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ndscape • w a l • eat i ns a he t n

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colorado • a sp

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• reindeer • ar a r c t ic ro u • •a

The Arctic is a polar region located at the north-

The Arctic’s climate is characterized by cold

ernmost part of Earth. The Arctic consists of the

winters and cool summers. Precipitation mostly

Arctic Ocean, adjacent seas, and parts of Alaska

comes in the form of snow. The Arctic’s annual

(US),

precipitation is low, with most of the area receiv-

Canada, Finland, Greenland (Denmark), and

Iceland, Norway, Russia, and Sweden. The land

ing less than 50 cm (20 in). High winds often stir up

within the Arctic region has seasonally varying

snow, creating the illusion of continuous snow-

snow and ice cover, with predominantly treeless

fall. Average winter temperatures can be as low

permafrost-containing tundra. Arctic seas contain

as

seasonal sea ice in many places.

−40 °C (−40 °F),

and the coldest recorded tem-

perature is approximately

−68 °C (−90 °F).

Coastal

The Arctic region is a unique area among the

Arctic climates are moderated by oceanic influ-

Earth’s ecosystems. For example, the cultures

ences, having generally warmer temperatures

in the region and the Arctic indigenous peoples

and heavier snowfalls than the colder and drier

have adapted to its cold and extreme conditions.

interior areas. The Arctic is affected by current

In recent years, Arctic sea ice decline has been

global warming, leading to Arctic sea ice shrink-

caused by global warming. Life in the Arctic in-

age, and diminished ice in the ice sheets.

cludes organisms living in the ice, zooplankton and phytoplankton, fish and marine mammals, birds, land animals, plants and human societies.

arctic

Wilderness or wildland is a natural environment on Earth that has not been significantly modified

believe wilderness areas are vital for the human spirit and creativity. They may also preserve

by civilized human activity. It may also be defined

historic genetic traits and provide habitat for

as: “The most intact, and undisturbed wild natural

wild flora and fauna that may be difficult to recre-

areas left on our planet–those last entirely wild

ate in zoos, arboretums or laboratories.

places that humans do not control over and have

The word wilderness derives from the notion

not developed with roads, pipelines and/or other

of “wildness”–in other words, that which is not

industrial infrastructure.”

controlled by humans. The mere presence or

Some governments establish them by law or

activity of people does not disqualify an area

administrative acts, usually in land tracts that have

from being “wilderness.” Many ecosystems

not been modified by human action in great mea-

that are, or have been, inhabited or influenced

sure. The main feature of them is that human ac-

by activities of people may still be considered

tivity is restricted significantly. These actions seek

“wild.” This view of looking at wilderness in-

not only to preserve what already exists, but also

cludes areas within which natural processes

to promote and advance a natural expression and

operate without human interference.

development. Wilderness areas can be found in

The

WILD

Foundation states that wilderness

preserves, conservation preserves, and National

areas have two dimensions: they must be bio-

Forests, National Parks and even in urban areas

logically intact and legally protected. The World

along rivers, gulches or otherwise undeveloped

Conservation Union (IUCN) classifies wilderness

areas. These areas are considered important for

at two levels, Ia (Strict Nature Reserves) and Ib

the survival of certain species, biodiversity, ecolog-

(Wilderness Areas). Most scientists and con-

ical studies, conservation, solitude, and recreation.

servationists agree that no place on earth is

Wilderness is deeply valued for cultural, spiritual,

completely untouched by humanity, due to

moral, and aesthetic reasons. Some nature writers

past occupation by indigenous people.

wilderness

Colorado is a state in the United States encom-

Mountains of North America. Colorado is the only

passing most of the Southern Rocky Mountains as

U.S.

state that lies entirely above 1,000 meters eleva-

well as the northeastern portion of the Colorado

tion. This point holds the distinction of being the

Plateau and the western edge of the Great Plains.

highest low elevation point of any state, is higher

Colorado is part of the Western United States, the

than the high elevation points of 18 states and the

Southwestern United States, plus the Mountain

District of Columbia.

