WATER AND ENERGY - Threats and Opportunities

Contents

Acronyms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi A guide for the reader . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvii Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .xxi Part I Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Chapter 1 The water and energy nexus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6

The Water and Energy Interrelationship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

The Supply of Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Expedients for Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Quantity and Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

More to Read . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3 5 9 10 11 11

Chapter 2 Competition and conflicts between water and energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6

Conflicts Over Shared Water and Energy Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Primary Energy Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Electrical Energy Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Industrial Pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

More to Read . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

13 20 21 22 24 24

Chapter 3 The demand for holistic solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5

Consequences of the Water and Energy Nexus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Integrated Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Water, Energy and Food Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Sustainability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Finding Efficient Driving Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

27 29 31 33 34

vi Water and Energy

3.6 3.7

Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 More to Read . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

Part II Water vs. climate, population and food . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 Chapter 4 The climate change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8

The Global Warming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Climate Meetings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

The Greenhouse Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

The Greenhouse Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

The Global Warming Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Reducing Carbon Emissions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

More to Read . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

39 41 44 47 50 51 52 52

Chapter 5 Population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4

The Population Growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Urbanisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

More to Read . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

55 58 60 60

Chapter 6 Food, water and energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 6.8

Water for Agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

The Water Footprint and Virtual Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Energy for Agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Biofuel and Food . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Women and Water – the Gender Issue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Food Prices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

More to Read . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

62 65 68 69 70 70 72 73

Chapter 7 Global water resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6

The Climate Change Influence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Groundwater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Some Regions Having Too Little or Too Much Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

A Systems Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

More to Read . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

75 77 79 83 84 84

vii 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6 8.7

Consumer Attitudes and Lifestyles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Water Pricing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

The Value of Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

The Consumer – Raising The Awareness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Governing Water and Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

More to Read . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

87 88 93 96 97 98 98

Part III Water for energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 Chapter 9 Water footprint of energy production and conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.6 9.7

The Global Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Metric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Primary Energy Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Electrical Power Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

More to Read . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

102 106 106 112 115 117 118

Chapter 10 Hydropower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5 10.6 10.7

Incentives for Hydropower and Dam Building . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Costs for Dam Building . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Examples of Hydropower and Water Resource Conflicts . . . . . . . . . .

Small Hydropower Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Integrated Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

More to Read . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

120 124 129 134 135 138 138

Chapter 11 Fossil fuels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 11.1 11.2 11.3 11.4 11.5 11.6 11.7 11.8

Crude Oil and Natural Gas Exploration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Quality of “Produced” Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Oil Accidents and Spills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Oil Sand Exploration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Natural Gas Flaring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

More to Read . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

141 143 145 152 153 154 157 157

Contents

Chapter 8 Opportunities – the water demand side . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87

viii Water and Energy

Chapter 12 Bio fuels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5

Different Biomass Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Impact on Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Biofuels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

More to Read . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

159 160 162 166 166

Chapter 13 Cooling thermal electrical power plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 13.1 13.2 13.3 13.4

Different Cooling Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Different Types of Thermal Power Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

More to Read . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

167 170 171 171

Chapter 14 Water management in industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173 14.1 14.2 14.3 14.4 14.5 14.6 14.7

Industrial Cooling Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Food, Drink and Milk Industries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Process Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Iron and Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Paper and Pulp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

More to Read . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

173 175 177 178 179 181 181

Part IV Energy for water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 Chapter 15 Energy and carbon footprint of water operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185 15.1 15.2 15.3 15.4 15.5 15.6 15.7 15.8

Different Forms of Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

ISO Standard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Energy Use for Water Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Greenhouse Gas Emission from Wastewater Operations . . . . . . . . . .

Energy Savings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

From Wastewater Treatment to Resource Recovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

More to Read . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

185 187 187 192 193 194 196 196

Chapter 16 Moving water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197 16.1 16.2

Pumping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197 Leakages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208

ix Pressure Control in Water Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211 Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213 More to Read . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213

Chapter 17 Aeration in biological wastewater treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215 17.1 17.2 17.3 17.4

Air Supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Dissolved Oxygen Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

More to Read . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

216 217 218 218

Chapter 18 Biogas generation and use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 18.1 18.2 18.3 18.4 18.5 18.6 18.7

Energy Content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Biogas Composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Anaerobic Digestion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Anaerobic Digester Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Biogas Distribution and Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

