the mountains of central Africa, and runs northward through Egypt, dispensing into the Mediterranean.

• Sediment brought down the Nile River from central Africa created rich, fertile soil.

• In the rainy season, the Nile would flood, dispensing the nutrient-rich silt throughout the farmlands, making the crops plentiful.

• Because Egypt is otherwise arid (dry), most cities developed along the Nile.

• The banks of the Nile were marshy, supporting fish and amphibian life that the Egyptians hunted, as well as large amounts of papyrus.

Upper v. Lower Egypt • Initially, Egypt was divided in to Upper and Lower regions.

• Each region had a symbolic crown, shown in the image below.

• It may seem counter-intuitive that Lower Egypt was actually north of Upper Egypt, but there is actually a reason for it. What is the reason?

Upper

Lower

Combined

Geological Context • Unlike Mesopotamia, Egypt had a wide variety of stone to use in art and architecture, including diorite (the hardest), granite, limestone, and slate.

• Rocky terrain + arid climate = defendable civilizations = stable, unchanging culture for over 3000 years. The ancient Egyptians viewed their consistency as stability, divine balance, and clear evidence of the correctness of their culture.  They were also resistant to changing styles because they believed that funereal imagery affected the experiences of the deceased in the afterlife.

• The yearly flooding lead to Egyptians devising calendar based on 3 seasons: rain, growth, and harvest. Each season lasted four months.

• Noticing cycles of seasons as well as cycles of the sun/moon lead to Egyptians seeing the universe in cyclical time as well as linear time.  This is reflected in their deities: Osiris, the eternal lord of the dead, and Ra, the sun god who was reborn each day.

Religious Context • Like the Mesopotamians, the Egyptians were primarily polytheistic, and believed strongly in an afterlife.

• Believed that before the beginning of time, the primeval waters existed alone in the dark. Then, a mound rose up out of the waters, on which the creator god (Amun) appeared and brought light to the world, and created the other gods.

• The pyramid-shape is significant as it recalls the mound of the creation myth.

The Egyptian Pantheon (set of gods)

Religious Context • Instead of making a sharp distinction between body and soul, Egyptians believed each person had a life-force known as a ka.

• The ka could live on in the body after death, but to do so, the body had to remain as unchanged as possible, which is why bodies were mummified.

• In some cases, statues of the deceased were also included in the tomb, to give the ka an alternate place to live if the body disintigrated.

Funereal Customs • People were buried with all the things the ka would need in the afterlife, such as protective amulets and scrolls, utensils, food, drink, and figurines called ushabtis (answerers) that did any labor the deceased needed in the afterlife.

• To ensure immortality, the mummy and the contents of the tomb needed to be protected, so the outer walls of the tomb were fortified with heavy stone blocks.

• Because of the strong fortification of tombs, and the wealth of items enclosed, much of our knowledge of ancient Egyptian culture comes from artifacts found within them.

Hippopotamus From the tomb of Senbi Glazed ceramic c. 1900 BCE

Book of the Dead • Wealthy people buried with papyrus scrolls (some 70’ long) containing spells and prayers for the afterlife, known as the Book of the Dead.

• A synoptic narrative is one where a character appears multiple times throughout the sequence.

• Hu-Nefer was the royal scribe for the pharaoh Seti I.

Last Judgment of Hu-Nefer From his tomb in Thebes, Egypt Painted papyrus scroll. c. 1300 BCE. 1’ 6” high.

Hu-Nefer kneels before other gods, who bear witness to the judgment.

Anubis (jackal headed god of embalming) leads HuNefer into hall of judgment.

Anubis weighs Hu-Nefer’s heart against a feather of Maat, goddess of truth & right.

Ammit (half hippo/half lion), devourer of sinners, would have eaten heart if judged wicked.

Falcon-headed Horus Ibis-headed god (son of Osiris) brings Thoth records Hu-Nefer before Osiris, proceedings. god of the underworld.

Isis and Nephthys, daughters of Osiris, look on.

Political Context • Egyptian society was very hierarchical, with clearly defined classes.

• The ruler of Egypt was known as a pharaoh, who was more than a king… he was considered the son of a god, imbued with the ka of kingship, and was deified after death.  The living pharaoh was associated with Horus, the powerful falcon-headed god, who was believed to bestow the throne to the first human. Deceased pharaohs were associated with Osiris.

• Typically, power passed from the pharaoh to the pharaoh’s son, creating a dynasty of pharaohs from the same family line (there are several different dynasties over the course of ancient Egyptian history).

• Although most pharaohs were male, there were four female pharaohs (the two most important of which were Hatshepsut and Cleopatra).

Burial Mask of Tutankhamun c. 1320 BCE

The Rosetta Stone • During an expedition in 1799, a small group of officers, being lead by Napoleon Bonaparte, discovered the Rosetta Stone in the delta region of Rosetta, Egypt.

• The stone is made up of three registers of text. The top register is Egyptian hieroglyphic, the second register is demotic (a simplified, cursive form of hieroglyphics), and Greek.

Hieroglyphic

Demotic

• Although the ancient Egyptian language had died out, it was possible for the discoverers to read the Greek portion.

• By 1818, the remainder of the stone was fully deciphered, giving archaeologists a huge asset in learning about ancient Egyptian culture.

Greek

Depiction of Human Figures • Canon of proportion – artists used a system, based on a grid drawn out beforehand, to lay out an idealized figure.

Distance from heel to hairline was 18 units (1 unit = width of a fist), ankle was always on the first horizontal, knee was always between fifth and sixth horizontal, and so on.

• Use of twisted perspective - each body part was depicted at most characteristic angle (head in profile view, eye in front view, torso in front view, etc.)

• Depictions of royalty highly idealized – toned physiques, youthful features

The Palette of King Narmer

back

front

• Narmer – first pharaoh to unify upper and lower Egypt.

Era prior to Narmer (c. 5000-3000 BCE “pre-dynastic”).

• A palette was a flat stone with a circular depression on one side, used for grinding eye-paint in. This particular palette is much larger than usual, because it is for ceremonial use.

• Use of hieratic scale to connote divine status • Hieroglyphics in the top center spell out Narmer’s name (fish = nar, chisel = mer)

Upper Egypt

Lower Egypt

Unified Egypt

The Palette of King Narmer Graywacke, 2’ 1” high. c. 3000 BCE Old Kingdom, Pre-dynastic Hierakonpolis, Egypt

back

What symbols do you see represented?

What might they mean?

front

Cow’s head is symbol for protective goddess Hathor, who could use the heat of the sun to make a fiery beam to protect her father, Ra (sun god) from enemies.

back

front

Fish (Nar) Chisel (mer) On this side, Narmer is depicted wearing the crown of Lower Egypt

On this side, Narmer is depicted wearing the crown of Upper Egypt

Intertwined lioness necks may be another reference to Egyptian unity

Ceremonial bull’s tail, symbol of strength

On both sides, Narmer is shown as larger and more important than other humans, and solely responsible for his victorious triumphs.

God Horus (falcon with human arm) shown with a human head on a tether next to a stylized papyrus plant (representing lower Egypt)

The superhuman strength of Narmer is symbolized by a great bull knocking down a rebellious city (seen from an aerial view)

Boat

• Role of the King in the Sun Cycle: 1. On the front, the king wears the red crown as he advances toward a defeated army. Above the army is a boat, which may represent the boat of the sun god.

2. The red crown is associated with bloody battles fought by the sun god on his boat before a red dawn 3. On the backside, the king wears a white crown, symbolic of the bright light of day, or white moon and stars.

4. By wearing both crowns, Narmer may not only be ceremonially expressing his dominance over the unified Egypt, but also the early importance of the solar cycle and the king’s role in this daily process.

Egyptian Burial Structures • Basic burial structure was a mastaba. Included an underground burial chamber (shaft filled in with rocks), a chapel in which food and drink were ceremonially placed for the deceased, and sometimes a serdab (a room to house the ka statue). • Originally housed single burials, but later became more complex to house families. • Chapel had a false door through which the ka could rejoin the world of the living to partake in the offered food.

Mastaba

The Stepped Pyramid of King Djoser (Zoser)

The Stepped Pyramid of King Djoser Imhotep. 2630 BCE. 200 ft. high. Pre-dynastic.

Suqqara (necropolis for Memphis)

• King Djoser’s burial tomb was designed by the first recorded artist, Imhotep.

• Imhotep expanded upon the idea of a mastaba by adding multiple layers to create a stepped pyramid, as well as a more extensive network of several hundred interior rooms.

• Each face of the pyramid was oriented to the cardinal points of the compass.

• Dual function of the temple was to protect the king and his possessions and to symbolize, by its gigantic presence, his absolute and godlike power.

• Earliest known use of columns. Columns were engaged (attached) to walls, and resembled papyrus stalks (symbol of lower Egypt).

Capitals (tops of columns) resemble papyrus blossoms

The Great Pyramids at Giza • Took 75 years to build.

• Served as the tombs for Old Kingdom pharaohs Khufu, Khafre, and Menkaure.

• New tomb shape probably reflects the influence of Heliopolis, the seat of the powerful cult of Ra (sun deity), whose emblem was a pyramidal stone called a ben-ben.

• The Great Pyramids are symbols of the sun, and the sun’s rays were the ladder the pharaoh used to ascend to the heavens.

• The pyramids were where Egyptian kings were reborn in the afterlife, just as the sun is reborn each day at dawn.

• The reflective, light color of the limestone would have underscored the connection to Ra.

The Great Pyramids at Giza c. 2500 BCE (Old Kingdom). Primarily limestone.

The Great Pyramids at Giza • The largest pyramid (Khufu) is 775’ wide, and 450’ tall.

• Stones were cut from the ground, moved via rollers and sleds, then chiseled and polished to a perfect fit. Building using carefully cut and regularly shaped blocks of stone used in construction and fit together without mortar is referred to as ashlar masonry.

• Stones would have been moved up ramps into position.

• Priests made offerings in the mortuary (or funerary) temple, which was located on the East side of the pyramid (side of the rising sun)  Smaller pyramids located nearby for queens  Cemetery of mastabas nearby for members of court (being buried near the pharaoh helped ensure a prized place in the afterlife).

The Great Pyramids at Giza c. 2500 BCE.

The Great Pyramids at Giza • A covered causeway (an elevated road) connected the mortuary temple to the valley temple, which was the main entrance to the pyramid complex, and would have connected the complex to the Nile River via canal.

• After the death of a pharaoh: 1. His body would be ferried across the Nile to the Valley Temple, where ceremonies took place. (Rituals to honor the pharaoh would continue to take place in the Valley Temple for several hundred years.)

2. The body was then sent along the causeway to the funerary temple, where the family would present it with offerings of food and drink, and priests would perform the “opening of the mouth” ceremony.

3. The body was then entombed in the burial chamber.  Dual function of a mortuary (funerary) temple: 1. worship the pharaoh’s patron deity during their lifetime 2. worship the pharaoh after their death.

The Great Pyramids at Giza c. 2500 BCE.

Khufu’s Pyramid • Mostly made of rough inner core stones, but veneered with a smooth surface of limestone, which would have shone bright white in the sun.

• The top was capped with a golden capstone, or pyramidion, which would have gleamed like a beacon.

• The Khufu’s pyramid (the largest of the 3) contained several chambers, passageways, and airshafts. The purpose of the subterranean airshaft is unknown.

• The kings chamber, holding a red granite sarcophagus, sits at the center axis of the pyramid (no mummy found). Large stones were used to seal/hide the chamber.

• South of Khufu’s pyramid were two 142’ long cedar boats, disassembled and buried in pits. These appear to have been used for the funerary procession. They may also be intended for use in the afterlife.

The Great Pyramids at Giza (Khufu’s pyramid) c. 2500 BCE (Old Kingdom). Primarily limestone.

Khafre’s Pyramid & Sphinx • Built by Khufu’s second son, Khafre • Still has some of it’s original outer limestone veneer.

• Actually smaller than Khufu’s, but on higher ground.

• Only contained one burial chamber, one subsidiary chamber, and 2 passageways.

• Made up for it by having a more complex mortuary temple at the pyramid base (filled with over 52 life-size or larger statues).

• The Great Sphinx is probably Khafre (closest to his pyramid) depicted as a sphinx, which was associated with Ra. Combines human intelligence with strength and authority of a lion.  Sphinx carved from the bedrock of the Giza plateau.  Lion was a royal symbol (also connected with the sun as a symbol of the horizon).  In front of Sphinx is another temple dedicated to the worship of the Sphinx’s cult, and has 2 sanctuaries – one on the east, and one on the west. What is the significance?

The Great Pyramids at Giza (Khafre’s pyramid) c. 2500 BCE (Old Kingdom). Primarily limestone.

Menkaure’s Pyramid & Sphinx • Menkaure had the smallest, but most complex pyramid. His black sarcophagus was found in tact, but was tragically lost at sea while transporting it to England.  Inside were a chamber carved with decorative panels and another chamber with six large niches.  Excavation of Menkaure’s mortuary and valley temples revealed statues of the king with his primary queen, as well as images of the king being embraced by deities.

The Great Pyramids at Giza (Menkaure’s pyramid) c. 2500 BCE (Old Kingdom). Primarily limestone.

Menkaure and a Queen c. 2500 BCE. 4’ 6” high.

Painted graywacke • Figures are carved of graywacke, a type of sandstone. Since the Giza, Egypt

Menkaure and a Queen

figures are not free-standing, this could be considered high relief.

• Discovered in the courtyard of Menkaure’s Valley Temple.

• The poses of both people are highly standardized, and found frequently in ka statues. Nemes headdress & beard.

• Idealized physiques and serene, youthful faces. Look out past the present, into the future/eternal. Frontal.

• Menkaure is stepping forward, but his hips do not turn as they naturally would to accommodate a step. Clutching ritual cloth rolls.

• The queen’s gesture indicates their marital status Orig. painted. Maybe paint intended to wear away to reveal the grey “Osiris” version of Menkaure?

Some examples of non-frontal sculpture

Seated Ka Statue of Khafre c. 2500 BCE (Old Kingdom) Diorite, 5’ 6” tall

Seated Ka Statue of Khafre • From Khafre’s valley temple (one of many) • Made of diorite, imported from 400 miles away via Nile.

• Sits upon a throne made of abstracted lions.

• Intertwined lotus and papyrus plants (symbols of united upper and lower Egypt) between chair legs.

• Falcon-god Horus protects Khafre’s head with his wings.

• Idealized face and body, and shown wearing usual headdress and false beard of a pharaoh.

• Serene expression and bi-laterally symmetrical pose invoke feeling of eternal stillness.

Seated Scribe • A scribe would have had a high place in Egyptian society (which was mostly illiterate), but not nearly as high as the pharaoh.

• As such, it was acceptable to depict a scribe in a less idealized way. The scribe’s physique shows signs of aging that would be considered disrespectful on a sculpture of a pharaoh.

• Although it was more realistic, the scribe was not intended to be a portrait of a specific individual, but was rather a composite of conventional types.  What significance might the materials have?

Seated Ka Statue of Khafre c. 2500 BCE (Old Kingdom) Diorite, 5’ 6” tall

Seated Scribe c. 2400 BCE Painted limestone 1’ 9” high Saqqara, Egypt

Mortuary Temple of Queen Hatshepsut

Mortuary Temple of Queen Hatshepsut Deir el-Bahri. c. 1450 BCE • Hatshepsut - daughter of Thutmose I. Married her halfNew Kingdom brother, Thutmose II, who ruled for 14 years.

• Upon the death of Thutmose II, Hatshepsut was appointed regent for the underage Thutmose III, who was the son of Thutmose II by a concubine.

• She had herself declared king (based on the claim that Thutmose I had declared her king during his lifetime, substantiated by a relief in Thutmose I’s funerary complex depicting him crowning her in the presence of the gods).

• She ruled for 20 years, during which time she commissioned many sculptures of herself (which were unfortunately mostly destroyed by Thutmose III), as well as a vast funerary temple.

• It is referred to as a funerary temple instead of tomb because her actual tomb (burial place) is in the nearby Valley of the Kings.  Dual function: 1. worship the pharaoh’s patron deity during their lifetime, 2. worship the pharaoh after their death.

Mortuary Temple of Queen Hatshepsut • The complex included shrines to Thutmose I, Amun, Hathor, Anubis, and of course Hatshepsut herself.  Why was Hatshepsut’s mortuary temple dedicated to both herself AND her father?

• The temple is oriented towards the nearby Temple of Amun at Karnak.

• The complex follows an axial plan, meaning that all of its separate elements are symmetrically arranged along a dominant center line (axis).

• A causeway lined with sphinxes once ran from a valley temple on the Nile to the first level of the complex, a huge open space before a long row of columns known as a colonnade.

• Over 200 statues of Hatshepsut in various poses, as well as reliefs depicting scenes from her life that underscored her divinity (such as one showing that she was the result of a union between her mother and the god Amun, who had appeared in the form of her father, Thutmose I).

Mortuary Temple of Queen Hatshepsut Deir el-Bahri. c. 1450 BCE

colonnade

causeway

Hatshepsut Kneeling • Both artworks are from the funerary temple at Deir elBahri • Both depict Hatshepsut wearing the false pharaoh’s beard and male headdress, as well as a man’s kilt. The inscriptions also refer to her as “his majesty.”

• The body of the kneeling figure is anatomically male, but there are other sculptures of Hatshepsut that are anatomically female.

• The kneeling figure was smashed by vandals, but recently restored, and depict Hatshepsut partaking in a religious ceremony in which she gives offerings to the sun god.

Hatshepsut as Sphinx Deir el-Bahri, Egypt Red granite, 5’ 4” Hatshepsut Kneeling Deir el-Bahri, Egypt Red granite, 8’ 6”

Tomb of Nebamun: Wall Paintings

Nebamun Hunting Fowl Tomb of Nebamun, Thebes c. 1350 BCE. 2’ 8” high.

• Some tombs also had wall paintings, such as these from Nebamun, who was a scribe and counter of grain.

• Nebamun is depicted standing on a boat, flushing birds out of the papyrus reeds, while his wife and daughter gather lotuses. This is a depiction of a recreational activity.

• Animals are depicted naturalistically, realistically • This is an example of fresco secco, in which a painting is done upon a dried plaster wall (as opposed to buon fresco, in which the painting is done upon still-wet plaster).

• Hunting scenes were an allegory for the myth of the god Horus hunting down his uncle Seth, god of chaos and darkness, who had murdered Osiris (Seth’s brother and Horus’ father). The hunt symbolized good triumphing over evil.

Funerary Banquet Scene Tomb of Nebamun, Thebes c. 1350 BCE. 2’ 10” high.

Tomb of Nebamun: Wall Paintings • This fresco secco depicts two women dancing for an audience of noble-persons at a banquet (symbolized by the vessels in the lower right).

• Discuss the people depicted. Where is Nebamun? What is unusual about the figures in the bottom register?

• Nebamun is probably one of the men depicted in the top register.

• The women in the bottom register break from traditional profile-view depictions, and show movement in their hair.

• In addition to displaying the luxury of living in the nobility class, this banquet may also represent the yearly ceremony of the family bringing food to the tomb for the ka to eat.

• Music and dance were sacred to the goddess Hathor, who aided the dead in their passage to the afterlife.

• The sensuous girls may also be symbolic of fertility and rebirth.

Colossal Figure of Akhenaton c. 1330 BCE Temple of Aton, Karnak Sandstone, 13’ tall Amarna Period, New Kingdom

Colossal Figure of Akhenaton • Akhenaton (originally called Amenhotep IV) abandoned the worship of most of the Egyptian gods in favor of Aton, a deity identified with the sun disk, whom he declared to be the universal and only god (monotheistic).

• Akhenaton moved the capital from Thebes to present-day Amarna, which he called Akhetaton.

• Akhenaton removed “Amen” (or Amun) from all inscriptions (including those of his father, Amenhotep III) and emptied the old temples, infuriating the priests.

• In addition to his revolutionary religious ideas, the artwork made during his rule diverges widely from the traditional. Contrast the style of his depiction with that of Menkaure.

Akhenaten and his Family • This is an example of a sunken relief, in which the figures are carved into the surface of the stone, but the negative space remains uncarved (raised).

• Depicts a rare intimate look at the royal family (Akhenaten, Nefertiti, and 3 daughters) in a domestic setting, under the rays of Aton.

• The mood of the piece is informal and intimate.  Do you see any ankhs?

• The straight lines of conventional Egyptian art are replaced by curved lines and unusual proportions. Why did Akhenaten so radically change traditional style?

Nefertiti, Akhenaton’s wife

Queen Tiye, Akhenaton’s mother

Akhenaten and his Family c. 1330. Limestone, 1’ ¼“ high.

Possibly from a private shrine.

Tutankhamen • Tutankhamen was the son of Akhenaton, and ruled for a decade before dying at the age of 18. He rejected the religious beliefs of his father, and returned to Egypt’s traditional pantheon.

• Tutankhamen was not a significant ruler of Egypt, but he is famous because his tomb was discovered in the Valley of the Kings by the archaeologist Howard Carter in 1922 completely intact, and contained the most impressive riches.

• The mummy of Tutankhamen was covered with a gold mask, made of gold and precious stones (including lapis lazuli and turquoise). It was placed inside three coffins, the innermost of which was made of solid gold, again inlaid with precious stones (2nd & 3rd made of wood covered in gold).

The coffins were placed inside a stone sarcophagus.

Inner Coffin of Tutankhamun’s Sarcophogas

• Tutankhamen is depicted holding the crook and flail, symbols of power and authority.

• He is depicted wearing the traditional striped nemes headdress of the pharoahs, decorated with the cobra and vulture (the headdress itself is like a cobra).

• The cobra represents the goddess Wadjet (emblem of lower Egypt), who was a protective force and would spit fire at enemies. The vulture represents Nekhbet, the patron goddess of upper Egypt, who is associated with Hathor as the protective mother goddess of pharaohs.  Inside mask – inscribed spell protecting limbs of pharaoh  Mummy – 3 coffins – sarcophagus – 3 shrines

Tutankhamun’s Funerary Mask c. 1320 BCE 21 ¼ “

Temple of Amen-Re at Karnak

Temple of Amun-Re at Karnak obelisk

pylon

Temple of Amen, Mut, and Khons Karnak, near Thebes (modern day Luxor). C. 1250 BCE

Thebes – major ancient Egyptian city (present day Luxor). Religious/political HQ. Karnak and Valley of the Kings located nearby. Tombs – West bank. Houses – East.  Karnak – divided in 4 sections: 1. South – temple to goddess Mut 2. East – temple to Aten 3. North – temple of god Montu 4. Central – temple to god Amun • Temple built to honor the creator god Amen-Re (Ra) was added to by many successive pharaohs, including Thutmose I and II, Hatshepsut, and Ramses II. • Next to the temple is an artificial sacred lake, a reference to the primeval waters before creation. The temple rises from the earth as the original sacred mound rose from the waters at the beginning of time.

• This temple is an example of a pylon temple (a pylon is a simple but massive gateway with sloping walls).

• A typical pylon temple is bilaterally symmetrical along a single axis that runs from an approaching avenue through a colonnaded court and hall into a dimly lit sanctuary.

Temple of Amen-Re at Karnak • Temple supplied by farms, storehouses, housing (for priests), etc. in surrounding area, and taxes from larger region.

• Another entrance located on south (southern axis), used for festivals and processions.

Lead to temple of Mut and, farther away, Luxor temple.

• Huge wall encloses complex to protect the sacred space.

• Visitor would pass through the avenue of ram-headed sphinxes, then enter through the pylon.

• They would enter the “first court,” an open air courtyard.

• Then, through another pylon into the hypostyle hall.

• Most visitors only go as far as the first court. A select few could go into the hypostyle hall. Only priests and pharaohs could enter the innermost sanctuary.

Temple of Amen-Re at Karnak • A hypostyle hall is a hall full of columns that support the stone slab lintel roof. The largest, central columns are 75’ tall and 22 feet in diameter on top.

• The central rows of columns were taller than the others, creating a clerestory which let light in.

• The hypostyle columns at this temple are carved with various hieroglyphic inscriptions and sunken reliefs, and have either lotus or papyrus bud shaped capitals.

Symbolic thicket of papyrus around primeval mound.

Temple of Amen-Re at Karnak

• Moving into the heart of the temple, one passed a series of tall stone obelisks, each carved from a single piece of granite and placed at important areas within & outside the temple.  Inner sanctuary a model for primeval mound. As worshipper continued inward, floors sloped up, ceilings lowered down, and rooms got darker.

• Inside the inner sanctuary was the cult statue of Amun-Re, lit by a single beam of light. Daily rituals were performed. Surrounding area had rooms to store ritual items.

• Statue was offered food/drink daily and anointed with sweet smelling incense and oils. On special occasions, it would be taken from its “house” to visit cult statues elsewhere.

Temple at Abu Simbel (Ramses II) • Ramses II was the last great “warrior pharaoh” • Temple cut out of the living rock (carved out of the side of an existing mountain or rock), 206’ from façade to back wall.

• Façade includes four colossal likenesses of Ramses II, as well as smaller statues of his family members.

• Location of temple is important: it is north of the second cataract of the Nile (just above Egypt’s presentday southern border), in Nubia, the ancient land of Kush, which Ramses ruled and was the source of his ivory, gold, and exotic animal skins.

Façade of the Temple of Ramses II Abu Simbel, Egypt 65’ high. Rock-cut.

1225 BCE

Temple at Abu Simbel (Ramses II) • Inside of temple are colossal statues of Ramses II in the guise of Osiris, carved as one with the pillars (non-load bearing).

• Pillars sculpted to resemble humans are called atlantids if male, and caryatids if female.

• Beyond the first hall was a vestibule, then an inner sanctuary with statues of Ramses II, Ptah, Amun, and Ra.

Interior of the Temple of Ramses II Abu Simbel, Egypt 65’ high. Rock-cut.

1225 BCE

Art of the Ancient Aegean c. 3000 – 1000 BCE

Geographical Context • The ancient Aegean can be divided into three main areas: the Cycladic Islands, Crete, and Helladic (mainland Greece).

• All three areas can be subdivided into early, middle, and late periods.

• The late period of Helladic art is known as Mycenaean, after Agamemnon’s citadel Mycenae.

Cultural Context • Bronze Age – Ancient Aegeans had developed ability to make bronze, an alloy that was much stronger than pure copper.

• Although mostly farmers and herders, Aegeans had access to the Aegean and Mediterranean seas, and were expert seafarers.

• Their ability to travel by boat made it possible to trade with Egypt to the south, as well as with the civilizations of the Near East.

• Documents found using two writing styles called Linear A and Linear B (the latter of which is considered an early form of Greek).

Cycladic Art

Cycladic Art • All of the figures to the right and on the next slide are from various Cycladic islands, and are made of marble, which was a prevalent stone in the region.

• Found in gravesites and settlements, originally painted.

• Most are of nude women with folded arms • Figures are dated roughly between 2700 and 2200 BCE (for our purposes, 2500 BCE) • Varied between only a few inches tall to almost lifesize • Highly stylized, simplified forms. Pointed toes indicate they would have been laid on their back, as if dead or asleep.

• Apparent emphasis on breasts and pubic triangle may suggest fertility, but unknown.

Two Figures of Women from the Cyclades 13” and 25” high

Woman from Syros 18” high

Cycladic Art • Some Cycladic figurines were of men, usually musicians or acrobats • Because they also were found in hillside burial sites, they may represent a ritual of music played at a funeral, or they may be playing to the dead.

• Simplified, geometric shapes • More of an emphasis on negative spaces than seen in the female figures • Figures may have been worshipped in the home and then buried with their owners, often after having been symbolically broken as part of the funeral ritual.

• Expressive pose, head back, into the music

Male Harp Player Keros, Cyclades 9” high

Male Harp Player Keros, Cyclades 11” high

Minoan Art ( from Crete)

Minoan Art • Title “Minoan” comes from mythological King Minos • Minos failed to fulfill a promise he made to Poseidon (Greek sea god), so Poseidon made Minos’ wife fall in love with the Cretan Bull (a bull from the ocean). Their offspring was the Minotaur.

• Minos kept the Minotaur in a large maze, or labyrinth • Fed Minotaur 14 male and female tributes from Athens • Theseus, son of Aegeus (king of Athens), volunteered to be a tribute and slay the Minotaur to avenge his brother, who had been killed by it. He successfully slayed the Minotaur and made his way back out of the labyrinth by following a thread given to him by Minos’ daughter, Ariadne.

• Upon arriving home, Theseus forgot to raise a white flag upon his ship to show his father that he had lived, and Aegeus flung himself into the sea in despair, which is how the sea got its name.

Minotaur

Labyrinth

Minoan Art - Knossos • Capital of Crete under Minos was Knossos, which was discovered and excavated by Sir Arthur Evans in 1900.

• Early buildings made of rubble and mud brick faced with cut and finished (“dressed”) stone.

• The complex was three stories tall, and included many rooms arranged around a central court.

• Although Knossos was found, the legendary labyrinth was not. It is possible that the confusing shape of the complex itself, which was decorated in many places by the motif of a labrys, is the true inspiration for the labyrinth.

Palace of Knossos Crete Site occupied 2000-1375 BCE

Labrys

Palace Complex, Knossos Palace of Knossos Crete Site occupied 2000-1375 BCE

terra cotta

• Timber (wooden logs) was used for frameworks and to brace buildings against frequent earthquakes. Interior columns were made of wood as well, and tapered (got gradually smaller) from top to bottom (larger end on top to support massive roof beams).

• Open-air stairwells and light shafts provided ventilation and light, while underground terra cotta (an inexpensive, low-fire reddish-brown clay) pipes provided drainage.

• In about 1700 BCE an earthquake destroyed most of the complex, which was then rebuilt. The era before the earthquake is referred to as the Old Palace Period, and the era after is the New (or Second) Palace Period.

• Foodstuffs were kept in large jars in special storage rooms called magazines.

• Economic, religious, and administrative center

Bull Leaping •Murals decorate the walls of the palace at Knossos • Plaster covered the walls • True, or wet fresco method – required rapid brushwork and skill – creating freshness, charm and whimsy • Very different feeling than Egyptian • Bull Leaping may represent an initiation or fertility ritual • Males typically portrayed with dark skin, females light • “Pinched” waist typical of Minoan style • Bull a repeated motif in Minoan art • Curving lines suggest movement and life Bull Leaping Buon fresco (restored) From the Palace Complex at Knossos 24.5” tall

Minoan Art • The introduction of the potter’s wheel enabled Old Palace period artists to make fine ceramics, known as Kamares Ware (named for a cave on the side of Mt. Ida where they were first discovered).

• Old Palace – light or red shapes on dark background, geometric designs, occasional animals • New Palace – “Marine Style” depictions of sea life reflected peak of Minoan sea power, dark shapes on light background, still somewhat stylized • Octopus Flask is an example of an artist’s awareness of the relationship between the decoration and the shape of the vessel.

