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Colophon
European Postgrate Masters in Urbanism Strategies and design for cities and territories European Higher Education Consortium in Urbanism Faculty of Architecture , Department of Urbanism Delft University of Technology Julianalaan 134 01West800 The Netherlands Tel. +31 1527 81298
AR9210 The Sustainable City - Theories on Urban Design
Students: Olga Balaoura (Greece), MArch (o.balaoura@gmail.com) Claudiu Forgaci (Romania), MArch (claudiuforgaci@gmail.com) Jesus M. Garate (Spain), MArch (jge81@hotmail.com) Lenin GarcĂa (Mexico), MArch (leninspace@gmail.com) Meng Di Guo (China), MArch (mengdi.guo1988@gmail.com) Carlos Rafael Salinas GonzĂĄlez, MArch (crsg1@hotmail.com) Monique Gorisse (Netherlands), MArch (moniquegorisse@hotmail.com)
Course instructor: Machiel van Dorst, Dr. (M.J.vanDorst@tudelft.nl)
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Contents
Introduction
7
Pattern field
8
Patterns
10
Reflections 220
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6
Introduction
Patterns are concise. There are two reasons for the reduced length of a pattern. On one hand, it forces us to record the most relevant information. On the other, it is important not to spend too much time on it. It is only a tool, not a product. The time spent on it should feel as the part of the process not an additional struggle to collect information. Patterns are multifaceted. Each pattern is expressed visually, conceptually, theoretically, and practically. The title, together with the image, must be sharp, identify the pattern and makes us remember it. The hypothesis tells the whole story in a very compact way. The theoretical backup provides objective argument and credibility to it. Finally, the practical implications are meant to outline the practical consequences of designing with the hypothesis.
When designing, we often build up a complicated process. Still, we are the ones who make it complicated, by our confused observation and obsessive chase for solutions. Here I intentionally used the word complicated instead of complex. The design process, from assignment, through analysis, and to outcome and reflection, is a complex story. The field of study even more complex. However the process can be reasonably simple, or overcomplicated, depending on one’s approach to it. We become more and more aware of this complexity, of the impossibility to have a calculated, precise overview. Most of us regard it as chaotic, however exactly this characteristic makes it interesting, intriguing, creative, and surprising. The method of working with patterns experienced in our course is eye-opening to any designer who is brave (and naive) enough to try to find precise solutions to complex issues. Maybe not only the tool itself, but the position taken towards complexity is the most important here. A large quantity of information gets collected during the design process. We try to organize it into a coherent whole but we soon realize that it is impossible to control it, that there’s no absolute whole. Do we have enough? Is it relevant what we have so far? What is missing? Is this the right track? These are some of the questions that arise as a reaction to such large quantities. The patterns deal with these uncertainties by simply not claiming to be rigorously organized and finished. The information is added to the designer’s toolbox in a random and incremental manner, thus leading to a field of possibilities, rather than a precise end product. In this sense, the patterns have some specific qualities that make them so suitable to deal with complex questions:
Patterns are interconnected. The pattern field is the overview of the collection. Based on a twodimensional (or more?) criteria, the patterns are arranged into a field and connected to each other. It shouldn’t be done after the patterns are all written, but during the process. Patterns may be rearranged, new patterns might appear, others might merge or be split. Therefore the pattern field is dynamic. It is part of a recursive process. Patterns are subjective. Just as the designer who writes the patterns will record a different set of ideas, the designers who follow them will each chose a different path within the pattern field. This is the result of an apparently random process and it can only be explained by referring to the assumed subjectivity of the method. Patterns are optimistic. We make them prospective in a positive way, rather than pointing out negative aspects. Of course, we discover numerous problems, but in a pattern we try to explore the way that these problems can be addressed in a positive way. Patterns are everywhere. How do we come up with patrons? Some might record critical issues of their design; some might have a hunch; some will start by reading and spotting relevant theoretical issues; some might just look around and base their hypothesis on what they see. It doesn’t matter if they are visual, theoretical, practical, intuitive, or circumstantial. Regardless of their source, patterns are equally relevant.
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Abstract
Context Paradoxes
Cause and effect?
022
Mixed use
027
Coincidences
Decline of diversity
021 Identity and regeneration
Dimension of sprawl
High density and sustainability
076
City as part of nature
028 Shapes of the river
023 Water pressure
019 Large scale infrastructure
Infrastructure node as an economic attractor 032
Green networks greenways Public transport for the Edge City
053
067
Pedestrians and cyclists in the cit
0
Bike sharing program
Sedimentation in the floodplain
030
09
Water mo
Train station
062
The
101
Sedimentation
018
075
077
The city crossed by a river
Aband ings
Historic building
Historical urban context
041
The water city
070
024
Timescapes
039
Cultural herit monuments
063 City centre
Flood-proof infrastructure
034
Brandscapes
068
044
Kids and elders in big cities
Respe folklo
Infrastructure as carrier of culture
Residual city
054
Dikes are not s
065
061
Measuring sprawl
029
038
Distribution of land use
Tempos in the city
040
The resilient delta
Kate-Moss land
055
Urban settlements in meander rivers
Public sp
020
Pilot projects
064
058
Inside and outside the dikes
079
072 Private landscape resource
Add program t highway
066
Trace of former infrastructure
Native plants garden
002
069
Purifying wetlands
004
Multifu water
Soft interventions for nature areas
009
Water detention
Concrete
007
St
Detail
paces
078
safe
Adaptive public space
Human scale
017
086
Urban palimpsest
ect the local ore
Edges
016
094
096
doned build-
025 Districts
cluster
084
098
93
obility
Community gardens
033
to the
057
The slope
104
026
088 Trees as comfort provider
071 Pocket parks
046
Free WiFi in parks
100 Guerrilla gardening
051
103 Swimming
105 Waterside public spaces
008
Height/width ratio
092
Transparency of the street facade
074
003
059
Materiality
082
Natural lighting
081
The promenade
049
Sunny and shaded
Urban porticos
011
The passage
Wide sidewalks
Vibrant water places
005
073
treet markets
035
089
Semi-flowing space
Shoreline restoration
Art in public space
Green roofs
Trees in the city
102
090
unctional defense
050 012
Shared spaces
Farming in the city
010
037
097 048
045
Color in public space
The public rooftop
Vertical references
The chamfered corner
The invaders
043
085
Landmarks
099
056
ty
Edges of the city
Paths
Public transport for all
Sun instincts
014
Nodes
095 015
083 Traffic calming
Harborscape
091
Detailing
042
The Waterfront
tage
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The single factor
001
036
052
006
Urban furniture
013
031
Building entrances
080
The historic centre of Split, Croatia.
