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• reindeer • ar a r c t ic ro u • •a
The Arctic is a polar region located at the north-
The Arctic’s climate is characterized by cold
ernmost part of Earth. The Arctic consists of the
winters and cool summers. Precipitation mostly
Arctic Ocean, adjacent seas, and parts of Alaska
comes in the form of snow. The Arctic’s annual
(US),
precipitation is low, with most of the area receiv-
Canada, Finland, Greenland (Denmark), and
Iceland, Norway, Russia, and Sweden. The land
ing less than 50 cm (20 in). High winds often stir up
within the Arctic region has seasonally varying
snow, creating the illusion of continuous snow-
snow and ice cover, with predominantly treeless
fall. Average winter temperatures can be as low
permafrost-containing tundra. Arctic seas contain
as
seasonal sea ice in many places.
−40 °C (−40 °F),
and the coldest recorded tem-
perature is approximately
−68 °C (−90 °F).
Coastal
The Arctic region is a unique area among the
Arctic climates are moderated by oceanic influ-
Earth’s ecosystems. For example, the cultures
ences, having generally warmer temperatures
in the region and the Arctic indigenous peoples
and heavier snowfalls than the colder and drier
have adapted to its cold and extreme conditions.
interior areas. The Arctic is affected by current
In recent years, Arctic sea ice decline has been
global warming, leading to Arctic sea ice shrink-
caused by global warming. Life in the Arctic in-
age, and diminished ice in the ice sheets.
cludes organisms living in the ice, zooplankton and phytoplankton, fish and marine mammals, birds, land animals, plants and human societies.
arctic
Wilderness or wildland is a natural environment on Earth that has not been significantly modified
believe wilderness areas are vital for the human spirit and creativity. They may also preserve
by civilized human activity. It may also be defined
historic genetic traits and provide habitat for
as: “The most intact, and undisturbed wild natural
wild flora and fauna that may be difficult to recre-
areas left on our planet–those last entirely wild
ate in zoos, arboretums or laboratories.
places that humans do not control over and have
The word wilderness derives from the notion
not developed with roads, pipelines and/or other
of “wildness”–in other words, that which is not
industrial infrastructure.”
controlled by humans. The mere presence or
Some governments establish them by law or
activity of people does not disqualify an area
administrative acts, usually in land tracts that have
from being “wilderness.” Many ecosystems
not been modified by human action in great mea-
that are, or have been, inhabited or influenced
sure. The main feature of them is that human ac-
by activities of people may still be considered
tivity is restricted significantly. These actions seek
“wild.” This view of looking at wilderness in-
not only to preserve what already exists, but also
cludes areas within which natural processes
to promote and advance a natural expression and
operate without human interference.
development. Wilderness areas can be found in
The
WILD
Foundation states that wilderness
preserves, conservation preserves, and National
areas have two dimensions: they must be bio-
Forests, National Parks and even in urban areas
logically intact and legally protected. The World
along rivers, gulches or otherwise undeveloped
Conservation Union (IUCN) classifies wilderness
areas. These areas are considered important for
at two levels, Ia (Strict Nature Reserves) and Ib
the survival of certain species, biodiversity, ecolog-
(Wilderness Areas). Most scientists and con-
ical studies, conservation, solitude, and recreation.
servationists agree that no place on earth is
Wilderness is deeply valued for cultural, spiritual,
completely untouched by humanity, due to
moral, and aesthetic reasons. Some nature writers
past occupation by indigenous people.
wilderness
Colorado is a state in the United States encom-
Mountains of North America. Colorado is the only
passing most of the Southern Rocky Mountains as
U.S.
state that lies entirely above 1,000 meters eleva-
well as the northeastern portion of the Colorado
tion. This point holds the distinction of being the
Plateau and the western edge of the Great Plains.
highest low elevation point of any state, is higher
Colorado is part of the Western United States, the
than the high elevation points of 18 states and the
Southwestern United States, plus the Mountain
District of Columbia.