More to Read . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

219 220 221 222 224 225 225

Chapter 19 Heat recovery in the water cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227 19.1 19.2 19.3 19.4 19.5 19.6

Groundwater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Surface Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Heat from Wastewater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Heat from Drinking Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

More to Read . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

228 228 229 229 230 230

Chapter 20 Desalination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231 20.1 20.2 20.3 20.4 20.5 20.6 20.7 20.8 20.9 20.10

Principal Methods for Desalination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Membrane Separation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Reverse Osmosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Desalination Using Reverse Osmosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Newer Osmosis Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Energy Requirement for Reverse Osmosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Supplying Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Desalination Plants – Some Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

More to Read . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

232 233 234 235 235 236 236 237 238 238

Contents

16.3 16.4 16.5

x Water and Energy

Chapter 21 Customer behaviour – demand side management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239 21.1 21.2 21.3 21.4 21.5 21.6 21.7

Domestic Water Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Water Consumption at Home . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Warm Water Consumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Outdoor Water Consumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Water Reuse and Rainwater Harvesting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

More to Read . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

239 240 242 243 244 245 245

Part V Opportunities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247 Chapter 22 Possibilities and solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249 22.1 22.2 22.3

Technical Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249 Attitudes and Life Styles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253 Possible Actions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253

Appendix 1 A note on conversion of units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257 A1.1 A1.2 A1.3 A1.4 A1.5 A1.6 A1.7 A1.8 A1.9 A1.10 A1.11

Large Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Power and Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Heat Content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Volume, Area and Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Concentration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Water Use in Energy Production/Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Energy Use in Water Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Some Chinese Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Fuel Consumption in Transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

257 257 258 258 259 259 259 259 260 260 260

Appendix 2 Energy content of fuels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261 Appendix 3 Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267 Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281

A guide for the reader

The main purpose of the book is to create an awareness of the important couplings between water and energy. It is an attempt to show how energy is used – and misused – in all the various water cycle operations as well as to demonstrate how water is used – and misused – in energy production and generation. The book does not aim to show “how to design” or to solve some of the intricate conflicts. Instead it tries to systematically list ideas, possibilities and some results. Of course there are many solutions and the hope is that the book can be the entry point to technical and scientific literature on the various topics.

Parts One and Two describe the water-energy nexus, the conflicts and competitions and the couplings between water security, energy security, food security and their relations to the climate change and the world population increase.

Part Three is about water for energy. The aim of this part is to show how much energy production and conversion depend on water availability. As a consequence all energy system planning and design have to take both water and energy into consideration.

Part Four is about energy for water and demonstrates how water production and treatment depend on energy. However, wastewater operations can also generate energy. The aim of this part is to show that a lot can be done to adjust equipment, develop processes and apply advanced monitoring and control to save energy for the water operations and to recover energy content of wastewater.

In part Five we try to translate ideas into action plans. Hopefully this can inspire to actions that we have not yet anticipated. The water-energy issue is not only about technology. Our attitudes and our lifestyle can significantly influence the consumption of both water and energy. We all have to be reminded that water is energy and energy is water.

The bibliography is certainly not complete but is hopefully a good entry to the more specialized literature. A glossary is provided.

In Appendix 1 the conversion of units is discussed, which is necessary in order to compare all kinds of statistics material. Appendix 2 depicts the energy content of some common fuels.

The book is aimed for various kinds of readers, for example: The politician and decision maker, to hopefully get some holistic view; investors are among the important decision makers; The interested engineer who wishes to find out about the key issues and to understand the strong driving forces from the increasing population, climate change and the food supply in the world; The student who looks for an overview of future challenges and new possibilities; The planner – water and energy have to be planned together; The water professional – it is not only a matter of operating water systems efficiently; The designer of water and wastewater systems – how energy comes into the picture;

xvi Water and Energy

The operator and manager of water and wastewater operations; The power and energy professional – mostly the water issue is forgotten – until there is a water scarcity; The researcher – looking for connections between different specialities and why cross-disciplinary research is needed.

In fact, we have to form strategic alliances between investors, city planners, architects, regulators, farmers, manufacturers, process engineers and researchers. In other words: the future requires of us to think more holistically about water, energy and food.