References Ruskin, J. (1961) The Seven Lamps of Architecture, New York: Noonday. Choay, F. (1970) L’allÊgorie du patrimoine, Paris: Seuil. Longstreth, R. (2008) ed. Cultural Landscapes. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. 10
001 Urban palimpsest
“...It is well to have, not only what men have thought and felt, but what their hands have handled, and their strenght wrought, and their eyes beheld, all the days of their life”. Ruskin, J. (1961: 169)
Hypothesis
The experience of an urban space could be enriched showing the different layers of the history of the place. Theoretical backup Transformation and re-use of spaces has been a constant throughout human history. Cities have been built upon natural landscapes and then upon previous cities. Each period of time in a place follows specific logics of the use of space and its construction techniques. These logics leave a mark that could remain in later periods or be erased by new construction processes. When elements of different times manage to survive the urban space becomes a palimpsest, a spatial poem of time built by several authors that together express the history of a city in a touching way. Some dramatic examples are places like the Traian’s Forum in Rome, Tlatelolco Square in Mexico City or the Historic Centre of Split in Croatia.
Practical implications When designing an urban space one should be aware of the different historic layers that place has. The knowledge of a site’s history could become a relevant fact that trigger creativity in a design besides providing it with a deep connection with its context. Moreover, being able to highlight certain archaeological elements that could be found in the site and linking them visually or spatially with other features or functions could be part a urban spatial storytelling. CRSG
See also Identity and regeneration; Cultural heritage monuments; Historic building; Harborscape; Landmarks; Trace of former infrastructure, Urban porticoes; The Passage. 11
A garden designed with native flowers
References Diekelmann, J., Schuster, R. (1982) Natural Landscaping. New York: McGraw-Hill. Burghardt, K.T., Tallamy, D.W., and Gregory Shriver, W. (2009)Impact of Native Plants on Bird and Butterfly Biodiversity in Suburban Landscapes. Conservation Biology, 23: 219â&#x20AC;&#x201C;224. [online] Available at: <http:// onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1523-1739.2008.01076.x/full> [Accessed 11 May 2011] 12
002 Native plants garden
â&#x20AC;&#x153;Natureâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s vegetation forms a fragile system. Given the right conditions, it can perpetuate itself perhaps indefinitely without managment. But deprived of its accustomed setting and associates it may not continue despite our assistance.â&#x20AC;? Diekelmann, J. and Robert Schuster (1982: vii)
Hypothesis
Using native species of plants and trees in landscape and urban design pays off in ecological and in economic terms. Theoretical backup Different scales of ecological problems have been caused in different parts of the world with the introduction of non-native species that far from their natural predators have spread uncontrolled in different landscapes jeopardizing its enviromental equilibrium. On the other hand, each specific context has particular weather conditions that could make for instance very expensive to maintain a garden with flowers and plants with high water requirements in a dry location. Native species on the other hand, are adapted to the specific conditions of a site through millenia of adaptitive processess. The use of autoctonous plants open new opportunities for creating attractive and resilient landscape designs adapted to the weather conditions. Moreover, these plants are related with the development of local fauna as presented by Burghardt, K. T., Tallamy, D. W. and Gregory Shriver, W. (2009)., so reintroducing these native species in urban areas could help to reestablish natural links and biodiversity now lost in some urban areas.
Practical implications When designing a landscape intervention in a site, a careful research about the native species of the area should be conducted in order to find out which species could be used to generate a plant pallette that meets the different design requirements needed in the place. In addition to the latest, and according to Diekelmann, J. and Schuster, R. (1982) it is also important to observe how these plants grow up in nature and the kind of plant communities they form with other species giving attention to the specific conditions of humidity, water irrigation, drainage, sun exposition, soil composition, among others, in which we commonly found these plants in nature, because that will give us a hint on how can we arrange in an appropriate way the selected native plants and which kind of specific enviroments could be created. CRSG
See also Trees as comfort providers; The Promenade; Wide sidewalks; Shoreline restoration; Pocket parks; Green Networks-Green ways; Guerrillas gardening; Community gardens; Waterside public spaces. 13
A sidewalk in Hoboken, New Jersey.
References Gehl, J. (2010) Cities for people. Washington, D.C. : Island Press. Jacobs, J. (1961) The Death and Life of Great American cities. New York: Random House. (Reprint in 1992, New York: Vintage books). Loukaitou-Sideris, A., Ehrenfeucht, R. (2009) Sidewalks. Conflict and negotiation over Public Space. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press. 14
003 Wide sidewalks
“Streets and their sidewalks, the main public places of a city, are its most vital organs.” “To keep the city safe is a fundamental task of a city’s streets and its sidewalks”. Jacobs, J.(1961: )
Hypothesis
Wide sidewalks are more comfortable and allow a wider number of urban activities to happen. Theoretical backup Sidewalks represent fundamental elements of the public space that let people walk through the street in a safe way by separating them from cars or other types of vehicles. Sidewalks are also spaces for social interaction and encounters between citizens that in addition could provide room for gardens and trees. Wide sidewalks could also give the opportunities now or in the future to incoporate more functions or elements that together could enhance the way we experience a city. Jacobs (1961: 36-37) suggested that in order to make streets and its sidewalks safe it is necessary “a substantial quantity of stores and other public places sprinkled along the sidewalks of a district”. In that sense having wider sidewalks and making them more comfortable promotes people to walk on them and opens the possibility for the development of other activities such as retail that require a certain pedestrian customer flow to thrive. The work of danish firm Gehl Architects offers some remarkable urban interventions around the world that included the widening of sidewalks and improving the walkability of certain areas of the cities where the firms intervened. Some examples of the firm projects include the renovation of Time Square in New York City and the creation of a network of pedestrian streets in Copenhague. (Gehl: 2010)
Practical implications Sidewalks in urban enviroments should have a minimum that allow the flow of people and provide enough space for trees and gardening. In cases when the a current street is too narrow to allow a sidewalk, the traffic lanes should reduced or the street should be closed to car circulation in order to guarantee the safety of the pedestrians. Besides the implementation of comfortable sidewalks, in specific locations of cities and towns and even in the suburbs, the law should allow the opening of shop and small offices in order to foster a more mixed use enviroment. CRSG
See also Urban furniture; The Promenade; Height-Width ratio; Semi-flowing space; Waterfront; Paths; Shared spaces; Infrastructure as an economic attractor; Native plants garden; Chamfered corners; Mix of land use; Transparency. 15
Wetlands for water treatment in Beijingâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Olympic Park
References Hammer, D.A., Bastian, R.K. (1989) Wetlands Ecosystems: Nature Water Purifiers? In: Hammer, D.A., ed. 1991. Constructed wetlands for Wastewater Treatment. Chelsea, Michigan: Lewis Publishers. United States Enviromental Protection Agency. (1993) Constructed wetlands for Wastewater treatment and wildlife habitat. 17 case studies. [pdf] Available at: < http://water.epa.gov/type/wetlands/upload/2004_10_25_ wetlands_ConstructedWetlands-Complete.pdf > [Accessed 11 May 2011] Kongjian, H. (n.d.) Shanghai Houtan Park - Landscape as a Living System. Architype Review. [online] Available at: < http://architypereview.com/20-landscape-architecture-/projects/598-shanghai-houtan-park-landscapeas-a-living-sy/description> [Accessed 11 May 2011] 16
004 Purifying wetlands
Hypothesis
Natural processes can be used to filter water in order to improve its quality. Theoretical backup During the last decades alternative ways to improve water quality using natural processes have been experimented in several locations. One of them is the ussage of wetlands in order to filter water and catching suspended particles in it. Wetlands were described by Hammer, D.A., Bastian, R.K. (1989: 11) as “transition zones between terrestrial and aquatic enviroments (that) benefit from nutrient, energy, plant, and animal inputs from neighboring systems.” In addition to the biological diversity these ecosystems have, wetlands are also effective elements that improve the water quality through diverse natural processes, because of that, their natural functioning has inspired the creation of “constructed wetlands” for cleaning wastewater. The United States Enviromental Protection Agency (1993) published a work in which it presents the performance of 17 artificial wetlands case studies in the United States. Nowadays, this technique is being applied in different places. One interesting example that integrates water treatment using artificial wetlands with recreational facilities is the Houtan Park in Shanghai. Located in a former brownfield area, this park uses a series of pounds with wetlands in order to filter polluted water (Kongjian: n.d.)