States. Colorado is the 22nd
8th
most populous of the
most extensive and the 50
A little less than one half of the area of Colorado
United States. The
is flat and rolling land. The Colorado plains are
United States Census Bureau estimates that the
usually thought of as prairies, but actually they
population of Colorado was 5,456,574 in 2015, an in-
have many patches of deciduous forests, buttes,
crease of 8.50% since the 2010 United States Census.
and canyons, this is much like the high plains in
Colorado is notable for its diverse geography, it ranges from alpine mountains, arid plains and
New Mexico. Eastern Colorado is presently mainly covered in farmland, along with small farming vil-
deserts with huge sand dunes, deep canyons, sand- lages and towns. Corn, wheat, hay, soybeans, and stone and granite rock formations, rivers and lakes, oats are all typical crops, and most of the villages and lush forests. The summit of Mount Elbert is at
and towns in this region boast both a water tower
14,440 feet (4,401.2 m)
and a grain elevator.
elevation and Lake County is
the highest point in Colorado and even the Rocky
Colorado
Aspen is a common name for certain tree species; some, but not all, are classified by botanists in the section Populus, of the Populus genus. All of the aspens typically grow in large clonal colonies, derived from a single seedling, then spread by means of root suckers; new stems in the colony may appear at up to 30–40 m (98–131 ft) from the parent tree. Each individual tree can live for
40–150
years above ground, but the root sys-
tem of the colony is long-lived. In some cases, this is for thousands of years, sending up new trunks as the older trunks die off above ground. For this reason, it is considered to be an indicator of ancient woodlands. One such colony in Utah, given the nickname of “Pando”, is estimated to be 80,000 years old, making it possibly the oldest living colony of aspens. Some aspen colonies become very large over time.
aspen deciduous Deciduous can mean “falling off at maturity” or “tending to fall off”, and it is typically used in order to refer to trees or shrubs that lose their leaves seasonally (most commonly during autumn) and to the shedding of other plant structures such as petals after flowering or fruit when ripe. In a more general sense, deciduous means “the dropping of a part that is no longer needed” or “falling away after its purpose is finished”. In plants it is the result of natural processes. “Deciduous” has a similar meaning when referring to animal parts, such as deciduous antlers in deer or deciduous teeth, also known as baby teeth, in some mammals (including humans). In botany and horticulture, deciduous plants, including trees, shrubs and other hebs (herbaceous perennials), are those that lose all of their leaves for part of the year. This process is called abscission.
rain Rain is just liquid water in the form of droplets
desert climates can exist due to the dry air caused
that have condensed from the atmospheric water
by the downslope flow which causes heating and
vapor and then precipitated–after this it becomes
drying of the air mass. The large movement of the
heavy enough to fall under gravity. Rain is a major
monsoon trough, or the intertropical convergence
component of the water cycle and is responsible
zone, brings rainy seasons to savannah climates.
for depositing all of the fresh water on the Earth.
The urban heat island effect leads to increased
It provides suitable conditions for many types of
rainfall, both in amounts and intensity, downwind
the ecosystems, as well as water for hydroelectric
of cities. Global warming is also causing changes
power plants and crop irrigation.
in the precipitation pattern globally, this includes
The major cause of rain production is moisture
wetter conditions across eastern North America
moving along three-dimensional zones of temper-
and drier conditions in the tropics. Antarctica is
ature and moisture contrasts known as weather
the driest continent. The globally averaged annual
fronts. If enough moisture and upward motion is
precipitation over land is 715 mm (28.1 in), but over
present, precipitation falls from convective clouds
the whole Earth it is much higher at 990 mm (39 in).
(those with strong upward vertical motion) such as
Climate classification systems such as the KĂśppen
cumulonimbus (thunder clouds) which can orga-
climate classification system use average annual
nize into narrow rain bands. In mountainous areas, heavy precipitation is possible where the upslope
rainfall to help differentiate between the changing climate regimes. Rainfall is measured using rain
flow is maximized within windward sides of the
gauges. Rainfall amounts can be estimated by the
terrain at elevation which forces moist air to con-
weather radar. The wet, or rainy, season is a time
dense and fall out as rainfall along the sides of the
of year, covering one or more months. Rain falls
mountains. On the leeward side of the mountains,
mainly during the late afternoon and early evening.
terrain Terrain or relief (also topographical relief) is
gradient of any streams present, the relief of a
the vertical and horizontal dimension of the land
landscape is a useful metric in the study of the
surface. When relief is described underwater,
Earth’s surface. Relief energy, which is defined
then the term bathymetry is used. The Latin word
inter alia as “the maximum height range in a
“Terra” (The root word of terrain), is “Earth.” Terrain is used for a general term in physical
regular grid”, is essentially an indication of the ruggedness or relative height of the terrain.