Kamares Ware Jug Phaistos, Crete Old Palace Period 10 5/8“

Octopus Flask Kamares Ware Palaikastro, Crete New Palace Period 11“ “Marine Style”

Minoan Art • Rhytons were vessels made for pouring liquid • Both rhytons shown at left are carved of steatite (a type of soapstone). The Bull’s-head also seashell, rock crystal, red jasper, and gilt wood horns.

• These items were found in fragments, suggesting the had been ritualistically broken.

• Bull’s-head rhytons were used for pouring ritual fluids – water, wine, or perhaps even blood (in through a hole in the neck, out through the mouth) • Decoration on the Harvester Vase is unusual because of the overlapping and jostling of the figures (instead of neat, orderly procession). They have exuberant expressions, course features, sinewy bodies.

• The men appear to march and chant to the beat of a sistrum (rattle) being played by one man. May be a planting or harvest festival, religious procession, dance, warriors, or forced laborers.

Harvester Vase Hagia Triada, Crete 2nd Palace Period Steatite 4.5” diameter

Bull’s-head Rhyton Knossos, Crete 2nd Palace Period Primarily Steatite 12” tall

Leopard on head may represent royalty or power

Woman or Goddess with Snakes Knossos (2nd Palace) 11 5/8” Faience

Woman or Goddess with Snakes • Believed three goddesses controlled various aspects of the natural world (possible predecessors of Athena, Demeter, and Artemis) • Faience – glazing technique using a glass paste that becomes lustrous, smooth and shiny after firing.

• Female figurines may be associated with water, regenerative power, and protection of the home. May be deity- power over animals • Dress: open bodice, apron over typical Minoan long tiered skirt, uniquely Minoan costume Belted, cinched waist Red, blue, and green geometric patterning of skirt Bright colors, fancy edgings • Figure is frontal, as in Egyptian and Near Eastern • Not clear if goddess or priestess

Youth from Palaikastro Young god (?) from Palaikastro (Crete) c. 1500 BCE Chryselephantine 18 ½ “

• Figurine made of chryselephantine, a combination of elephant tusk and gold • Found charred and broken in pieces, possibly after the willful destruction of the tomb • The hairstyle of shaved head with a single braid indicates his youth • The youth stood alone in a shrine, which may indicate he was meant to be a god • Inclusion of many anatomical details such as muscles and veins • Ivory would have been imported from Egypt (which may be source of foot-forward pose)

Mycenaean Art (Late Helladic)

• Mycenaens (Greek mainlanders) took over and eventually destroyed Knossos • Architecture and art of Mycenaeans more war-themed than Minoans

Treasury of Atreus Post & Lintel

Corbeled Arch

“True” Arch

• Although simpler to construct, post and lintel structures cannot support much weight on top of them.

• An improvement upon the post and lintel was the corbeled arch, which is an arch formed by the piling of stone blocks in horizontal courses, cantilevered inward until the blocks meet at a keystone. Corbeling helped dissipate some of the weight above the opening.

• A corbeled arch is still not a “true” arch, however, as it does not completely dissipate the weight through compression. A true arch is stronger than a corbeled arch.

Citadel at Mycenae • Lion Gate was gateway into hilltop citadel. Lions were guardian figures of gate (as with Ancient Near East). Heads of lions were made of separate material (maybe wood, bronze, or gold) and attached into holes. Lions stand on either side of a Minoan-style tapered column.

• Included a post and lintel doorway with a relieving arch above it, so called because the corbeling “relieved” the weight of the stones off the lintel.

• Architecture much more defensive than Minoan palaces Lion Gate Limestone relief 9’ 6” (sculpture itself) Citadel at Mycenae Grave Circle A

Treasury of Atreus

Tholos “Treasury of Atreus” Mycenae, Greece 43’ high interior

• Tombs had greater importance for Mycenaeans than Minoans.

• Earliest graves were shaft graves, in which wealthy people would be buried with items indicative of their wealth (fancy clothing, jewelry, gold, etc.).

• By 1600, elite families began building beehive tombs (also called tholos) covered in massive earthen mounds.

Most impressive is the “Treasury of Atreus” (so called because it was mistakenly believed to have been the treasury of King Atreus).

• Contains an example of a corbeled relieved arch (above the doorway) as well as a corbeled vault (the interior room), which is the same principle as a corbeled arch but in 360⁰. Ashlar masonry, built up in horizontal courses.

• The walkway leading into the tomb is called a dromos.

Citadel at Tyrins • Hilltop fortress with huge, 20 foot deep stone walls.

• Only entrance was up a ramp that forced enemy soldiers to expose their unshielded sides to the citadel, then through narrow, easily defensible hallways.

• Example of Cyclopean masonry, so named because the stones were huge and looked like they had been assembled by a cyclopes (mythical one-eyed giant). No mortar used, but some smaller wedge stones help large stones stay in place.

• Contained an inner megaron, or reception hall and throne room of the king, containing four large columns around a central hearth.

• Called “Tyrins of the Great Walls” by Homer.

megaron

clerestory

“Mask of Agamemnon” • Funerary mask, originally claimed to be of legendary king Agamemnon (leader of Greek forces during Trojan War) by archeologist Heinrich Schliemann in 1876.

• Gold repousse • Some believe Schliemann had the handlebar mustache (fashionable in his day) added to make the face look more heroic.

• Found in the royal tombs, Grave Circle A, at Mycenae

“Mask of Agamemnon” Funerary mask from the royal tombs, Grave Circle A at Mycenae Gold, 12” tall

Vapheio Cup • Technique of repousse – hammering gold from the backside to create a three-dimensional image • Handles attached with rivets • Image depicts young men hunting bulls in various ways.

Olive trees may indicate that the scene is a sacred grove and that these are illustrations of exploits in some longlost heroic tale rather than commonplace herding scenes.

• Although found in mainland Greece, artwork is done in Minoan style, so either by a Minoan or by someone trained in the techniques of the Minoans.

• When one artist or civilization copies the style, techniques, or motifs of another, it is called appropriation.

Vapheio Cup Found in a tomb at Vapheio, near Sparta Gold repousse, 3.5” tall

Greek POTTERY c. 750 – 80 BCE

Geometric Period • 900-700 BCE • Characterized by decoration of ceramic vessels with linear motifs, such as spirals, diamonds, and cross-hatching.

• Even the figures are stylized as simple shapes • Kraters were large ceramic vessels designed to be gravemarkers for those who had been cremated.

• This krater shows a funerary ritual of a man on a funeral bier about to be cremated, with onlookers raising their arms to their heads in grief

Funerary vase from Dipylon Cemetery Dipylon Cemetery, Argos (Greece). 42” c. 750 BCE. Terra cotta.

Orientalizing Period • Around 650 BCE, artists began moving away from the linear designs in favor of more open compositions around large motifs that included real and imaginary animals, abstract plant forms, and human figures.

• The source of these motifs can be traced to the arts of the Near East, Asia Minor, and Egypt, but instead of simply copying the motifs, the Greeks modified them and invented an entirely new style.

• The repeated flower motifs are called rosettes.

• During the Orientalizing period, the Greeks also copied fictitious animals, such as sphinx, lamassus, and in this case, sirens (half woman, half bird).

• Corinth (and to some degree, Athens) became centers for pottery-making, and exported their wares throughout the Mediterranean.

Corinthian Blackfigure Amphora with Animal Friezes Rhodes, Greece c. 600 BCE. 1’ 2”

Different Color Figures •3 Main types of Greek painted vase decoration: black figure, red figure, and white ground (the below explains black and red figure; we will discuss white ground later).

• The ceramicist/potter would first “throw” the pot on a potter’s wheel, and attach the handles.

• Then, the designs were painted on (either by the same artist, or a different artist who specialized in painting) using slip, a refined, liquefied clay.

• Slip is not glaze (it has no glass in it), nor is it pigment (color). It is almost exactly the same as the rest of the clay, and even looks the same color before firing.

• Before firing, the artist would etch in any fine, detailed lines through the painted slip layer, exposing the underneath clay layer.

Different Color Figures

Painted positive spaces (figures) with slip

Painted negative spaces (around figures) with slip

• The different colors are brought out by a three-stage firing process.

• The first stage is oxidation, where the clay is brought to very high temperatures (around 2000⁰F), but the kiln has a vent hole in it to allow air/oxygen in. At this stage, the clay appears reddish-brown.

• The second stage is the reduction, where the air vent is closed to reduce the amount of oxygen. Doing this causes the heat and combustion to draw oxygen out of the clay particles, causing a chemical reaction that turns the clay black. The temperature is raised even higher, causing the thin outer layer of slip to vitrify (turn glass-like).

• The third stage is the re-oxidation, where oxygen is let back in. The porous, non-vitrified clay reabsorbs the oxygen and returns to its original reddish-brown, but the vitrified slip stays black.

François Vase • Named after the excavator who unearthed it (in fragments) at an Etruscan tomb in Chiusi (central Italy).

• Potter = Ergotimos, Painter = Kleitias • Bottom-most register depicts Orientalized sphinxes • The rest of the krater depicts many characters from Greek mythology, including centaurs, Lapiths, Theseus, Achilles and his father (Peleus) • Spaces between figures left undecorated • Each figure is labeled • Human figures in composite pose François Vase Athenian black-figure volute krater.

Found in Chiusi, Italy c. 570 BCE, 2’ 2”.

Exekias • Exekias was a famous potter and pottery painter. He did both on the work to the right, which was found in an Etruscan tomb.

• Does not divide the space into registers; instead focuses on one larger scene.

• This shows Achilles (left) and his comrade Ajax (right) playing dice between battles during the Trojan War. Both have spears ready to return to fighting at any time.

• The arch of the figures’ backs echoes the curvature of the shoulders of the vessel. The negative space between the heads and spears of the figures also echoes the amphora’s general shape.

Ajax and Achilles Playing a Dice Game Athenian black-figure amphora by Exekias.

Found in Vulci, Italy c. 540 BCE, 2’ high

Andokides Painter • The Andokides Painter was the anonymous person who painted the pottery made by the potter Andokides, and was the student of Exekias.

• The Andokides Painter developed the technique of redfigure painting by reversing the areas where slip was applied.

• The interior details and patterns of the red figures were painted on as slip with a fine brush, rather than being etched in with a stylus, allowing for greater flexibility and range of values.

• In developing his red figure technique, the Andokides Painter did several vessels that were red figure on one side, and black figure on the other, called bilingual paintings.

Achilles and Ajax Playing a Dice Game Athenian bilingul amphora

by Andokides Painter Found in Orvieto, Italy c. 520 BCE, 1’ 9”.

Euphronios • Depicts wrestling match between Herakles and the giant Antaios, who derived strength from the earth. To defeat Antaios, Herakles had to lift him into the air and strangle him.

• The red-figure technique allowed Euphronios to experiment with diluting the slip to achieve the lighter hues in Antaios’ hair, creating a textural contrast between the giant’s unkempt hair and Herakle’s neatly trimmed coiffure.

• Euphronios also broke away from the tradition of depicting figures in composite poses, choosing instead to draw the wrestling match as it would look in reality, with twisting bodies and limbs going in different directions.

Herakles Wrestling Antaios (detail of an Athenian red-figure calyx krater).

By Euphronios.

Cerveteri, Italy c. 510 BCE, 1’ 7”.

Euthymides

Three Revelers Athenian redfigure amphora

By Euthymides, From Vulce, Italy. c. 510 BCE, 2’.

• A rival of Euphronios was Euthymides, who also experimented with drawing the human form in from more challenging angles.

• The amphora to the right depicts three revelers (appropriate for a wine storage container).

• Each reveler is turning in some way, rather than being strictly in profile or frontal views. However, their turns look naturalistic, unlike the forced use of twisted perspective.

• The figure in the center is turning with his back towards us. This previously would not have been done, because the backside was not considered to be the “important” side of the body.

• Euthymides signed the vessel “Euthymides painted me, as never Euphronios [could do!]”

Achilles Painter

Warrior Taking Leave of his Wife (Athenian whiteground lekythos) from Eretria, Greece.

By Achilles Painter c. 440 BCE, 1’ 5”

• During the Classical period, artists developed the technique of white ground painting, where a background of fine white slip was painted upon the surface of the pottery, then different colored glazes were painted on top.

• The white-ground technique was very delicate, and would not stand up to daily wear and tear. As such, it was most frequently used on lekythoi (plural for lekythos), a type of vessel used to hold perfumed oils that were often placed in graves as offerings to the deceased.

• The scene depicted on this lekythos is appropriate for its funerary purpose – a young soldier, headed off to war, says goodbye to his wife for the last time.

Phiale Painter

Hermes bringing the infant Dionysos to Papposilenos (Athenian whiteground calyx krater) from Vulci, Italy.

By Phiale Painter c. 440 CE. 1’ 2”

• This krater depicts Hermes giving the infant Dionysus, son of Zeus, to Papposilenos (“grandfather satyr”) to be raised, safe from the wrath of Hera.

• Unlike Achilles Painter, Phaile painter only used the glazes that could withstand the heat of the kiln (and where thus more durable), and saved the bright white slip to be used only sparingly on the skin of the nymphs and hair of the satyr.

Ancient Greece c. 750

80 BCE

Chapter Overview Name of Period of Greek Art Geometric Orientalizing Archaic Severe (Early Classical) Classical 4th Century (Late Classical) Hellenistic

Approximate Date 750 BCE 650 BCE 550 BCE (c. 600-500 BCE) 480 BCE (c. 500-480 BCE) 450 BCE (c. 480-404 BCE) 350 BCE (c. 404-323 BCE) 250 BCE (c. 323-80 BCE)

Significant Historical Events

Greeks win Second Persian War 480 BCE Peloponnesian Wars end 404 BCE Death of Alexander the Great 323 BCE Romans make Greece a colony c. 80 BCE

Geographical Context • Climate of Greece is warm with a moderate amount of rainfall.

• Terrain is hilly and rocky, with significant access to sea. Grapes and olives grow well, but not grains such as wheat (Egypt becomes “breadbasket of Greece”).

• Skilled artisans produced metal and ceramic wares to trade abroad for grain and raw materials.

Religious Context • The Greeks believed in a pantheon of gods.

• The Olympian gods (so-called because they were believed to live atop Mt. Olympus) were not the first gods. They were believed to have descended from, and eventually overthrew, another group of gods known as the Titans.

• The Olympian gods were believed to be immortal and imbued with supernatural powers.

• Although physically idealized, the gods were believed to be subject to weaknesses and emotions, just like humans.

• The Greeks built sanctuaries dedicated to specific gods.

Historical Context • Between 900-800 BCE, after Mycenae had fallen from power, autonomous Greek city-states began to develop.

• Each city-state was comprised of a region with a major city (Athens, Corinth, Sparta, etc.) as its political, economic, religious, and cultural center.

• Each had its own form of government and economy.

• Power/wealth of city-state depended on manufacturing, commercial skills, and military might.

• By the 500s Athens had developed a representative government, in which all citizens had the right to vote and own property (however, only free Athenian men could be citizens… about 20% of the population in 309 BCE).

• Greater emphasis on the individual and independence.

Funerary Krater From Dipylon Cemetery, Athens c. 750 BCE Ceramic, 42” tall

Man and Centaur Perhaps from Olympia c. 750 BCE Bronze, 4 5/16”

Geometric Period • 900-700 BCE • Characterized by decoration of ceramic vessels with linear motifs, such as spirals, diamonds, and crosshatching.

• Even the figures are stylized as simple shapes • Kraters were large ceramic vessels designed to be grave-markers for those who had been cremated.

• This krater shows a funerary ritual of a man on a funeral bier about to be cremated, with onlookers raising their arms to their heads in grief • The Man and Centaur sculpture uses the same simplified geometric forms as the figures on the krater. It depicts a man and centaur fighting.

• Most figurines like the one on the right were found in sanctuaries, and thus may have been votive offerings.

Early Greek Temples • In the Geometric period (c. 750 BCE) Greeks worshiped at outdoor altars within walled sanctuaries; their temples sheltered a statue of a god.

• Few remain today, and those are mostly just foundations and fallen columns (mud brick and wood walls and roofs are gone).

• Fortunately, a ceramic model of a temple (from about 750 BCE) survived, decorated with the geometric designs characteristic of the period.

• Early temples followed the style of the Mycenaean megaron, with an inner cella (or naos) that housed the statue.

• The structure also features a rectangular base, with a projecting porch supported on two sturdy posts.

• The steeply pitched roof forms a triangular area, or gable, in the façade, or front wall.

Model of a Temple Found in the Sanctuary of Hera, Argos (Greece) c. 750 BCE. Terra cotta.

Mantiklos Apollo From Thebes, Greece c. 650 BCE Bronze, 8” high

Olpe (Pitcher) Corinth, Greece c. 650 BCE Ceramic, 13” tall

Orientalizing Period

Corinthian Black-figure Amphora with Animal Friezes Rhodes, Greece c. 600 BCE. 1’ 2”

• Around 650 BCE, artists began moving away from the linear designs in favor of more open compositions around large motifs that included real and imaginary animals, abstract plant forms, and human figures.

• The source of these motifs can be traced to the arts of the Near East, Asia Minor, and Egypt, but instead of simply copying the motifs, the Greeks modified them and invented an entirely new style.

• The repeated flower motifs are called rosettes.

• Greeks also copied fictitious animals, such as sphinx, lamassus, and in this case, sirens (half woman, half bird).

• Corinth (and to some degree, Athens) became centers for pottery-making, and exported their wares throughout the Mediterranean.

• The Mantiklos Apollo is a votive offering from an otherwise unknown man named Mantiklos to the god Apollo.

• The inscription on his leg reads: “Mantiklos dedicated me as a tithe to the far-shooting Lord of the Silver Bow; you, Phoibos [Apollo], might give some pleasing favor in return.”

• It is unclear if the figure is Mantiklos or Apollo (or neither)

Kore and Kouros • This is an example of a kore (Greek for “young woman”).

• Male version of the same thing is a kouros (“young man”).

• Made of brightly painted (except for the skin)wood, terra cotta, limestone, or marble. Painted wood or stone sculptures or architecture is called polychrome.

• Sometimes bore inscriptions identifying them as having been commissioned by individual men or women for a commemorative purpose.

• Korai and kouroi (plural) were often found marking graves (replacing the kraters of the geometric period) and lining the entry ways of sanctuaries.

• Korai (always clothed) represented deities, priestesses, or nymphs.

• Kouroi (almost always nude) represented deities, warriors, and victorious athletes. Young athletic males were associated with familial continuity, so kouroi may also represent anscestors.

“Lady of Auxerre” kore c. 650 BCE. Limestone.

29.5” Probably from Crete

Orientalizing Period • Greeks established a trading colony in Naukratis, Egypt, bringing Greeks into contact with the monumental stone architecture of Egypt.

• Example of Daedalic style, after mythical Greek artist Daedalus.

• Uncertain if mortal or deity.

• Gesture probably one of prayer.

• Originally painted with encaustic (pigment mixed with wax)

New York (Metropolitan) Kouros From Attica, c. 550 BCE Marble, 6” high

Menkaure and Queen From Egypt, c. 2500 BCE

Archaic Period • “Archaic” means old-fashioned or antiquated. This period is called Archaic because it seems antiquated in comparison to the later Classical period, but really the Archaic period was full of great new achievement for Greece.

• Pose heavily influenced by Egypt • Unlike statue of Menkaure, this sculpture is freestanding.

• Large eyes and head, hair knotted into tufts. Anatomy less life-like, shown with a few linear ridges.

• Example of Daedalic style.

• This kouros was a grave-marker.

Archaic Period • Found in fragments on the Acropolis (Athens) • Dedicated by a man named Rhonbos to Athena in thankfulness for his prosperity.

• Depicts Rhonbos giving a sacrifice of a calf to Athena.

• Dressed with a robe but no other clothes, which is not how people would have dressed. This enables the “noble perfection” associated with male nudes, while at the same time showing the man in clothing, as any respectable citizen would be in this context.

• Beard denotes older age.

• Calf’s legs and man’s arms create a bold X on chest, physically and formally uniting the man and calf.

• Expression known as an Archaic smile, which probably used to indicate that subject was alive.

The Calf-Bearer (Moschophoros) Acropolis, Athens.

Marble.

Restored height 5’ 5”

Peplos Kore Marble. 4’ Acropolis, Athens

Replica of what the Peplos Kore would look like with original coloring.

Archaic Period • This kore is named after the peplos (a rectangular cloth draped over the shoulders and belted for a bloused effect) she was originally thought to be wearing.

• Missing forearm was carved separately and fitted into the socket that is visible.

• Dress (recently determined not to be a peplos) originally was painted animals, identifying her not as a young girl but a goddess (perhaps Athena or Artemis).

• This statue, as well as many others (including the CalfBearer) were knocked over during the Persian sack of the Acropolis in 480 BCE, after which the Athenians buried the damaged statuary, helping to preserve traces of the paint.

• Softer, more natural looking flesh than Lady of Auxerre.

Archaic Period • Which of these two statues is the original Anavysos kouros, and which is a forgery? What makes you think so?

Anavysos Kouros Cemetery at Anavysos, near Athens. 6’ 4” Marble

Archaic Period • The statue on the LEFT is the original Anavysos Kouros.

• The Anavysos Kouros was a grave-marker for a young man named Kroisos who died a hero’s death in battle.

• Inscription reads, “stay and mourn at the tomb of dead Kroisos, whom raging Ares destroyed one day as he fought in the foremost ranks.”

• Although the posing is the same as the New York Kouros, the shaping is much more realistically proportioned and rounded.

• This is not meant to be a specific portrait, but rather a symbolic type.

Athenian Agora Athens, Greece.

Archaic – Hellenistic. c. 600-150 BCE Marble.

The Agora was the heart of ancient Athens, the focus of political, commercial, administrative, and social activity, the religious and cultural center, and the seat of justice.

Athenian Agora

Athenian Agora Large, open square surrounded by buildings along the PanAthenaic Way, at the foot of the Acropolis.  Included many important buildings: council chamber, public office buildings, archives, law courts, library, concert hall (odeion), shops, temples, and commemorative monuments.  Long colonnaded buildings called stoas provided shaded walkways and open-air shop spaces for merchants such as cobblers, bronze-workers, grocers, and sculptors. Note how the bottom 1/3 of the columns are unfluted.  People would meet to visit, discuss politics or philosophy (the stoas are what give the Stoic philosophers, followers of Zeno from the Hellenistic era, their name).

Stoa of Attalos II Athens, Greece. c. 150 BCE. Marble.

Athenian Agora

Stoa of Attalos II Athens, Greece. c. 150 BCE. Marble.

 In the Late Neolithic period (c. 3000 BCE) the area was a residential and burial space. In the sixth century, the Agora started as a weekly market comprised only of tents, but by the 400s, it developed into a permanent marketplace.  Groups where special products were sold were called “circles,” such as those that provided fish, meat, clothing or perfume. Slaves were made to run naked around their circle; horses where exhibited the same way.  A separate potter’s market was reserved for selling of cookware, as that was considered the provenance of women.  Socrates spent much time in the Agora, speaking to the people, asking questions, and developing his philosophical style. He taught Plato, who in turn taught Aristotle, who in turn taught Alexander the Great.  Over time, more and more buildings were added, some by private patrons, such as Attalos II, a wealthy king of Pergamon (in present day Turkey) who had studied in Athens in his youth.

Temple of Hera I, Paestum, Italy c. 550 BCE, Archaic Period

Temple of Hera I • Another early example of Doric architecture is the Temple of Hera I, in Paestum, Italy (a Greek settlement).

• This temple is unusual because its short side has an odd number of columns (9), as well as a second chamber behind the naos (which contained the statue of Hera), called the adyton, which may have held a second statue of a god (possibly Zeus).

• Another unusual feature is the row of columns down the center of the naos, which helped support the roof.

• Proportionately wide columns that were closely spaced held up what was probably once a very heavy roof.

• No entablature sculpture has been found, but small pieces of painted terra cotta have been found, which probably were once part of the decoration.

Model of a very early version of a Greek temple

Adyton

Naos (cella)

Porch (portico)

Typical Greek Temple • During the Archaic period, Greeks began enlarging their temples and making them out of stone.

• At right is a typical Greek temple plan. The smaller three plans show the same basic temple, but with differing outer colonnades.

• Greek temples were typically a little over twice as long as they were wide.

• Temples were thought of as a “house” for the deity being honored, and a statue of the deity was placed in the naos. However, worship happened outside of the temple.

Peristyle (dipteral)

Peristyle (peripteral)

amphiprostyle

prostyle

Architectural Orders • During the Archaic period, two standardized elevation designs emerged: the Doric order and the Ionic order (the Corinthian order is a variant of the Ionic order developed during the Hellenistic period). • The level of ornate decoration on the columns increases, as the proportional width of the column decreases, from Doric to Ionic to Corinthian.

Temple of Aphaia • The Temple of Aphaia (dedicated to a local nymph named Aphaia) • Six columns (an even number) on short side, twelve on long side.

• Cella had a double colonnade (one down each side) instead of one central one like the Temple of Hera I. The cella columns were two-stories.

• Use of an even number of columns on the front and the double colonnade in the cella allowed the statue to be placed on the central axis, and provided a clear view of it from the pronaos.

(model)

The Temple of Aphaia Aegina, Greece, c. 500.

Marble. Transition to Severe (Early Classical)

Transition to Severe • The Temple of Aphaia (dedicated to a local nymph named Aphaia) was decorated with two pediments (the triangular area below the roof on either end of the building) full of figural sculptures. • Both pediments were completed at the same time, and depict soldiers from the Trojan war (Athena in the center on both), but the east side was damaged and replaced a decade or two later. • On both sides, the artists were able to keep the scale of the humans (Athena is larger, as she is a deity) consistent by changing their poses to accommodate the decreasing height of the pediment.

pediment

Pediments from Temple of Aphaia Aegina, Greece, c. 480.

Marble.

Transition to Severe • Comparing the east and west pediments (done by different artists) demonstrates the transition that was happening to the new Severe style.

• The dying soldier from the west pediment is done in the Archaic style: frontal torso, direct gaze at viewer, archaic smile (despite being shot by an arrow), no sense of emotion • The dying soldier from the east pediment, by contrast, is posed in a more complex and natural way, twisting his torso and leaning on his shield to rise. He looks downward, concerned with his plight instead of the viewer.

• In the 10-20 years separating these two statues, a stylistic revolution had occurred.

Pediment Sculptures from Temple of Aphaia Aegina, Greece, c. 480.

Marble.

West

East

Classical Philosophy • Humanism - philosophies that emphasize the value of human beings, individually and collectively, and generally place more importance on rational thought than on strict faith or adherence to principle.

• Rationalism - Reason & logic = main source of knowledge. Greeks believed that reason and logic were behind natural processes, and dedicated themselves to closely observing and learning about their world.

• Idealism – 1. The cherishing or pursuit of high or noble principles, purposes, goals, etc. 2. A treatment of subject matter in a work of art in which a mental conception of beauty or form is stressed.

This painting is called School of Athens, by Raphael. Its from the Renaissance, so don’t worry about it… yet.

Classical Philosophy • The three following statements were inscribed on the Temple of Apollo: • “Man is the measure of all things” = seek an ideal based on the human form.

• “Know thyself” = seek inner significance • “Nothing in excess” = reproduce only essential forms • Apollo himself represents the balance that Greeks valued between body and mind. He was an athlete, healer, and musician.

• Greeks believed that reason and logic were behind natural processes, and dedicated themselves to closely observing and learning about their world. (Rationalism) • AFTER close observation, Greeks reduced images to their purest form, attempting to capture their fundamental essence. (Idealism)

Early Classical (a.k.a. Severe) • Art historians date the beginning of the Early Classical period from the date of the defeat of the Persian invaders (lead by Xerxes) of Greece by the allied Hellenic city-states.

• The war had been brutal, and the Greeks considered the invaders barbarians due to the atrocities committed during the war.

• The Greeks’ narrow victory nurtured a sense of Hellenic identity so strong that from then on the history of European and Asian civilizations would be distinct.

• Greeks began to value the triumph of reason and law over barbarous crimes, blood feuds, and mad vengeance.

• Lead to emphasis on humanism, rationalism, and idealism

Kritios Boy From Acropolis, Athens Marble. 3’ 10” c. 480 BCE

Kritios Boy • No more Archaic smile, replaced with serious expression • Softer, more lifelike musculature • Instead of stiff, frontal pose of kouros, artist has used contrapposto – the convention of presenting standing figures with opposing alterations of tension and relaxation around a central axis.

• Notice how he appears to be putting his weight on his left leg, letting his right leg relax. This causes his left hip to be slightly higher than his right hip. Also, his head is slightly turned.

• Originally (incorrectly) attributed to the artist Kritios

Kritios Boy From Acropolis, Athens Marble. 3’ 10” c. 480 BCE

Lost-Wax Casting Technique • During this time period, the Greeks developed a technique known as hollow-casting.

• The sculpture would originally make a statue of clay, which was then converted into a mold to pour molten bronze into.

• The result was a hollow bronze statue, which could be made in parts and assembled after the pieces had been removed from the molds.

• The advantage of bronze statues is that they were less prone to breakage, especially on extended appendages such as arms. This enabled artists to attempt much more complex, “action” poses • Unfortunately, because bronze is easily melted down and recycled, many bronze statues have been lost. For some sculptures, all we have are marble copies of bronze originals.

Zeus or Poseidon Found off coast of Cape Artemision, Greece Bronze, 6’ 10”.

Bronze Charioteer Hollow-cast bronze Sanctuary of Apollo, Delphi 5’11” high

The Riace Warriors • Riace Warriors were discovered by a scuba diver 300 meters off the coast of Riace, Italy. They were probably on their way from Greece to Italy when they were, for some reason, thrown overboard (since no evidence of a shipwreck is nearby).

• Striking balance between idealized anatomical forms and naturalistic detail • Mature face contrasts with youthful physique • Originally had a shield and spear, and may have been a part of a monument memorializing victory over the Persians • Eyes are bone and colored glass, teeth are silver • Underwent extensive restoration to correct damage of saltwater

Riace Bronze Warriors From sea off of Riace, Italy 6’6” high. Bronze.

Diskobolos

Diskobolos (Discus Thrower)

By Myron Marble copy of original bronze 5’ 1”

• This is a marble of the bronze original by Myron • Romans frequently purchased copies of famous Greek statues for their own.

• Because this is a marble copy, the craftsman who made this copy had to add a tree-trunk behind to support the heavy, fragile marble. The original bronze would not have the tree trunk.

• He faces away from us, concerned with the task at hand • Figure is in “action pose,” his body twisted around like a tense spring, his arm at the apex of its pendulum-like swing, about to unleash his discus.