Practical implications In areas with water pollution problems an integrated design approach could take advantage of constructed wetlands in order to improve water quality in waterbodies as part of the landscape design of the area. Depending on the type of pollutants present at the specific location the surroundings of the constructed waterlands could be restricted or on the opposite, if the characteristics of the water being purified there allow it, it can also become part of recreational enviroments with promenades or bridges crossing them. CRSG
See also Native plants garden; Shoreline restoration; Green network-greenways; The resilient delta; City as part of nature; Urban settlements in meander rivers. 17
Public swimming pool in the port of Copenhague, Denmark.
References Beatley, T. (2010) Biophilic Cities: Integrating Nature into Urban Design and Planning. Washington: Island Press. 18
005 Swimming
Hypothesis
When water is clean in a city river or harbour, a wide range of new recreational possibilities can emerge. Theoretical backup Public concern among population about the dangerous effects of pollution on humans have triggered several actions devoted to improve the enviromental conditions in the waterbodies next to the cities. One of the best examples is the city of Copenhague, where the water pollution in its harbor is so low, that now it is possible to swim in it. Taking advantage of that, the government of that city has opened a number of public swimming pools in the harbor, that allow for new opportunities for sport and recreation (Beatley: 2011) and that have become recognizable icons of the city. These public open-air swimming pools in addition to the health benefits they provide for the practising of physical activities also represent a new type of public space where the social fabric of the city could be reinforced.
Practical implications A big effort should be realized in order to improve by different means the water quality in canals, rivers, lagoons and harbour in the cities. Altough, these could involve important financial investments, the pay off could be important as well with all the possibilities for recreation and diversity of uses of public space this could open. In clean water conditions water instead of being a barrier to public space becomes also part of a useful and functional public space for recreation in direct contact with humans. In addition, seasonal public swimming pools could be installed in public spaces such as squares, water side public spaces and parks. CRSG
See also Waterside public spaces; Urban furniture; Urban settlements in meander rivers; The Promenade; The Waterfront; The Water City; Pilot project; Purifying wetlands. 19
Santo Domingo Square in Oaxaca, Mexico.
References Palang, H., Soov채li, H., Printsmann A. (2007) Seasonal landscapes. [online] Available at: < http://www. springerlink.com/content/978-1-4020-4982-8/#section=319887&page=1&locus=0> [Accessed 04 June 2011] 20
006 Sunny and shaded
Hypothesis
An urban space should have diversity of enviroments, and it should be addaptable to seasonal changes. Theoretical backup The uses of public space differ widely according to the weather conditions and culture of place. While in places where cold and dark winters are common and in which people would like to be exposed to the sun during the few moments it shines, on the contrary in hot areas where excesive sun during noon could be annoying, people would prefer to remain under the fresh shadow of a tree. Responding to that, the design of public spaces needs to be adapted to the conditions and uses of a site and should provide a variety of atmospheres for changing weather conditions offering different types of spaces that could be used throughout the year. A responsive public space design should take advantage of the climatic conditions variations in a site as part of its inherent character and should flexible enough to function under different weather conditions.
Practical implications When designing a city intervention one should observe how people use the public space in different seasons of the year for understanding the changing dynamic of the site and the different elements that each of the activities need along the year. In addition to that is also important to observe how the the nature present in the place change, such as the time when some trees bloom or certain birds appear. In that sense the designer can propose a set of spaces or characteristics in the design that could be used in different ways according to the time of year and that would be enriched by the local seasonal changes. A good public space design should bring opportunities to the users to select different atmospheres to stay in. This can be achieved creating open areas were people could enjoy the sun but also creating shaded places with trees or pergolas or even covered areas for the wet days. CRSG
See also Native plants garden;The Promenade; Trees as comfort providers; Height-width ratio; Pocket parks; Native plants garden; Waterside public spaces: Urban porticoes; The Passage. 21
Integration of bioswales in a landscape design
References Beatley, T. (2010) Biophilic Cities: Integrating Nature into Urban Design and Planning. Washington, D.C. : Island Press. 22
007 Water detention
Hypothesis
Implementing landscaping strategies like bioswales and rain gardens could be an efficient way to deal with storm water and the same time generate new landscape designs. Theoretical backup Spreading urbanization processess have increased the amount of paved areas. In paved areas the rain flows quickly increasing the risk of overload in the sewage system. An alternative to avoid this kind of overloading problems is to slow the speed in which the water flows by filtering and retaining it temporarily reducing the pressure on the sewerage system. Efficient and ecological ways of doing so include the construction of bioswales and rain gardens that allow the growth of different species of plants and the same time act as porous surfaces that filter and retard the flow of water offering besides different possibilities for a diversify landscape design. Examples of cities that are currently implementing this type of elements include Seattle, Portland and Chicago as presented by Beatley (2011: 99-100).
Practical implications Every open area should include at least a minimum percentage of rain gardens or bioswales as part of its design. The calculation of the area needed should be carried out taking into account the local conditions of the site, the space availabilty and the possible uses that could happen in that place. CRSG
See also Native plants garden; City as part of nature; Water pressure; The resilient delta; Pocket parks; Green networks-greenways; Community gardens; The slope 23
Coastal promenade in Zadar, Croatia.