States. Colorado is the 22nd

8th

most populous of the

most extensive and the 50

A little less than one half of the area of Colorado

United States. The

is flat and rolling land. The Colorado plains are

United States Census Bureau estimates that the

usually thought of as prairies, but actually they

population of Colorado was 5,456,574 in 2015, an in-

have many patches of deciduous forests, buttes,

crease of 8.50% since the 2010 United States Census.

and canyons, this is much like the high plains in

Colorado is notable for its diverse geography, it ranges from alpine mountains, arid plains and

New Mexico. Eastern Colorado is presently mainly covered in farmland, along with small farming vil-

deserts with huge sand dunes, deep canyons, sand- lages and towns. Corn, wheat, hay, soybeans, and stone and granite rock formations, rivers and lakes, oats are all typical crops, and most of the villages and lush forests. The summit of Mount Elbert is at

and towns in this region boast both a water tower

14,440 feet (4,401.2 m)

and a grain elevator.

elevation and Lake County is

the highest point in Colorado and even the Rocky

Colorado

Aspen is a common name for certain tree species; some, but not all, are classified by botanists in the section Populus, of the Populus genus.

All of the aspens typically grow in large clonal colonies, derived from a single seedling, then spread by means of root suckers; new stems in the colony may appear at up to 30–40 m (98–131 ft) from the parent tree. Each individual tree can live for

40–150

years above ground, but the root sys-

tem of the colony is long-lived. In some cases, this is for thousands of years, sending up new trunks as the older trunks die off above ground.

For this reason, it is considered to be an indicator of ancient woodlands. One such colony in Utah, given the nickname of “Pando”, is estimated to be 80,000 years old, making it possibly the oldest living colony of aspens. Some aspen colonies become very large over time.

aspen deciduous Deciduous can mean “falling off at maturity” or “tending to fall off”, and it is typically used in order to refer to trees or shrubs that lose their leaves seasonally (most commonly during autumn) and to the shedding of other plant structures such as petals after flowering or fruit when ripe. In a more general sense, deciduous means “the dropping of a part that is no longer needed” or “falling away after its purpose is finished”. In plants it is the result of natural processes. “Deciduous” has a similar meaning when referring to animal parts, such as deciduous antlers in deer or deciduous teeth, also known as baby teeth, in some mammals (including humans).

In botany and horticulture, deciduous plants, including trees, shrubs and other hebs (herbaceous perennials), are those that lose all of their leaves for part of the year. This process is called abscission.

rain Rain is just liquid water in the form of droplets

desert climates can exist due to the dry air caused

that have condensed from the atmospheric water

by the downslope flow which causes heating and

vapor and then precipitated–after this it becomes

drying of the air mass. The large movement of the

heavy enough to fall under gravity. Rain is a major

monsoon trough, or the intertropical convergence

component of the water cycle and is responsible

zone, brings rainy seasons to savannah climates.

for depositing all of the fresh water on the Earth.

The urban heat island effect leads to increased

It provides suitable conditions for many types of

rainfall, both in amounts and intensity, downwind

the ecosystems, as well as water for hydroelectric

of cities. Global warming is also causing changes

power plants and crop irrigation.

in the precipitation pattern globally, this includes

The major cause of rain production is moisture

wetter conditions across eastern North America

moving along three-dimensional zones of temper-

and drier conditions in the tropics. Antarctica is

ature and moisture contrasts known as weather

the driest continent. The globally averaged annual

fronts. If enough moisture and upward motion is

precipitation over land is 715 mm (28.1 in), but over

present, precipitation falls from convective clouds

the whole Earth it is much higher at 990 mm (39 in).

(those with strong upward vertical motion) such as

Climate classification systems such as the KĂśppen

cumulonimbus (thunder clouds) which can orga-

climate classification system use average annual

nize into narrow rain bands. In mountainous areas, heavy precipitation is possible where the upslope

rainfall to help differentiate between the changing climate regimes. Rainfall is measured using rain

flow is maximized within windward sides of the

gauges. Rainfall amounts can be estimated by the

terrain at elevation which forces moist air to con-

weather radar. The wet, or rainy, season is a time

dense and fall out as rainfall along the sides of the

of year, covering one or more months. Rain falls

mountains. On the leeward side of the mountains,

mainly during the late afternoon and early evening.

terrain Terrain or relief (also topographical relief) is

gradient of any streams present, the relief of a

the vertical and horizontal dimension of the land

landscape is a useful metric in the study of the

surface. When relief is described underwater,

Earth’s surface. Relief energy, which is defined

then the term bathymetry is used. The Latin word

inter alia as “the maximum height range in a

“Terra” (The root word of terrain), is “Earth.”

Terrain is used for a general term in physical

regular grid”, is essentially an indication of the ruggedness or relative height of the terrain.

geography, referring to the lay of the land. This is

Tectonic processes such as orogenies cause the

usually expressed in terms of the elevation, slope,

land to be elevated, and erosional or weathering

and orientation of terrain features. Terrain affects

processes cause land to be worn away to lower

surface water flow and distribution. Over a large

elevations. Land surface parameters are quantita-

area, it can affect weather and climate patterns.