• Formally, Myron utilized the crossing of two arches to create the sense of movement and dynamism.

Diskobolos

Diskobolos (Discus Thrower)

By Myron Marble copy of original bronze 5’ 1”

• This is a marble of the bronze original by Myron • Romans frequently purchased copies of famous Greek statues for their own.

• Because this is a marble copy, the craftsman who made this copy had to add a tree-trunk behind to support the heavy, fragile marble. The original bronze would not have the tree trunk.

• He faces away from us, concerned with the task at hand • Figure is in “action pose,” his body twisted around like a tense spring, his arm at the apex of its pendulum-like swing, about to unleash his discus.

• Formally, Myron utilized the crossing of two arches to create the sense of movement and dynamism.

Classical

Doryphoros (Spear Bearer)

By Polykleitos Roman copy from the palaestra (gymnasium), Pompeii, Italy, of the original bronze.

6’11”

• Greek philosopher/mathematician Pythagoras believed that the key to harmony and beauty were to be found in harmonic ratios and proportions.

• The sculptor Polykleitos (of Argos) applied Pythagoras’ theories to a sculpture of the human form, the result of which is Canon, aka Doryphoros (he explained his ideas in a treatise called The Canon).  Why did Polykleitos call his sculpture Canon?

• Exaggerated use of contrapposto • Polykleitos attempted to make the sculpture beautiful and perfect through the use of cross-balance.

• Figure balances on his right leg and left arm (leaning on spear), with his right arm and left leg resting.

• Head turns right, hips turn left.

• Proportionately larger head • Straightness of right limbs balance bending of left limbs • Appears in motion though at rest

The Acropolis • Under the leadership of Pericles (an elected official), Athens began rebuilding the Acropolis after the defeat of the Persians in 480 BCE. • The Athenians built four new buildings under Pericles’ leadership (in chronological order): - The Parthenon (447-438) - The Propylaia (437-431, left unfinished due to the outbreak of the Peloponnesian War) minaret - The Temple of Athena Nike (427-424) - The Erechtheion (421-405) • A civic center and marketplace called the Agora was located at the base of the Acropolis. apse The Acropolis of Athens Classical Period (c. 480 – 400 BCE)

Parthenon • Atop the Acropolis (a hill in Athens) was the Parthenon, a temple dedicated Athena Parthenos (“Athena the Virgin”).

• Although badly damaged in the Persian invasion in 480 BCE, the acropolis was rebuilt under Athenian leader Pericles under the supervision of head craftsman Phidias.

• The rebuilding was paid for by an alliance of Greek citystates called the Delian League, who had given the funds to be used for the continuing war effort against Persia. The misuse of the funds by Pericles to rebuild the Acropolis angered the other cities.

• The structure housed a huge chryselephantine statue of Athena Parthenos, holding Nike (personification of victory).

• The statue represents Greece’s victory over Persia: - Inclusion of Nike (victory) - Shield decorated outside with reliefs of Amazonomachy, and inside painted scenes of gigantomachy (machy = battle).

Parthenon Acropolis, Athens, Greece

Replica of Athena Parthenos Originally stood inside the Parthenon (lost in fire).

Chryselephantine. 38’ tall.

Parthenon • The first major Acropolis building constructed under Pericles’ program was the Parthenon.

• The architect of the Parthenon was Iktinos, assisted, it is believed, by Kallicrates.

• Phidias was the head sculptor of the artworks decorating the Parthenon, and was noted by the writer Plutarch to be the overseer of the whole project.

• Iktinos attempted to make the “perfect” temple, based on Pythagoras’ theories about harmonic ratios.

• Most of the building is based on the equation x = 2y + 1 (such as the proportion of the short side to the long side, or the distance between two columns vs. the distance between the center of two columns).

• The façade is approximately the same dimensions as the “Golden Rectangle”

The Parthenon Iktinos & Kallicrates Acropolis, Athens, Greece Classical period (438 BCE)

Parthenon • Although the Parthenon was highly symmetrical and followed a strict set of mathematical rules, the designers did make some adjustments to counter-act optical illusions: - The stylobate (floor) and subsequently the roof are slightly higher in the middle (domed), because a perfectly level floor and roof would appear to sag in the middle.

- The pillars in the four outer corners are two inches wider, because the sunlight surrounding them when viewed from a distance would make them appear thinner than the others.

- The four corner pillars are slightly tilted inward. • Although it is a mostly Doric temple, it does have some Ionic elements (such as the inner Ionic frieze, and the four Ionic columns in the back room/treasury). Use of both styles may have symbolized that Athens was the leader of all the Greeks.

Parthenon Pediment • East pediment = birth of Athena, West pediment = contest against Poseidon to become the patron god of Athens.

• The Christians removed the center two sculptures (probably of Zeus and Athena) from the east pediment to add an apse.

• The remaining sculptures are the gods and goddesses who gave witness to the birth.

• Sculptor = Phidias • Fabric alternately reveals and conceals forms and unifies groups of sculptures.

Herakles or Dionysos Helios (Sun)

unknown

Iris (messenger )

Hestia

Dione (consor t of Zeus)

Aphrodite Selene (moon)

Parthenon Metopes • Metopes are square panels of relief imagery located underneath the pediment. The metopes on the Parthenon wrap all the way around the building.

• Each metope is separated by three vertical ridges called a triglyph.

• Each side of the building depicts a different battle theme: Trojan War, Amazonomachy, gigantomachy, and centauromachy, which were all allegories for the war against Persia.

• The metopes on the Parthenon are done in very high relief, with some elements coming completely off of the background.

Parthenon Metopes (south) Acropolis, Athens, Greece Marble, 4’ 8”

Parthenon Ionic Frieze • Most likely depicted the Panathenaic Festival procession that took place every four years in Athens • First time a human event was depicted on a Greek temple (shows Athenian self-importance) • The top stuck out farther than the bottom, to make it easier to see from below.

Marshals and Young Women East Ionic Frieze, Parthenon Acropolis, Athens, Greece Marble, 43”

Horsemen North Ionic Frieze, Parthenon Acropolis, Athens, Greece Marble, 41 3/4”

Parthenon • The Parthenon symbolized: - Athenian wealth (through its use of costly materials and extensive decoration) - Athenian victory against Persians (in its sculptures and reliefs) - Athenian values of rationality and logic (in its use of Pythagorian harmonic ratios to determine proportions as well as balanced symmetry) - Athenian belief in ideal beauty and perfection - Athenians themselves (depicted in the ionic frieze showing the Panathenaic procession)

The Parthenon Iktinos & Kallicrates Acropolis, Athens, Greece Classical period (438 BCE)

Propylaea

Propylaea Mnesikles Acropolis, Athens, Greece Classical period (431 BCE)

• The Propylaea was intended to be a grandiose entrance-way to the top of the Acropolis. Unfortunately, due to the outbreak of the Peloponnesian War, it was left unfinished.

• The two central columns were spaced farther apart, to allow horses and chariots to go through during processions.

• The site was difficult due to the steep slope, but the architect Mnesikles resolved the problem by creating an eastern and western sections (front and back), each one resembling the façade to a Doric temple.

• The exterior columns were Doric; interior were Ionic.

• Two side-wings were planned, but only the northwest one was completed. In Roman times, it housed paintings by the most popular artists of the day. If that was its original purpose, it would be the first public art museum (“home for the muses”).

Erechtheion

Erechtheion Mnesikles Acropolis, Athens Classical period (405 BCE)

caryatid

• Replaced the Archaic Athena temple that the Persians destroyed.

• The Erechtheion honored multiple persons, including: - Athena (housed the wooden statue used in the festival) - Erechtheus (an ancient king of Athens) - Kekrops (the legendary half-man, half-serpent original king of Athens who judged the contest between Poseidon and Athena) • The contest between Athena and Poseidon was said to have been done on that spot, and the temple houses a mark that bears the marks of Poseidon’s trident, as well as the nearby olive-tree of Athena.

Erechtheion Mnesikles Acropolis, Athens Classical period (405 BCE)

Erechtheion • • The layout of the temple is irregular, to accommodate the uneven landscape (which could not be leveled out due to sacred sites in the area), and to incorporate the existing tomb of Kekrops, Athena’s olive tree, and Poseidon’s rock.

• Each side of the temple is on a different ground level, and bears different ornamentation.

• The south porch contains six caryatids, known as the Porch of the Maidens.

• The caryatids all stand in contrapposto poses, with one leg bent forward as if relaxed. The caryatids on the left stand on their left legs, and the caryatids on the right stand on their right legs, creating a sense of balance and symmetry.

• The folds of their dresses resemble the flutes of a column.

• Their hair falls next to their neck in a thick braid, helping to subtly thicken and reinforce the weakest part of the column.

Nike Adjusting her Sandal

“Nike Adjusting her Sandal” Temple of Athena Nike Acropolis, Athens, Greece Marble, 42”

• Another building in the Acropolis complex is the Temple of Athena Nike (Athena as goddess of victory in war) • At one time, the temple had a parapet (low wall) surrounding it, with relief sculptures depicting Athena presiding over her winged attendants called Victories.

• The parapet is now gone, but some of the reliefs, such as this one, remain.

• The pose of Nike is balanced by her wings behind her.

• The dress is rendered in a way that is overtly sensual, falling off of one shoulder and clinging to her form almost as if wet, revealing the shape of the body underneath.

Grave Stele of Hegeso Attributed to Kallimachos. Dipylon cemetery, Athens Marble, 5’ 9”

Woman wearing a snood

Grave Stele of Hegeso • Fifth century commemorative cemetery markers were stone stelai, often depicting domestic scenes or departures.

• Hegeso is depicted selecting a necklace from a box held for her by her slave servant.

• What are the differences in the clothing styles of the two women? Difference in poses?

• Both women’s faces are idealized, but they are given some identity through hair and clothing details.

• Gaze is inwards, not concerned with viewer. What is the overall shape of the stele?  Originally painted. Grave stelae for men often showed them in public, or as warriors. How was this different?  What about Hegeso is being emphasized?  Text over Hegeso’s head reads: Hegeso, daughter of Proxenos. Why was her father mentioned?  Jewelry box may represent dowry to husband.

Different Color Figures

Black figure

Red figure

White ground

•3 Main types of Greek painted vase decoration: black figure, red figure, and white ground.

• The ceramicist/potter would first “throw” the pot on a potter’s wheel, and attach the handles.

• Then, the designs were painted on (either by the same artist, or a different artist who specialized in painting) using slip, a refined, liquefied clay.

• Slip is not glaze (it has no glass in it), nor is it pigment (color). It is almost exactly the same as the rest of the clay, and even looks the same color before firing.

• Before firing, the artist would etch in any fine, detailed lines through the painted slip layer, exposing the underneath clay layer.

Different Color Figures • The different colors are brought out by a three-stage firing process.

• The first stage is oxidation, where the clay is brought to very high temperatures (around 2000⁰F), but the kiln has a vent hole in it to allow air/oxygen in. At this stage, the clay appears reddish-brown.

• The second stage is the reduction, where the air vent is closed to reduce the amount of oxygen. Doing this causes the heat and combustion to draw oxygen out of the clay particles, causing a chemical reaction that turns the clay black. The temperature is raised even higher, causing the thin outer layer of slip to vitrify (turn glass-like).

• The third stage is the re-oxidation, where oxygen is let back in. The porous, non-vitrified clay reabsorbs the oxygen and returns to its original reddish-brown, but the vitrified slip stays black.

Painted positive spaces (figures) with slip

Painted negative spaces (around figures) with slip

Exekias • Exekias was a famous potter and pottery painter. He did both on the work to the right, which was found in an Etruscan tomb.

• Does not divide the space into registers; instead focuses on one larger scene.

• This shows Achilles (left) and his comrade Ajax (right) playing dice between battles during the Trojan War. Both have spears ready to return to fighting at any time.

• The arch of the figures’ backs echoes the curvature of the shoulders of the vessel. The negative space between the heads and spears of the figures also echoes the amphora’s general shape.

Ajax and Achilles Playing a Dice Game Athenian black-figure amphora by Exekias.

Found in Vulci, Italy c. 540 BCE, 2’ high

Andokides Painter • The Andokides Painter was the anonymous person who painted the pottery made by the potter Andokides, and was the student of Exekias.

• The Andokides Painter developed the technique of redfigure painting by reversing the areas where slip was applied.

• The interior details and patterns of the red figures were painted on as slip with a fine brush, rather than being etched in with a stylus, allowing for greater flexibility and range of values.

• In developing his red figure technique, the Andokides Painter did several vessels that were red figure on one side, and black figure on the other, called bilingual paintings.

Achilles and Ajax Playing a Dice Game Athenian bilingual amphora by Andokides Painter Found in Orvieto, Italy c. 520 BCE, 1’ 9”.

Niobides Painter • This form of vessel is a calyx krater, named after the petal-like handles. Probably held wine. • One side depicts Apollo and Artemis slaughtering the children of Niobe (the Niobids) for bragging that she (Niobe) was superior to the goddess Leto. Why did she think she was better?

Niobides Krater Niobid Painter Classical Greek (Athens). c. 450 BCE. Ceramic, red figure technique with white highlights.

• Other side depicts Heracles, possibly as a statue, surrounded by Athena and various heroes. Heroes may be asking for Heracles’ help/protection.

• How can we tell which person is Heracles? The heroes around Heracles may be from battle of Marathon, an early battle between the Greeks and Persians, where the Athenians (after the Spartans refused to aid them) successfully drove out an invading force of Darius I’s army.  The Persians continued to lead invasions for the next ten years, so why was the Battle of Marathon an important subject in Greek art?  How is the style of this vessel different from the ones that came before?

4th Century (Late Classical)

Macedonian Empire (under Alexander the Great)

• Peloponnesian War of 431 - 404 (Athens, democracy, vs. Sparta, oligarchy) left Greeks (especially Athenians) feeling disillusioned and alienated.

• As a result, Greek art began to focus more on the individual and on the real world of appearances instead of on the community and ideal world of perfect beings.

• Greek artists still observed Classical approach to composition and form, but no longer adhered strictly to its conventions.

• Artists experimented with new subjects and styles.

• Alexander the Great conquered the Persians (lead by Darius III), and created what is known as the Macedonian Empire (since Alexander was from Macedon).

• The end of the Late Classical era is marked by the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BCE.

4th Century • First known nude female statue by a well-known Greek sculptor (female nudes had been considered lowcharacter) • Eventual wide acceptance of female nudes may be related to gradual merger of Greeks’ concept of Aphrodite with Phoenician goddess Astarte (Babylonian Ishtar), who was almost always shown nude.

• Aphrodite is here depicted preparing for a bath.

• Legend was that Aphrodite herself heard how beautiful the sculpture was, and went to see it. Upon seeing it, she exclaimed, “Where did Praxiteles see me naked?”

• Although the nudity was seen as scandalous, the sculpture is somewhat modest (not intended to be erotic).

Aphrodite of Knidos Composite of 2 similar Roman copies of original marble by Praxiteles.

Marble, 6’ 8”

4th Century • This sculpture is possibly the Praxiteles original.

• Proportionally smaller head than Polykleitos’ Spearbearer • Hermes dangles a bunch of grapes (missing) to tantalize the infant Dionysus.

• A rare look at a tender moment between gods. Gods shown in a humanized way.

• “S-curve” shape to Hermes’ pose requires him to lean on a pillar (an integral part of the artwork, unlike the awkwardly incorporated supports of bronze copies) • Modeling of musculature is softer, subtler

Hermes and Infant Dionysus Praxiteles (?)

Temple of Hera, Olympia, Greece.

Marble, 7’ 1”.

4th Century • Broke with traditional “sports” poses by depicting an athlete after his workout, scraping sweat and dirt off his body.

• Proportionately smaller head (head = 1/8th of total body height instead of 1/7th) and leaner body than Spear Bearer • Lysippos pushed the boundaries of frontal viewing by having the athlete’s arm extend straight out from his body, forcing the viewer to move around the sculpture to get its full impact.

Doryphoros (Spear Bearer) Polykleitos Apoxyomenos (Scraper) Lysippos. Roman marble copy after the original bronze.

6’ 9”

4th Century • Herakles was son of Zeus and a mortal woman. Hera, out of jealousy, made Herakles go mad and kill his wife and children.

• To atone, Herakles performed 12 seemingly impossible labors.

• First labor was to kill the Nemean lion, which he made a cloak out of. The lion pelt and wooden club are his symbols.

• The last task was to obtain golden apples guarded by a dragon. Here, Herakles holds the apples behind his back, forcing the viewer to walk around the statue to get its full meaning (a trademark of Lysippos).

• Having completed his twelve tasks, Herakles leans upon his club, thinking only of his pain and weariness, ironic for a heroic strongman.

Farnese Herakles (Weary Herakles) Lysippos.

Roman copy from the Baths of Caracalla, Rome.

Based on original bronze.

10’ 5”

Transition to Hellenistic Alexander the Great

The post-Alexander empire

• The Macedonian Empire (and the late Classical period) ended abruptly in 323 BCE with the unexpected death of Alexander the Great (at age 33), leaving no clear ruler.

• By the early 3rd century BCE, three clear rulers (exgenerals of Alexander’s) emerged out of the chaos: Antigonus (ruled Macedonia and mainland Greece), Ptolemy (ruled Egypt), and Seleucus (ruled Asia Minor, Mesopotamia, and Persia).

• All three dynasties eventually fell to the Roman Empire (Egypt/Ptolemies fell last in 30 BCE with the death of Cleopatra).

• Hellenistic artists turned from…

• ideal to individual • the heroic to the everyday • general to specific • gods to mortals • aloof serenity to emotion and melodrama

Alexander Mosaic from the House of Faun • Found in Pompeii in the house of a wealthy person. This is a mosaic made up of millions of tiny pieces from the Republican Roman era (c.

100 BCE).

• Based on Hellenistic Greek wall painting (fresco) from about 315 BCE. • Depicts the pivotal moment during the Battle of Issus, when Alexander the Great overwhelmed the Persian army, and Darius III told his forces to retreat.

• Why would a wealthy Roman want this image in their home?

• Looking closely at the image, who is Alexander, and who is Darius? What clues indicate to us the narrative?

Altar of Zeus at Pergamon

• The spread of Greek culture during the Macedonian Empire remained strong in the regions outside of mainland Greece even after the death of Alexander. The architecture reflected the valuing of a more worldly, sophisticated, varied, and complex style.

• The original altar complex was a single-story structure with an Ionic colonnade raised on a high podium reached by a monumental staircase (68’ wide).

• The frieze surrounding the temple broke the conventions of sculpture by having the figures reach out into the space of the spectator, in a theatrical and complex interaction of space and form.

The reconstructed west front of the Altar of Zeus Hellenistic period (c. 150 BCE)

Altar of Zeus at Pergamon • Pergamon was also the site of the Altar of Zeus, which was decorated with a frieze depicting the battle between the Gods and the Giants, an allegory for the Pergamenes vs. the Gauls.

• The detail image on the upper right shows Athena (center) being crowned by Nike as she grasps the hair of a defeated winged giant. Gaia (bottom center) looks on in despair.

• Higher relief with deeper undercutting creates darker shadows and higher contrast (more drama/theatricality).

• High level of drama. Violent movement, swirling draperies, vivid depictions of death and suffering.

Wounded figures writhe in pain, faces full of anguish.

Athena Attacking the Giants Frieze from the east front of the Altar of Zeus, Pergamon Marble, approx. 7.5’ high The reconstructed west front of the Altar of Zeus

Nike of Samothrace Nike of Samothrace From the Sanctuary of the Great Gods, Samothrace.

Marble, 8’ high

• Also called Nike Alighting Atop a Warship, this sculpture depicts Nike landing on the prow of a Greek warship, raising her (missing) right arm to crown the naval victor.

• Her wings still appear to beat, blowing her dress in rippling folds.

• May have commemorated an important naval victory • Wide variety of textures (skin, folds of cloth, feathers)

Laocoön and his Sons • Laocoön (Lay-AW-kuh-wan) was a character from the Trojan war legend. He was a Trojan priest who warned the Trojans not to take the large wooden horse into the city. The gods supporting Greece sent serpents from the sea to kill Laocoön and his sons as they walked along the shore.

• This sculpture was heavily influenced by the Pergamene style.

• Although this sculpture is sculpture in the round, it was really only designed to be seen from the front (like the reliefs at the altar of Zeus).

• Although this is widely believed to have been an original sculpture, it may have been based on another sculpture that only included the two figures on the left (which is why the son on the right seems less incorporated).

Laocoön and his Sons

By Athanadoros, Hagesandros, and Polydoros of Rhodes.

Marble, 7’ 10.5”

Seated Boxer Rome, Italy.

Bronze, 4’ 2”

Seated Boxer • Although this artwork adopts the Classical theme of the male athlete, he is much different.

• He is not victorious; instead he is defeated, beaten, and bloodied, looking up sadly at his victor.

• Again, the Hellenistic artist is eliciting a feeling of sympathy from the viewer for the once-great boxer who has been defeated.

• Hellenistic characteristic: making gods and heroes more mundane (ordinary), less lofty

Old Market Woman Roman copy of marble statue. 4’ 1”.

Greek architecture c. 750 – 80 BCE

Early Greek Temples • In the Geometric period (c. 750 BCE) Greeks worshiped at outdoor altars within walled sanctuaries; their temples sheltered a statue of a god.

• Few remain today, and those are mostly just foundations and fallen columns (mud brick and wood walls and roofs are gone).

• Fortunately, a ceramic model of a temple (from about 750 BCE) survived, decorated with the geometric designs characteristic of the period.

• Early temples followed the style of the Mycenaean megaron, with an inner cella (or naos) that housed the statue.

• The structure also features a rectangular base, with a projecting porch supported on two sturdy posts.

• The steeply pitched roof forms a triangular area, or gable, in the façade, or front wall.

Model of a Temple Found in the Sanctuary of Hera, Argos (Greece) c. 750 BCE. Terra cotta.

Typical Greek Temple • During the Archaic period, Greeks began enlarging their temples and making them out of stone.

• At right is a typical Greek temple plan. The smaller three plans show the same basic temple, but with differing outer colonnades.

• Greek temples were typically a little over twice as long as they were wide.

• Temples were thought of as a “house” for the deity being honored, and a statue of the deity was placed in the naos.

However, worship happened outside of the temple.

Peristyle (dipteral)

Peristyle (peripteral)

amphiprostyle

prostyle

Architectural Orders • During the Archaic period, two standardized elevation designs emerged: the Doric order and the Ionic order (the Corinthian order is a variant of the Ionic order developed during the Hellenistic period). • The level of ornate decoration on the columns increases, as the proportional width of the column decreases, from Doric to Ionic to Corinthian.

Architectural Orders

Temple of Artemis at Corfu Scale of humans on end of pediment reduced to fit them into the smaller space.

Gorgon Medusa West pediment of the Temple of Artemis, Korkyra (present day Corfu) Archaic Period (c. 600 BCE) Pediment relief 9’ 2” tall

• An early example of Doric architecture is the Temple of Artemis on the island of Korkyra (present day Corfu).

• Columns are fluted with no base resting directly on the stylobate. Capitals are made up of 3 distinct parts: the necking that makes the transition from the shaft, the round echinus, and the square abacus.

• Doric columns are proportionally the widest of the three styles (height = 4x width), giving a sense of stability and permanence. They swell towards the middle, then taper towards the top (called entasis), giving a sense of upward lift.

• The three part entablature consists of a plain flat band called the architrave, topped by a decorative and called the frieze, and capped with a cornice.

• In the Doric frieze, flat areas called metopes alternate with projecting blocks with 3 vertical grooves called triglyphs.

Temple of Artemis at Corfu

Gorgon Medusa West pediment of the Temple of Artemis, Korkyra (present day Corfu) Archaic Period (c. 600 BCE) Pediment relief 9’ 2” tall

• The relief of the Gorgon Medusa in the pediment was carved on a separate slab of limestone, then installed on the temple.

• The figures are high relief, and actually break into the architectural frame above.

• Medusa had snakes for hair and could turn humans to stone by looking at them.

• She was beheaded by the legendary hero Perseus, and from her blood rose Pegasus (the winged horse, visible on the left) and the giant Chrysaor (on the right).

• Flanking Pegasus and Chrysaor are felines, and past them are dying humans, tucked into the corners of the pediment.

Temple of Hera I • Another early example of Doric architecture is the Temple of Hera I, in Paestum, Italy (a Greek settlement).

• This temple is unusual because its short side has an odd number of columns (9), as well as a second chamber behind the naos (which contained the statue of Hera), called the adyton, which may have held a second statue of a god (possibly Zeus).

• Another unusual feature is the row of columns down the center of the naos, which helped support the roof.

• Proportionately wide columns that were closely spaced held up what was probably once a very heavy roof.

• No entablature sculpture has been found, but small pieces of painted terra cotta have been found, which probably were once part of the decoration.

Temple of Hera I, Paestum, Italy c. 550 BCE Archaic Period

Adyton

Naos (cella)

Porch (portico)

Temple of Aphaia • The Temple of Aphaia (dedicated to a local nymph named Aphaia) • The cella was raised one step higher than outer porch.

• Columns more widely spaced and more slender.

• Six columns (an even number) on short side, twelve on long side.

• Cella had a double colonnade (one down each side) instead of one central one like the Temple of Hera I. The cella columns were two-stories.

• Use of an even number of columns on the front and the double colonnade in the cella allowed the statue to be placed on the central axis, and provided a clear view of it from the pronaos.

(model)

The Temple of Aphaia Aegina, Greece, c. 500.

Marble. Transition to Severe (Early Classical)

Temple of Hera II • Similar to plan of Aphaia: 6 columns in front (though 14 down side), 2 columns in antis, and 2 rows of columns in 2 stories inside cella. • Echinuses are more tapered, form a smoother transition to the entablature than on Hera I.

Temple of Hera II Paestum, Italy, c. 460.

Severe (Early Classical)

Temple of Hera I

Hippodamos of Miletos • After the Persian invasion, the Greeks had to rebuild their cities. Instead of building them irregularly (as dictated by the geography of the site), they began using a grid system.

• The first Greek to do this was Hippodamos, who planned a rigidly gridded system for the rebuilding of his town Miletos.

All streets, regardless of terrain, met at right angles.

• This came to be known as a Hippodamian plan (also known as an orthogonal plan).

• Also, the city itself was divided into separate quarters for public, private, and religious functions.

• This desire to impose order on nature and to assign an proper place in the whole to each of the city’s constituent parts was very much in keeping with the philosophical tenets of the fifth century BCE. Miletos City Plan

The Acropolis • Under the leadership of Pericles (an elected official), Athens began rebuilding the Acropolis after the defeat of the Persians in 480 BCE. • The Athenians built four new buildings under Pericles’ leadership (in chronological order): - The Parthenon (447-438) - The Propylaia (437-431, left unfinished due to the outbreak of the Peloponnesian War) - The Temple of Athena Nike (427-424) minaret - The Erechtheion (421-405) • A civic center and marketplace called the Agora was located at the base of apse the Acropolis.

The Acropolis of Athens Classical Period (c. 480 – 400 BCE)

Parthenon • The first major Acropolis building constructed under Pericles’ program was the Parthenon.

• The architect of the Parthenon was Iktinos, assisted, it is believed, by Kallicrates.

• Phidias was the head sculptor of the artworks decorating the Parthenon, and was noted by the writer Plutarch to be the overseer of the whole project.

• Iktinos attempted to make the “perfect” temple, based on Pythagoras’ theories about harmonic ratios.

• Most of the building is based on the equation x = 2y + 1 (such as the proportion of the short side to the long side, or the distance between two columns vs. the distance between the center of two columns).

• The façade is approximately the same dimensions as the “Golden Rectangle”

The Parthenon Iktinos & Kallicrates Acropolis, Athens, Greece Classical period (438 BCE)

Parthenon • Although the Parthenon was highly symmetrical and followed a strict set of mathematical rules, the designers did make some adjustments to counter-act optical illusions: - The stylobate (floor) and subsequently the roof are slightly higher in the middle (domed), because a perfectly level floor and roof would appear to sag in the middle.

- The pillars in the four outer corners are two inches wider, because the sunlight surrounding them when viewed from a distance would make them appear thinner than the others.

- The four corner pillars are slightly tilted inward. • Although it is a mostly Doric temple, it does have some Ionic elements (such as the inner Ionic frieze, and the four Ionic columns in the back room/treasury). Use of both styles may have symbolized that Athens was the leader of all the Greeks.

Parthenon • The Parthenon symbolized: - Athenian wealth (through its use of costly materials and extensive decoration) - Athenian victory against Persians (in its sculptures and reliefs) - Athenian values of rationality and logic (in its use of Pythagorian harmonic ratios to determine proportions as well as balanced symmetry) - Athenian belief in ideal beauty and perfection - Athenians themselves (depicted in the ionic frieze showing the Panathenaic procession)

The Parthenon Iktinos & Kallicrates Acropolis, Athens, Greece Classical period (438 BCE)

Propylaea

Propylaea Mnesikles Acropolis, Athens, Greece Classical period (431 BCE)

• The Propylaea was intended to be a grandiose entranceway to the top of the Acropolis. Unfortunately, due to the outbreak of the Peloponnesian War, it was left unfinished.

• The two central columns were spaced farther apart, to allow horses and chariots to go through during processions.

• The site was difficult due to the steep slope, but the architect Mnesikles resolved the problem by creating an eastern and western sections (front and back), each one resembling the façade to a Doric temple.

• The exterior columns were Doric; interior were Ionic.

• Two side-wings were planned, but only the northwest one was completed. In Roman times, it housed paintings by the most popular artists of the day. If that was its original purpose, it would be the first public art museum (“home for the muses”).

Temple of Athena Nike • Another building in the Acropolis complex is the Ionic, amphiprostyle Temple of Athena Nike (Athena as goddess of victory in war) • Stands on what used to be a Mycenaean bastion next to the Propylaea.

• The frieze depicts the battle of Marathon, an important victory against the Persians (a human, and specific, event).

Temple of Athena Nike Kallicrates Acropolis, Athens, Greece Classical period (424 BCE)

Erechtheion

Erechtheion Mnesikles Acropolis, Athens Classical period (405 BCE) caryatid

• Replaced the Archaic Athena temple that the Persians destroyed.

• The Erechtheion honored multiple persons, including: - Athena (housed the wooden statue used in the festival) - Erechtheus (an ancient king of Athens) - Kekrops (the legendary half-man, half-serpent original king of Athens who judged the contest between Poseidon and Athena) • The contest between Athena and Poseidon was said to have been done on that spot, and the temple houses a mark that bears the marks of Poseidon’s trident, as well as the nearby olive-tree of Athena.

Erechtheion Mnesikles Acropolis, Athens Classical period (405 BCE)

Erechtheion • • The layout of the temple is irregular, to accommodate the uneven landscape (which could not be leveled out due to sacred sites in the area), and to incorporate the existing tomb of Kekrops, Athena’s olive tree, and Poseidon’s rock.