References A+T. (2010). Strategy Public. A+T Independent Magazine of Architecture and Technology. 35-36. Spring-Fall. Publisher A+T ediciones. 24
008 Waterside public spaces
Hypothesis
Facilitating access to water elements in a city could create valuable public spaces. Theoretical backup Spaces located in front of waterbodies benefit from the views they offer, the sounds of water, its reflections and the breeze. Humans simply love to walk close of water. In many cities and towns around the world have been constructed special promenades facing the sea, a lagoon or a river. These spaces are used for a wide range activities that include sports like jogging or bicycling, or calmer activities like walking or just sitting and chating. These spaces offer opportunities for social mixture and interaction since them are attractive for young people and elders as well. Successful examples of these waterfront spaces include the seaside promenades of several cities like Havana, Guayaquil, Zadar, Hamburg or Copenhague among others. Recent interventions for improving the public space conditions next to water include projects like the Rhone River Banks in Lyon, France and the Poniente Beach Promenade in Benidorm, Spain. (Strategy public: 2010)
Practical implications Spaces next to rivers, lagoons or the sea should be designed in a way they could be accessible for the citizens in a comfortable way, eliminating barriers such as car traffic and include in its design different types of urban furniture that allow people to seat or to practice different activities. These kind of public spaces also need to deal with some of the challenges water poses, such as flood prevention or tidal control, in that sense, a design approach in these locations needs to take advantage of water defense elements an incorporating them as part of an overall strategy. CRSG
See also Water mobility; Urban settlements in meander rivers; The Promenade; Adaptive public spaces; Private landscape resource; Multifunctional water defense; The Waterfront; City Crossed by a river; Edges; Urban settlements in meander rivers; Urban furniture; Swimming; Inside and outside the dikes.
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People riding bikes in the Hooge Veluwe National Park, The Netherlands
References Waugh, F. (1935) Landscape conservation. Washington, D.C.: National Park Service. Stepenoff, B. (2008)Wild Lands and Wonders. Preserving Nature and Culture in National Parks. In: Longstreth, R. ed. 2008. Cultural Landscapes. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. Melnick, R.Z. (2008) Are We There Yet? Travels and Tribulations in the Cultural Landscape. In: Longstreth, R. ed. 2008. Cultural Landscapes. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. Flint McClelland, L. (1998) Building the National Parks: Historic Landscape Design and Construction. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. 26
009 Soft interventions for nature areas
“Artificial structures in wild park lands should be made as incospicuous as possible...”(Frank Albert Waugh: 1935 cited by Stepenoff, B.: 2008)
Hypothesis
Natural areas can be used by humans in a way its activities do not harm the integrity and regenerative processes of the place. Theoretical backup The first natural parks were created in the XIXth century in North America, since then, the tendency to protect certain areas because of its natural or aesthetic values has extended around the world. In some countries natural areas are suffering strong pressure from urbanization or agriculture practices that jeopardize its future. In natural areas close to cities the risk of development is high but there also important opportunities to sustain and safe those areas. One of them is sustainable tourism and recreation. These activities get people closer to natural areas helping to establish functional and emotional links with the enviroment as well as constituting places where family and friendship links could be strenghten in contact with nature as pointed out by Melnick (2008). With more people enjoying and using these areas the risk that these places could be urbanized decreases because people themselves will oppose to changes in land uses. Nevertheless, in order to make people get to these places, low impact infrastructure should be built together with some facilities that make the people use with comfort and safety those places, always keeping on mind that “man himself is a visitor who does not remain ”as said by Flint McClelland, L.( 1998: 474-475) cited by Stepenoff (2008).
Practical implications When designing interventions for faciliting the use of natural parks by visitors we should define areas for strict conservation with no human intervention, areas for recreation with low impact as well as as networks of different types of soft paths that allow visitors to get inside the area. The design of those elements and networks should be planned in a careful way taking into account the most sensitive areas for protection and the different flows existing in the site avoiding any kind of feature that could represent an obstacle for the functioning of the natural ecosystem. In these interventions one should use natural materials available in the place trying to avoid as much as possible the use of heavy machinery and finding the way to integrate the design with its surroundings in a harmonious way. CRSG
See also Shoreline restoration; City as a part of nature; Resilient delta; Private landscape resource; green network-greenways. 27
Spaces underneath a highway in Koog aan de Zaan, The Netherlands.
References Borden, I. (2009) Stimulating the senses in the public realm. In: Archfarm: non periodical fascicles on architecture. [online] Available http://www.archfarm.org/fasciculos/Archfarm-12-screen.pdf Architonic. (N.d.) A8ernA. [online] Available architects/5100103> [Accessed 11 May 2011]
at:
<http://www.architonic.com/aisht/a8erna-nl-
Sangochian, Z. (2012) Bajopuentes. Arquine / Blog â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Ciudad. [online] Available at: < http://arquine.com/ bajopuentes> [Accessed 11 May 2011] 28
010 Add program to the highway
Hypothesis
Infrastructure should be porous and include functions as part of its program. Theoretical backup Infrastructure elements such as highways or train tracks comunicate far distances in a large scale but usually have a disconnective role in the small scale of cities and neighbourhoods. Infrastructure is often described like an edge in an urban territory. Some recent examples show how infrastructure leftover spaces could be used to accomodate different urban functions. In Koog aan de Zaan, under the A8 highway, functions like a supermarket, shops and skatting facilities were introduced together with the improvement of the aesthetic of the spaces under the highway (Architonic: n.d). Other examples include Savignyplatz in Berlin where under active railtracks have opened several shops that are fully integrated to the surrounding area. Moreover, the goverment of Mexico City has launched an ambitious programm to redesign 22 places under the inner highway ring of the city including the creating of recreational facilities, shops and public spaces (Sangochian: 2012). Other possible uses of these places include landscape experiments or art performances or installations like the Carrascoplein Shadow Park in the outskirts of Amsterdam (Borden: 2009).
Practical implications New or existent infrastructure should include diverse functions and types of public spaces responding to its surroundings. There is a wide range of uses and programs that could be included from retail and offices to public spaces. For defining which program will be included, it is necessary to carry out some analyses of the needs and potential of the areas close to the intervention in order to identify the most suitable uses and characteristics that should be included. On the other hand, infrastructure should be highly porous in order to reduce its barrier effect as much as possible. For that its necessary to avoid as much as possible walls and leave open walkways that allow the crossing of these spaces. LG + CRSG
See also Street market; Large scale infrastructure; Identity and regeneration; Infrastructure as a carrier of culture; Edge; Shared spaces; Urban furniture; Pilot project; Mixed land use. 29
A covered walkway in Bologna, Italy.
References Schmidt, O. (1987) The Eclipse of Architecture in the Developed Building Law. Re: Arcade. Daidalos. Architektur Kunst Kultur, Porticoes – Arcades – Arbours, 24, pp. 107-112. Schmalscheidt, H. (1987) The Arcade – Evolution of uses. Daidalos. Architektur Kunst Kultur, Porticoes – Arcades – Arbours, 24, pp. 24-36. UNESCO World Heritage Center. (2012) Le Havre, the city rebuilt by Auguste Perret. [online] Available at: < http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1181> [Accessed 29 May 2011] 30
011 Urban porticoes
Hypothesis
Pedestrian flows and pedestrian comfort could be mantained even under bad weather conditions with the use of porticoes. Theoretical backup Porticoes have been used in several countries and cultures througout history. From the greek temples to the mayan palaces. Porticoes are covered spaces that serve as transitions between open and enclosed spaces. Porticoes have also been widespread used in urban enviroments in very diverse geographies and diferent climate conditions. In Bologna, Havana or Tlacotalpan they have been used to provide fresh covered spaces for pedestrians during very sunny or rainy seasons, while in Bern or in Prague, porticoes are useful during wet seasons or snowy winters to protect pedestrians and facilitate commerce even in adverse climate conditions. One remarkable example of an urban portico is Reina street in Havana, an avenue whose sidewalks are completelly protected by porticos along eight blocks that have plenty of commerces and urban activities. A XXth century example of urban porticoes could be found in the french city of Le Havre, where Auguste Perret carried out a plan for the reconstruction of the city centre after World War II. The reconstruction scheme included the introduction of covered walkways along main streets and urban spaces. The quality of this urban reconstruction ensamble motivated the inclusion of this area in the list of the World Heritage Centre of the UNESCO.