Preface

This book considers two of the three crucial ingredients for our survival. No doubt that oxygen is the most important. The brain can stay alive for 4 to 6 minutes without oxygen. After that cells begin to die. The second most important component is water. When faced with a critical situation, clean drinkable water is often the most important consideration. People have survived without food for weeks or even months, but go without water for even just one day and the survivor will be in desperate condition. Then comes energy. Our body needs energy for survival and we need energy to produce our food and keep us at a comfortable temperature. Still, mankind survived thousands of years without oil. The needs for a decent life can be discussed and prioritized differently.

On 28 July, 2010 the United Nations General Assembly decided that clean water supply and sanitation is a human right. A Bolivian-penned draft resolution says internationally endorsed water rights would “entitle everyone to available, safe, acceptable, accessible and affordable water and sanitation.” It declares that countries unable to deliver water to their populations – despite their best efforts – should be helped through “international co-operation and assistance.” The 1.1 billion people without access to clean, safe water still have to drink – every day. They will use about 5 liters/day/person. Most of us in water rich countries would probably not even wash the dishes in this water. Just one flush of our toilets uses more drinking water.

For my country Sweden the total electricity consumption corresponds to 14,800 kWh per capita and year while for the USA the amount is 12,500 kWh. The corresponding numbers are for Ethiopia 35 kWh, for Chad 9 kWh, for China 2,600 kWh and for India 480 kWh. This disturbing difference between the “haves” and “have-nots” has influenced my thinking.

In the following paragraphs I illustrate why I have written this book. I started my career in the 1960s as a nuclear engineer in Sweden. The energy issue was highly interesting and in that time period nuclear power generation was seen as the hope for the world. The U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower had delivered the famous speech “Atoms for Peace” to the UN General Assembly in 1953. The UN organized the “Second UN Int. Conference on the Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy” in Geneva in 1958, often referred to as the “Atoms for Peace conference”. This had a lot of influence on young people. Having worked with nuclear reactor stability for a couple of years my interests were increasingly directed towards automatic control. With this training I was challenged by wastewater treatment operations, in 1973. Controlling the activated sludge process was a primary target for our attempts, and our first full scale computer control of an activated sludge system was in operation in 1976. By controlling the dissolved oxygen concentration a significant amount of energy could be saved, while the microorganisms were kept in better shape. Since then I have worked in the parallel worlds of water and energy systems: to control activated sludge systems, to apply automation in water supply systems and to control electrical power systems. The research at my academic

xviii Water and Energy

department Industrial Electrical Engineering and Automation at Lund University has dealt with automation in water systems, process industries and in electrical power systems. Still, it is only during the last few years that I have become fully aware of the high degree of interrelationships between water and energy.

Some ten years ago my wife and I visited Morocco for a short holiday during the winter season. Instead of staying on the beach we wanted to discover more of the interesting country. We had heard about the Blue People, coming from the Sahel region, so we went to Guelmim (Gulimin), found a local guide at the street and continued to an oasis at the edge of the Sahara desert. The Blue People had arrived on camels from far away and stayed in the oasis to trade goods they needed. A little pond in the oasis, around ten meters across, provided the difference between life and death. We were invited into the tent of a proud representative of the people. This was one of the great memorable moments in life. We had tea together and talked via our interpreter for hours. One of the first questions from our host was: “do you have water at home?” “Yes”, we replied. “Do you have sufficient water for your cattle?” he continued. Thinking about the wealth of water in Sweden and our clean beautiful lake close to our little summer cottage I did not know how to answer the question properly, but said: “yes, the cattle have enough of water”. I did not dare to mention that our lake has drinkable water. The immediate reply was: “why then did you come here?” The question has followed me since then: how would you properly answer his question and not feel guilty? Having clean water available is a sign of extravagant wealth. Too often we take it for granted.

Our summer cottage is a hideaway in the forest in the south-west part of Sweden with only one neighbour within the first km. The lake is within walking distance. We have a water well and an outhouse and the luxury of electrical power. Staying in the cottage gives another perspective on water, energy and environment. While it is too easy to believe that the water supply is infinite in the city we have to save water in the cottage. We chop the wood to heat up the cottage in cold weather, and I manually take care of the outhouse waste. It is an interesting contrast to the application of automation in water and wastewater systems.