• Each side of the temple is on a different ground level, and bears different ornamentation.

• The south porch contains six caryatids, known as the Porch of the Maidens.

• The caryatids all stand in contrapposto poses, with one leg bent forward as if relaxed. The caryatids on the left stand on their left legs, and the caryatids on the right stand on their right legs, creating a sense of balance and symmetry.

• The folds of their dresses resemble the flutes of a column.

• Their hair falls next to their neck in a thick braid, helping to subtly thicken and reinforce the weakest part of the column.

The Theater at Epidauros • Architect was Polykleitos the Younger, possibly the nephew of the sculptor Polykleitos.

• Greek dramas were closely associated with religious rites, and would be performed during certain yearly festivals.

• The shape of the amphitheater (amphi = both sides, theater = place to see) enabled everyone to have a good view of the actors. The shape also provided good acoustics so that everyone could hear the actors.

The Theater at Epidauros Epidauros, Greece Polykleitos the Younger 4th Century (Late Classical) c. 350 BCE

Mausoleum at Hallicarnassos • Tomb for Mausolos (from whom we derive the word “mausoleum”), prince of Karia and Persian governor of the region, at Halikarnassos in Asia Minor.

• Mausolos admired Greek culture and brought to his court Greek writers, entertainers, and artists, as well as the greatest sculptors to decorate his tomb.

• One of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, it was destroyed in the Middle Ages.

• The building featured over 250 life-size or larger statues of people and lions, as well as several friezes, all of which were originally brightly painted.

Mausoleum at Hallicarnassos 4th Century (Late Classical) c. 350 BCE, appx. 150’ tall

Mausoleum at Hallicarnassos

Mausoleum at Hallicarnassos 4th Century (Late Classical) c. 350 BCE appx. 150’ tall

• Built in 3 sections: 1. a plain surfaced podium, decorated with friezes depicting battle scenes of the Greeks vs. the Amazons, and the Lapiths (legendary pre-Hellenic warriors from Thessaly) vs. the centaurs.

2. an Ionic colonnaded section. Between each column was a statue of one of Mausolos’ relatives and ancestors.

3. a stepped roof, topped with marble statues of a chariot and horses.

• Bottom row of free-standing statuary depicts battle between Greeks and Persians, second row depicts unknown standing figures, third row depicts hunters killing boar, lions, and deer.

Altar of Zeus at Pergamon • The spread of Greek culture during the Macedonian Empire remained strong in the regions outside of mainland Greece even after the death of Alexander. The architecture reflected the valuing of a more worldly, sophisticated, varied, and complex style.

• The original altar complex was a single-story structure with an Ionic colonnade raised on a high podium reached by a monumental staircase (68’ wide).

• The frieze surrounding the temple broke the conventions of sculpture by having the figures reach out into the space of the spectator, in a theatrical and complex interaction of space and form.

The reconstructed west front of the Altar of Zeus Hellenistic period (c. 150 BCE)

Etruscan Art & Architecture

Etruscan Civilization • Etruria was a region in central Italy, northwest of Rome.

Etruria was comprised of several independent city-states that shared a common language and culture (it was not a united country).

• It is unknown whether the Etruscans were native to the region, immigrants from the north, or a mix of both.

• Although their language was written in a Greek-derived alphabet, it has never been deciphered.

• The Etruscans were highly sea-faring, and traded their mined metals and mineral resources (as well as ideas and artistic styles) with other civilizations throughout the Mediterranean.

• Although they were a culture unique from Greek culture, art historians divide the history of Etruscan art into periods mirroring those of Greek art (Orientalizing, Archaic, Classical, and Hellenistic).  The Romans inherited many of their own cultural and artistic traditions, from the spectacle of gladiatorial combat, to hydraulic engineering, temple design, and religious ritual, among many other things.

Etruscan Region of Italy

Orientalizing Period • 700 – 600 BCE • In the early first millennium BCE, the Etruscans emerged as a people distinct in language and culture from the other Italic peoples and Greeks.

• By the 600s BCE, the Etruscans traded metals (iron, tin, copper, silver) from their mines for foreign goods and began to produce jewelry and other luxury objects with motifs modeled on those found on imports from Mesopotamia.

• The golden fibula (or clasp) to the left is of Etruscan style, except for the motif of the marching lions.

• Over time, the increase in mining and metal-crafts changed Etruscan civilization from agrarian (farm-based) to wealthy metropolitan (city-based).

Fibula with Orientalizing lions from the Regolini-Galassi Tomb, Sorbo necropolis, Cerveteri, Italy c. 650 BCE. Gold, 1’ ½”

Archaic Period • 600 – 480 BCE • The sixth century (500s) BCE was the apex of Etruscan power (Etruscan kings ruled Rome until 509).

• The Etruscans admired Greek art and architecture but did not copy Greek works. Instead, they adapted outside influences into their own unique style.

• Although Etruscans were master metal smiths, their figure sculptures were typically of terra cotta. Temples were usually made of wood and mud brick, not stone.  As such, the majority of our knowledge about Etruscan art comes largely from their burials. (Since most Etruscan cities are still inhabited, they hide their Etruscan art and architecture under Roman, Medieval and Renaissance layers).  Like the Egyptians, the Etruscans provided elaborate burials, with frescoes and objects for the deceased to use in the afterlife.

Etruscan Region of Italy

Sarcophagus of the Spouses • A sarcophagus is a large, carved container for a corpse (usually made of stone, and designed to stay above ground, or in an open underground chamber).

• This one is made of four separately cast and fired terra cotta sections.

• This one contains only the ashes of the people, even though it is large enough to hold a full corpse.

Cremation was the most common funerary treatment at the time.

• It depicts a husband and wife reclining together on a couch (kline) during a symposium (banquet).

• Although the features are stylized, the couple looks animated and personable.  How are these figures stylistically similar and different from the Greek kouros and Egyptian ka statues?

Sarcophagus of the Spouses Banditaccia necropolis, Cerveteri, Italy. Etruscan. c. 520 BCE. Painted terra cotta. 6’ 7” long.

Sarcophagus with a Reclining Couple and Some Weirdo in the Background Banditaccia necropolis, Cerveteri, Italy c. 520 BCE. Painted terra cotta. 6’ 7� long.

Etruscan Women

Sarcophagus from Cerveteri

• Etruscan women had a number of freedoms and liberties that their Greek and Roman counterparts did not, including: - They could attend banquets (symposiums) and recline with their husband on a common couch (Greek women were confined to the house for most of the day). Only men, boys, slave girls, and prostitutes could attend Greek symposiums.

- They could attend sporting events - The names of both the father and mother were recorded when a deceased person was commemorated (as on a tombstone) - Women could legally own property independently - Etruscan women retained their own names - They may have had a high level of literacy (based on the inscriptions on Etruscan mirrors and other toiletry items)

Etruscan Temples  Early Etruscans worshipped in nature, such as in special groves, but by 600 BCE had begun making temples.

• Because Etruscan temples were made of wood and mud-brick, only the foundations of a few remain today.  We have ceramic models, as well as descriptions by the Roman architect Vitruvius, who wrote De Architectura in around 100 BCE, to give us some idea how they looked.

• Temple was built on a podium (platform) with a single staircase in front. Almost square base (5:6 ratio).

• The pronaos or portico took up half of the floorplan, with the cellas (usually 3) taking up the back half.

• The cellas were usually for the 3 primary Etruscan gods: Tinia (Zeus), Uni (Hera), and Menrva (Athena).

• The columns and pediment were relatively plain (most closely resembling the Doric order, but without fluting and with columnar bases), but the roofs were decorated with many painted life-size terra cotta figures.

Portonaccio Temple  What order are the columns? of Minerva, Veii, Italy. c. 500 BCE. Wood, mud brick, and tufa.

Apollo (from Veii)

Apollo (from Veii) From the roof of the Portonaccio Temple of Minerva, Veii, Italy. c. 500 BCE. 5’ 11” Painted terra cotta

• This statue is the best preserved temple rooftop statue, from the roof of the Portonaccio Temple of Minerva in Veii, Italy.

• Called “Apulu” by the Etruscans • May have been sculpted by Vulca of Veii, the only identified Etruscan sculptor of the era.

• Reminiscent of a kouros statue, but with animated posing and (somewhat) more naturalistic musculature.

• Originally adorned the roof of a Roman shrine/temple, built by the last Roman king (who was of Etruscan heritage), Tarquinius Superbus (the Arrogant), who ordered a temple made dedicated to Jupiter (Zeus), Juno (Hera), and Minerva (Athena).

• The roof sculpture originally depicted Apollo chasing after Herakles, who had one of Artemis’ (Apollo’s twin sister’s) sacred hinds. This would have made an impressive sight- heroes and gods chasing each other on the roof, backlit by the sky.

Tomb of the Triclinium  Example of a subterranean chamber tomb, filled with frescoes depicting the transition from life to afterlife.

• The women are depicted with lighter skin; the men are depicted with darker skin.

• Scene depicts a banquet of Etruscan couples, complete with servers bearing food and musicians.  The triclinium was the formal dining room.

• Like many tombs of this prosperous era, the scene depicts a celebration of a life well-lived, rather than a sad scene of mourning.

• Etruscans carved their tombs out of living stone, but their temples were constructed of temporary materials such as mud-brick and wood. This is counter to the Greek traditions of building permanent temples, but only burying their dead in simple graves. In addition to the frescoes and the remains, this would have also included objects needed for afterlife. The tomb’s ceiling is painted in a checkered scheme of alternating colors, like the temporary fabric tents that were set up during the actual celebration of the funeral banquet.

Tomb of the Triclinium Etruscan, from Tarquinia, Italy. c. 470 BCE. Tufa and fresco.

Barbiton (Persian instrument similar to a lyre or harp)

Classical and Hellenistic Periods • 480 – 89 BCE • In 509, the Etruscan king of Rome, Tarquinius Superbus (“Tarquinius the Arrogant”) was overthrown in a popular uprising, and was replaced by a new Republican form of government.

• Greek victory against the Etruscan fleet off the coast of Cumae in 474 BCE ended Etruscan domination of the sea, and marked the beginning of the decline of Etruria.

• Rome destroyed Veii in 396 and conquered Cerveteri in 274. All of Italy became Romanized by 89 BCE. • A very different, more somber mood pervades Etruscan art.

Etruscan Region of Italy

Tomb of the Reliefs • The Banditaccia necropolis of Cerveteri, Italy, is composed of numerous enormous mound-shaped tombs called tumuli (singular: tumulus).

• The tumuli were carved out of the bedrock (a type of limestone called tufa) in a series of chambers in a way that was intended to resemble a typical Etruscan home.

• The Tomb of the Reliefs accommodated several generations of a single family.

• The sculpted walls and pillars with reliefs of everyday objects, underscoring the similarity between an Etruscan home for the living and home for the dead.

• The shield and sword over the couch represent the high status of the family.

• The three-headed dog depicted under the couch is Cerberus, guardian to the gate to the underworld, and reference to the passage from this life to the next.

Tomb of the Reliefs Banditaccia necropolis, Cerveteri, Italy c. 200 BCE

Capitoline Wolf • This statue depicts Romulus and Remus, twin brothers who are central characters to Rome’s foundation myth.

• The twins were the sons of a princess, whose uncle deposed her father, and forced her to abandon her sons in the wild.

• Romulus and Remus were raised by a wolf, and upon reaching adulthood, they overthrew their great-uncle and reinstated their grandfather, the rightful king.

• Instead of waiting to inherit their grandfather’s kingdom, they chose to found their own, new city, but they disagreed upon a location. Romulus killed Remus over the quarrel, and went on to found Rome, named after himself.

• This statue was made for the new Roman Republic after the expulsion of Tarquinius Superbus, and it became the symbol for Rome.

• The suckling infants were added later, during the Renaissance.

Capitoline Wolf c. 500-480 BCE From Rome, Italy Bronze. 2’ 7”

Aule Metele • This bronze statue represents the magistrate Aule Metele raising his arm to address an assembly.

• This statue exemplifies the ways that Rome had, at this point, totally overtaken Etruria. Although the statue is inscribed with the magistrate’s Etruscan name (as well as the name of both his father and mother), the style of the magistrate’s hair as well as clothing are Roman.

• By 89 BCE, all Etruscans were made Roman citizens.

Aule Metele (Arringatore or “The Orator”) Cortona, Italy, c. 100 BCE Bronze. 5’ 7”

Roman Art & Architecture

The Roman Empire

Contemporary Europe

Roman Empire, c. 117 CE

Roman Government • Monarchy: 753 BCE - 509 BCE • Republican Period: 509 BCE - 27 BCE • Imperial Period: Early Empire: 27 BCE - 96 CE High Empire: 96 CE - 192 CE Late Empire: 193 CE - 337 CE • During the Monarchy, Rome was ruled by kings, the last of whom were of Etruscan heritage (the Tarquins), and an advisory body called the Senate. Society was divided into two classes: the patricians (wealthy, powerful), and the plebians.

• During the Republican period, Rome was ruled by an oligarchy.

• Augustus (aka Octavian, grand-nephew and adopted son of Julius Caesar) defeated Mark Antony and Cleopatra in Actium in 31 BCE, and subsequently was made emperor in 27 BCE, becoming first emperor of Rome.

Roman Government • The peace established by Augustus lasted (with only occasional internal conflict) for almost 200 years, and became known as the Pax Romana (Roman peace).

• Most Roman emperors were a part of one of the various familial dynasties, however, during the height of the empire, it became customary to choose and “adopt” a non-familial heir to the throne, instead of giving it to the eldest son.

• This custom was greatly successful, as it ensured that each successive ruler was competent and capable.

• The five rulers highlighted in yellow are known as the “Five Great Emperors” Roman art periods can be divided up by dynasties as well: Augustan (27 B.C.E.-14 C.E.) Julio-Claudian (14-68 C.E.) Flavian (69-98 C.E.) Trajanic (98-117 C.E.) Hadrianic (117-138 C.E.) Antonine (138-193 C.E.) Severan (193-235 C.E.) Soldier Emperor (235-284 C.E.) Tetrarchic (284-312 C.E.) Constantinian (307-337 C.E.)

DYNASTIES

Julio-Claudian

Flavian

Antonine

Severan

NAMES Augustus

DATES 27 BCE - 14 CE

Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Commodus

14 - 37 CE 37 - 41 41 - 54 54 - 68 69 -79 79 - 81 81 - 96 96 - 98 98 - 117 117 - 138 138 - 161 161 - 180 180 - 192

Septimius Severus Caracalla Severus Alexander

193 - 211 211 - 217 222 - 235

Diocletian Constantine I

284 – 305 306 - 337

Temple of Fortuna Virilis • Temple dedicated to Portunus, the Roman god of harbors.

• Made of tufa (no concrete), then overlaid in stucco to resemble Greek marble.

• What elements of this temple are Greek?

• What elements of this temple are Etruscan?

• What is the name for columns attached to a wall?

• pseudoperipteral

Temple of Fortuna Virilis (Temple of Portunus) From Rome, c. 100 BCE

Roman Republic • In 211 BCE, a Roman general named Marcellus conquered the Sicilian Greek city of Syracuse. In addition to the usual spoils of war, he brought back to Rome examples of Greek art, sparking a craze for Greek art.

• Over the next several hundred years, the Romans emulated Greek art and architecture, although Roman art still retained some of its Etruscan character.

• In what ways did the Hellenistic style influenced the artworks to the right?

Head of a Roman Patrician From Otricoli, c. 80 BCE Marble, 14” high

Man with Portrait Busts of his Ancestors From Rome, c. 50 BCE Marble, 5’ 5” high

Roman Ancestor Portraits • Those in the patrician class were fiercely proud of their lineage, as it underscored their secure place in the ruling class. Republican Romans valued devotion to the state and dedication to civic duty. Portraiture extolled the communal goals of the Republic; hard work, age, wisdom, being a community leader and soldier.  They chose to have themselves represented with balding heads, large noses, and extra wrinkles, demonstrating that they had spent their lives working for the Republic as model citizens, flaunting their acquired wisdom with each furrow of the brow.

• When men of the patrician class died, their family would commission a death mask (usually made of wax, sometimes cast in plaster), to capture the likeness of the deceased.

• During funerary processions, these masks were worn by the living, as a way of honoring and remembering the dead.

• In addition to death masks, elderly patricians also had their likenesses carved in stone for posterity.

Head of a Roman Patrician From Otricoli, c. 80 BCE Marble, 14” high

Man with Portrait Busts of his Ancestors From Rome, c. 50 BCE Marble, 5’ 5” high

Roman Funerary Traditions • The busts had a high level of verism, or super-realism, to help remember the patrician forever, and to depict him as serious, experienced, and wise.

• Romans believed only a bust (head, neck, perhaps shoulders) was necessary, whereas the Greeks believed the head and body were inseparable parts to the whole.

• The masks or busts were kept in the home in wooden chests, so that whenever a relative died, all of the previous ancestors would be paraded in the funeral procession.

• Often, the cremated remains of each family member was kept in the household as well.

• In Rome, wealthy families would share private group cemeteries.

• When a group had used up the cemetery’s ground level, the tunneled underground to create a catacomb, which contained niches for urns and busts of the dead.

• Above ground, the Romans built funeral basilicas where they held banquets to honor the dead.

Head of a Roman Patrician From Otricoli, c. 80 BCE Marble, 14” high

Man with Portrait Busts of his Ancestors From Rome, c. 50 BCE Marble, 5’ 5” high

The Roman Home

• The homes of upper class Romans had multiple rooms, and a central atrium. Rainwater was funneled in through a hole in the roof in the atrium to collect in an indoor pool.

• In addition to elaborate gardens, houses were decorated with mosaics and wall paintings.

• Houses were inward-facing, shutting out street noise.

• Houses of the type shown to the left were more commonly available in the towns of the Roman empire.

Most plebeians in Rome lived in multi-level apartment complexes.  Wealthy patricians would meet their clients in the patrician’s home. So, the home needed to show off the patron’s wealth and fashion.  The patron-client system revolved around asymmetrical social relationships whereby lower ranking clients (usually plebians or freedmen) were bound to their patrons (usually wealthy patricians) by the qualities of trust and dutifulness. Clients would seek support and favors from the patron; in turn the patron provided protection, support, and benefaction, collectively known as patrocinium.

Mosaics • Mosaics were used to decorate floors and sometimes walls.

• The designs were made of small pieces of stone or marble known as tesserae, which were attached to a panel called an emblemata using grout (a type of cement).

• Mosaics usually incorporated a realistic looking scene within a geometric patterned border.

• In the comedic mosaic The Unswept Floor, the artist Herakleitos created the illusion of a variety of pieces of food and trash strewn across the dining room floor.

• This artwork may have also displayed the wealth and conspicuous consumption of the owner of the home to his guests.

The Unswept Floor Herakleitos. c. 100 CE Rome, Italy

Wall Painting

1

2

3

4

• Pompeian wall-paintings were buon (wet) frescoes.

• First Style (200 – 80 BCE): Artists attempted to imitate, using stucco and plaster, the appearance of marble wall panels. Style borrowed from Hellenistic Greece.

• Second Style (80 – 15 BCE): Artists attempted to dissolve the walls of a room by painting the illusion of an imaginary three-dimensional scene or landscape.

• Third Style (15 BCE – 50 CE): Artists rendered delicate linear architectural fantasies on dark backgrounds.

• Fourth Style (50 – 79 CE): Walls with white background are painted with faux architectural elements. Some sections are window-like illusions that look out onto fragments of architecture.

Pompeii  The Roman cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum were covered in ash and pumice by the volcano Mt. Vesuvius in 79 CE. Pompeii rediscovered 1599; excavated 1748.  Preserved by lack of air and moisture.  Negative spaces in ash were filled with plaster by archaeologists to get the shape of the bodies that had been covered. Well preserved domestic structures (a rarer archeological find than temples & burials).  A house is, of course, a dwelling—but it is also a stage on which the rituals of daily life and social hierarchy would be performed.

House of the Vettii  Example of Roman town house or domus  House of the Vettii was owned by a pair of brothers, Aulus Vettius Conviva and Aulus Vettius Restitutus, who were former slaves/freedmen.  The brothers had become wealthy (probably as merchants), and showed off their new wealth with two prominently displayed strongboxes (for storing valuables) in their atrium.  Due to an earthquake in 62 CE, the house was redecorated in the 4th Style, designed to look like a House of the Vettii picture gallery.

Pompeii, Italy.  Their house featured two atria. Which do you think Imperial Roman. was for social use (as opposed to private use)? c. 2nd Century BCE Rebuilt c. 70 CE  The entranceway by the door is the fauces, Cut stone and fresco. meaning “jaws”

This image of the Punishment of Pentheus (a king of Thebes who forbade worship of Dionysus, and was subsequently torn apart by his family, who were in a bacchanalian rage) may have influenced early Christian imagery.

Imperial Rome • After the murder of Julius Caesar in 44 BCE, there was a bloody civil war that ended when Octavian defeated Mark Antony and Cleopatra in 31 BCE. • In 27 BCE, the Senate conferred the majestic title of Augustus upon Octavian, raising him to the rank of emperor and officially beginning the Imperial era.

• Augustus was both “first citizen”, commander in chief, and the chief priest of the state religion.

• Augustus brought peace and prosperity to a war-weary state. In his own day, the peace was known as the Pax Augusta, but it continued after his death, for approximately two more centuries.

It eventually became known as the Pax Romana.

• During this time, the Romans built many public works: bridges, forums, temples, basilicas, theaters, amphitheaters, market halls, and baths, all of which were frequently decorated with images of the emperors as propaganda.  Work is “Classicized” or influenced by Greek style. Roman works could be Classicized through smooth lines, elegant drapery, idealized nude bodies, naturalistic forms, and balanced proportions. Why did Augustus want his portrait Classicized?

Portrait of Augustus as General From Primaporta, Italy c. 20 BCE Marble, 6’ 8” high

Imperial Rome • Because Augustus was only 32 when he finally defeated Mark Antony, thus ending the tradition of showing rulers as old/wise.

• Instead, Augustus was shown as youthful, strong, and godlike, even as he advanced in age.

• Because images of the emperor decorated many public buildings, the youthful, powerful, and godlike depiction of Augustus was specifically intended to shape public opinion.

• This sculpture, although posed in an oratorical position like Aule Metele, is largely based on the proportions of Polykleitos’ Doryphoros.

• The decorations on his cuirass depict the return of captured Roman military standards by the Parthians, a recent victory. It also shows personifications of countries conquered by Rome, with minor sun (Sol) and sky (Caleus) gods above, shining approval on the new territories (which is then attributed back to Augustus).

• The cupid by his feet reminds the viewer that Augustus’ family, the Julians, traced their ancestry back to Venus (meaning Augustus was of divine descent).  Cupid is riding a dolphin, a symbol of Augustus’ naval victory over Mark Antony at Actium.

Portrait of Augustus as General From Primaporta, Italy c. 20 BCE Marble, 6’ 8” high

Doryphoros

Ara Pacis Augustae

pilaster (square column)

meander acanthus (pattern) (symbols of prosperity)

Ara Pacis Augustae From Primaporta, Italy c. 10 BCE Marble, 6’ 8” high

• The Ara Pacis Augustae (Altar of Augustan Peace) is an altar dedicated by Augustus on the date of his wife’s (Livia) birthday in 9 BCE. • It commemorates Augustus’ triumphal return to Rome after establishing Roman rule in Gaul.

• On the inner walls, garlands of flowers (which unrealistically include flowers from every season to show continuous peace) suspended in swags from ox skulls (representing sacrificial offerings) surround the altar.

• In its original location, the Ara Pacis was aligned with a giant sundial that used an Egyptian obelisk as its pointer, suggesting that Augustus controlled not just Egypt but time itself.

• On the fall equinox (the time of Augustus’ conception), the shadow of the obelisk pointed to the open door of the enclosure wall, on which sculptured panels depicted the first rulers of Rome (including Romulus).

Ara Pacis Augustae

Imperial Procession (from the Ara Pacis Augustae) From Primaporta, Italy c. 10 BCE Marble, 5’ 2” high

• The outer sides of the enclosure depict a procession that has just ended. The north side shows a line of senators, and the south side depicts a line of imperial family members.

• Specific, identifiable individuals (including, among others, Augustus, his wife Livia, and his son and successor Tiberius) waiting for the next ceremonies to begin.

• Unlike the ionic frieze of the Parthenon, this relief shows specific people during a specific event.

• The sculptor has created the illusion of depth by carving the closer people in higher relief than the farther people. Also, the people farther away appear slightly lower than the people up close.

• This is the first time children were included in a Greek or Roman monument. Augustus included them because there was a decline in the birthrate of the nobility, and he wanted to encourage marital fidelity and reproduction.

Ara Pacis Augustae

Allegory of Peace (relief from the east side of the Ara Pacis Augustae) From Primaporta, Italy

• The east and west faces both had pairs of complementary panels that represented war and peace.

• The east face’s panels depicted personifications (symbols in human form) of war (Roma, the triumphant empire) and peace (Pax, the goddess of peace, or Tellus, mother earth).

• Pax nurtures the Roman people (the babies in her arms).

• The woman on the left is the personification of the land wind, symbolized by the swan, jug of water, and vegetation, and represented the fertility of Roman farms.

• The woman on the right is the personification of the sea wind, symbolized by the sea monster and waves, and represented Rome’s dominion over the Mediterranean.

• The influence of the Parthenon is evident in both the depiction of a procession, and the style of the figures.

Augustus wanted to associate himself with the Golden Age of Greece.

The Roman Empire

Contemporary Europe

Roman Empire, c. 117

Roman Government • Monarchy: 753 BCE - 509 BCE • Republican Period: 509 BCE - 27 BCE • Imperial Period: Early Empire: 27 BCE - 96 CE High Empire: 96 CE - 192 CE Late Empire: 193 CE - 337 CE • During the Monarchy, Rome was ruled by kings, the last of whom were of Etruscan heritage (the Tarquins), and an advisory body called the Senate. Society was divided into two classes: the patricians (wealthy, powerful), and the plebians.

• During the Republican period, Rome was ruled by an oligarchy.

• Augustus (aka Octavian, grand-nephew of Julius Caesar) assumed power in 27 BCE, and upon defeating Mark Antony and Cleopatra in Actium in 31 BCE, he became the first emperor of Rome.

Roman Government • The peace established by Augustus lasted (with only occasional internal conflict) for almost 200 years, and became known as the Pax Romana (Roman peace).

• Most Roman emperors were a part of one of the various familial dynasties, however, during the height of the empire, it became customary to choose and “adopt” a non-familial heir to the throne, instead of giving it to the eldest son.

• This custom was greatly successful, as it ensured that each successive ruler was competent and capable.

• The five rulers highlighted in yellow are known as the “Five Great Emperors”

DYNASTIES Julio-Claudian

Flavian

Antonine

Severan

NAMES Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Commodus Septimius Severus Caracalla Severus Alexander Diocletian Constantine I

DATES 27 BCE - 14 CE 14 - 37 CE 37 - 41 41 - 54 54 - 68 69 -79 79 - 81 81 - 96 96 - 98 98 - 117 117 - 138 138 - 161 161 - 180 180 - 192 193 - 211 211 - 217 222 - 235 284 – 305 306 - 337

Roman Republic • In 211 BCE, a Roman general named Marcellus conquered the Sicilian Greek city of Syracuse. In addition to the usual spoils of war, he brought back to Rome examples of Greek art, sparking a craze for Greek art.

• Over the next several hundred years, the Romans emulated Greek art and architecture, although Roman art still retained some of its Etruscan character.

• In what ways did the Hellenistic style influenced the artworks to the right?

Head of a Roman Patrician From Otricoli, c. 80 BCE Marble, 14” high

Man with Portrait Busts of his Ancestors From Rome, c. 50 BCE Marble, 5’ 5” high

Roman Ancestor Portraits • When men of the patrician class died, their family would commission a death mask (usually made of wax, sometimes cast in plaster), to capture the likeness of the deceased.

• During funerary processions, these masks were worn by the living, as a way of honoring and remembering the dead.

• Those in the patrician class were fiercely proud of their lineage, as it underscored their secure place in the ruling class.

• In addition to death masks, elderly patricians also had their likenesses carved in stone for posterity.

• The busts had a high level of verism, or super-realism, to help remember the patrician forever, and to depict him as serious, experienced, and wise.

• Romans believed only a bust (head, neck, perhaps shoulders) was necessary, whereas the Greeks believed the head and body were inseparable parts to the whole.

Head of a Roman Patrician From Otricoli, c. 80 BCE Marble, 14” high

Man with Portrait Busts of his Ancestors From Rome, c. 50 BCE Marble, 5’ 5” high

Roman Funerary Traditions • The masks or busts were kept in the home in wooden chests, so that whenever a relative died, all of the previous ancestors would be paraded in the funeral procession.

• Often, the cremated remains of each family member was kept in the household as well.

• In Rome, wealthy families would share private group cemeteries.

• When a group had used up the cemetery’s ground level, the tunneled underground to create a catacomb, which contained niches for urns and busts of the dead.

• Above ground, the Romans built funeral basilicas where they held banquets to honor the dead.

Head of a Roman Patrician From Otricoli, c. 80 BCE Marble, 14” high

Man with Portrait Busts of his Ancestors From Rome, c. 50 BCE Marble, 5’ 5” high

Concrete

Concrete techniques

• Romans began to use concrete in the first century BCE. • They made concrete by mixing water, powdered lime, volcanic sand, and small rocks. The mixture hardened into a strong but rough-looking material.

• Because concrete is not waterproof, and to hide its rough appearance, Romans would cover the outside of a concrete wall with a thin veneer of stucco or stone.

• One advantage of using concrete was that the materials were much cheaper to obtain, and easier to transport.

• Another advantage is that it strengthened architectural forms such as arches and vaults, which were otherwise precarious (because if one stone came loose, the entire arch or vault could collapse). This allowed the Romans to attempt much larger and more complex architecture.

Roman arch

Arch and Vault Corbel arch

• The Romans made extensive use of the arch (in this case, a true arch instead of a corbel arch). Because of the wedgeshape of the stones, a true arch was much stronger and more stable than a corbel arch, especially when paired with concrete.

• An arch that is extended to form a tunnel is called a barrel vault.

• Two barrel vaults that cross at a 90 degree angle are called a groin vault.

• Arches and vaults, even with the use of concrete, require buttressing – the reinforcement of the sides of the arch or vault to help bear the weight of the structure, and keep it from collapsing.

Sanctuary of Fortuna

Sanctuary of Fortuna Primigenia Palestrina, Italy c. 100 BCE arcade exedrae

• Influenced by Hellenistic architecture, specifically Pergamon.

• Built of concrete covered with a veneer of stucco and finely cut limestone.