geography, referring to the lay of the land. This is
Tectonic processes such as orogenies cause the
usually expressed in terms of the elevation, slope,
land to be elevated, and erosional or weathering
and orientation of terrain features. Terrain affects
processes cause land to be worn away to lower
surface water flow and distribution. Over a large
elevations. Land surface parameters are quantita-
area, it can affect weather and climate patterns. Relief (or local relief) refers specifically to the
tive measures of various morphometric properties of a surface. The most common examples are used
quantitative measurement of the vertical eleva-
to derive slope or aspect of a terrain or curvatures
tion change in a landscape. It is the difference
at each location. These measures can also be used
between a maximum and a minimum elevation
to derive hydrological parameters that reflect flow/
within a given area, usually of limited extent. The
erosion processes. Climatic parameters are based
relief of a landscape can change with the size of
on the modelling of solar radiation or air flow.
the area over which it is measured, making the
Land surface objects, or landforms, are definite
definition of the scale over which it is measured
physical objects (lines, points, areas) that differ
very important. Because it is related to the slope
from the surrounding objects.
of surfaces within the area of interest and to the
A mountain is a large landform that stretches above the surrounding land in a limited area, usu-
as well as lower temperatures also provides for varying conditions, which enhances zonation.
ally in the form of a peak. A mountain is generally
Some plants and animals found in altitudinal
steeper than a hill. Mountains are formed through
zones tend to become isolated since the condi-
tectonic forces or volcanism. These forces can
tions above and below a particular zone will be
locally raise the surface of the earth. Mountains
inhospitable and thus constrain their movements
erode slowly through the action of rivers, weather
or dispersal. These isolated ecological systems are
conditions, and glaciers. A few mountains are
known as sky islands.
isolated summits, but they mostly occur in huge mountain ranges.
Altitudinal zones tend to follow a typical pattern. At the highest elevations, trees cannot grow, and
The colder climate on a mountain affects the
whatever life may be present will be of the alpine
plants and animals residing on mountains. There
type, resembling tundra. Just below the tree line,
are particular sets of plants and animals that tend
one may find subalpine forests of needle leaf trees,
to be adapted to a narrow range of a climate.
which can withstand cold, dry conditions. Below
Ecosystems tend to lie along elevation bands of
that, montane forests grow. In the certain portions
roughly constant climate. This is called altitudinal
of the earth, those forests tend to be needle leaf
zonation. In regions with dry climates, the ten-
trees, while in the tropics, they can be broadleaf
dency of mountains to have higher precipitation
trees growing in a rain forest.
mountain
landscape There are two main meanings for the word land-
mountainous landscapes, vast arid desert land-
scape: it can refer to the visible features of an area
scapes, islands and coastal landscapes, densely
of land, the landforms and how they integrate with
forested or wooded landscapes including past
natural or man-made features or to an example of
boreal forests and tropical rainforests, and agricul-
the genre of landscape painting that depicts such
tural land.
views of an area of land.
Landscape may be further considered under the
A landscape, in both senses, includes the phys-
following categories: landscape art, cultural land-
ical elements of geophysically defined landforms
scape, landscape ecology, landscape planning,
such as (ice-capped) mountains, hills, and water
landscape assessment and landscape design. The
bodies such as rivers, lakes, ponds and the sea,
activity that modifies the visible features of an area
living elements of land cover including indigenous
of land is named landscaping.
vegetation, human elements including different
There are several definitions of what constitutes
forms of land use, buildings and structures, and
a landscape, depending on context. In common
transitory elements such as lighting and a lot of
usage however, a landscape refers to all the visible
weather conditions.
features of an area of land is named landscaping.
Combining both their physical origins and the
There are several definitions of what constitutes
cultural overlay of human presence, often created
a landscape, depending on context. In common
over millennia, landscapes reflect a living synthe-
usage however, a landscape refers either to all the
sis of people and place that is vital to local and
visible features of an area of land (usually rural),
national identity. The character of a landscape will
often considered in terms of aesthetic appeal, or
help to define the self-image of the people who
to a pictorial representation of an area of coun-
inhabit it and a sense of place that differentiates
tryside, specifically within the genre of landscape
one region from other regions. It is the dynamic
painting. When people deliberately improve the
backdrop to people’s lives. Landscape can be as
aesthetic appearance of a piece of land–by chang-
varied as farmland, a landscape park, or wilderness. ing contours and vegetation, etc.–it is said to have The earth has a vast range of landscapes, they include the icy landscapes of polar regions,
been landscaped, though the result may not constitute a landscape according to some definitions.