In 1975 we stayed for a sabbatical year in Houston, Texas. Despite the world oil crisis in 1973 energy was still cheap in Texas. Air conditioning was truly necessary in the summer heat with 37°C and 100% humidity. During a weekend trip we went to a pizza place to eat.

We experienced the temperature shock to enter the cool restaurant. The illumination was dim and after a while I discovered a fireplace with a real fire burning! The idea was of course to make it a little more cosy. The combination of air conditioning and fire became my personal symbol of energy waste. Very few people around me appreciated my excitement about the waste of energy: “In Texas we grow the oil!” Also today – 36 years later – you find people that will cool down the indoor temperature to motivate the use of the fireplace!

I have done a lot of writing in our little summer cottage. It is located in a county called Halland that used to be Danish until the peace agreement in 1645. Only a few hundred meters from the cottage there is a little creek in a deep canyon that formed the boundary between Denmark and Sweden in the 17th century. It takes four or five steps to cross the creek but it has been an important source of energy for a number of small saw mills, owned by local farmers, each one having a small piece of forest land. The creek is a micro-cosmos illustration of many great river conflicts in the world. Along the rapids of about one km stretch of the creek there used to be eight saw mills, all of them sharing the same run-of-creek water for energy. The most upstream mill controlled the gate. There were a lot

xix Preface

of tensions how and when to use the water and it often happened that somebody opened the gate without informing the other mill owners. The last sawmill was in operation as late as in the 1930s. Several examples of conflicts of water and energy resources in the world are described in the book. It is always the same kind of competition for resources. Who owns the water? Can the upstream user handle the water independently of the downstream users?

Should we accept the principle of “using it or losing it”, whether we are talking about our little creek, the Nile, the Colorado River or the Danube? More than 250 river basins around the world cross international borders, making water insecurity a cause for aggression.

I have always been fascinated by large hydro dams and in a sense I can understand that so many politicians and decision makers have been seduced by them. The picture is that the giant dam can deliver water and power to the nation. In 1971 I saw the Hoover Dam in Nevada for the first time. I looked at it with my power engineering eyes and was fascinated by the technological wonder. Comparing my old dia slides of a full Lake Mead with the alarmingly low water level of today demonstrates that the price for building many dams has been high.

The message of the book can probably be summarized in the Figure 3.1, trying to capture the dependencies between water, energy, and food securities. Being aware of the close interdependencies between water, energy and food, how should we define a solidary action plan?

This book does not attempt to deliver specific design solutions, control methods or operational guides. A main goal is to create an understanding and awareness of the close couplings and to demonstrate that the water and energy problems cannot be solved in isolation. An integrated approach to solve the complex water and energy challenges is necessary. This includes not only innovative technical solutions but several non-technical issues. Political, organizational and economic topics are equally important to address. Water utilities and power companies have to communicate in planning, design and operation.

Changes in our attitudes and lifestyles are crucial if we wish to create a more sustainable use of both water and energy. Saving one MW (“Negawatt”) is cheaper than producing one.

There is a sense of urgency when we see the dwindling water resources in many places and when the increasing use of energy will further influence the climate change.

People have asked me: do you work with mitigation or adaptation? I think that we have to work with both of them. The climate change is here and we simply have to cope with it. Even if all carbon emissions would be drastically reduced the climate change will continue for many decades, so we have to adapt to this fact. However, we have to start today to mitigate the carbon as well as the water footprints. Water operations can be made much more efficient, water use can be significantly reduced, once we become aware of our responsibility as users. Energy production can be realized with less water footprint and again we – the energy users – can reduce the energy need as well as the water need. As soon as we recognize that water is energy and energy is water we all can contribute to lessen the carbon footprint of water operations as well as the water footprint of energy operations.

Personally I have got a lot of experiences and inspiration via the International Water Association (IWA), an organization that brings together many thousands of professionals from more than 110 countries. As the editor-in-chief of the journals Water Science and Technology and Water Science and Technology/Water Supply during five years I acquired a wider perspective of the water issues than from only my specialist area. I have learnt a little bit of the huge water quality and water resource issues. This has influenced me and is another driving force to try to describe the challenges of water and energy. I also had the

xx Water and Energy

privilege to serve as the program chairman of the first IWA conference on Water and Energy, held in Copenhagen in 2009.

Having been a member of IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) for many years has given me insight what control, monitoring, drive systems and power systems technology and information technology can do to improve water and energy operations.