Practical implications Porticoes and covered walkways should be created between the exterior and exterior of buildings in specific avenues or areas of the city that present a high amount of pedestrian flows. The use of these elements could enrich in the urban experience in those places as well as keep the pedestrians walking in bad weather conditions. The creation of these porticoes also allow temporary uses of the spaces such as terraces or temporary expansion of the display space of shops that could provide local government with taxes for letting those activities. CRSG
See also Height-width ratio; Wide sidewalks; Semi-flowing space; Transparency; Cultural heritage monuments; Landmarks. 31
The Eiffel Tower, a relevant vertical reference in Paris, France.
References Lynch, K. 1960. The image of the city. Cambridge Massachusetts and London: The MIT Press. 32
012 Vertical references
Hypothesis
Vertical references could be relevant wayfinding objects in the urban space. Theoretical backup A common way in which citizens used to find their way in the past in the cities was looking at high elements such as belfries. Belfries of different temples have always distinctive shapes and features, so people could find their way identifying certain characteristic aspects of them. Nowadays the repertoire of these vertical landmarks includes also antennas and skyscraspers. One example of how an skyscrasper could work as a vertical reference is â&#x20AC;&#x153;Het Strijkijzerâ&#x20AC;? a tower next to Holland Spoor Station in The Hague, a landmark that can be used as a reference when trying to find the way to that train station. In some geographic contexts the presence of hills and mountains is also a relevant way in which people could identify their location. To facilitate these phenomena to happen, vertical referential elements should be high enough and stand out from their context. On the other hand, the higher the overall construction height is, the more difficult it could be to identify a vertical guiding element.
Practical implications When designing an architectural or urbanistic intervention one should be careful to analyze the impact it is going to have in relation with possible blockages to existing relevant urban elements such as bell towers or other landmarks. One could take advantage of these existing landmarks to open new views to them or new referential elements could be built, if that is the case they should play a relevant role in the design. Different axis and views to this new landmark should be emphasized. In other cases, we can make use of new tall buildings or elements to emphasize relevant places or locations in a new urban development. CRSG
See also Landmarks; Timescapes. 33
A passage in Stockholm, Sweden.
References Sitte, C. (1889) City planning according to artistic principles. Translated from German by Collins G.R. and Crasemann Collins C., 1965. New York: Random House. Geist, J.F. (1982) Le Passage. Un type architectural du XIXe siècle. Translated from German by Brausch, M. Brussels and Liege: Pierre Mardaga. Frederick, M. (2007) 101 Things I Learned in Architecture School. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press. 34
013 The Passage
Hypothesis
Passages introduce diversity of atmospheres and open new opportunities for activities at the interior of the urban blocks. Theoretical backup A passage is a covered or semi-covered space that articulates the open public space of a street with another public or semi-public space at the interior of an urban block. Passages can be found in several ancient towns and cities. This type of spaces frequently provide a sense of surprise and enrich the experience of urban space with the different light contrasts they produce: the bright street, semi-dark covered space and again the bright light of a courtyard. This has relation with an aspect that has been mentioned by some authors like Frederick (2007) who stated that the way in which we perceive a space is influenced in the way we arrive in it. On the other hand, passages, which generally have occupied space on its top, help also to create a sense of enclosed entity, a aesthetic virtue described by Sitte (1889). Passages also help to develop activities at the interior of the blocks where new commercial spaces could be open taking advantage of the beauty of patios specially in crowded areas of the city. One example of this is the Hackesche HĂśfe in Berlin, where a series of patios with a diversity of retail are interconnected by passages. In Dordrecht an interesting perception is created by passages leading to the â&#x20AC;&#x153;Hofâ&#x20AC;? in the historic center of the city.
Practical implications When designing an urban intervention one can enhace the spatial experience creating enclosed spaces connected by passages. This passages could be helpful for adding life to the interior courtyards of the urban blocks or buildings making it possible to convert those spaces into active and enjoyable sites also for visitors. The dimension of a passage could be variable: from an intimate scale of just one or two meter wide to a a monumental one, several meter wide, like those we can find for instance in places like the Hofburg Palace in Wien or the one in Gertrudenkirchhof, Hamburg. CRSG
See also Semi-flowing space; Paths; Historic building; Trace of former infrastructure; Urban palimpsest. 35
Traffic calming in Johnson City, Tennessee , USA.
References County Surveyors Society. (1994) Traffic calming in practice. Landor Publishing: London. Engwicht, D. (1993) Reclaiming our cities and towns. Better living with less traffic. Philadelphia, PA. Gabriola Island, BC : New Society Publishers. Ewing, R., Brown, S.J. (2009) U.S. Traffic calming manual. Chicago: The American Planning Association and ASCE Press. 36
014 Traffic calming
Hypothesis
If the speed of cars is reduced inside neighborhoods, the safety of the pedestrians will increase. Theoretical backup Cars are one the main hazards that pedestrians face in a city. In addition, as pointed out by Engwicht, D. (1993: 44) there is a relation between the speed and the space cars need, the higher the speed, the wider the streets and highways should be in order to provide buffer areas of security for the cars to move an maneuver. One way in which the risk produced by cars in urban areas could be reduced, is to implement traffic calming policies. According to the U.S. Traffic Manual (2009: 2) citing Traffic Calming: State of the Practice Report, â&#x20AC;&#x153;traffic calming involves changes in street alignment, installation of barriers, and other physical measures to reduce traffic speeds and/or cut-through volumes, in the interest of street safety, livability, and other public purposes. Besides making pedestrians feel more comfortable in the streets, traffic calming also pays off making other means of transport such as bycicles more attractive. In that sense, with the introduction of traffic calming measures it is even not necessary to have bicycle lanes in each street, because the controlled speed and fewer amount of cars in traffic calmed areas allows a better coexistence between both means of transport. The improvement of pedestrian safety in certain areas such as city centers also make those areas more attractive for shopping.
Practical implications When designing an specific area, distinctions are to be made about the different hierarchy of the streets. While highways and regional routes should be allowed to be fast, local streets dont have the need of such high speed, therefore calm traffic strategies could be applied there. In that sense, there are many traffic calming strategies and elements that could be implemented according to the specific goal the designer want to achieve as well as the characteristics of the context in which the design is taking place. Some traffic calming measures that could be applied include: vertical speed control measures such as speed humps, raised crosswalks and intersections; horizontal speed control measures such as roundabouts, lateral shifts and narrowings like neckdowns, chokers or center island narrowing elements, among others. CRSG
See also Kids and elders in big cities; The Promenade; Semiflowing space; Nodes; Shared spaces; Guerrilla gardening; Chamfered corners; The Slope; Wide sidewalks; Native plants garden 37
Agricultural cluster in Westland, The Netherlands.