• Worshippers ascended long ramps, then staircases, through seven successively higher levels.

• The final level was an amphitheater-like semicircular staircase that lead up to a semicircular colonnaded pavilion.

• Behind this pavilion was a small tholos – the actual temple to Fortuna, hiding the ancient rock-cut cave where acts of divination took place.

• The temple is built on an axial plan. To what other temples is the layout of this temple similar?

Temple of Fortuna Virilis • Temple dedicated to Portunus, the Roman god of harbors.

• Made of tufa (no concrete), then overlaid in stucco to resemble Greek marble.

• What elements of this temple are Greek?

• What elements of this temple are Etruscan?

• What is the name for columns attached to a wall?

• pseudoperipteral

Temple of Fortuna Virilis (Temple of Portunus) From Rome, c. 100 BCE

Imperial Rome • After the murder of Julius Caesar in 44 BCE, there was a bloody civil war that ended when Octavian defeated Mark Antony and Cleopatra in 30 BCE. • In 27 BCE, the Senate conferred the majestic title of Augustus upon Octavian, raising him to the rank of emperor and officially beginning the Imperial era.

• Augustus was both commander in chief and the chief priest of the state religion.

• Augustus brought peace and prosperity to a war-weary state. In his own day, the peace was known as the Pax Augusta, but it continued after his death, for approximately two more centuries. It eventually became known as the Pax Romana.

• During this time, the Romans built many public works: bridges, forums, temples, basilicas, theaters, amphitheaters, market halls, and baths, all of which were frequently decorated with images of the emperors as propaganda.

Portrait of Augustus as General From Primaporta, Italy c. 20 BCE Marble, 6’ 8” high

Imperial Rome • Because Augustus was only 32 when he finally defeated Mark Antony, the Republican tradition of depicting Roman rulers as aged and wise abruptly ended.

• Instead, Augustus was shown as youthful, strong, and godlike, even as he advanced in age.

• Because images of the emperor decorated many public buildings, the youthful, powerful, and godlike depiction of Augustus was specifically intended to shape public opinion (since most citizens in the empire never saw him in person).

• This sculpture, although posed in an oratorical position like Aule Metele, is largely based on the proportions of Polykleitos’ Doryphoros.

• The decorations on his cuirass depict the return of captured Roman military standards by the Parthians, a recent event.

• The cupid by his feet reminds the viewer that Augustus’ family, the Julians, traced their ancestry back to Venus (meaning Augustus was of divine descent).

Portrait of Augustus as General From Primaporta, Italy c. 20 BCE Marble, 6’ 8” high

Ara Pacis Augustae

pilaster (square column)

meander (pattern)

acanthus (symbols of prosperity)

Ara Pacis Augustae From Primaporta, Italy c. 10 BCE Marble, 6’ 8” high

• The Ara Pacis Augustae (Altar of Augustan Peace) is an altar dedicated by Augustus on the date of his wife’s (Livia) birthday in 9 BCE. • It commemorates Augustus’ triumphal return to Rome after establishing Roman rule in Gaul.

• On the inner walls, garlands of flowers (which unrealistically include flowers from every season to show continuous peace) suspended in swags from ox skulls (representing sacrificial offerings) surround the altar.

• In its original location, the Ara Pacis was aligned with a giant sundial that used an Egyptian obelisk as its pointer, suggesting that Augustus controlled not just Egypt but time itself.

• On the fall equinox (the time of Augustus’ conception), the shadow of the obelisk pointed to the open door of the enclosure wall, on which sculptured panels depicted the first rulers of Rome (including Romulus).

Ara Pacis Augustae

Imperial Procession (from the Ara Pacis Augustae) From Primaporta, Italy c. 10 BCE Marble, 5’ 2” high

• The outer sides of the enclosure depict a procession that has just ended. The north side shows a line of senators, and the south side depicts a line of imperial family members.

• Specific, identifiable individuals (including, among others, Augustus, his wife Livia, and his son and successor Tiberius) waiting for the next ceremonies to begin.

• Unlike the ionic frieze of the Parthenon, this relief shows specific people during a specific event.

• The sculptor has created the illusion of depth by carving the closer people in higher relief than the farther people.

Also, the people farther away appear slightly lower than the people up close.

• This is the first time children were included in a Greek or Roman monument. Augustus included them because there was a decline in the birthrate of the nobility, and he wanted to encourage marital fidelity and reproduction.

Ara Pacis Augustae

Allegory of Peace (relief from the east side of the Ara Pacis Augustae) From Primaporta, Italy

• The east and west faces both had pairs of complementary panels that represented war and peace.

• The east face’s panels depicted personifications (symbols in human form) of war (Roma, the triumphant empire) and peace (Pax, the goddess of peace, or Tellus, mother earth).

• Pax nurtures the Roman people (the babies in her arms).

• The woman on the left is the personification of the land wind, symbolized by the swan, jug of water, and vegetation, and represented the fertility of Roman farms.

• The woman on the right is the personification of the sea wind, symbolized by the sea monster and waves, and represented Rome’s dominion over the Mediterranean.

• The influence of the Parthenon is evident in both the depiction of a procession, and the style of the figures.

Augustus wanted to associate himself with the Golden Age of Greece.

Maison Carrée • Maison Carrée (“Square House”) was very similar to the Temple of Fortuna Virilis, but was different in some ways.

• In what ways are they similar?

• In what ways are they different?

• Nîmes was one of the wealthiest regions of the Roman empire. How are the architectural elements appropriate for such a wealthy place?

Temple of Fortuna Virilis (Temple of Portunus)

Maison Carrée Nîmes, France c. 10 CE

Pont du Gard • This structure served as both a bridge (on the lower level) and an aqueduct (on the upper level).

• The aqueduct channel above the topmost and smallest arcade carried water (about 100 gallons a day) to Nîmes from a water source approximately 30 miles away.

• The water was transported through the use of gravity only, so the entire length of the aqueduct had to slope gradually downhill the entire distance from water source to Nîmes.

• The bottom arcade is thicker than the second arcade, to allow room for a road (approximately 20’ wide). The road is still open to pedestrians today.

Pont du Gard Nîmes, France c. 16 BCE 900’ long 180’ high

Porta Maggiore • The Porta Maggiore was a gate located where two of Rome’s water lines as well as two intercity roads) converged.

• The attic (uppermost story) bears a long description concealing the stacked conduits of both aqueducts.

• This is a good example of the Roman rusticated masonry style, wherein not all the stones are precisely cut. Some stones are left rough, giving it a more rustic appearance and an interesting contrast in texture.

Porta Maggiore Rome, Italy c. 30 CE

Colosseum

Colosseum Rome, Italy c. 80 CE 160’ high

• The last Julian emperor was Nero. After spending an exorbitant amount of money on his own private palace in Rome (which was built on land seized from the public), he faced certain assassination and committed suicide.

• After about a year of internal conflict, Vespasian Flavius (a previous general) became emperor.

• Vespasian built the Colosseum on the land that had been the private lake on Nero’s palace, effectively returning the land to the public.

• The Colosseum was the site of many matches of gladiators, animal hunts, and animal vs. animal fights.

• Over the years, the marble veneers and seating have been pillaged.

• Also visible now are the chambers below the arena floor, which housed animals and gladiators.

Colosseum

Colosseum Rome, Italy c. 80 CE

• The structure of the Colosseum was divided into several levels, which provided seating to the spectators according to class affiliation.

• 76 entryways provide room for 55,000 spectators.

• The outer wall is made of travertine (a type of sedimentary limestone formed in mineral springs), and features a different type of column on each level.

• The name Colosseum comes from the 120’ tall statue, the Colossus of Nero, which previously stood next to the entrance to Nero’s private palace.

• The passageways, as well as the space beneath the seats, are made of barrel vaults and groin vaults.

Vespasian • Vespasian was an unpretentious career army officer who desired to distance himself from Nero’s extravagant misrule.

• His portraits reflect his much simpler tastes.

• He broke the tradition, started by Augustus, of the emperor being depicted as youthful and godly. Instead, he returned to the veristic style of the Republic.

Portrait of Vespasian c. 75 CE Marble. 1’ 4”

Portrait of a Flavian Woman • It was common for the upper class to have portraits busts made of themselves, such as this image of a Flavian-era woman.

• Her beauty is idealized, not by reference to images of Greek goddesses, but through fashion.

• Her hair is done in the elaborate style of the latest court fashion, signaling her wealth and status.

• Although not as free as women in the Etruscan era, Roman women were more free than Greek women had been. Upper class women were usually well-educated, and in some cases were physicians, shop-keepers, or overseers in construction.

Portrait Bust of A Flavian Woman Rome, Italy, c. 90 CE Marble. 2’ 1”.

spandrel

Arch of Titus Rome, Italy c. 80 CE, 50’ tall.

Concrete and white marble

Arch of Titus • Vespasian had two sons, Titus and Domitian. Titus succeeded Vespasian, and when Titus died only two years later, his brother Domitian took his place.

• When Titus died in 81 CE, Domitian erected an arch in Titus’ honor on the Sacred Way leading into the Republican Forum Romanum.

• This is an example of a triumphal arch, which were commonly used to commemorate military victories, specific people, and the building of roads and bridges.

• As on the Colosseum, engaged columns frame the arcuated (arched) opening. The columns have composite capitals, combining Ionic volutes with Corinthian acanthus.

• Reliefs of winged Victories decorate the spandrels.

• The inscription states that the Senate erected the arch to honor the god Titus, son of the god Vespasian.

• A relief under the vault depicts Titus ascending to heaven.

Arch of Titus Reliefs Spoils of Jerusalem (relief from passageway panel in the Arch of Titus) Rome, Italy c. 81 CE. Marble.

7’ 10” high

Triumph of Titus (relief from passageway panel in the Arch of Titus) Rome, Italy c. 81 CE. Marble.

7’ 10” high

• Inside the passageway of the vault are two great relief panels commemorating his triumphant return from the conquest of Judaea at the end of the Jewish wars in 70 CE. • One depicts the army returning with the spoils looted from the temple in Jerusalem, including a large menorah.

• Overall carved in higher relief than the Ara Pacis, however, like the Ara Pacis, the closer figures are higher relief, and the further figures are lower relief (creating a strong sense of movement).

• The other panel is more allegorical. Titus is shown riding in a chariot with Victory, who places a wreath on his head.

The bare-chested youth below is probably Honor, and the horses are being lead by Valor.

• The interaction of Titus with the gods shows his new deification.

Markets of Trajan

Trajan’s Market

• The markets at Trajan’s Forum were located on the side of a hill, allowing for a 2 story structure (the upper story was recessed back, further up the hill).

• The interior hallway was made up of a series of groin vaults, reinforced with concrete.

• Each shop was located in a barrel vault, and was equipped with a wide doorway with a window above it.

• The upper-level shops were lit by skylights.

Forum of Trajan Apollodorus of Damascus Rome, Italy 112 CE

Column of Trajan

Column of Trajan Apollodorus of Damascus Rome, Italy. Marble.

112 CE. 128’ tall.

• The Column of Trajan consisted of: - a heroically nude statue of Trajan on top (replaced later with a statue of St. Peter) - a large column decorated with a spiraling relief - a pedestal (decorated with Dacian arms and armor) that also served as Trajan’s tomb.

• The relief depicts a narrative of the Dacian wars in about 150 episodes (scenes), throughout which Trajan appears many times.

• The band gets wider at the top (to make it easier to see from below), but the entire column is carved in only shallow relief, so as not to distort the overall contour of the column.

• Only about 25% of the scenes depict battles. The rest of the space shows the soldiers doing other things such as building roads, bridges, and forts, gathering supplies, and making sacrifices to the gods.

• As propaganda, this column always shows Trajan as a great leader who never lost a battle.

Hadrian • Hadrian was Trajan’s chosen successor. 41 at the time of his appointment, he is always shown as a mature man, but one that never ages (even though he ruled 20 years).

• Hadrian was a great admirer of the Greeks, and traveled widely during his tenure. Beards were a Greek affectation, and he brought them into style for the next 150 years.

• One of Hadrian’s accomplishments was Hadrian’s wall, which bisected the island of Britain.

• Because the wall was not large enough to hold out large armies, and it went through a relatively sparsely populated area, it is not believed that the wall’s main purpose was defense.

• Instead, it was intended more as a way to establish checkpoints at the gates in the wall, where travelers could be inspected and taxes could be collected.

Portrait Bust of Hadrian Rome, Italy c. 120 CE Marble. 1’ 5”

Hadrian’s Wall

The Pantheon The Pantheon Rome, Italy 125 CE 142’ tall

• Hadrian’s greatest architectural accomplishment was the Pantheon in Rome, a temple dedicated to ALL the gods.

• The unknown architect made masterful use of concrete as both a building material and means for shaping architectural space.

• The front entryway was a traditional temple façade, similar to the Parthenon (but with Corinthian columns).

• Behind the façade was a completely untraditional cylindrical building (drum) capped by a dome (142’ wide and tall) • The composition of the concrete varied: more basalt (a hard and durable material) towards the bottom, and more pumice (an extremely light stone) at the top.

• The thickness of the dome wall reduces towards the top.

The dome is also lightened by the use of coffers (sunken decorative panels), which reduce the weight and mass of the dome without damaging its structural integrity.

The Pantheon The Pantheon Rome, Italy 125 CE 142’ tall

• The only light source is a single hole at the top, known as an oculus. On sunny days, a beam of light shines in through the oculus, and moves across the floor as the sun moves through the sky. Rain that falls in drains away by design.

• The oculus reinforces the heavenly focus/theme of the building, and gives the viewer a feeling of apotheosis.

• The marble paneling on the walls and floor are still intact.

• First example of a large, uninterrupted (by columns) space, and of architects using architecture as a way to shape space itself.

The Roman Home • The homes of upper class Romans had multiple rooms, and a central atrium. Rainwater was funneled in through a hole in the roof in the atrium to collect in an indoor pool.

• In addition to elaborate gardens, houses were decorated with mosaics and wall paintings.

• Many mosaics and wall-paintings have been excavated in Pompeii and other cities covered in ash by Mt. Vesuvius, which erupted in 79 CE. • Houses of the type shown to the right were more commonly available in the towns of the Roman empire.

Most plebeians in Rome lived in multi-level apartment complexes.

Mosaics • Mosaics were used to decorate floors and sometimes walls.

• The designs were made of small pieces of stone or marble known as tesserae, which were attached to a panel called an emblemata using grout (a type of cement).

• Mosaics usually incorporated a realistic looking scene within a geometric patterned border.

• In the comedic mosaic The Unswept Floor, the artist Herakleitos created the illusion of a variety of pieces of food and trash strewn across the dining room floor.

• This artwork may have also displayed the wealth and conspicuous consumption of the owner of the home to his guests.

The Unswept Floor Herakleitos. c. 100 CE Rome, Italy

Wall Painting

1

2 3

4

• Pompeian wall-paintings were buon (wet) frescoes.

• First Style (200 – 80 BCE): Artists attempted to imitate, using stucco and plaster, the appearance of marble wall panels. Style borrowed from Hellenistic Greece.

• Second Style (80 – 15 BCE): Artists attempted to dissolve the walls of a room by painting the illusion of an imaginary three-dimensional scene or landscape.

• Third Style (15 BCE – 50 CE): Artists rendered delicate linear architectural fantasies on dark backgrounds.

• Fourth Style (50 – 79 CE): Walls with white background are painted with faux architectural elements. Some sections are window-like illusions that look out onto fragments of architecture.

Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius • Marcus Aurelius was an able leader and successful military commander.

• He was also proud of his intellectual achievements.

• This statue shows both aspects (militaristic and philosophical) of his persona by combining the hairstyle and benevolent pose of a philosopher or orator, and the war steed of a military commander (a barbarian once cowered below the steed’s front hoof).

• Marcus Aurelius is shown with no armor or weapons (although he is wearing his military uniform). Like Egyptian kings, he rules effortlessly by the will of the gods.

• Although equestrian statues of Roman emperors were common, few survive. This one is still intact because it was mistakenly believed to be a statue of Constantine, Rome’s first Christian emperor, and thus was not melted down during the Middle Ages.

Equestrian Statue Of Marcus Aurelius Rome, Italy. c. 175 CE Bronze, 11’ 6” high

Commodus as Hercules Commodus as Hercules Rome, Italy c. 191 CE Marble. 3’ 10”

• Commodus succeeded his father Marcus Aurelius as emperor in 180 CE. • Unfortunately, Commodus lacked leadership and intellect, and spent money on frivolous pursuits.

• This bust, although a technically masterful work by a highly skilled artist, reveals the pomposity and foolishness of Commodus, here pretentiously depicted as Hercules.

• He was assassinated in 192 CE. • During the time of Marcus Aurelius, the Roman Empire had already begun to fall into an economic downturn, with enemies testing their borders. The mismanagement of Commodus only exacerbated the problem.

The Severans

Septimus Severus, Julia Donna, and their Children, Geta and Caracalla Fayum, Egypt c. 200 CE. 14” diameter.

Tempera on wood.

• After Commodus’ assassination, a power struggle ensued.

From this struggle, a new emperor named Septimus Severus rose to power. The Severan dynasty came to be known for its authoritarian rule.

• In an attempt to legitimize his leadership, Septimus claimed to be Marcus Aurelius’ son (he was actually from northern Africa), and is thus depicted with long, curline Antonine-esque hair.

• This tondo (circular painting) was made of the royal family, possibly during a trip to Egypt. It depicts Septimus, his wife, and two sons (Caracalla and Geta).

• The emphasis of the painting is on the symbols of power (large crowns, jewels, powerful/straightforward gazes), not on realistic likenesses or the emotional/psychological state of the subjects.

• Upon their father’s death, Caracalla and Geta became coemperors, but Caracalla murdered his brother and ordered the erasure of any images of him.

Caracalla

Portrait Busts Of Caracalla Rome, Italy c. 215 CE. Marble.

1’ 10” (right) 14.5” (top)

• Caracalla ruled with an iron fist.

• His portraits depict him as ruthless, no-nonsense, and powerful. His hair, while still curly, no longer has the long curls of the Antonines.

• His head is shown turning sharply to the side, which may have been intended to show energy, but it also appears as though he is suspicious and fears danger creeping up from behind.

• Caracalla was assassinated in the sixth year of his rule, a fate that befell many emperors in the third century.

• For the next half-century, the Roman military seized control, putting in place puppet emperors from their own lower ranks who were frequently assassinated shortly thereafter.

The Baths of Caracalla

Baths of Caracalla Rome, Italy c. 212 CE

Farnese Hercules

• Septimus Severus, before his death, began the construction of a public bath, which was finished and dedicated by Caracalla.

• Roman baths were recreational and educational centers, not just places to wash. The Severans built them to curry public favor.

• Featured a series of pools of different temperatures. The warm and hot pools were heated by a system of burning coal and wood underneath the ground. Water was from a dedicated aqueduct.

• In addition to the three baths (frigidarium, tepidarium, and caldarium), there was a swimming pool (natatio), two colonnaded exercise courts/gymnasiums, libraries, gardens, and lecture halls.

Ludovisi Sarcophagus

Ludovisi Battle Sarcophagus Rome, Italy c. 260 CE Marble. 5’ tall

• By the third century, burial had become more popular than cremation, and the production of sarcophagi boomed.

• The Ludovisi Sarcophagus (named after a man who owned the object much later) depicts a battle between Romans and barbarians.

• The Romans are depicted with either short hair or helmets and armor. The barbarians are depicted with long, messy hair.

• The Romans, mostly at the top, beat down the barbarians below in a military victory. The Roman leader (top center) gestures victoriously.

• The artist has made no attempt to depict realistic space.

• Similar in style and battle theme to reliefs at Pergamon.

Portrait of the Four Tetrarchs • After over half a century of turmoil, a new ruler named Diocletian emerged in 284 CE. • He divided the empire into two halves. He would rule the east, and he appointed Maximaian to rule the west (both would have the title “Augustus”).

• In 293, wanting to ensure a smooth transition of power, Diocletian devised a tetrarchy (rule by four) wherein each of the two Augusti would appoint a subordinate and heir, who held the title of Caesar.

• This sculpture depicts the tetrarchy (the two figures with beards were probably the Augusti). The figures look almost identical, wear armor and swords, and embrace in a show of unified cooperation.

• Made of porphyry, a type of reddish-purple igneous (volcanic) rock containing crystals (such as quartz).

• The hardness of the stone (difficult to carve) may have been the reason for the simplified, geometric forms.

Portrait of the Four Tetrarchs Constantinople (modern-day Istanbul, Turkey) c. 300 CE Porphyry. 4’ 3”

Aula Palatina Apse

Nave

Aula Palatina Trier, Germany c. 400 CE

• The tetrarchs ruled from several cities, including Milan (Italy), Trier (Germany), Thessaloniki (Macedonia), and Nicomedia (Asia Minor).

• In Trier, Constantius Chlorus (Augustus 293-306) and his son Constantine fortified the city with walls and a monumental gate.

• They also built public amenities such as baths and a palace with a huge basilica-like audience hall, known as the Aula Palatina.

• The windows in the apse are slightly smaller and higher than in the side walls, creating the illusion of greater distance to the end of the building.

• Originally, the Augustus would be enthroned in the apse.

• The austere design of this building inspired the design of early Christian churches.

Constantine’s Rise to Power • The transference of power in the tetrarchy did not happen as Diocletian had hoped. When he abdicated his throne (retired), civil war broke out anew.

• Constantine, son of Diocletian’s western Caesar Constantius Chlorus, emerged victorious when in 312 CE, he invaded Rome and defeated his primary Rival, Maxentius.

• Constantine (the Great) attributed his success to the Christian god, and in 313 CE, he and Licinius (who was the eastern Augustus) issued the Edict of Milan, granting religious freedom. Constantine may have been influenced to do so by his mother, who was a devout Christian.

• In 324, Constantine defeated Licinius, his last rival, and he ruled the total empire until his death in 337.

• Although during his rule, Constantine remained the head priest of the Roman religion, and reaffirmed his devotion to the Roman gods Mithras and Sol, he was baptized on his deathbed and is considered the first Christian Roman ruler.

Colossal Statue Of Constantine Rome, Italy c. 315 CE Marble. 8’ 6”

Arch of Constantine • In Rome, next to the Colosseum, the Senate erected a memorial to Constantine’s victory over Maxentius, a huge triple arch much larger than the Arch of Titus (17’ taller).

• Some of the decorations on the arch were taken from old monuments dedicated to the Good Emperors Trajan, Hadrian, and Marcus Aurelius. This visually transferred the old Roman virtues of strength, courage, and piety associated with these earlier emperors to Constantine.

• The new reliefs made for the arch recount the story of his victory and symbolize his power and generosity.

• The roundels pictured at right are from previous monuments, whereas the frieze below was made specifically for the arch.

• The other architectural elements (such as columns) were taken from previous monuments.

Roundel

Arch of Constantine Rome, Italy c. 315 CE Appx. 67’ tall Brickwork with marble veneer

Arch of Constantine • This frieze is one made specifically for the Arch of Constantine. It depicts Constantine (center) distributing wealth and goods to grateful citizens on either side.

Constantine is frontal and elevated upon a throne, demonstrating his important status.

• The figures of the people are squat and do not move with naturalistic grace. Instead, their pose is repetitive and mechanical.

• The Arch constitutes a transitional period in art by including both Classically styled reliefs from the past, but also more stylized figures that illustrate status and hierarchy instead of visual reality.

• The transition of style into a more stylized, hierarchical order that emphasized authority, ritual, and symbolic meaning continued into the Middle Ages.

The Distribution of Largesse (detail from the Arch of Constantine) Rome, Italy. c. 315 CE

Basilica Nova

Basilica Nova Rome, Italy c. 313 CE

• Before being overthrown by Constantine, Maxentius began a new basilica called the Basilica Nova, which Constantine later finished.

• Instead of a columnar hall (as was used in previous basilicas), Maxentius ordered a large, unbroken space supported by a series of groin vaults (as was used in baths).

• The central hall was supported by groin vaults, with smaller barrel vaults in the sides acting as buttresses. The upper portion of the groin vaults acted as a clerestory.

• When he came to power, Constantine put his own mark on the building by adding a new apse and entrance on the long sides of the building, effectively changing the axis of the building from the long axis to the short axis.

Colossal Statue of Constantine • Placed in the original apse of the Basilica Nova.

• Marble head, chest, arms, and legs held up on a wooden frame, covered in bronze drapery.

• The whole figure assembled was 30’ tall (seated).

• The statue acted as a permanent stand-in for the emperor, representing him whenever the conduct or business legally required his presence.

• The sculpture combines features of traditional Roman portraiture with some of the abstraction evident in the sculpture of the four Tetrarchs.

• Propagandistic • Although he continued to rule Rome, Constantine established a “new Rome” at Byzantium to be the capital of his Eastern empire. He renamed it Constantinople (presentday Istanbul, Turkey).

• The old cults of Roman gods quickly died out after Constantine’s death, marking the end of Roman antiquity.

Colossal Statue Of Constantine Rome, Italy c. 315 CE Marble. 8’ 6”

Early Christian Art & Architecture

The Early Spread of Christianity • Although Jesus was born during the reign of Augustus in Rome, it was not until 300 years later (in 313 CE) that Christianity was recognized by the Roman Empire (Constantine I, Edict of Milan).

• Early Christian Art does not refer to art made by Christians in the time of Jesus, as no such artworks exist.

Instead, it refers to the earliest surviving artworks depicting Christian themes, which are typically Roman works from the third and fourth centuries.

• Although Augustus and later Tiberius ruled Rome during Jesus’ lifetime, there were also local administrators of Judaea (the region where Jesus primarily lived) who were under Roman control, namely King Herod and Pontius Pilate.

The Spread of Christianity Between 300 and 800 CE

Basics of Christianity Christians believe that: • Jesus is the son of God, born of a human woman known as the Virgin Mary (immaculate conception). The Holy Trinity is made up of the Father, the Son (Jesus), and the Holy Spirit • The Christian Bible is made up of the Old Testament (which is shared with Judaism) and the New Testament.

• During Jesus’ lifetime, he performed a number of miracles, and preached his religious philosophies of love, charity, a personal relationship with God, the forgiveness of sins, and the promise of life after death to people throughout Judaea.

• Jesus’ twelve closest followers were his disciples (apostles).

• Four of Jesus’ disciples, Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John, are known as the evangelists because they wrote accounts of Jesus’ life that are now part of the New Testament (known as the Gospels).

• At age 33, Jesus was betrayed by one of his disciples (Judas) and crucified (put to death on a cross).

• After three days in limbo, Jesus was resurrected, and after forty more days, he ascended to heaven. Jesus’ death and resurrection enabled the forgiveness of human sins.

Christian Symbols • Dove - The Old Testament dove is a symbol of purity, representing peace when it is shown bearing an olive branch. In Christian art, a white dove is the symbolic embodiment of the Holy Spirit and is often shown descending from heaven, sometimes haloed and radiating celestial light.

• Lamb or Sheep - The lamb, an ancient sacrificial animal, symbolizes Jesus’ sacrifice on the cross as the Lamb of God, its pouring blood redeeming the sins of the world.

- The Lamb of God (Agnes Dei in Latin) may appear holding a cross-shaped scepter and/or a victory banner with a cross signifying Christ’s Resurrection.

- The lamb sometimes stands on a cosmic rainbow or mountaintop.

- A flock of sheep represents the apostles – or all Christians – cared for by their Good Shepherd, Jesus Christ.

Christian Symbols • Four Evangelists - The evangelists who wrote the New Testament Gospels are traditionally associated with the following creatures: - Saint Matthew = man or angel - Saint Mark = a lion - Saint Luke = an ox - Saint John = an eagle • Monograms - Alpha (the first letter of the Greek alphabet) and omega (the last) signify God as the beginning and end of all things.

This symbolic device was popular from Early Christian times through the Middle Ages.

- Alpha and omega often flank the abbreviation IX or XP. The initials I and X are the first letters of Jesus and Christ in Greek. The initials XP, known as the chi rho, were the first two letters of the word Christos.

- These emblems are sometimes enclosed by a halo or wreath of victory.

Christian Symbols • Cross - The primary Christian emblem, the cross, symbolizes the suffering and triumph of Jesus’ crucifixion and resurrection as Christ.

- It also stands for Jesus Christ himself, as well as the Christian religion as a whole.

- Crosses have taken various forms at different times and places, the two most common in Christian art being the Latin and Greek.

• Fish - The fish was one of the earliest symbols for Jesus Christ.

Because of its association with baptism in water, it came to stand for all Christians. Fish are sometimes depicted with bread and wine to represent the Eucharist. The simplified Ichthys symbol was used amongst early Christians as a means of secret identification.

Church Organization

Pope Benedict XVI in his awesome Popemobile

• As Christianity spread, the hierarchy of the Church became more organized. Christian communities were organized by geographical units, along the lines of Roman provincial governments.

• Parish – a smaller Church unit, run by a priest • Diocese – a larger unit made up of several parishes, run by a bishop (who was a senior Church official) • The bishop’s headquarters were known as sees or seats, and where usually located in large cities or capitals. A bishops church is a cathedral, from the Latin word for “chair.”

• Several sees were overseen by an arch-bishop.

• The arch-bishop of Rome eventually became the pope, who was the head of the Western Church.

• The arch-bishop of Constantinople became the head, or patriarch, of the Eastern Church.

• In 1054, the Eastern and Western Churches split to become the Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church.

Christian Funerary Traditions • Because of the emphasis on resurrection, the Christians sought to preserve the body after death. Instead of cremation, they preferred to be buried in a catacomb.

• In the catacombs, long rectangular niches called loculi hold 2-3 bodies. Wealthier families created small rooms called cubicula off of the main passages to house their sarcophagi.

• The catacombs were carved out of the tufa bedrock, then plastered and painted with religious imagery.

The Greek Chapel, Catacombs of Priscilla, Rome. 4th Century.

loculi

Cubiculum (room) with spaces for sarcophagi

Religious Beliefs Affect Art • As it was forbidden in the ten commandments to carve or worship false idols, Jewish and, later, early Christian artists made few religious sculptures.

• Christian rites prompted the development of special buildings, such as churches (because Christians worshipped together in large groups) and baptisteries.

• The Christian Church began to use the visual arts to instruct its followers (didactic = imagery to teach) as well as to glorify god.

• Because Christianity claimed to have arisen out of Judaism, its art incorporated many symbols and narrative representations from the Hebrew Scriptures and other Jewish sources. This process of artists assimilating images from other traditions (whether intentionally or not) and giving them new meanings is known as syncretism.

• One example of a syncretic image is the use of orant figures (people with outstretched arms) on the right, which were depicted in pagan, Jewish, and Christian art.

Good Shepherd and Orant Fresco, Catacombs of Priscilla, Rome. 4th Century.