Relief (or local relief) refers specifically to the

tive measures of various morphometric properties of a surface. The most common examples are used

quantitative measurement of the vertical eleva-

to derive slope or aspect of a terrain or curvatures

tion change in a landscape. It is the difference

at each location. These measures can also be used

between a maximum and a minimum elevation

to derive hydrological parameters that reflect flow/

within a given area, usually of limited extent. The

erosion processes. Climatic parameters are based

relief of a landscape can change with the size of

on the modelling of solar radiation or air flow.

the area over which it is measured, making the

Land surface objects, or landforms, are definite

definition of the scale over which it is measured

physical objects (lines, points, areas) that differ

very important. Because it is related to the slope

from the surrounding objects.

of surfaces within the area of interest and to the

A mountain is a large landform that stretches above the surrounding land in a limited area, usu-

as well as lower temperatures also provides for varying conditions, which enhances zonation.

ally in the form of a peak. A mountain is generally

Some plants and animals found in altitudinal

steeper than a hill. Mountains are formed through

zones tend to become isolated since the condi-

tectonic forces or volcanism. These forces can

tions above and below a particular zone will be

locally raise the surface of the earth. Mountains

inhospitable and thus constrain their movements

erode slowly through the action of rivers, weather

or dispersal. These isolated ecological systems are

conditions, and glaciers. A few mountains are

known as sky islands.

isolated summits, but they mostly occur in huge mountain ranges.

Altitudinal zones tend to follow a typical pattern.

At the highest elevations, trees cannot grow, and

The colder climate on a mountain affects the

whatever life may be present will be of the alpine

plants and animals residing on mountains. There

type, resembling tundra. Just below the tree line,

are particular sets of plants and animals that tend

one may find subalpine forests of needle leaf trees,

to be adapted to a narrow range of a climate.

which can withstand cold, dry conditions. Below

Ecosystems tend to lie along elevation bands of

that, montane forests grow. In the certain portions

roughly constant climate. This is called altitudinal

of the earth, those forests tend to be needle leaf

zonation. In regions with dry climates, the ten-

trees, while in the tropics, they can be broadleaf

dency of mountains to have higher precipitation

trees growing in a rain forest.

mountain

landscape There are two main meanings for the word land-

mountainous landscapes, vast arid desert land-

scape: it can refer to the visible features of an area

scapes, islands and coastal landscapes, densely

of land, the landforms and how they integrate with

forested or wooded landscapes including past

natural or man-made features or to an example of

boreal forests and tropical rainforests, and agricul-

the genre of landscape painting that depicts such

tural land.

views of an area of land.

Landscape may be further considered under the

A landscape, in both senses, includes the phys-

following categories: landscape art, cultural land-

ical elements of geophysically defined landforms

scape, landscape ecology, landscape planning,

such as (ice-capped) mountains, hills, and water

landscape assessment and landscape design. The

bodies such as rivers, lakes, ponds and the sea,

activity that modifies the visible features of an area

living elements of land cover including indigenous

of land is named landscaping.

vegetation, human elements including different

There are several definitions of what constitutes

forms of land use, buildings and structures, and

a landscape, depending on context. In common

transitory elements such as lighting and a lot of

usage however, a landscape refers to all the visible

weather conditions.

features of an area of land is named landscaping.

Combining both their physical origins and the

There are several definitions of what constitutes

cultural overlay of human presence, often created

a landscape, depending on context. In common

over millennia, landscapes reflect a living synthe-

usage however, a landscape refers either to all the

sis of people and place that is vital to local and

visible features of an area of land (usually rural),

national identity. The character of a landscape will

often considered in terms of aesthetic appeal, or

help to define the self-image of the people who

to a pictorial representation of an area of coun-

inhabit it and a sense of place that differentiates

tryside, specifically within the genre of landscape

one region from other regions. It is the dynamic

painting. When people deliberately improve the

backdrop to people’s lives. Landscape can be as

aesthetic appearance of a piece of land–by chang-

varied as farmland, a landscape park, or wilderness. ing contours and vegetation, etc.–it is said to have The earth has a vast range of landscapes, they include the icy landscapes of polar regions,

been landscaped, though the result may not constitute a landscape according to some definitions.