Weather is the state of the atmosphere, it is
Surface temperature differences in turn cause
to the degree that it is hot or cold, wet or dry,
pressure differences. Higher altitudes are cooler
calm or stormy, clear or cloudy. Most weather
than lower altitudes due to differences in com-
phenomena occur in the troposphere, just below
pressional heating. Weather forecasting is the
the stratosphere. Weather refers to day-to-day
application of science and technology to predict
temperature and precipitation activity, whereas
the state of the atmosphere for a future time and a
climate is the term for the statistics of atmospheric
given location. The system is a chaotic system; so
conditions over longer periods of time. When it
small changes to one part of the system can grow
is used without qualification, “weather” is gener-
to have large effects on the system as a whole.
ally understood to mean the weather of Earth.
The human attempts to control the weather have
Weather is driven by air pressure, temperature
occurred throughout human history, and there is
and moisture differences between one place and
evidence that human activities such as agriculture
another. These differences can occur due to the
and industry have modified weather patterns.
sun’s angle at any particular spot, which varies by
Studying how the weather works on other plan-
latitude from the tropics. The strong temperature
ets has been helpful in understanding how the
contrast between polar and tropical air gives rise
weather works on Earth. A famous landmark in
to the jet stream. Weather systems in the mid-lat-
the Solar System known as Jupiter’s Great Red
itudes, such as extratropical cyclones, are caused
Spot, is an anticyclonic storm that is known to have
by instabilities of the jet stream flow. Because the
existed for at least 300 years. However, weather is
Earth’s axis is tilted relative to its orbital plane,
not limited to planetary bodies. A star’s corona
sunlight is incident at different angles at different
is constantly being lost to space, creating what
times of the year. On Earth’s surface, tempera-
is essentially a very thin atmosphere throughout
tures usually range ±40 °C (−40 °F to 100 °F) annually.
the Solar System. The movement of mass ejected
Over thousands of years, changes in Earth’s orbit
from the Sun is known as the solar wind.
can affect the amount and distribution of solar energy received by the Earth.
weather
An aurora, sometimes referred to as a polar light, is a natural light display in the sky, most-
at lower latitudes. Different aspects of an aurora are elaborated in various sections below.
ly seen in the high latitude regions. Auroras are
The most distinctive and brightest are the cur-
produced when the magnetosphere is sufficiently
tain-like auroral arcs. Each of the curtain consists
disturbed by the solar wind that the trajectories
of lots of parallel rays, each lined up with the
of charged particles in both the solar wind and
local direction of the magnetic field, consistent
the magnetospheric plasma, mainly in the form
with auroras being shaped by Earth’s magnetic
of electrons and protons, precipitate them into
field. In-situ particle measurements confirm that
the upper atmosphere (thermosphere and exo-
auroral electrons are guided by the geomag-
sphere), where their energy is lost. The resulting
netic field, and spiral around them while moving
ionization and excitation of atmospheric constit-
toward Earth. The similarity of an auroral display
uents emits light of varying color and complexity.
to curtains is often enhanced by the folds within
The form of the aurora, occurring within bands
the arcs. Arcs can fragment or ‘break-up’ into
around both polar regions, is also dependent
separate, at times rapidly changing, often rayed
on the amount of acceleration imparted to all
features that may fill the whole sky. The ‘discrete’
the precipitating particles. Precipitating protons
auroras, which are at times bright enough to read
generally produce optical emissions as incident
a newspaper by at night display rapid sub-sec-
hydrogen atoms after gaining electrons from the
ond variations in intensity. The ‘diffuse’ aurora,
atmosphere. Proton auroras are usually observed
on the other hand, is a relatively featureless.
aurora
The reindeer (Rangifer tarandus), which is also
the proportion of females that grow antlers varies
known as caribou in North America, is a species of
greatly between population and season. The ant-
deer with circumpolardistribution, native to Arctic,
lers are typically larger on males.
Subarctic, tundra, boreal and mountainous regions
Hunting of wild reindeer and herding of semido-
of northern Europe, Siberia, and North America.
mesticated reindeer (for meat, hides, antlers, milk
This includes both the sedentary and the migra-
and transportation) are important to several Arctic
tory populations.
and Subarctic peoples. Lapland reindeer pull pulks.
While overall widespread and numerous, some
Reindeer are well known due to Santa Claus’ sleigh
of its subspecies are rare and at least one has al-
being pulled by flying reindeer in Christmas folk-
ready become extinct. For this reason, it is consid-
lore and stories.
ered to be vulnerable by the IUCN.
In most populations both sexes grow antlers; the
Reindeer vary considerably in colour and size. Both sexes can grow antlers annually, although
reindeer is the only cervid species in which females grow them as well as males.
reindeer