Christian Funerary Traditions • The catacombs were carved out of the tufa bedrock, then plastered and painted with religious imagery.

• This cubicula features a central medallion, featuring a depiction of a Good Shepherd, whose pose has roots in Greek sculpture. In its new context, the image was a reminder of Jesus’ promise: “I am the good shepherd. A good shepherd lays down his life for the sheep” (John 10:11).

• The medallion is surrounded by four lunettes, or semicircular areas framed by an arch, depicting the story of Jonah who was swallowed then spit up by whale, a metaphor for resurrection.

lunette

medallion

Sarcophagus of Junius Bassus • Junius Bassus was a mid-fourth century prefect of Rome who was baptized just before his death.

• Reliefs decorate only one long side and both short sides.

• Long side consists of a total of ten scenes, divided into two registers of five scenes, each separated by a column.

• The depictions are of biblical stories. Jesus appears in the central scene of both registers.

• Of what previous Roman artwork is the upper depiction of Jesus reminiscent? How so?

• Of what Roman artwork(s) is the lower depiction of Jesus reminiscent? How is it different?

• What biblical story is depicted in the niche on the bottom row, second from left? How does that story relate to Jesus?

• The upper left image depicts Abraham offering his son Isaac as a sacrifice, a fore-telling of Jesus being offered as sacrifice for the sins of humanity.  The short sides have more traditional Roman images of the Four Seasons, represented by putti performing seasonal tasks. The inscription identifies Junius Bassus as a recent convert to Christianity.

Sarcophagus of Junius Bassus Rome, Italy.

C. 360. Marble.

3’ 10” x 8’

Christ as the Good Shepherd c. 350 Marble. 3’ high

The Calf-Bearer (Moschophoros) Acropolis, Athens.

Marble. Archaic Greek.

Restored height 5’ 5”

Christ as the Good Shepherd • Although Christians mostly avoided sculpture in the round that depicted religious themes, there are a few examples, but they are smaller in scale than traditional Greco-Roman sculptures.

• The depiction of Jesus as a shepherd is an example of a syncretic image. In Pagan art, he was Hermes the shepherd, or Orpheus among the animals, but Jews and Christians saw him as the Good Shepherd of the twenty-third Psalm, which stated “The Lord is my shepherd, there is nothing I lack.”

• Pose is contrapposto.

• Christ is depicted as youthful. Emphasis in early Christian art was on the life, teachings, and miracles of Jesus, rather than on his suffering and death.

Early Christian Architecture • Before the Edict of Milan, Christians worshipped together in private homes. After the Edict of Milan, they quickly began to build sizeable churches that met the demands of the Christian liturgy (the official ritual of public worship).

• The churches needed to be large for two reasons: 1. To accommodate the rapidly growing number of Christians.

2. 2. To create a monumental setting for worship & glorification.

• Because Constantine believed the Christian god helped him defeat Maxentius, he became a prolific builder of Christian churches in both Rome and Constantinople.

• The Constantinian churches in Rome were built on the presumed graves of early Christian martyrs, which, due to Roman burial practice, were all on the outskirts of the city.

• Building Christian churches on the outskirts of the city also helped avoid confrontations between traditional Roman worshippers and Christians.

Old Saint Peter’s Vatican Hill, Rome, Italy Begun c. 320

transept

narthex

atrium

Old Saint Peter’s • Constantine’s greatest Roman church was Old Saint Peter’s (so-called because it was replaced with a new building, now known as Saint Peter’s Basilica, in 1506).

• Built on the graveyard in which it was believed that Saint Peter, the “rock” and founder of the Church, and first Bishop of Rome (thusly, the first Pope) had been buried.

• Large enough to accommodate 3,000 to 4,000 worshippers.

• The church enshrined Peter’s tomb, which is considered to be the second most hallowed sites in Christendom, second only to the Holy Sepulcher (site of Christ’s resurrection).

• Resembled Roman basilicas more than temples • Early Christian basilica-plans all had a longitudinal axis.

• Worshippers entered through the narthex (vestibule, lobby).

• The end containing the apse included a transept, or crossaisle perpendicular to the nave, between the nave and apse.

• Austere exteriors, but lavish interiors. 300’ long nave.

Santa Sabina • Built 100 years after Old St. Peter’s, Santa Sabina is similar in style, but much smaller.

• Brick exterior is similar to Aula Palatina in Trier, Germany.

• This church still has its original wooden doors.  How were early churches like Santa Sabina similar to Roman basilicas? Why were they similar?

Basilica Nova, Rome, Italy. c. 312 CE Aula Palatina, Trier, Germany. c. 330 CE Santa Sabina, Rome, Italy. c. 430

Santa Sabina - Interior • Corinthian columns support an arcade down each side of the nave, drawing attention to the chancel arch (the archway separating the nave from the apse) at the end.

• As with Old St. Peter’s a clerestory lets in light beneath the timber (wood) roof.

• Interior decorated with frescoes and mosaics.

• This church still has its original wooden doors.

• The nave arcade is decorated with bread plates and chalices… why?  Clerestory windows decorated with geometric patterns, but not stained glass - clear stone called gypsum instead.

chancel arch

Santa Sabina, Rome, Italy. c. 430

Santa Maria Maggiore • The first major (maggiore) church in the west dedicated to the Virgin Mary (name translates to Saint Mary Major).

• The year prior to its construction, the Council of Ephesus convened to debate whether Mary had given birth to the man Jesus or to God as man. The council ruled that the divine and human coexisted in Christ and that Mary was the bearer of God (Theotokos).

• Nave: Ionic colonnade. Clerestory. Geometric circular mosaic floor. Coffers in the ceiling.

• Mosaics depicting Old Testament stories decorate the upper walls of the nave (near the clerestory).

• Mosaics in early Christian churches 1. instructed worshippers about biblical stories (didactic), and 2. glorified God and Heaven through their beauty and splendor.

Santa Maria Maggiore Rome, Italy c. 430

Parting of Lot and Abraham • Tesserae were made from glass deliberately set unevenly in the panel to glitter and gleam in the clerestory light.

• Larger tesserae were used (than in Roman floor mosaics) so that worshippers could easily see the scene from below.

• This scene depicts the biblical story of Lot and Abraham.

Because both men have large herds, conflicts were arising amongst their herders, so they decided to part ways.

Abraham gave his nephew Lot first choice of directions, and then went the opposite way. Lot chose poorly, going towards Sodom, a city that was eventually destroyed by angels for its sinfulness.

• Abraham is shown being lead by his son, Isaac, and Lot is being lead by his two daughters.

• The artist shows the divide between groups clearly, and creates a sense of depth by using a “head cluster.”

• The artist attempted some modeling and shading, but not much. Christian art continued to become more abstracted to avoid being considered “idol worship” • Abraham turns towards a church; Lot turns towards a city.

The Parting of Lot and Abraham Mosaic in the nave of Santa Maria Maggiore Rome, Italy. C. 430.

Santa Costanza

Santa Costanza Rome, Italy c. 350

• Central-plan design (circular, under a dome) • Originally a mausoleum for Constantina (who was Constantine’s daughter), it was converted into a church.

• Brick exterior • In the center of the dome was an altar.

Surrounding the dome was the ambulatory, a ringshaped barrel-vaulted corridor, separated from the center by 12 double columns.

• Interior was once decorated with many mosaics, but most are lost. The mosaics included Old and New Testament images, as well as some that borrowed imagery from Roman funerary art (but re-interpreted in a Christian way).

Harvesting of Grapes • This mosaic, located in the arch above the ambulatory, depicts putti harvesting grapes and making wine, with a central portrait bust. Another portrait bust image was on the opposite side, and the pair may have represented Constantina and her husband. • Syncretic imagery: In Greco-Roman mythology, wine is associated with Bacchus, but in Christian imagery it is associated with the Eucharist. • Putti are similar looking to cherubs, the second order of angels. The difference is that cherubs are sacred (as angels), whereas a putti are profane. They represent Eros, and are usually depicted as trying to lure humans into profane love, rather than spiritual love between worshipper and God.

Harvesting of Grapes Mosaic in the ambulatory vault of Santa Costanza Rome, Italy c. 340

Ravenna • Theodosius I: - issued an edict establishing Christianity as the official religion of the Roman Empire (380 CE) - Banned worship of the old Roman gods (391 CE) - Abolished the Olympic Games (394 CE) • After Theodosius’ death in 395, power passed to his two sons: Arcadius ruled the East; Honorius ruled the West.

• In 404, Honorius moved the capital from Milan to Ravenna, to escape the Visigoths who threatened to attack from the northwest.

• In 410, the Visigoths (lead by Alaric) captured Rome.

• In 476, the Visigoths (lead by Odoacer) captured Ravenna to become the first Germanic king of Italy.

• Odoacer was overthrown by Theodoric, king of the Ostrogoths, who established his capital at Ravenna in 493.

• Ravenna fell to the Byzantine emperor Justinian in 539.

The Mausoleum of Galla Placidia

The Mausoleum of Galla Placidia Ravenna, Italy c. 420

• The so-called Mausoleum of Galla Placidia, Honorius’ half-sister, is a small cruciform (cross-shaped) structure, with barrel-vaulted arms and a tower at the crossing.

• Although it was long believed to be the tomb of Galla Placidia, we know now that it was built about 25 years before her death. It was probably originally a chapel to the martyred Saint Laurence.

• The chapel adjoined the narthex of the now greatly altered palace-church of Santa Croce, which was also cruciform in plan.

• The chapel’s cross-arms are of unequal length, giving it a slightly longitudinal axis. However, since both cross-arms are short, the emphasis is really on the vertical axis of the crossing tower (which appears domed from the inside).

• As such, this building is a fusion of both the central-plan and basilica-plan styles, a design that would become very popular in the years to come.

• The interior was decorated extensively with mosaics

Mausoleum Mosaics

The Martyrdom of St. Laurence & The Good Shepherd Mosaics from lunettes in the Mausuleum of Galla Placidia Ravenna, Italy, c. 420

• The mosaics in the Mausoleum of Galla Placidia depict saints and apostles.

• The upper image is of Jesus as the good shepherd. Instead of holding a sheep, Jesus sits amongst the flock. The sheep look up at him lovingly. A halo rings his head.

• The lower image depicts Saint Laurence, who was put to death on a fiery grill (and was subsequently made the patron saint of bakers). He holds a cross on his shoulders to represent his salvation in Christ, and a halo encircles his head to indicate his sainthood.

Sant’Apollinare Nuovo • Built by Theodoric in 504 as a baptistry, the building was rededicated in the ninth century as Sant’Apollinare Nuovo, when it acquired the relics of Saint Apollinaris.

• The upper portion of the nave walls are richly decorated with three levels of mosaics (only the upper two of which are from Theodoric’s time).

• Hebrew patriarchs and prophets stand between the clerestory windows.

• Scene’s from Christ’s life alternate with decorative panels in the top row.

• The mosaic to the right depicts the Miracle of the Loaves and Fishes.

• The nimbus (halo) around Jesus’ head includes a cross.

• Jesus’ pose is direct and frontal. He is clothed in imperial gold and purple, and is shown without a beard.

•The artist has depicted the sky with a heavenly golden glow, rather than regular blue.

• There is some shading, but the figures are much flatter than previous mosaics.

Sant’Apollinare Nuovo Ravenna, Italy, c. 526

Byzantine Art & Architecture

Formation • Constantinople was founded on the ancient city of Byzantium in 324 by Constantine.

• The Roman Empire remained united until the death of Theodosius I, who split it between his two sons, Honorius (West) and Arcadius (East).

• Honorius moved the capital of the western half from Rome to Milan, then from Milan to Ravenna, in an attempt to avoid the encroaching invaders, but the western half soon fell, divided into warring kingdoms.

• Historians use the word Byzantium to refer to the Eastern Christian Roman Empire, and the word Byzantine to refer to anything pertaining to Byzantium.

• However, the Byzantine emperors did not refer to themselves as Byzantines – they called their empire Rome and themselves Romans. Although they spoke Greek instead of Latin, they never relinquished their claim as the successors to the ancient Roman emperors.

Byzantine Empire Before and After Justinian

Periods • Historians divide the Byzantine Empire into three periods: - Early Byzantine (324-726) – extends from the founding of Constantinople in 324 to the onset of iconoclasm (the destruction of images used in religious worship) in 726 under Leo III. - Middle Byzantine (843-1204) – begins with the renunciation of iconoclasm in 843 and ends with the Western Crusaders’ occupation of Constantinople in 1204.

- Late Byzantine (1261-1453) – corresponds to the two centuries after the Byzantines recaptured Constantinople in 1261 until its final loss in 1453 to the Ottoman Turks and the conversion of many churches to mosques.

• The Byzantine Empire spread Christianity to the Balkans and Russia, and acted as a buffer which prevented Islam from spreading into Europe.

• When Constantinople fell to the Ottoman Empire, the westward flight of Constantinople’s intellectual elite introduced the study of Classical Greece to Europe, and helped instigate the Renaissance.

St. Michael the Archangel

St. Michael the Archangel Right leaf of a diptych Early 6th Century Ivory, 1’ 5” x 5.5”

• Carved of ivory, this relief bears the inscription “receive these gifts,” probably referring to the cross-surmounted orb of power St. Michael is shown offering (probably to a Byzantine emperor depicted on the missing left leaf).

• Hair, face, and drapery are Classically influenced in style, but treatment of space is not.

• St. Michael’s design is based on Classical depiction of winged Nike, adapted to fit a Christian narrative.

• This is an example of a luxury art, produced specifically for the wealthy instead of the public.

• The orb is known as the globus cruciger (cross-bearing orb), which is a symbol of Christ’s dominion over the world.

It is a symbol of power when held by an angel or ruler.

When held by Christ, it is a symbol of Christ as savior of the world.

Illuminated Manuscripts • Another type of luxury art is the illuminated manuscript, which became popular during the Early Roman Empire with the invention of a codex (an early form of book), which replaced the rotulus (scroll).

• Another development that made manuscript illumination possible was the use of vellum (treated calfskin) and parchment (treated lambskin) instead of brittle papyrus.

• The word “illuminare” means to ornament, adorn, or brighten, so illuminated manuscripts are so-called because they are richly illustrated.

• Illuminated manuscripts were painstakingly handdrawn and hand-written, a process which took months if not years. As such, they were very expensive.

• Illuminated manuscripts were typically produced by monks in special writing rooms called scriptoria (scriptorium).

Vienna Genesis

Jacob Wrestling the Angel, Vienna Genesis, folio 12v, early 6th century, tempera, gold and silver on purple vellum, c. 580 CE. 12.5 x 9.25 inches

Rebecca and Eliezer at the Well, folio 7 recto from the Vienna Genesis, early 6th century, tempera, gold ands silver on purple vellum, c. 580 CE. 12.5 x 9.25 inches

• Because hand-written and illustrated books are much larger than our modern printed books, the Bible would be broken into smaller chunks. Some illuminated manuscripts contained only psalms, or only the gospels.

• The Vienna Genesis focuses on the Book of Genesis, or the first part of the Old Testament.

• The materials reflect the luxury status of the book.

The pages are dyed purple (assoc. with royalty) and the text was written in silver (now tarnished black).

• The illustrations reflect the stylistic transition of the time, from the more realistic Roman portrayals of figures, space, and architecture, to the more abstracted, symbolic Medieval style.

• Both of these images are synoptic narratives.

Jacob Wrestling the Angel, Vienna Genesis, folio 12v

This story is from Genesis 24. Abraham wanted to find a wife for his son Isaac and sent his servant Eliezer to find one from among Abraham’s extended family. Eliezer took ten of Abraham’s camels with him and stopped at a well to give them water. Eliezer prayed to God that Isaac’s future wife would assist him with watering his camels.

Rebecca arrives on the scene and assists Eliezer, who knows that she is the woman for Isaac. This story is about God intervening to ensure a sound marriage for Abraham’s son.

What about this image is GrecoRoman?

What about this image is Medieval?

Justinian • Ruled from 527 – 565 • Ushered in Byzantium’s first golden age.

• Justinian’s generals drove the Ostrogoths out of Italy, expelled the Vandals from the African provinces, beat back the Bulgars on the northern frontier, and held the Sasanians at bay on the eastern borders.

• Codified the Roman law in a great work known as the Corpus juris civilis (Code of Civil Law), which became the foundation of the law systems of many modern European nations.

• Constantine legalized Christianity, Theodosius made it the official Roman religion (and banned the old Roman gods), and Justinian made Christianity the ONLY legal religion, outlawing all others.

• Justinian sought not only to stamp out any remaining polytheistic religions, he also sought to eradicate any versions of Christianity which differed from Eastern Orthodox (such as Arian, which believed that since the Father created the Son, he was greater, or Monophysite, which believed that Christ was only divine, not both divine and human).

San Vitale

choir

exedrae

• Ravenna was captured by Justinian’s army, and it became the Byzantine’s foothold in Italy for the next 200 years.

• Construction was begun under Bishop Ecclesius using funds (26,000 solidi, or about 350 pounds of gold) from a wealthy citizen, Julianus Argentarius (Julian the banker).

• Designed using a central plan, feauturing a dome-covered clerestory-lit central space defined by piers alternating with curved, columned exedrae.

• A cross-vaulted choir preceding the apse interrupts the ambulatory and gives the plan some axial stability.

• The narthex is at an odd angle, undermining its longitudinal axis, the reason for which is not known (it may have paralleled a street which no longer exists).

• The apse mosaic depicts the second coming of Christ, who sits atop the world and holds a scroll with 7 seals. The 4 rivers of paradise flow below. Christ offers a golden martyr’s wreath to St. Vitalis. Bishop Ecclesius offers Christ a model of the church. Angels may represent Trinity.

Choir and apse of San Vitale with mosaic of Christ between two angels, Saint Vitalis, and Bishop Ecclesius Ravenna, Italy, c. 550

San Vitale

Justinian, Maximianus, and Attendants (North wall of the apse), San Vitale, Ravenna, Italy, c. 550

• These two mosaics are situated across from each other, on opposite walls of the apse.

• The orders of the figures express precedence and rank.

• Mosaic program shows two major ambitions of Justinian's reign: 1. as heir to the tradition of Roman Emperors, Justinian sought to restore the territorial boundaries of the Empire.

2. As the Christian Emperor, he saw himself as the defender of the faith, who needed to establish religious uniformity or Orthodoxy throughout the Empire.

• To the right of Justinian is Bishop Maximianus (name written), who finished the church after the death of Ecclesius.

• 3 groups: imperial guard (left, with chi-rho shield), the emperor and his staff, and Maximianus and the clergy (right).

Justinian has religious, administrative, and military authority.

• Leader of each group indicated by placement of feet.

• Justinian’s feet make him seem behind Maximianus, but his paten (golden bread bowl) appears in front of Maximianus, symbolizing the balance of power between the two men.

San Vitale • Christ, dressed in imperial purple and seated on an orb signifying universal dominion, offers the crown of martyrdom to St. Vitale, but the same gesture can be seen as offering the crown to Justinian in the mosaic below. Justinian is thus Christ's vice-regent on earth

San Vitale • Justinian and Theodora are both shown in the centers of their panels, wearing gold/purple robes, with halos behind their heads, linking them with the image of Christ above.

• Justinian and his cohort are meant to seem as though they are in the church itself, whereas Theodora is in the church’s atrium, waiting to enter.

• 3 magi are sewn on Theodora’s cloak, representing her wisdom and important influence.

• How are these figures different from Ara Pacis procession?

Theodora and Attendants (South wall of the apse), San Vitale Ravenna, Italy, c. 550

Sant’Apollinare in Classe • This church held the corpse of St. Apollinaris (who suffered martyrdom in Classe, Ravenna’s port) until the 9th Century.

• Visible above the central cross medallion is the hand of god.

• In the clouds next to the cross are the prophets Moses and Elijah, and below are 3 sheep representing John, Peter, and James.

• Below is the patron saint of this church, Apollinaris with 12 sheep that may symbolize church congregants.

• Who is depicted above the apse?

• The artist avoided overlapping, shading, and any depiction of real 3D space, instead lining up the flat symbols side-by-side.

• The large cross represents not only Christ’s death and later resurrection, but also the death (and subsequent salvation) of his martyrs. Lambs, as a sacrificial animal, appropriately represent the martyred apostles John, Peter, and James.

• This communicates to the worshippers that the death of the martyr, in imitation of Christ, is a triumph over death that leads to eternal life. The way of the martyr is open to them, and the reward of eternal life is within their reach.

Saint Apollinaris Amid Sheep.

Sant’Apollinare in Classe, Ravenna, Italy. c. 550.

Squinches vs. Pendentives • Earlier architects placed domes directly on the ground, or on top of cylindrical drums.

• Byzantine architects began to experiment with placing domes on top of square bases, in order to combine the traditional basilica-plan and central-plan church designs.

• To accomplish this, they developed two primary solutions: the pendentive and the squinch.

• The pendentive system places the dome on top of another dome, except the architect omits the sides and top of the lower dome. The sides are replaced with four arches, which form a square at their base (the weight is distributed to the four pillars). This leaves only four downward-pointing curved triangles, known as pendentives.

• The squinch system uses a totally square base. The opening at the top of the square base is made octagonal by adding four squinches (one in each corner). This “rounding off” of the square corners allows the round dome to be placed on top.

pendentive

squinch

Hagia Sophia • Hagia Sophia (Holy Wisdom) was built by Justinian in Constantinople as his greatest church (he built over 30 in Constantinople alone).

• Justinian employed two architects: Anthemius of Tralles (who was really a mathematician) and Isidorus of Miletus (who was really a physicist).

• The minarets at the four corners were added later by the Ottoman Turks.

• The base of the dome is pierced with forty windows, which fill the church with light and give the illusion that the dome is resting on light itself.

• The exterior is built of brick, and the interior is decorated with a variety of differently colored marble, which gleamed and reflected the light from the windows.

• Light itself is a symbol for heaven and God. • Is this an example of pendentives or squinches?

Hagia Sophia Anthemius of Tralles and Isidorus of Miletus Constantinople, Turkey 532 – 537 CE 270’L x 240’W x 180’H

Hagia Sophia • Anthemius and Isidorus used pendentives to transfer the weight from the great dome to the eight piers beneath rather than to the walls. This created the impression of a dome suspended above, rather than held up by, walls.

• The weight of the dome required buttressing at the base of the eight piers. The weight was also dissipated through a series of exterior half-domes.

• The columnar arcade of the nave has no structural function.

• The load-bearing piers are made of ashlar masonry, but the rest of the structure is built of brick (+ interior marble veneer).

• The nave was reserved for the clergy. The worshippers, segregated by sex, were restricted to the aisles and galleries.

• The emperor was the only layperson allowed into the sanctuary.

• When the emperor participated with the patriarch in the liturgy, his rule was again sanctified and his person exalted.

Church and state were thus symbolically made one.

Hagia Sophia Anthemius of Tralles and Isidorus of Miletus Constantinople, Turkey

Transfiguration of Jesus

Transfiguration of Jesus Apse mosaic, Church of the Virgin, monastery of Saint Catherine, Mount Sinai, Egypt, c. 550

• Monasticism (men leaving their regular lives to live the austere, hermit-like life of a monk) greatly increased in the 3rd century. Eventually, monks began living together in communal compounds known as monasteries.

• The image to the left is from a church within a monastery on Mount Sinai, Egypt. The church, now called St. Catherine’s, is located where it was believed Moses first talked to the burning bush.

• Justinian rebuilt the monastery at Mount Sinai because it was an important pilgrimage destination (it protected pilgrims as well).

• The mosaic depicts Jesus during the Transfiguration (when he turned into light before John, Peter, and James).

• Jesus is enveloped in an almond-shaped mandorla.

• To the sides are the prophets Moses and Elijah, and below, in poses of shock, are John, Peter, and James.

• The scene is framed with portraits of saints in medallions.

• Plain gold background instead of specific setting enables worshippers to contemplate the eternal and motionless world of religious truth.

Virgin (Theotokos) and Child between Saints Theodore and George • This artwork is an example of an icon (Greek for “image”), which was a small, portable artwork (usually a painting) depicting Jesus, Mary, saints, or a combination thereof.

• This image depicts an enthroned Mary, holding the infant Jesus, surrounded by two soldier saints.  Behind them are two angels looking upwards, and in the upper center is a shaft of light and the hand of god.  Painting of flesh is classicized, similar to Roman-era Egyptian mummy portrait painting. Some modeling.  Space is ambiguous, flattened, confusing. Creates sense of figures being of our world, but also apart from our world.  Where is each figure looking? Where is each figure located? Meaning?  Sense of movement inward and upward. Saints raise one heel, appear to step toward viewer.  How do the haloes vary? Why?

Icon, c. 600.

Encaustic on wood, 2’ 3” x 1’ 7” Monastery of Saint Catherine, Mount Sinai, Egypt

Iconoclasm • Iconophiles considered icons a personal medium for spiritual transaction with holy figures. Some icons were regarded as wonder-working, and believers ascribed miracles and healing powers to them.

• Iconoclasts were deeply suspicious of icons, and felt that they violated the second Commandment which prohibited the worshipping of idols.

• During iconoclasm (instigated by Leo III, 726 to 843 CE), all religious imagery depicting saints, Jesus, Mary, or the Father/Holy Spirit were banned. No new images were made, and old images were destroyed or covered over.

• Mosaics and frescoes in churches were pried off or smeared over with ash.

• Images of people of the bible were replaced with symbols, such as the cross.

Deësis (Christ with the Virgin Mary and John the Baptist), c. 1261, mosaic, imperial enclosure, south gallery, Hagia Sophia, Istanbul

Iconoclasm • During the 100 years leading up to iconoclasm, the Byzantine Empire was losing ground to its enemies. A new threat, the Arabs, under the banner of the new Islamic religion, had overtaken the Eastern provinces as well as Persia.

• Leo III may have felt that the Byzantines’ bad luck was due to idol worship, and thus enacted the ban. It is also possible that he enacted the ban as a way to assert the authority of the state over the church.

• The iconoclasm years marked the end of the long line of the Roman Empire, and marked the beginning of the medieval era of Byzantine history.

Deësis (Christ with the Virgin Mary and John the Baptist), c. 1261, mosaic, imperial enclosure, south gallery, Hagia Sophia, Istanbul

Middle Byzantine Art • In the late 700s and early 800s, a strong reaction against iconoclasm set in.

• The case in favor of icons had been made earlier in the 8th Century by St. John of Damascus, who argued that God the Father had made an image of himself in the son Jesus and in humankind in general, and that although icons were likenesses of holy figures, they were not identical to them.

• Two empresses also lead the movement to restore imagemaking: Irene in 780 (whose ban was short-lived) and Theodora (widow of the emperor Theophilos) in 843, whose ban on iconoclasm became permanent.

• Shortly thereafter, a new line of emperors, the Macedonian dynasty, resuscitated the Early Byzantine tradition of lavish imperial patronage of religious art and architecture.

Christ as Pantokrator Dome mosaic in the Church of the Dormition, Daphni, Greece, c. 1100

Christ as Pantokrator • The interior of the Church of the Dormition is high and narrow, forcing the viewer’s gaze upward and around.

• In the center of the dome is a large mosaic of Christ as Pantokrator, which is literally translated from Greek as “ruler of all” but is usually used to mean Christ in his role of final judge of humankind.

• The Daphni Pantokrator is like a giant icon hovering dramatically in space. The image serves to connect the awe-struck worshipper in the church below with Heaven through Christ.

• In addition to the Pantokrator, there are several more mosaics below depicting New Testament scenes.

Christ as Pantokrator Dome mosaic in the Church of the Dormition, Daphni, Greece, c. 1100

The Crucifixion • One of the mosaics below the Christ as Pantokrator dome mosaic in Daphni is the Crucifixion.

• This image is typical of post-iconoclastic Byzantine art in that it is a subtle blend of the painterly naturalistic style of Late Antiquity and the later, more abstract and formalistic Byzantine style.

• Jesus is flanked by the Virgin Mary and Saint John.

• A skull indicates that this is Golgotha (the Jewish word for “place of the skulls”). Whose skull might it be?

• Symmetry and closed space combine to produce an effect of the motionless and unchanging aspect of the deepest mystery of the Christian religion, as recalled in the ceremony of the Eucharist.

The Crucifixion Mosaic in the north arm of the east wall of the Church of the Dormition, Daphni, Greece, c. 1100

St. Mark’s

Pala d’Oro

St. Mark’s Venice, Italy.

First built in 829, but rebuilt after a fire in 976, and rebuilt again in 1063.

• During the Middle Byzantine Empire, Venice (Italy) became independent, ruled by its doges (dukes), and was a crucial link between Byzantium and the West.

• Venice acquired the relics of St. Mark from Alexandria (Egypt) in 829, and the doges constructed the first Venetian shrine dedicated to the evangelist.

• The third and most ornate version of St. Mark’s was built

by Doge Domenico Contarini, who incorporated lavish decorations, such as the golden Pala d’Oro altarpiece.

• Design featured a cruciform plan with a central dome over the crossing and four other domes over the four equal arms of the Greek cross.

• St. Mark’s housed many icons brought back after the sack of Constantinople in 1204.

• Light enters through clerestories at the bottom of each dome, illuminating 40,000 square feet of mosaics.

• The mosaic in the central dome depicts Christ’s ascension in front of Mary and the 12 apostles.

• Mosaics have labels in Latin and Greek, indicating Venice as the key link between East and West.

Vladimir Virgin • The Vladimir Virgin is the most renowned Middle Byzantine icon produced in Russia.

• The image has been repainted many times, and damaged from incense smoke.

• Originally located in Kiev (Ukraine), it was moved first to Vladimir (hence its name), then as a wonder-working icon to Moscow, to protect the city from outside invaders.

• The virgin displays the stylized characteristics of the Byzantine icon of the Virgin and Child: long, straight nose, small mouth, golden rays in the infant’s drapery, the flat silhouette against the golden background.

• This image, however, is different from others of the Virgin with child (such as the one from Sinai) in that here, Mary is depicted as the Virgin of Compassion, who presses her cheek against her son’s in an intimate portrayal of Mother and Child.

• Mary appears troubled as she contemplates the future sacrifice of her son.

Virgin of Compassion icon (Vladimir Virgin) c. 1100.

Tempera on wood, 2’ 6” x 1’ 9”

European-Islamic Art & Architecture

Muhammad • Muhammad (the Prophet) founder of religion – born c. 570 in Mecca. Died in 632.

• At age 40, receives calling as a prophet of a new religion.

• In 622, Muhammad and his followers, escaping persecution, emigrated from Mecca to a city eventually called Medina (“City of the Prophet”) in modern-day Saudi Arabia. This emigration is known as the Hejira (emigration). The Hejira marks the beginning of the Muslim calendar.

• In 630, Muhammad returned to Mecca with 10,000 soldiers.

He took control of the city, converted the population to Islam, and destroyed all the idols.