References Porter, M.E. (1990) The competitive advantage of nations. New York: Free Press. Roelandt, T., et al. (1999) Cluster analysis and cluster policy in the Netherlands. In: Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development. Boosting innovation. The cluster approach. Paris: OECD Publications. 38
015 The cluster
“It is being concentrated which produces convenience.” Samuel Johnson cited by Jacobs (1961: 201)
Hypothesis
Activity clusters take advantage of agglomeration economies and could become efficient and innovative enviroments. Theoretical backup According to Roelandt, T. et al. (1998: 315) “Clusters can be characterized as economic networks of strongly interdependent firms linked in a value-adding production chain.” Examples of current economic clusters include Silicon Valley in California or the Westland greenhouse area in The Netherlands. These type of aglommerations of activities and related services were described by Porter, M. (1990) as one of the elements that influence the competitiveness of a region. However, the term cluster could be extrapolated and applied not just to big groups of companies and industries but also in the activities that happen in the city in a different scale. An example of thriving services clusters include the advertisment agency industry in Madison Avenue, New York or the fashion design sector of Antwerp. In most of these cluster cases location plays a relevant role, specially in activities needing face-to-face interaction. In even a smaller and perhaps more local scale, clusters of certain uses and activities reinforcing each other happen everywhere probably at all levels of society. It is common to see how certain type of retail operates next to certain urban activities, for instance, around university areas in several cities it is common to find a cluster of bookstores, stationeries and pubs. Or in cases like the city’s CBD’s together with the offices,
it is common to find specific fast-food restaurants, cafes, printing shops, etc. All these examples show how an urban activity tends to be supported by others.
Practical implications When carriyng out a design for an area it is important to identify the relations between different activities so the proposal could reinforce the existing activities or even to lay the foundations for the appearance of new others once we have identified a specific combination of activities that could be potentially relevant for generating new ones in a place. On the other hand it is also important, that in addition of having a certain specialization an area could also have diversified options, so if one of the activities fail the others could keep working. CRSG
See also Infrastructure node as economic attractor; Brandscapes; Dimension of Sprawl; City center; Decline of diversity; Districts; Nodes; Public transport for the Edge City; Cause and effect. 39
The waterfront of Dordrecht
References Marshall, R. ed., 2001. Waterfronts in Post-industrial Cities. London and New York: Spon Press. 40
016 The Waterfront
[…] the waterfront becomes the stage upon which the most important pieces are set. In doing so, the waterfront is an expression of what we are as a culture. The urban waterfront provides possibilities to create pieces of city, to paraphrase Davey, that enrich life, offer decency and hope as well as functionality […] (Marshall, 2001, p.4)
Hypothesis
The waterfront is the most central and dense part of the city, therefore it also should be the most vibrant and mixed part of it. Theoretical backup The waterfront is a quality that materializes the functional, cultural and spatial relationship between city and water. It is the place where the relationship (or dependence) between nature and city is the most striking. Cities crossed by rivers or bordered by large water bodies tend to have their historical, cultural and functional assets concentrated along the riverbanks due to their historical development on these strategic positions. Ports, harbors and trade activities, directly related to water, are gradually transformed into the most valuable public spaces of contemporary cities. In other words, the former central importance and position of the harbor is replaced by the centrality of urban public life. As a reaction to the deindustrialization and abandonment of former harbor areas, an increasing number of recent studies try to deal with the phenomenon and potential of urban waterfront transformations. ‘Waterfronts in Post-industrial Cities‘, edited by Richard Marshall (2001), is a result of an international conference involving nine cities dealing with the issues of deindustrialization on the waterfront, therefore engaged in a debate dealing with both locally specific and globally applicable opportunities.
Practical implications When designing on the waterfront, a rich mix of public activities directly related to the quality of the water body should be the guiding principle underlying the design. Monofunctional developments that exclude public activities (harbors, industries etc.) should be secondary to this principle, and therefore moved to less central positions. These tasks are of primary public importance and are the responsibility of the local authorities. Therefore, the development of the waterfront must be guided with urban rules that encourage public use and high density. When working on the waterfront, the designer must support or aim for: a high mix of uses, a representative skyline, and a continuous and sufficiently wide promenade on the water edge. CF
See also Harborscape; Waterside public spaces; The city crossed by a river; Public spaces; Pilot projects; Water mobility; Urban settlements in meander rivers; Edges; Shoreline restoration; The promenade... (for all the connections, see the patternfield) 41
The more we build up our dikes, the more we increase the amplitude of a potential collapse in the defensive system.
References Saeijs, H. et al. ed., 2004. Changing estuaries, changing views. Erasmus University, Rotterdam & Radboud University, Nijmegen. 42
017 Dikes are not safe
Storms that do almost no harm in a natural situation, turn into catastrophes when dykes are breached. This has been the rule for a thousand years. A large number of such catastrophes are recorded, many in the 13th-17th centuries, and the last one in 1953. The answer was always: build higher and stronger dykes. The consequence was always: more investments behind the dykes and more damage in the next catastrophe. (Saeijs et al., 2004)
Hypothesis
Dikes provide a false sense of safety. areas should be left alone, and that the public must be engaged in the process as much as possible.
Theoretical backup Dikes are dimensioned according to the risk of the area that they protect. The risk of a polder is calculated by multiplying the probability of occurring of a flood with the dimensions of the impact of this flood, directly related to economic development and urbanization. In other words, by being surrounded with dikes, protected areas become open to increased development, therefore to an increased risk. In ‘Changing Estuaries, Changig Views‘, a study made at Erasmus University, Rotterdam and Radboud University, Nijmegen (Saeijs et al., 2004), the authors question the efficiency and sustainablity of the resistant flood protection systems. They point out a few important aspects of the current defense strategy: the maintenance and strengthening of the existing structures involves very high recurrent costs; it is impossible to infinitely raise the height of the dikes; increased safety provided by dikes and increased risk caused by further investment in protected areas lead to a net zero rezult or even worse; artficial mounds are “the most ancient and most modern way of surviving floods”. They suggest that interventions should be sustainable, flexible, reversible, compatible with natural processes, that morphologically active
Practical implications By finding a way to reduce the dependence on dikes, to (at least partially) restore the natural state of the area, safety could be significantly increased. Whatever we do, we should not continue with an exculively defensive strategy. We cannot build, raise, rebuild or strengthen the dikes forever. At a certain point nature will become stronger. We need to understand the natural processes and embed them into our design thinking. This means on one hand giving parts of our land back to the river, and, on the other, allowing it to naturally rebuild the landscape by means of sedimentation, erosion and the changing of the soil composition. There’s nothing safer than a naturally built landscape...without dikes. CF
See also Inside and outside the dikes; The resilient delta; The water city. 43
Natural delta landscape.