Weather is the state of the atmosphere, it is

Surface temperature differences in turn cause

to the degree that it is hot or cold, wet or dry,

pressure differences. Higher altitudes are cooler

calm or stormy, clear or cloudy. Most weather

than lower altitudes due to differences in com-

phenomena occur in the troposphere, just below

pressional heating. Weather forecasting is the

the stratosphere. Weather refers to day-to-day

application of science and technology to predict

temperature and precipitation activity, whereas

the state of the atmosphere for a future time and a

climate is the term for the statistics of atmospheric

given location. The system is a chaotic system; so

conditions over longer periods of time. When it

small changes to one part of the system can grow

is used without qualification, “weather” is gener-

to have large effects on the system as a whole.

ally understood to mean the weather of Earth.

The human attempts to control the weather have

Weather is driven by air pressure, temperature

occurred throughout human history, and there is

and moisture differences between one place and

evidence that human activities such as agriculture

another. These differences can occur due to the

and industry have modified weather patterns.

sun’s angle at any particular spot, which varies by

Studying how the weather works on other plan-

latitude from the tropics. The strong temperature

ets has been helpful in understanding how the

contrast between polar and tropical air gives rise

weather works on Earth. A famous landmark in

to the jet stream. Weather systems in the mid-lat-

the Solar System known as Jupiter’s Great Red

itudes, such as extratropical cyclones, are caused

Spot, is an anticyclonic storm that is known to have

by instabilities of the jet stream flow. Because the

existed for at least 300 years. However, weather is

Earth’s axis is tilted relative to its orbital plane,

not limited to planetary bodies. A star’s corona

sunlight is incident at different angles at different

is constantly being lost to space, creating what

times of the year. On Earth’s surface, tempera-

is essentially a very thin atmosphere throughout

tures usually range ±40 °C (−40 °F to 100 °F) annually.

the Solar System. The movement of mass ejected

Over thousands of years, changes in Earth’s orbit

from the Sun is known as the solar wind.

can affect the amount and distribution of solar energy received by the Earth.

weather

An aurora, sometimes referred to as a polar light, is a natural light display in the sky, most-

at lower latitudes. Different aspects of an aurora are elaborated in various sections below.

ly seen in the high latitude regions. Auroras are

The most distinctive and brightest are the cur-

produced when the magnetosphere is sufficiently

tain-like auroral arcs. Each of the curtain consists

disturbed by the solar wind that the trajectories

of lots of parallel rays, each lined up with the

of charged particles in both the solar wind and

local direction of the magnetic field, consistent

the magnetospheric plasma, mainly in the form

with auroras being shaped by Earth’s magnetic

of electrons and protons, precipitate them into

field. In-situ particle measurements confirm that

the upper atmosphere (thermosphere and exo-

auroral electrons are guided by the geomag-

sphere), where their energy is lost. The resulting

netic field, and spiral around them while moving

ionization and excitation of atmospheric constit-

toward Earth. The similarity of an auroral display

uents emits light of varying color and complexity.

to curtains is often enhanced by the folds within

The form of the aurora, occurring within bands

the arcs. Arcs can fragment or ‘break-up’ into

around both polar regions, is also dependent

separate, at times rapidly changing, often rayed

on the amount of acceleration imparted to all

features that may fill the whole sky. The ‘discrete’

the precipitating particles. Precipitating protons

auroras, which are at times bright enough to read

generally produce optical emissions as incident

a newspaper by at night display rapid sub-sec-

hydrogen atoms after gaining electrons from the

ond variations in intensity. The ‘diffuse’ aurora,

atmosphere. Proton auroras are usually observed

on the other hand, is a relatively featureless.

aurora

The reindeer (Rangifer tarandus), which is also

the proportion of females that grow antlers varies

known as caribou in North America, is a species of

greatly between population and season. The ant-

deer with circumpolardistribution, native to Arctic,

lers are typically larger on males.

Subarctic, tundra, boreal and mountainous regions

Hunting of wild reindeer and herding of semido-

of northern Europe, Siberia, and North America.

mesticated reindeer (for meat, hides, antlers, milk

This includes both the sedentary and the migra-

and transportation) are important to several Arctic

tory populations.

and Subarctic peoples. Lapland reindeer pull pulks.

While overall widespread and numerous, some

Reindeer are well known due to Santa Claus’ sleigh

of its subspecies are rare and at least one has al-

being pulled by flying reindeer in Christmas folk-

ready become extinct. For this reason, it is consid-

lore and stories.

ered to be vulnerable by the IUCN.

In most populations both sexes grow antlers; the

Reindeer vary considerably in colour and size.

Both sexes can grow antlers annually, although

reindeer is the only cervid species in which females grow them as well as males.

reindeer