• Muhammad recognized Christians, Jews, and Arabs as descendants of Abraham and recognized Jesus as a prophet (like Moses), but not as divine/son of God. • Only Muhammad’s teachings preserve Allah’s true message • Muhammad was not divine himself – seen as the Final Prophet in the line including Abraham, Moses, and Jesus.

Islamic Expansion

Spread of Islam • Islam spread rapidly.

• By the 8th Century, conquered North Africa and Spain (785 CE) • Constantinople fell in 1453 CE • Islam (through the work of the caliphs) established new social order in regions and took complete charge of temporal as well as spiritual affairs • Islam sponsored advanced scholarship and the translation of Greco-Roman texts from all areas of learning.

• The Qur’an (Koran), the Islamic holy book (The Word of God), is a collection of moral laws as revealed to Muhammad by the archangel Gabriel and written down after Mohammad’s death by the caliph Uthman (644-656) • The Qur’an is supplemented by the Sunna (moral sayings of Muhammad and anecdotes of his exemplary deeds).

• Caliphs (Muslim leaders) are seen as descendants of families of the Prophet.

Islamic Expansion

Islamic Beliefs and Ritual • Islamic rituals centered around daily prayer and pilgrimage, without other rituals or a hierarchical spiritually privileged priesthood.

• Mohammad did not set up any priesthood or church, but the Koran’s “Five Pillars” became a guide for the duties for all life’s endeavors.

• The Five Pillars of Islam are: 1. Reciting the creed: “There is no god but the One God (Allah), Muhammad is the Messenger of God.” 2. Daily prayer (3-5 times) facing the Kaaba in Mecca, and Fridays at noon in a Mosque (required for men).

3. Abstinence of food, drink, and sexual activity during the daylight hours of Ramadan.

4. The duty of almsgiving 5. Pilgrimage to Mecca (hajj) at least once before death.

• The reward for observing the above is Paradise.

Prayer at the Kaaba, at Al-Masjid al Haram (mosque) in Mecca, Saudi Arabia

Islamic Mosques

mihrab sahn with fountain

minbar qubba minaret

• Mosques are places of daily prayer (esp. on Fridays). Can also be used as place to study or for quiet reflection.  Mosques vary depending on region/culture, but do have some common similarities.

• The faithful would be called to prayer from a crier called a muezzin in the mosque’s minaret (tower), enter an enclosed courtyard, engage in ritual washing, enter mosque and begin individual prayer on their knees, facing Mecca.

• The direction of Mecca was marked by a sacred niche, or mihrab, in the qibla wall (opposite to the entrance). Next to the mihrab is the minbar, a pulpit where the imam (prayer leader) stands to deliver sermons.  Qubba (dome) often included to symbolize vault of heaven, usually decorated with geometric or stellate motifs to create sense of awe/inspiration. Usually near qibla wall.

• All men are required to attend the Friday noon prayer at the mosque, so it needs a large prayer hall to fit everyone.

• Adjoining the prayer hall is the sahn, or courtyard, which typically has a water fountain to perform ablutions (ritual cleansing) before entering the prayer hall to pray.

Mosque Decorations

muqarnas arabesques

maqsura

• Aniconic - No images of humans were allowed in Islamic mosques – only elaborate interweaving designs called arabesques, and calligraphic passages of text (usually quotes from the Qu’ran). Surfaces were covered with rich, flat, linear patterns of geometric and organic designs.

• The arabesque is a form of artistic decoration consisting of "surface decorations based on rhythmic linear patterns of scrolling and interlacing foliage, tendrils" or plain lines.

• An architectural ornamentation reminiscent of stalactites, muqarnas developed around the middle of the 10th century in northeastern Iran.

• They take the form of small pointed niches, stacked in tiers which project beyond lower tiers, commonly constructed of brick, stone, stucco, or wood, clad with painted tiles, wood, or plaster, and are typically applied to domes, pendentives, cornices, squinches and the undersides of arches and vaults •Some major mosques include a maqsura, a private, screened off area of the mosque, to protect the ruler as he worships.

Mosque at Córdoba Orig. the site of a Roman temple to god Janus. Converted to a church by Christian Visigoths in 572.  The Umayyad Caliphate had ruled in Damascus (Syria), but had been overthrown by the Abbasids. The Umayyad Prince Abd al-Rahman escaped to Cordoba (c. 750), where he defeated the Visigoths and established control over present day Spain, converting it to Islam.

• The Mezquita (Great Mosque) was begun in 784 by Abd alRahman I (patron), and due to a number of expansions, was not totally completed until the 10th Century.

• Includes an outdoor courtyard (with a fountain), an orange grove, and a huge hypostyle prayer hall.

• The hypostyle hall includes 514 columns (recycled ancient Roman) topped with double-tiered arches that carried a wooden roof (later replaced by vaults).

• The lower arches are horseshoe arches, which Muslim architects borrowed from the Visigoth style of architecture, and added stripes to accentuate their shape. These became associated with Umayyad-era Islamic architecture.

Great Mosque at Córdoba Cordoba, Spain, c. 800-1000

Mosque at Córdova • In 961, the new caliph al-Hakam II expanded the prayer hall, added a series of domes, and constructed monumental gates on the complexes eastern and western facades. They also experimented with a lobed arch.

• The dome, built in the 10th century, was located in the area in front of the mihrab. It rests on an octagonal base of arcuated squinches.

• Crisscrossing ribs decorated with gold mosaics form an intricate pattern centered on two squares set at 45 degree angles to one another.

Great Mosque at Córdova Cordova, Spain, c.

800-1000

Pyxis of al-Mughira A pyxis is a cylindrical box used for cosmetics.  The luxurious box sits open. Inside are small silver containers of perfume, also left open so that their sweet-smelling aromas could waft through the room, gently scenting the air.  This particular pyxis was a gift to the then-eighteenyear-old al-Mughira, the son of a caliph, perhaps as a coming-of-age present.  Ivory – smooth, durable, elegant, easily carved, highly portable, good as a gift. Introduced to Iberian Peninsula by Umayyads.  Decorated with four 8-lobed medallions surrounded by figures and animals (falconers, wrestlers, griffons, peacocks, birds, goats, game animals).  Each medallion has princely iconography.  Example of figurative art made by Muslims.

Pyxis of al-Mughira Attr. to Madinat al-Zahra workshops Umayyad era, Spain (al-Andalus) c. 968 CE, carved ivory.

Pyxis of al-Mughira A pyxis is a cylindrical box used for cosmetics.  An Arabic inscription in the kufic script runs around the base of the lid and reads: “God's blessing, favours, joy, beatitude to al-Mughira son of the Commander of the faithful, may God have mercy upon him, in the year 357.”  One scene shows men on horseback date-picking. The date-palm, found primarily in the Middle East and North Africa, may allude to the lost lands of the East (the lands under Abbasid control). This was a theme of Umayyad poetry.  Another medallion shows lions attacking two bulls. As in Arabic poetry, these lions symbolize the victorious (in this case, perhaps the Umayyads).  One medallion shows two men collecting eggs from the nests of Falcons, a symbol of Umayyad legitimacy.

The Alhambra  The Alhambra (an abbreviation for the Arabic words for “red fort”) was not a mosque, but a huge palace.  Built by the Nasrid Dynasty (1232-1492)  Muhammad ibn Yusuf ibn Nasr (aka Muhammad I) founded the Nasrid Dynasty and began construction on his court complex in 1238.  Located on top of a hill, outer wall = 1+ mile.  The Alhambra's nearly 26 acres include structures with three distinct purposes 1. a residence for the ruler and close family, the citadel, 2. Alcazaba—barracks for the elite guard who were responsible for the safety of the complex 3. an area called medina (or city), near the Puerta del Vino (Wine Gate), where court officials lived and worked. The different parts of the complex are connected by paths, gardens and gates but each part of the complex could be blocked in the event of a threat.  Named for the rose color of the stone. Included 23 towers, had a population of 40,000, including about 6 royal residences.

The Comares Palace  The Alhambra's most celebrated structures are the three original royal palaces. These are the Comares Palace, the Palace of the Lions, and the Partal Palace, each of which was built during 14th century.  After passing the façade, built on a raised platform which may have been a sort of stage for the ruler, the visitor passes through a dark, winding passage to the Court of the Myrtles.  The Court of the Myrtles has a large reflecting pool, and serves as the focal point of this palace.  Water plays an important, meaningful role throughout the Alhambra.  Inside the Comares Tower is the Hall of the Ambassadors, a throne room built by Yusuf I (c.

1350).  Hall of the Ambassadors decorated with intricate geometric patterns, carved stucco motifs, calligraphy, and patterned windows.

Comares Palace Facade

Comares Tower (interior)

Court of the Myrtles

Palace of the Lions  Muhammad V built the Court of the Lions, a fountain with a complex hydraulic system, consisting of a marble basin on the backs of twelve carved stone lions.  The lions are located at the intersection between two water channels that form a cross in the rectangular courtyard.  What do the lions symbolize?  The gentle flow of water, plus the balanced symmetry of the courtyard produce a quiet, meditative environment.  Around the courtyard is a covered patio, decorated with fine stucco carvings held up by slender columns.  Two decorative pavilions protrude into the courtyard on an East/West axis, accentuating the space between.

Muqarnas Chamber

Hall of the Kings (Sala de los Reyes)

Palace of the Lions  To the west of the Court of the Lions is the Muqarnas Chamber. To the east is the Hall of the Kings.  Both are decorated with extensive use of carved stucco, decorated tile, and muqarnas.  The Muqarnas Chamber may have functioned as an antechamber near the original entrance to the palace.  The Hall of the Kings also contained paintings on the ceiling representing courtly life.  The northern and southern ends of the Palace of the Lions were residential apartments with rooms on the second floor. They also included a large domed room decorated lavishly with muqarnas and star motifs.  Muqarnas designed to catch/reflect light & form beautiful abstract patterns.  Lofty domes symbolize heaven.

The Generalife  Outside the walls of the Alhambra, the Nasrids built an estate called the Generalife, from the Arabic Janat al-arifa, referring to a paradise garden.  The Generalife is filled with lush gardens and various fountains and pools.  In the hot climate of Spain, these gardens would have been a pleasant retreat for the rulers.  The Nasrid architects brought the sound, sight and cooling qualities of water into close proximity, in gardens, courtyards, marble canals, and even directly indoors.  The visual effect of light reflecting and shimmering off the surface of the water would increase the beauty and sense of eternal paradise.

Mosque of Selim II Architect: Sinan Edirne, Turkey, c. 1575

Mosque of Selim II

Suleyman

ASIA

• The Ottoman Empire was founded in approximately 1300

by Osman I. • The Ottomans developed a new style of mosque that consisted of a dome-covered square prayer hall.

• Designed by the most famous Ottoman architect, Sinan the Great • Born a Christian around 1491, he converted to Islam, and trained in engineering while in the Ottoman army.

• He became the chief court architect for the sultan Suleyman the Magnificent, and worked on many buildings.

• Sinan’s greatest building was the Mosque of Selim II, commissioned by Suleyman’s son, Sultan Selim II. • The aim was to surpass the size (width and height) of the dome on the Hagia Sophia, which he did accomplish.

• Located in Edirne, the first major city Europeans would pass through upon entering the Ottoman Empire. Designed to be impressive and demonstrate the power of the sultan and the empire.  Also, it would not have to visually compete with existing mosques, as it would in Constantinople.

Mosque of Selim II • The mosque was part of a larger complex, called the Selimiye.

• Sinan created balance by making the sahn (courtyard) the same size as the prayer hall. Complex is more than the length of 2 football fields, and contains a mosque, 2 square madrasas (one of which was for studying the hadiths), and a row of shops.  Sahn is surrounded by an arcaded portico. Taller arcade on the prayer hall end of the courtyard draws the eye upward to the impressive dome.  Exterior includes both stone and brick to create a more colorful, complex visual effect.  More attention paid to the decoration of the exterior than previous mosques or Hagia Sophia.

Mosque of Selim II • The aim was to surpass the size (width and height) of the dome on the Hagia Sophia, which he did accomplish, thereby showing himself to be greater even than Justinian.

• The mihrab is recessed into an apse-like alcove deep enough to permit window illumination from 3 sides. Squinches (decorated with muqarnas) support the round dome above the square base of the building.  Under the squinches are eight large piers, which support some of the weight of the dome.  The dome is also supported by exterior buttresses, which are hidden among the exterior porticos and galleries.

• Inscriptions developed after the Ottomans suffered a significant naval loss to the Christian Holy League. Thus, the inscriptions focus of the differences between Islam and Christianity, namely that Allah is indivisible, and that Muhammad is God’s messenger.

Mosque of Selim II A platform is located directly below the dome for a muezzin to stand upon while leading prayers or chants.  This platform is unusual in Islamic architecture, as it breaks up the open floor space, and seems to recall a Christian altar. This may reflect Sinan’s desire to surpass Christian architecture.  The muezzin platform may also serve as the base of a vertical axis, connecting the earthly world upward into the dome of the heavens.  Glass mosque lamps are often understood to represent God’s divine light, as the Koran makes such an analogy in its "Light Verse," which is often inscribed on mosque lamps.  Light Verse: Allah is the Light of the heavens and the earth. The parable of His Light is a niche wherein is a lamp—the lamp is in a glass, the glass as it were a glittering star—lit from a blessed olive tree, neither eastern nor western, whose oil almost lights up, though fire should not touch it. Light upon light. Allah guides to His Light whomever He wishes. Allah draws parables for mankind, and Allah has knowledge of all things.

West & Central Asian Art & Architecture

Muhammad • Muhammad (the Prophet) founder of religion – born c. 570 in Mecca. Died in 632.

• At age 40, receives calling as a prophet of a new religion.

• In 622, Muhammad and his followers, escaping persecution, emigrated from Mecca to a city eventually called Medina (“City of the Prophet”) in modern-day Saudi Arabia. This emigration is known as the Hejira (emigration). The Hejira marks the beginning of the Muslim calendar.

• In 630, Muhammad returned to Mecca with 10,000 soldiers.

He took control of the city, converted the population to Islam, and destroyed all the idols.

• Muhammad recognized Christians, Jews, and Arabs as descendants of Abraham and recognized Jesus as a prophet (like Moses), but not as divine/son of God. • Only Muhammad’s teachings preserve Allah’s true message • Muhammad was not divine himself – seen as the Final Prophet in the line including Abraham, Moses, and Jesus.

Islamic Expansion

Spread of Islam • Islam spread rapidly.

• By the 8th Century, conquered North Africa and Spain (785 CE) • Constantinople fell in 1453 CE • Islam (through the work of the caliphs) established new social order in regions and took complete charge of temporal as well as spiritual affairs • Islam sponsored advanced scholarship and the translation of Greco-Roman texts from all areas of learning.

• The Qur’an (Koran), the Islamic holy book (The Word of God), is a collection of moral laws as revealed to Muhammad by the archangel Gabriel and written down after Mohammad’s death by the caliph Uthman (644-656) • The Qur’an is supplemented by the Sunna (moral sayings of Muhammad and anecdotes of his exemplary deeds).

• Caliphs (Muslim leaders) are seen as descendants of families of the Prophet.

Islamic Expansion

Islamic Beliefs and Ritual • Islamic rituals centered around daily prayer and pilgrimage, without other rituals or a hierarchical spiritually privileged priesthood.

• Mohammad did not set up any priesthood or church, but the Koran’s “Five Pillars” became a guide for the duties for all life’s endeavors.

• The Five Pillars of Islam are: 1. Reciting the creed: “There is no god but the One God (Allah), Muhammad is the Messenger of God.” 2. Daily prayer (3-5 times) facing the Kaaba in Mecca, and Fridays at noon in a Mosque (required for men).

3. Abstinence of food, drink, and sexual activity during the daylight hours of Ramadan.

4. The duty of almsgiving 5. Pilgrimage to Mecca (hajj) at least once before death.

• The reward for observing the above is Paradise.

Prayer at the Kaaba, at Al-Masjid al Haram (mosque) in Mecca, Saudi Arabia

Islamic Mosques

mihrab sahn with fountain

minbar qubba minaret

• Mosques are places of daily prayer (esp. on Fridays). Can also be used as place to study or for quiet reflection.  Mosques vary depending on region/culture, but do have some common similarities.

• The faithful would be called to prayer from a crier called a muezzin in the mosque’s minaret (tower), enter an enclosed courtyard, engage in ritual washing, enter mosque and begin individual prayer on their knees, facing Mecca.

• The direction of Mecca was marked by a sacred niche, or mihrab, in the qibla wall (opposite to the entrance). Next to the mihrab is the minbar, a pulpit where the imam (prayer leader) stands to deliver sermons.  Qubba (dome) often included to symbolize vault of heaven, usually decorated with geometric or stellate motifs to create sense of awe/inspiration. Usually near qibla wall.

• All men are required to attend the Friday noon prayer at the mosque, so it needs a large prayer hall to fit everyone.

• Adjoining the prayer hall is the sahn, or courtyard, which typically has a water fountain to perform ablutions (ritual cleansing) before entering the prayer hall to pray.

The City of Petra Petra was a great city of the Nabataeans, a people who occupied an area stretching across parts of modern day Jordan Egypt, Saudi Arabia, and Syria (pre-Islam).  The Nabataeans were originally nomadic, but advances in irrigation technology allowed them to settle permanently in Petra over 2000 years ago.  Nabataeans were traders who controlled the trade of incense during the late Hellenistic and early Roman periods.  The Nabataeans lived at the intersection of rich trade routes between the Mediterranean, Egypt, and the Middle East.  Petra is reached by following a narrow, winding canyon called the Siq (narrowness enabled easy control for the Nabataeans), which passes several rock-carved statues and culminates at the Treasury, carved in the living stone.

The Siq canyon, Petra, Jordan c. 400 BCE-100 CE Cut rock.

Petra, Jordan: Treasury  The Treasury (or Khazneh) is the most famous of several rock-cut facades in Petra.  The Treasury is actually a tomb (probably of a Nabataean king), of which there are many, but Petra was more than a necropolis; it was a fully-developed city.  The style of the facades is directly influenced by both Near Eastern and Hellenistic styles, due to the interaction, trade, and even intermarriage of the two cultures.  The tombs of Petra contain many niches and chambers for burials, cut directly into the stone walls. However, no human remains or other artifacts (i.e. coins, pottery) have been found by modern architects.  As a result, exact dating of the tombs, and knowledge of the funerary rituals of the Nabataeans, remain unknown.  The architectural elements are borrowed from Alexandria, a northern Egyptian city under Greek rule in the Hellenistic era. What Greek architectural elements do you recognize?  In what ways does it break from traditional Greek style?  The rounded element in the center of the upper half is called a tholos.

Treasury from Petra, Jordan c. 400 BCE-100 CE Cut rock.

Petra, Jordan: Treasury  Sculptural elements of the Treasury façade: - Upper level – Amazons and Victories stand, flanking a central female figure on the tholos, probably Isis-Tyche (a combo of the Egyptian goddess Isis and the Greek goddess of good fortune, Tyche).

- Lower level – Castor and Pollux (“the Dioskuri” in Greek or “the Gemini” in Latin), Greek twin gods who protected travelers and the dead on their journeys.  Other Hellenistic sculptural elements: -Eagles (symbols of royal Ptolemies) - vines and vegetation - kantharoi (vase with large handles) - acroteria - rosettes were not originally Hellenistic but from ANE.

Treasury from Petra, Jordan c. 400 BCE-100 CE Cut rock.

Petra, Jordan: Great Temple Most of Petra’s buildings were made before the Roman’s annexed it in 106 CE.  Petra included, among other things, colonnaded walkways, a theater, temples, markets, baths, shrines, homes, dining halls, and water-catchment and storage systems.  A large building (foundation of which is pictured to the right), that was originally identified as the Great Temple, has since been found to have a series of stone seats inside the “cella”, indicating that it may have been an audience hall for at least part of its history.

Great Temple from Petra, Jordan c. 400 BCE-100 CE

The Kaaba

The Kaaba (meaning “cube” in Arabic) is the holiest shrine in Islam.  It is made of granite draped in silk, and is the point towards which Muslims pray, and the destination of the hajj pilgrimage.  Pilgrims gather in the courtyard of the Masjid al-Haram mosque around the Kaaba. They then circumambulate (walk around, tawaf in Arabic) the Kaaba, during which they hope to kiss and touch the Black Stone (al-Hajar al-Aswad), embedded in the eastern corner of the Kaaba.  The Black Stone was believed to have been given to Abraham (Ibrahim in Arabic) by the angel Gabriel. Abraham built the original Kaaba structure (a simple, unroofed rectangular structure) as a sanctuary, and to house the Black Stone.

The Kaaba  The Quaraysh tribe (who ruled Mecca) rebuilt the pre-Islamic Kaaba in Mecca, Saudi Arabia. c. 608 with alternating courses of masonry and wood. The door was Pre-Islamic monument raised above ground level to protect against intruders & floods. At this rededicated by Muhammad in point, it held the Black Stone plus pagan god statues.

631 CE. Granite masonry  When Muhammad returned to Mecca from Medina, he cleansed the covered in silk curtain and Kaaba of the pagan god statues, leaving only the Black Stone, returning calligraphy in gold and silverthe shrine to the monotheism of Abraham. wrapped thread.  By returning to the Kaaba in a final pilgrimage in the year of his death (632 CE), Muhammad established the rites of pilgrimage to the Kaaba.

Changes to the Kaaba  The area around the Kaaba has been expanded repeatedly to accommodate the growing number of pilgrims (currently, the mosque surrounding it covers over 40 acres).  The Black Stone was broken into 3 pieces during a fire during a civil war. It was reportedly reassembled with silver, and the Kaaba was rebuilt according to Abraham’s original dimensions.  Umayyad Caliphs: mosque surrounding was decorated with mosaics, and by the 7th century, the Kaaba was cloaked with the kiswa (cloth), embroidered with Quran verses (including the Shahada, the declaration of faith) using golden thread.  Abbabsid Caliphs (750-1250): surrounding mosque expanded.  Ottomans: Suleyman and Selim II renovated the mosque several The Kaaba times. In 1631, the Kaaba and mosque were rebuilt after floods. This Mecca, Saudi Arabia. mosque, which is what exists today, is composed of a large open space Pre-Islamic monument with colonnades on four sides and seven minarets, the largest number rededicated by Muhammad in of any mosque in the world.

631 CE. Granite masonry  In the 1950s, the government of Saudi Arabia enlarged the complex covered in silk curtain and even further. The kiswa used to be sent from Egypt with the hajj calligraphy in gold and silvercaravan, but is now manufactured in Saudi Arabia. wrapped thread.

Appx. 45’ tall x 35’ wide.  Solid gold door on the Kaaba added in 1982.  Corners of the Kaaba roughly correspond to cardinal points.

Dome of the Rock Dome of the Rock Jerusalem, 692 CE Patron: Abd al-Malik, an Umayyad caliph fighting a civil war against Ibn Zubayr (a rebellious relative of Muhammad)

• The first great Islamic building was the Dome of the Rock.

• Built in Jerusalem to commemorate the winning of Jerusalem from the Byzantine Christians in 638.

• The structure rises from a huge platform known as the Noble Enclosure, where in ancient times the Hebrews built the Temple of Solomon that the Roman emperor Titus destroyed in 70 CE. • The site is important to Jews/Christians because it’s believed to be where Abraham prepared to sacrifice Isaac • In Islam, it’s the place where Muhammad began his miraculous journey to Heaven: - One night the Angel Gabriel came to Muhammad while he slept near the Kaaba in Mecca, and took him to al-Masjid al-Aqsa (the farthest mosque) in Jerusalem. From the Rock, Muhammad journeyed to heaven, where he met other prophets, such as Moses and Christ, witnessed paradise and hell and finally saw God enthroned and circumambulated by angels.

Dome of the Rock • Central plan, octagonal base with a double-shelled, highly raised dome. Inside: double ambulatory, colonnades with marble lower half and mosaic upper half.  Grilled windows let in light to reflect off the mosaics.  Where did the use of mosaics come from?

• Exterior decorated in tile (which was mostly redone in the 16th century); interior mosaics depict ornate patterns depicting crowns, jewels, and other royal motifs (a reference to the triumph of Islam over the Byzantine and Persian empires). Depictions of humans or animals was forbidden. Similar to imperial mausolea (the burial places) of Roman emperors, such as Augustus or Hadrian.  Its circular form and Dome also reference the Church of the Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalem which was built to enclose the tomb of Christ. A similarly sized dome that was more highly elevated suggested the superiority of Islam.  Inscription inside: 240 meters long, earliest surviving examples of Quran verses, as well as statement of core Muslim values and a proclamation that Christ was a prophet.

The Great Mosque in Isfahan (Masjid-e Jameh) The Great Mosque in Isfahan (Masjid-e Jameh) Isfahan, Iran.

Islamic, Persian: Seljuk, Il-Khanid, Timurid, and Safavid Dynasties (added on to by various dynasties from the 700s-1900s).

Begun c. 700 CE. Stone, brick, wood, plaster, and glazed ceramic tile.

The Great Mosque in Isfahan (Masjid-e Jameh)

Large-scale mosque located in city of Isfahan, Iran. Outer walls shared with a bustling marketplace outside, which was connected through multiple entrances (only one open now). As such, it was not just an isolated place for prayer, but a hub interconnecting the different parts of the city.  Although an earlier mosque existed on the site already, the current four-iwan design was built under the reign of Malik Shah I (ruled 1072-1092) after the previous mosque burned down.  An iwan is a large vaulted space that opens onto one side of the courtyard.  Each of the four iwans leads into a hypostyle prayer halls. The prayer halls are decorated with many small domes.  Since all four sides of the sahn have iwans, how do muslims know which way to pray?

Which is the qibla iwan? Look at the model.

The Great Mosque in Isfahan (Masjid-e Jameh)

Mihrab (prayer room).

The Great Mosque in Isfahan (Masjid-e Jameh)

Although there are many smaller domes, there are only two large domes. The qibla iwan on the southern side (with the minarets) is the entrance into the main domed area, which was reserved for the ruler, and gave access to the main mihrab (pictured left).  The other large dome is on the opposite end of the courtyard, to the north (this creates a longitudinal axis).  The vizier Nizam al-Mulk (vizier to Malik Shah) commissioned the qibla dome in 1086, but fell out of favor with the shah a year later.  Nizam’s nemesis was named Taj al-Mulk replaced him as vizier, and commissioned the northern dome in 1088.  Although smaller, Taj’s dome is considered a masterpiece of proportions. This opposite placement and varied decoration underscores the political enmity between the respective patrons; each dome vies for primacy through its position and architectural articulation. Safavid dynasty additions (c. 1600) were largely decorative, with the addition of muqarnas, glazed tilework, and minarets flanking the south iwan.

Taj al-Mulk (north dome), Great Mosque in Isfahan

Taj al-Mulk (north dome) The Great Mosque in Isfahan (Masjid-e Jameh)

Folio from a Quran The Qur'an (meaning “recitation”) is the sacred text of Islam, consisting of the divine revelation to the Prophet Muhammad in Arabic. Over the course of the first 150 years of Islam, the form of the manuscript was adapted to suit the dignity and splendor of this divine revelation.  Because depicting humans or animals was prohibited, the elaborate stylization of the Arabic script, plus vegetative or geometric motifs, served to create visual interest and beauty.  A manuscript of the Quran is a mushaf (“muss-hoff”).  Arabic is read from right to left. The Quran is divided into 114 chapters called suras.  The title of each sura is is written in gold ink and surrounded by a rectangle, filled here with a golden vine. The round palmette extending into the margin makes it easy for readers to find their place.  Similarly written consonants are distinguished by adding short lines or dots above or below the letter. Red dots designate short vowels, which are not usually written in Arabic, but are included in the Quran (to avoid confusion in such an important text).  Triangles of gold dots designate the beginning of a new verse.

Folio from a Quran Arab, North Africa, or Near East. Abbasid. C. 700-800 CE. Ink, color, and gold on parchment.

Making a Mushaf Before beginning to write, the dimensions of the page and size of the text are carefully determined. This manuscript, with its large pages and unused space shows the dignity of the sacred text and also the wealth of the patron (unknown).  Note the geometric proportions used in planning (2:3). Most mushafs in this era are wider than they are tall.  The height of each line of text was derived from the first letter of the alphabet, alif, which was in turn derived from the width of the nib of the reed pen used by the calligraphers to write the text.  Each line was further divided into a set number of “interlines,” which were used to determine the heights of various parts of individual letters. Instead of “ruling” the parchment, scribes placed a board with lines under the translucent parchment.  Early mushafs were written in a special style not used for secular writing tasks, known as Kufic script.  Khufic is a family of 17 related styles of writing based on common principles, including a preference of strokes of uniform thickness, short straight verticals and long horizontals, and a straight horizontal baseline.

Kufic Script Early mushafs were written in a special style not used for secular writing tasks, known as Kufic script.  Kufic script is a family of 17 related styles of writing based on common principles, including a preference of strokes of uniform thickness, short straight verticals and long horizontals, and a straight horizontal baseline.  Kufic was usually written with a wide reed pen.  Scribes had some freedom in composing a page. They could emphasize individual words and balance the widths of lines of different length by elongating certain letters horizontally.  They could also adjust spacing between words and letters, and even split words between two lines, in order to balance positive and negative space across the page. In some cases, the space between two letters within a word might be wider than the space between two words.

Basin (Baptistere de St. Louis)  Exquisite metalwork was a popular art form in the Islamic world. This supreme example is from Egypt during the Mamluk dynasty (the Mamluks, meaning “owned,” were slave soldiers who revolted and took power, ruling from 1250-1517).  This brass basin by the artist Muhammad ibn al-Zain (he signed his name SIX times) was originally intended to be a basin for ritual hand-washing at official ceremonies.  Although it was probably fashioned for a specific Mamluk patron (probably a gift for a sultan), no inscription identifies the patron or intended recipient.  The central register shows Mamluk hunters and their Mongol enemies. Running animals fill the friezes above and below.  Stylized vegetal forms of inlaid silver fill the background of all the bands and roundels.  Figures and animals also decorate the inside and underside of the basin.  The object was taken at some point to France, where it was then used as a basin to perform baptisms of French royal newborns (proving European appreciation of fine Islamic art).  No Islamic inscriptions, so possibly it was made for export.

Basin (Baptistere de St. Louis) Artist: Muhammad ibn al-Zain Mamluk dynasty. c. 1320. Brass inlaid with gold and silver.