References Hamblin, W.K. and Christiansen E.H., 2003. Earthâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Dynamic Systems. Prentice Hall Saeijs, H. et al. ed., 2004. Changing estuaries, changing views. Erasmus University, Rotterdam & Radboud University, Nijmegen. 44
018 Water pressure
If there is still is a choice, leave untouched estuaries and deltas alone. (Saeijs et al., 2004)
Hypothesis
Rivers should have a balanced surface area, similar to the one in their natural state. Theoretical backup Down-stream sections of rivers in their natural state, especially in the dispertion system of the deltas, have relatively wide sections, so that thereâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s a balance between pressure, speed, sedimentation and erosion (Hamblin and Christiansen, 2003). By artificially decreasing the river capacity, the river pressure on land is raised, and so is the risk of flooding. Based on a visual observation of the existing river tracks, the river water should occupy a sufficient percentage of the surface of its delta. Artificially controlled deltas assign a lower proportion to the water surface related to land, thus increasing the pressure and imposing an unbalanced, tensioned natural state. When discussing the case of the Western Scheldt, the authors of Changing Estuaries. Changing Views (Saeijs et al.,2004) point out the negative consequences of dykes on water capacity. The water of the river branch doesnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t have enough space to dissipate its energy, requiring a labourious and countinuous maintenance of the river bed by dreadging and, as a cosequence, leading (in that case) to higher levels of saline water and ecological problems.
Practical implications When modifying the landscape of the delta, regardless of the scale of intervention, at least 25% of the study area must be occupied by open surface water. It is essential to keep it open, therefore directly connected to the main water system. If the design area is next to one of the river branches, half of the width of the neighboring river section will be considered in the calculations. This way, all the separate interventions will sum up to at least a desirable 25% of water in the delta. For this percantage an average depth of 5m was taken. It is possible to increase the percentage of water surface and decrease the dept, but the volume must be at least 25% x S x 5m. CF
See also Water detention; Sedimentation; Sedimentation in the floodplain; Shapes of the river; The resilietn delta; The watercity; Urban settlements in meander rivers. 45
The Thames River crossing the center of London.
References Marshall, R. (2001) Waterfronts in Post-industrial Cities, London and New York: Spon Press. Meyer, H. (1999) City and Port. Transformation of Port Cities. London, Barcelona, New York: International Books 46
019 The city crossed by a river
This stitching of the city will bring together the communities along the riverbank [...]. The Nervión Ría will no longer be a physical and social boundary in the city. (Marshall, 2001)
Hypothesis
The river should always cross, not border the city. feature for the city and in doing so repositions the image of the city.“ (Marshall, 2001)
Theoretical backup After the Middle-Ages, the river gradually lost its defensive, bordering function. Initially, settlements were positioned on one side of a river, taking advantage of water transportation, trade routes, while strategically occupying a topographic and defensive position along its banks. By losing its walls, the city finally could expand outwards, including the other side of the river. Connections across the river developed in such a way that the two ‘halves’ could function as close as possible to a whole. In his article dealing with the image of the city on the waterfront, Richard Marshall describes the importance of weaving the two sides of the river Nervion in Bilbao as follows: “This stitching of the city will bring together the communities along the riverbank [...]. The Nervión Ría will no longer be a physical and social boundary in the city. The recently completed subway system, whose tunnels run next to the watercourse, will tie the river along its length and introduce seven new bridges. The recovery of the riverbanks, by the removal of obsolete structures and railways, opens a new system of urban spaces and linear parks along the river. Historically the city has always treated the river as a back. The new condition of the river, however, transforms the Nervión Ría into a major
Practical implications Its central importance should be reflected in the physical configuration of the city, by being urbanized on all of its sides. The river is not a border but an attractor, a potentially strong connection between the two banks of the river. A proper connection of the two sides of the river is vital to fully benefit from the qualities of an urban river. When designing along urbanized riverbanks, these connections should be of primary importance. However, these connections may have various forms: from bridges, through integrated water transport solutions, to the architecture of the two waterfronts communicating with each other.
CF
See also The Waterfront; Harborscape; Edges; Urban settlements in meander rivers; Waterside public spaces; The resilient delta; The water city; Large scale infrastructure; . 47
The dike might grow and become even a visual barrier, but functional connections are always preserved.
References The 2011 Delta Programme. Working on the Delta. Investing in a Safe and Attractive Netherlands, now and in the Future. Available at: http://www.deltacommissaris.nl/english/Images/Deltaprogramma_ENG1_tcm310286802.pdf (visited 03.05.2012) 48
020 Inside and outside the dikes
There is a lack of a cohesive vision concerning the conditions to be used in the development of urban uses in areas with unfavourable physical characteristics. This applies in particular to construction in areas outside the dykes, on or next to flood defence systems or in specific risk areas. [...] A broadly supported vision on a sustainable and future-proof (re)development of built-up areas in conjunction with the water tasks is important for regional development. (The 2011 Delta Programme)
Hypothesis
The dike has the potential of becoming a gradual transition area, rather than just a sudden change in risk of floodability. Theoretical backup Areas outside the dikes are under a constant threat of flooding. Areas inside the dikes are protected. Both are defined relatively to the position of dikes, which are precisely traced borders of protection. The dike is a defensive border. This is the definition that can be extracted from their role in policy documents and water defense strategies. The classification or typologies of dikes includes a reduced number of solutions that refer to functional integration and gradual transition of dike sections.
Practical implications A gradual spatial and functional transition from outer and inner dike areas should be a key step in designing dikes and neighboring inner and outer areas. This way, neither the inner nor the outer area risks to become segregated. One of the ways to realize this is to encourage public activities that span from one side to another, thus facilitating the interconnection of the two areas. CF
In the 2011 Delta Programme of the Netherlands, the sustainable development of inner and outer dike areas has been reassessed. New policies encourage safe and â&#x20AC;&#x153;damage-freeâ&#x20AC;&#x153; building in areas inside and outside the dikes, in and around flood defence systems.
See also The Waterfront; Urban settlements in meander rivers; Waterside public spaces; Multifunctional water protection; Large scale infrastructure; Dikes are not safe. 49
Sometimes totally unrelated things can appear in tha same place and same moment.
References Jung, C.G., 1989. Memories, Dreams, Reflections. New York: Random House. Koestler, A., 1973. The Roots of Coincidence. New York: Vintage Books. 50
021 Coincidences
A coincidence can be logically defined as a surprising concurrence of events, perceived as meaningfully related, with no apparent causal connection. (Jung, 1963)
Hypothesis
People like coincidences, exactly because they cannot explain them. Therefore coincidences have a great conceptual potential in a design project. Theoretical backup A coincidence does not prove a causal or any other modal relationship nor require any such. Physically related events may be expected to have a higher probability to occur, probability is the basic metrics, or method, to rationally evaluate physical coincidences. Any given set of coincidences may be just a form of synchronicity, that being the experience of events which are causally unrelated, and yet their occurring together carries meaning to the person observing the events (Jung, 1989).