Appx. 2’ across

Bahram Gur Fights the Karg Folio from the Great Il-Khanid Shahnama  The Il’khanids were the Mongol dynasty which ruled Mesopotamia and Iran from 1258 to 1336 C.E. The Ilkhanids were the descendants of Genghis Khan’s grandson Hülegü who conquered Iran in 1258 C.E.  They ruled as foreigners in a conquered land and they employed the power of words and images to support their right to rule. The Ilkhanid court commissioned luxury manuscripts as didactic works of art in which they identified themselves with the kings and heroes of Iranian history, primarily those of the Shahnama, or Book of Kings.  The popular Shahnama or Book of Kings was an epic poem written by poet Abu al-Qasim Firdausi in about 1010 C.E. The Shahnama recounts the myths, legends, and early history of Iran.  We can interpret the text as a series of adventure stories and romances, but also as a guide to ethics, a chronicle, and a manual for royal conduct.  The Il’Khanids adopted the Shahnama as a symbol of kingship to further their propagandistic message.

Bahram Gur Fights the Karg Folio from the Great Il-Khanid Shahnama Islamic; Persian, Il’Khanid. C. 1330 CE. Ink and opaque watercolor, gold, and silver on paper.

Bahram Gur Fights the Karg Folio from the Great Il-Khanid Shahnama  The “Karg” is a horned wolf, Bahram Gur was a king featured in the Shahnama who reformed from being a tyrant to a just & merciful ruler.  This folio is from a celebrated copy of the text known as the Great Ilkhanid Shahnama, one of the most complex masterpieces of Persian art.  Because of its lavish production, it is assumed to have been commissioned by a high-ranking member of the Ilkhanid court and produced at the court scriptorium.  The fifty-seven surviving illustrations reflect the intense interest in historical chronicles and the experimental approach to painting of the Ilkhanid period (1256–1335).  The eclectic paintings reveal the cosmopolitanism of the Ilkhanid court in Tabriz, which teemed with merchants, missionaries, and diplomats from as far away as Europe and China.  Here the Iranian king Bahram Gur wears a robe made of European fabric to slay a fearsome horned wolf in a setting marked by the conventions of Chinese landscape painting.

Bahram Gur Fights the Karg Folio from the Great Il-Khanid Shahnama Islamic; Persian, Il’Khanid. C. 1330 CE. Ink and opaque watercolor, gold, and silver on paper.

Court of Gayumars Folio from Shah Tahmasp’s Shanama  A Shanama (Book of Kings) produced for the Safavid ruler of Iran, Shah Tahmasp I, by several artists (mainly Sultan Muhammad).  Took 20 years to complete, and contains 258 illustrations.  Surrounded by his son and grandson, the king addresses the court below him.  The detail suggests the use of fine squirrel hair paintbrushes. This image alone took 3 years to paint.  The epic poem of the Shanama told the lives of past kings’ moral struggles, battles between armies and monsters, romantic interludes, and deaths, and served as a “mirror for princes,” a popular genre of the Islamic world intended for the education of princes.  The large size (19”x12”), detailed illustrations, fine calligraphy, and use of gold make this one of the most lavish examples of book arts.  It was later given as a gift to the Ottoman sultan Selim II (for his ascention), along with a Quran, upon 34 camels and various porcelains, textiles, & silks.  In the 1960s, the book was unbound, so its individual folios (pages) could be displayed in different locations. They have since been bought by various museums and collectors. This folio was recently sold for about $10.5 million. 

Court of Gayumars (detail) Folio from Shah Tahmasp’s Shanama Sultan Muhammad. C. 1525 CE. Ink, opaque watercolor, and gold on paper.

Western Asian Carpets  Women have been weaving for centuries in villages and nomadic encampments all over the Middle East, each woman passing down her techniques and designs to her daughters.  Carpets were also made in the royal courts, and were often commissioned as impressive gifts to other rulers. These carpets were not just functional floor coverings, they were ornate works of art that indicated the status and wealth of their owners.  Smaller rugs were layered over larger rugs to show ultimate luxury, or could be hung on walls to add warmth in winter.  Things that increased the value of a carpet: - Larger size - Expensive materials (silk, metal-wrapped threads) - Most highly skilled designer/artist - Intricate designs and fine craftsmanship - Higher number of knots per square inch (more detail)  Unlike carpets made in villages, court carpets shared designs found in manuscript painting, ceramics, and paintings.  The most lavish examples of carpets came from the Ottoman (1281 – 1924), Safavid (1501 - 1732), and Mughal (1526 – 1858) Empires.

How are carpets woven?  In a basic weave pattern, vertical threads or strings are referred to as warp threads, while horizontal threads, called weft threads, are woven between them.  The simplest weave involves the weft going over one warp string, then under the next, then over the next, in an alternating pattern.

However, more there are other, more complex patterns.  Carpets also incorporate smaller, knotted threads with loose ends called the pile. These are tied in place around warp threads, then secured within layers of weft.

Safavid Court Carpets

 The Safavids ruled Greater Iran from apprx. 1500-1700.

Safavid court carpets are noted for their detailed precision, sumptuous materials, and ornate designs.  While carpets meant for mosques were limited to nonfigural designs (mostly vines, flower motifs, calligraphy, and sunbursts), carpets for secular settings (like court palaces and pleasure pavilions) were not.  Carpets for secular settings could include animals, hunting scenes, human figures, and even angels.  Hunting was considered a princely pastime in Iran, even before the introduction of Islam, and continued to be a popular subject. Notice that the animals in the carpet to the left engage in combat.  Large Safavid carpets focusing on nature scenes with roaming animals are called “paradise carpets”

Carpet (Safavid), 16th century, Iran, (depicts animals, some invented and of Chinese origin), silk.

The Ardabil Carpet

The Ardabil Carpet

Medallion Carpet, The Ardabil Carpet, Unknown artist (Maqsud Kashani is named on the carpet's inscription), Persian: Safavid Dynasty, silk warps and wefts with wool pile (25 million knots, 340 per sq. inch), 1539-40 C.E., Tabriz, Kashan, Isfahan or Kirman, Iran. 34’6” x 17’6”.

HISTORIC SIGNIFICANCE  The carpet takes its name from the town of Ardabil in north-west Iran. Ardabil was the home to the shrine of the Sufi saint, Safi al-Din Ardabili, who died in 1334 (Sufism is Islamic mysticism).  He was a Sufi leader who trained his followers in Islamic mystic practices. After his death, his following grew and his descendents became increasingly powerful. In 1501 one of his descendents, Shah Isma’il, seized power, united Iran, and established Shi’a Islam as the official religion. The dynasty he founded is known as the Safavids.  There are two Ardabil Carpets, which were displayed as a matching pair in the shrine of Safi al-Din Ardabili when it was enlarged in the 1530s (one of the pair is at LACMA, but may not be on display) MATERIALS  The warp and weft of this carpet are silk, but the pile is wool, as it holds the color of the dye better (natural dyes like pomegranate rind and indigo). Very high number of knots/sq. inch (how many? Today’s carpets average 80-160).  May have been worked on by up to 10 weavers, over about 4 years.

The Ardabil Carpet Designs DESIGN/PATTERN  Includes elaborate geometric, vegetative, and floral patterns.  A central medallion is flanked by a ring of multi-colored, detailed ovals. Lamps appear to hang on both sides.  The border is made up of cartouches (rectangular-shaped spaces for calligraphy), filled with decoration.  The lamps may have been meant to mimic lamps in a mosque, or the lamps that may have hung overhead (to create visual unity within the room). One lamp is smaller, so perhaps it was meant to appear the same size as the other when viewed from the right angle.

INSCRIPTION  The Ardabil Carpet includes a four-line inscription placed at one end.

This short poem is vital for understanding who commissioned the carpet and the date of the carpet. The first three lines of poetry reads: “Except for thy threshold, there is no refuge for me in all the world.

Except for this door there is no resting-place for my head.

The work of the slave of the portal, Maqsud Kashani.”  The date AH 946 is in the 4th line, which equals 1540 CE (the lunar Muslim calendar begins in 620 CE when Muhammad fled to Medina)

Ardabil: Now  Although many non-Western art objects have been legally obtained by Western museums, many were not.  British visitors to the shrine in 1843, noted that at least one carpet was still in situ. Approximately thirty years or so later, an earthquake damaged the shrine, and the carpets were sold off.  Ziegler & Co., a Manchester firm involved in the carpet trade purchased the damaged carpets in Iran and “restored” them in fashion typical of the late nineteenth century. Selections of one carpet were used to repair the other, resulting in a “complete” carpet and one lacking a border. Vincent Robinson and Co, a dealer based in London, put the larger carpet up for sale in 1892 and persuaded the Victoria and Albert Museum (London) to purchase it for £2000 in March 1893.  The second carpet was secretly sold to an American collector, J.P. Getty, who donated it to the LA County Museum of Art in 1953. Unlike the carpet in the V&A, the carpet in LACMA is incomplete.  Throughout the twentieth century, other pieces of the carpets have appeared on the art market for sale.

Migratory & Early Northern Medieval

Art &

Architecture

The Middle Ages • The Middle Ages, or medieval era (“medieval” is derived from the Latin words for “middle ages”), is the time period between the end of Classical Antiquity (which ended with the Roman Empire in approximately 500 CE) and the beginning of the Renaissance (varies depending upon location, but roughly 1500 CE) in western Europe.

• Simultaneous to the Byzantine Empire in eastern Europe • Classical Antiquity → Middle Ages → Renaissance • Early medieval art in western Europe was influenced by: 1. the classical heritage of Rome’s northwestern provinces 2. the cultures of the non-Roman peoples north of the Alps 3. Christianity • After the decline of Imperial Rome, various groups fought over the regions of western Europe, displacing one another frequently, and leading to a high level of mobility/migration.

• Because of the frequent moving and changes in power, there is little in the way of monumental architecture or art. What remains consists mostly of small, portable “status symbols” – weapons, jewelry, and other craft items, usually found in burial sites, which could have also been traded as currency amongst various groups.

The Carolingian Empire at the death of Charlemagne in 814

Merovingian Fibulae • This is an example of a fibula (one of a pair), a type of pin used by men and women to fasten robes at the shoulder (dating back to Etruscan times).

• The level of ornamentation indicated a person’s importance or rank (notice how Justinian’s fibula is more ornate than his advisors’).

• This fibula dates to when the Merovingian kings ruled France.

• This fibula (and its match) were buried with a wealthy woman, accompanying her into the afterlife.

• Artists at the time incorporated abstracted animal-shaped (zoomorphic) designs into their work. The inclusion of abstracted animals into designs is referred to as animal style. Can you spot any animals in the fibula?

• This fibula is also decorated with tiny designs made from fine gold wire (filigree), and inlays (attachments) of precious stones like garnets.

One of a Pair of Merovingian looped fibulae, from Jouy-leComte, France, c. 550.

Silver gilt worked in filigree, with inlays of garnets and other stones. 4”.

Anglo-Saxons • In the fifth century C.E., people from tribes called Angles, Saxons and Jutes left their homelands in northern Europe to look for a new home. They knew that the Romans had recently left the green land of Britain unguarded, so they sailed across the channel in small wooden boats.

• The Britons did not give in without a fight, but after many years the invaders managed to overcome them, driving them to the west of the country. The Anglo-Saxons were to rule for over 500 years.

• Anglo-Saxon England was divided into the five main kingdoms of Wessex, East Anglia, Mercia, Northumbria and Kent, each with its own king. Kings often died early and violent deaths. As well as fighting against each other for power, they had to keep their own nobles happy, or they might rise up against them. One way that they did this was to give them expensive presents.

• England was Christianized in the 500-600s.

Map of Anglo-Saxon England

Sutton Hoo Ship Burial • In medieval Western Europe, it was NOT common for warriors to be set afloat in a burning boat, however they were sometimes burned in a pyre, and sometimes the very wealthy men were buried in a boat.

• One such ship burial was unearthed in England near presentday Suffolk, underneath an earthen mound (tumulus).

• Found on the ship were a gold belt buckle, 10 silver bowls, a silver plate, 40 gold coins (to pay the oarsmen), 2 silver spoons inscribed Saulos and Paulos (St. Paul’s names before and after baptism, an allusion to conversion to Christianity), and a helmet.

• The purse holder is an example of cloisonné, a technique in which fine strips of metal (called cloisons, French for “partitions”) were soldered onto a larger piece, then the spaces between the metal were filled with precious stones, pieces of glass, or enamel (glass paste that melted to fill the space when fired in a kiln).

Purse Cover from the Sutton Hoo ship burial Suffolk, England, c. 625. Gold, glass, cloisonne garnets. 7.5” long.

Sutton Hoo Ship Burial

Purse Cover from the Sutton Hoo ship burial Suffolk, England, c. 625. Gold, glass, cloisonne garnets. 7.5� long.

An interlaced pattern in which the interlacements evolve into writhing animal figures.

Heraldic composition of a frontal man flanked by two profile beasts

A purely linear design

Eagle attacking a duck. Note how the beaks fit together so they at fist appear to be one design.

Vikings

Animal-head post, from the Viking ship burial Oseberg, Norway, c. 825. Wood.

• The pre-Christian traders and pirates of Scandinavia were known as Vikings (named after the “viks” – coves or trading places of the Norwegian shoreline) or Norsemen (Northmen).

• From approximately 800 CE – 1050 CE, the Vikings attacked and pillaged the coastal communities of England and Scotland.

• Their fast, seaworthy longboats enabled them to travel far (some even made it to North America, long before Columbus).

• During this time, the Vikings also began to colonize the lands they invaded, until they had large settlements in England, France (became the Normans of Normandy), Ireland, as well as the Baltic regions and Russia.

• An example of Viking woodcarving comes from another ship burial (also found under a mound of earth). The vessel contained the remains of two women of high status. Any treasures aside from the boat itself were looted long ago.

• The Animal-head post incorporates at once the fearsome roaring head of a beast, and the complex, controlled pattern of tightly interwoven animals that writhe, gripping and snapping, in serpentine (snake-like) fashion. It is an example of the union of two fundamental motifs of the warrior lords’ art: the animal style and the interlaced pattern.

Stave Church at Urnes

Wooden portal of the stave church at Urnes, Norway c. 1050

• Although much of Scandinavia had become Christian by the 11th century, Viking artistic traditions persisted, as evidenced by the portal of the stave church at Urnes in Norway.

• Staves are wedge-shaped timbers placed vertically.

• The elaborately carved wooden portal on the north wall of the church is from the original church from 1050 (most of the rest is from a rebuilding of the church in 1130).

• The carving depicts abstracted animals and an intricate interwoven pattern. There are several possible interpretations of the design.

• One interpretation is that the four-legged animal in the bottom left is a lion (a symbol of Christ) biting a snake (a symbol of Satan), thus depicting the struggle of good vs. evil.

• Another interpretation is based more on Norse mythology. The animal may be interpreted as Nidhogg (a dragon or serpent) eating the roots of Yggdrasil (tree of life). The appearance of Nidhogg portends the Ragnarok (end of the world).

Illuminated Manuscripts • At the same time that Scandinavian, Merovingian, and Anglo-Saxon warlords were amassing artworks dominated by abstract animal motifs, Christian missionaries were establishing monasteries in northern Europe and sponsoring artworks of Christian content.

• Although nominally subject to the Roman popes, Irish Celts who converted to Christianity began setting up monasteries in distant, inhospitable locations, where they could carry on their duties far from worldly distractions.

• Monasteries became centers for knowledge in a society that was mostly illiterate.

• Because society was mostly illiterate, the illustrations in Christian books were highly admired, and served as an important tool for converting new believers in Britain, Scotland, and Ireland.

• The books themselves were jealously guarded treasures.

Book of Durrow, possibly from Iona Abbey, Scotland, c. 700. Ink and tempera on parchment.

Book of Durrow

Man (symbol of St. Matthew), folio 21 verso of the Book of Durrow, possibly from Iona, Scotland, c. 700. Ink and tempera on parchment.

• One of the earliest Hiberno-Saxon (Irish) illuminated manuscripts, a Gospel book, possibly made in the scriptorium at Iona (monastery).

• Located in the late Middle Ages in the monastery in Durrow, Ireland.

• Contains full pages dedicated not to text or illustration, but pure embellishment and decorative designs. Because of their resemblance to woven carpets, these decorative pages are known as carpet pages.

• In the Book of Durrow, each of the four gospels has a carpet page and a page dedicated to the symbol of the evangelist who wrote that gospel.

• The text of each gospel also begins with an elaborately decorated first letter. To make the size of the first letter fit in better, scribes would make the first line of text large, then each line smaller in a process called diminuendo.

• The symbol of Matthew is highly stylized and flat, with the head and body frontal and the feet to the side. carpet page

Saint Matthew, folio 25 verso of the Lindisfarne Gospels, from Northumbria, England, c. 700.

Tempera on vellum.

The Lindisfarne Gospels • The Lindisfarne Gospels were created in the Northumbrian (northeastern English) monastery on Lindisfarne Island, probably by Bishop Eadfrith.

• Contained the four gospel texts (Matthew, Mark, Luke, John). Each was preceded by a carpet page and an image of each author.

• This image depicts Matthew (accompanied by his symbol of an angel) writing his account of the life of Jesus.

• The curtain informs us that this scene is set indoors.

• The man behind the curtain is probably either Jesus, St. Cuthbert (whose relics were at Lindisfarne), or Moses, holding the closed Old Testament (in juxtaposition with the open New Testament).

• The theme of the evangelist being depicted as an author, as well as the angled perspective used on the bench, indicate that this composition is probably based on another one from Italy or Greece, however this artist has flattened and simplified the composition beyond what the original may have looked like.

• The inscription includes a combination of Greek and Latin words (although all written in Latin letters), perhaps to lend the page the prestige of two classical languages.

The Lindisfarne Gospels • In 793, Vikings from the north attacked and pillaged the monastery, but survivors managed to transport the Gospels safely to Durham, a town on the Northumbrian coast about 75 miles west of its original location.

• According to the historian Bede from the nearby monastery in Monkwearmouth (d. 735), the symbols of the four evangelists represent different aspects of Christ: - Matthew’s is a man, suggesting the human aspect of Christ - Mark’s the lion, symbolizing the triumphant and divine Christ of the Resurrection - John’s the eagle, referring to Christ’s second coming - Luke’s calf, or ox, symbolizes Christ’s sacrifice on the cross.

Lindesfarne Gospels, St. Luke, portrait page (137v) from Northumbria, England. c. 700. Tempera on vellum.

The Lindisfarne Gospels • On this page, zoomorphic serpentine interlacements of fantastic animals devour each other, curling over and returning on their writhing, elastic shapes.

• The rhythm of expanding and contracting forms creates an effect of motion and change • The movement of the serpentine shapes is held in check by the regularity of the dominating motif of the cross.

• As such, the cross, as a symbol of religion, creates a sense of stability.

• As with jewelry, it was believed that the more highly intricate the decoration, the more prestigious the book, + glorified God & the word.  Complex designs could also have encouraged meditative contemplation for monks who viewed it.

Cross-inscribed carpet page, folio 26 verso of the Lindisfarne Gospels, from Northumbria, England. c. 700. Tempera on vellum.

The Lindisfarne Gospels • This is the incipit page (incipit = “it begins”) for the Gospel of St. Luke.

• Combination of linear designs and intertwining animals.

Note the herons of the right border are inside the body of a cat, who turns in the bottom left corner.

• Some negative spaces filled with tiny red dots, which create a sense of rhythm and detail when viewed closely, but appear solid pink from far away.

• In the 2nd line, the empty space between the dots forms the lettering.

• Inside the initial “q” are swirling pinwheels/vortices, which create awe-inspiring movement.

St. Luke Incipit page, folio 139 of the Lindisfarne Gospels, from Northumbria, England. c. 700. Tempera on vellum.

The Book of Kells • Contains an unprecedented number of full page illuminations, including carpet pages, evangelist symbols, portrayals of the Virgin Mary and of Christ, New Testament narrative scenes, and several instances of monumentalized words from the Bible.

• Book was displayed on the church altar.

• The text (in parts abbreviated) reads “Now this is how the birth of Christ came about.”

• Which gospel does this page precede? How can you tell?

Chi-rho-iota (XPI) page, folio 34 recto of the Book of Kells, probably from Iona, Scotland, c. 900. Tempera on vellum. 1’1” x 9.5”.

High Crosses • The high crosses of Ireland and England were set up between the 8th and 10th centuries.

• Some are over 20 feet high, and they preside over burial grounds adjacent to monasteries.

• The Monasterboice cross contains extensive narrative relief decorations.

• The circle surrounding the cross identifies the type as Celtic.

• At the center of the cross, one side depicts Christ being crucified, and the other side depicts the risen Christ as judge of humanity, hope of the dead.

• Intricate woven patterns decorate the sides.

• Muiredach (whose name is inscribed on the base) probably is an influential Irish cleric of the same name who was abbot of Monasterboice and died in 923. The cross probably marks his grave.

High Cross of Muiredach (east face), Monasterboice, Ireland, 923.

Sandstone, 18’ high.

Carolingian and Ottonian Art and Architecture

Charlemagne • Charlemagne (“Charles the Great”) became king of the Franks in 768 (inherited from his father) • On Christmas day in 800 CE (Rome), Pope Leo III (not to be confused with the Byzantine emperor Leo III who began iconoclasm) crowned Charlemagne the first Holy (Christian) Roman Emperor.

• Fittingly, Charlemagne was coronated in Old St. Peter’s basilica in Rome, built by Constantine (first Roman emperor to embrace Christianity).

• Charlemagne consolidated the Frankish kingdom he inherited, and defeated the Lombards in Italy to lay claim to reviving the glory of the Roman Empire.

• The word Carolingian comes from Charlemagne’s Latin name, Carolus Magnus.

• Charlemagne admired classical Roman art and literature, and sought to create a classical revival.

• In addition to architecture and artworks, Charlemagne sought to restore and copy many classical texts, as well as the Bible (which had been re-translated and copied so many times that the interpretation had become corrupted).

• Charlemagne’s scribes developed a new, more compact form of lettering called Caroline miniscule (similar to what we use today).

The Carolingian Empire at the death of Charlemagne in 814

Equestrian Statue of Charlemagne • Charlemagne greatly admired Theodoric (the first Germanic ruler of Rome), and ordered an equestrian statue of Theodoric be moved from Ravenna to his capital in Aachen.

• The statue of Theodoric (or the Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius, then believed to be of Constantine) may have been an inspiration for the bronze statuette at right of a Carolingian ruler on horseback.

• Most scholars believe the image to be of Charlemagne, but it may also be his grandson, Charles the Bald.

• In this statuette, the rider is proportionately larger than the horse, in order to draw the focus of the viewer to the rider.

• The rider is holding an orb, representing world domination.

• Instead of raising his arm in a gesture of clemency (like Marcus Aurelius), this figure appears to be proudly on parade.

• Wears imperial robes and a crown, rather than a general’s cloak, although his sheathed sword is visible.

Equestrian Statue of Charlemagne (or Charles the Bald) Metz, France, c. 800. Bronze (originally gilt), 9.5” high

St. Matthew, folio 15 recto of the Coronation Gospels (Gospel Book of Charlemagne) Aachen, Germany, c. 800. Ink/tempera on vellum

The Coronation Gospel • Charlemagne was a sincere admirer of learning, the arts, and classical culture, and he placed a high value on books, both sacred and secular.

• The classical Roman influence encouraged by Charlemagne is evidenced in the image of St. Matthew from the Coronation Gospels.

• Notice how the artist has used variations of value and color to create the illusions of shadows and depth, as opposed to the flat, outlined figures in the Lindisfarne Gospels in Ireland.

• Acanthus leaf border evokes Roman architecture.

• The style of the chair, lectern, and clothing also evoke classical Roman styling.

• The Frankish artist who painted this image clearly had studied classical Roman illustrations in books.

St. Matthew, folio 18 verso of the Ebbo Gospels (Gospel Book of Archbishop Ebbo of Reims) Hautvillers, France, c. 800. Ink/tempera on vellum.

The Ebbo Gospel • The Ebbo Gospel was a Gospel book made for the Archbishop Ebbo of Reims, France.

• The artist of this illumination merged classical illusionism and the northern linear tradition.

• The composition is highly energetic – Matthew (the winged man in the upper right corner identifies him) writes in frantic haste. His hair stands on end, his eyes are open wide, the folds of his drapery seem to move and ripple, and the landscape behind him rears up alive.

• The focus is strongly on the figure in the foreground, as opposed to the more evenly balanced Coronation Gospels illustration.

Images of St. Matthew – Stylistic Comparison

Book of Durrow

Lindesfarne Gospels

Coronation Gospels

Ebbo Gospels

Landau Gospel • Made of gold repoussé, inlaid precious stones, and pearls.

• The costly materials used were to glorify the word of God and evoke heavenliness.

• In the center is a youthful crucified Christ.

• Above his head are personifications of the sun and moon.

• In the upper right and left corners are four angels.

• Immediately below Christ’s arms crouch St. John and the Virgin Mary (the bottom figures are unidentified).

• The gems and pearls are attached using golden claw feet, which raises them up so that they better catch the light, and also protect the repoussé from denting.

• This was made during the reign of Charlemagne’s grandson, Charles the Bald.

Crucifixion, front cover of the Landau Gospels St. Gall, Switzerland, c. 870.

Monastic Life

Examples of cloisters

• Monastic life during Carolingian rule was affected by the “rule” written

by Benedict of Nursia (St. Benedict), who founded the Benedictine Order in 529.

• Benedict taught that idleness and selfishness in the clergy had lead to corruption. He believed the cure for this was communal association in an abbey under the absolute rule of an abbot or abbess.

• The abbot or abbess would ensure the clergy spent each hour of the day in useful work and in sacred reading, instead of meditation or austerity, a significant change in philosophy.

• This emphasis on hard work changed the negative stigma associated with manual labor (previously thought of as low-class) into a positive moral ethic (“work ethic”).

• The ideal abbey or monastery was centered around a cloister (a central courtyard surrounded by a colonnaded walkway) in which only clergy was allowed.

• Around the cloister were all the essential buildings for daily life: a dormitory, refectory (dining room), kitchen, storage rooms, infirmary, school, bakery, brewery, workshops, church, etc. This kept the monks separate from the public.

• Because monasteries were the sole source of knowledge and literacy, they were also the only schools.

Palatine Chapel of Charlemagne, Aachen

Palatine Chapel of Charlemagne, Aachen, Germany c. 800 CE

• Charlemagne also encouraged the incorporation of architectural styles from Rome and Ravenna, which he visited often.

• Charlemagne’s Palatine Chapel is based on San Vitale (he even imported some porphyry columns from Ravenna for it).

• The architect (unknown) of the Palatine Chapel omitted the exedrae of San Vitale, replacing them instead with arcades.

• They also directly aligned the atrium and entrance with the altar.

• One of the most significant innovations on the Palatine Chapel was the addition of two cylindrical towers with spiral staircases on both sides of the entrance. This was the first step toward the great dual tower facades of western European churches from the 10th century to the present.

(San Vitale)

Palatine Chapel of Charlemagne, Aachen • On the second level, across from the altar, was imperial gallery, from which Charlemagne could look down upon the altar from a marble throne. • From his gallery, Charlemagne could also walk outside to a balcony (on top of the entrance portal), to address the people in the atrium below.

Palatine Chapel of Charlemagne, Aachen, Germany c. 800 CE

Ottonian Art • After Charlemagne’s death in 814, his empire quickly dissolved.

His successors fought amongst themselves, and eventually signed an agreement (the Treaty of Verdun) to split the Carolingian empire into three sections (see map).

• Once divided into smaller, weaker sections, they were less effectual in fending off invaders (such as Vikings to the northwest and Saracen Muslims along the Mediterranean).

• Within about thirty years, the Carolingian rule was over.

• In the mid-10th century, the eastern part of the former empire consolidated under the rule of a new Saxon line of German emperors called the Ottonians.

• The Pope crowned the first Otto (r. 936 – 973) in Rome, and Otto assumed the title Emperor of Rome.

• The Ottonian line ended in 1024 with the death of Henry II. • The Ottonians preserved and continued the Carolingian culture and traditions.

• They also lead a great monastic reform in the 10th century to combat the disorganization and corruption that had been happening in the Church.

St. Michael’s • Beginning in the late Carolingian era, and continuing through the Ottonian era, favor shifted toward basilica plan churches instead of central plan churches. One such example is St. Michael’s, a church patronized by Bishop Bernward.

• Bishop Bernward was the tutor of Otto III, and was a eager scholar, lover of the arts, and an expert craftsman and bronzecaster. He made St. Michael’s into a center of learning.

• Bishop Bernward accompanied Otto III on a trip to Rome, and studied the ancient Roman architecture while there.

• Although fundamentally a basilica-plan church, St. Michael’s has a number of unusual additions. It features: - A double-transept plan - Six towers - A westwork (a type of façade in which a pair of towers flanks either side of the entrance, usually on the west side) - Lateral (side) entrances from the north and south - Double apses (one at each end) (This is not St. Michael’s.

Its just an example of a westwork.)

St. Michael’s Hildesheim, Germany, c. 1000

Bronze Doors of St. Michael’s • Possibly inspired by the carved wooden doors of Santa Sabina.

• Each door was cast as one solid object.

• The doors are not the main front doors, but rather are located in the entrance from the cloister to the church, so the monks see them every time they enter.

• The left door panels depict highlights from Genesis, beginning with the Creation of Eve (at the top) and ending with the murder of Adam and Eve’s son Abel by his brother, Cain (bottom).

• The right door panels depict the life of Jesus (reading from the bottom up), starting with the Annunciation at the bottom and terminating with the appearance to Mary Magdalene of Christ after his resurrection.

• Together, the doors tell the story of original sin and ultimate redemption, showing the expulsion from the Garden of Eden and the path back to Paradise through the Church.

Bronze Doors of St. Michael’s Hildesheim, Germany Bronze, 15’ 6” high

Bronze Doors of St. Michael’s Hildesheim, Germany Bronze, 15’ 6” high

Column of St. Michael’s • Also known as Bernward’s Column, as it was ordered by Bishop Bernward.

• Depicts 28 scenes from Christ’s life (read from bottom to top).

• Probably influenced by Trajan’s column.

Column of St. Michael’s Hildesheim, Germany Bronze

Gero Crucifix • During the Ottonian period, free-standing statuary (which had been exceedingly rare for the previous 500 years) revived.

• This cross, commissioned by Archbishop Gero, is a rare example of large-scale statuary from the period.

• Materials: carved in oak, then painted and gilded • Functions as both a statue and a reliquary, as there was a compartment in the back of the head for the bread of the Eucharist.

• According to one story, a crack developed in the wood which then miraculously healed.

• This depiction of Christ is different from the youthful, powerful Christ of the gold cover of the Landau gospels.

• This depiction is more similar to the bearded, suffering Christ of the Byzantines (whom the Ottonians were symbolically allied with through the marriage of Otto II to the Byzantine princess Theophanu).

• The halo behind his head my foretell his later resurrection.

Gero Crucifix Cologne Cathedral, Cologne, Germany c. 1000 Painted wood Figure is 6’ 2”