Practical implications The designer should not only follow pre-existing conditions, but also look carefully for the relation between these conditions. Some of these connections might be counter-intuitive, even coincidental. Instead of trying to precisely explain things, probabilistic calculations (however not needed) are more appropriate in such cases and can give a dimension to the event/object that is being studied. The less obvious and probable coincidences are, the stronger they can be embedded in the design concept. CF
See also Paradoxes; Pilot projects; Cause and effect; Trace of former infrastructure; Identity and regeneration. 51
Britainâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s coastline - fractal dimensions.
References Portugali, J. (2011), Complexity, Cognition and the City, Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer, pp. 269-83. 52
022 Paradoxes
Hypothesis
Paradoxes are good learning tools to study prediction in in urban planning and its consequences on urban design. Theoretical backup Paradoxes have the capability to expose things that are wrong when everything appears right. Therefore they are good learning tools to study prediction in in urban planning and its consequences on urban design. Moreover, they signal the need for new ways of thinking. In his book, ‘Complexity, Cognition and the City’, Juval Portugali describes paradoxes as learning tools to understand contradictory behavior of certain aspects of the city (Portugali, 2011). According to this mindset, new design thinking should outline paradoxical facts or events as basic premise for innovation. For example, the well-known paradox of Achilles and the Tortoise can be easily linked with Mandelbrot’s fractal dimension.
Practical implications In the example illustrated on the opposite page, the principle of fractal dimension is applied to measuring Britain’s coastline. Each step follows a different reference unit. The length of each perimeter is slightly different from the others. We might say that the relativity of the measurment is a result of how we choose our scale and base-units, our convention. Paradoxes might be regarded as a consequence of conventions. Assuming that innovation in design is driven by exploring new possibilities, it is safe to say that the designer should question conventions, common-knowledge and seek for a better, essential understanding of the situation that he/she is dealing with. CF
See also Coincidences; Cause and effect. 53
Palaeogeographic map of the Rhine-Meuse delta.
References Hamblin, W.K. and Christiansen E.H., 2003. Earthâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Dynamic Systems. Prentice Hall Berendsen, H.J.A. & E. Stouthamer (2001), Palaeogeographic development of the Rhine-Meuse delta, The Netherlands. Assen: Van Gorcum. 270 p. Berendsen, H.J.A. (2004), Rivers and the sea: how science went wrong explaining the formation of the Netherlandsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; coastal plain. In: Dietz, T., P. Hoekstra & F. Thissen eds. The Netherlands and the North Sea. Dutch geography 2000-2004. KNAG: Netherlands Geographical Studies 325, p. 56-63. 54
023 Shapes of the river
Very few rivers (and certainly no major ones) begin or end without some relationship to the drainage system that preceded them. Instead, a drainage system continually evolves by headward erosion and stream capture, adjustment to the structure of the underlying rocks, and modifications related to marine transgressions, continental glaciation, desert sand, and continental rifting. [...] A riverâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s history is a history of the landscape over which it flows. (Hamblin and Christiansen, 2003, p.333)
Hypothesis
The recording of past shapes of a river is as important as its current trajectory. Theoretical backup The shape of the river is constantly changing over the centuries but it is imprinted, recorded in the composition of the soil. This recording is as important as the current trajectory of the river. Rivers constantly shape their basin while searching for the best trajectories towards the sea. Over the centuries, they slowly change the land through sedimentation and erosion, therefore they end up migrating from one basin to another. A careful look at the subsoil of the area reveals a dense, overlapped web of past versions of the river system. (Hamblin and Christiansen, 2003, Berendsen, 2001,2004)
Practical implications When modifying a riverâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s trajectory or artificially extending it with new river branches, it is important to understand its river basinsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; past dynamics. By reconstructing its palaeogeographic structure or, more exactly, by looking at the soil composition, it is possible to identify its old trajectories. The intervention should stay as much as possible within the boundaries of the old trajectories, considering that they have already been shaped and proven by nature at a certain point in time. CF
See also Water mobility; Water pressure; The resilient delta; Urban settlements in meander rivers; City as part of nature; Shoreline restoration; Sedimentation; Sedimentation in the floodplain; Trace of former infrastructure; . 55
Houtribdijk separating the Ijselmeer and Markermeer.
References Hoss, F., Jonkman, S.N., Maaskant, B. (2011) A Comprehenisve Assessment of Multilayered Safety in Flood Risk Management â&#x20AC;&#x201C; The Dordrecht Case Study, 5th International Conference on Flood Management (ICFM5), Tokyo-Japan. Available at: http://www.hkv.nl/documenten/A_comprehensive_assessment_of_ multilayered_safety_in_flood_risk_management_BM.pdf (Visited: 04.05.2012) The 2011 Delta Programme. Working on the Delta. Investing in a Safe and Attractive Netherlands, now and in the Future. Available at: http://www.deltacommissaris.nl/english/Images/Deltaprogramma_ENG1_ tcm310-286802.pdf (visited 03.05.2012) 56
024 Flood-proof Infrastructure
Hypothesis
In a water-defense strategy, major road infrastructure is as important as the protection of urbanized land with dikes. Theoretical backup The Dutch multilayer safety approach divides safety measures into three categories: (1) prevention, (2) sustainable spatial planning, and (3) disaster management. The first layer contains all the physical measures for primary protection, mainly dikes, dams, storm surge-barriers, etc. In the second layer, the whole spatial organization of the protected area is adapted to its particular risk of flooding. The third layer is meant to provide measures for the extreme case of flooding, such as evacuation and public awareness.
Practical implications Road infrastructure must be designed at the same height as the protection system, according to the same categories of safety. This means that primary road infrastructure must have the same height as the primary dike-ring, secondary roads must be as high as secondary dikes, and so on. As much as possible, these elevated infrastructures must be used as dikes as well. CF
Infrastructure is part of the second and third layer of safety. On one hand, infrastructure networks are primary elements of urbanization and, on the other hand, need to remain functional even in the case of a flood.
See also Water mobility; Public transport for all; Infrastructure as carrier of culture; Trace of former infrastructure; Large scale infrastructure. 57
The image of Hamburgâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s harbor, seen from the urban historical waterfront.
References Marshall, R. (2001) Waterfronts in Post-industrial Cities, London and New York: Spon Press. Meyer, H. (1999) City and Port. Transformation of Port Cities. London, Barcelona, New York: International Books 58
025 Harborscape
The harbor is a powerful realm that projects the image of the city, defines its identity and compensates for the “accidental” nature of the other, urban realm.(marshall, 2001, p.18)
Hypothesis
The bigness of a city harbor is something that makes citizens proud of, it is part of their identity and heritage. Theoretical backup In a river city, the harbor is one of the most important parts of the local identity, considering that, to a large extent, its development is a result of a long time of economic activities connected to water. It creates jobs, but also a specific urban skyline. Richard Marshall states that Sidney “has always had a strong relationship with its harbor. Its two famous icons, the Harbour Bridge and the Opera House, are harbor structures and constitute the essence of the city’s self-image.” It is precisely this character that makes it iconic. The Harbor Bridge is equally representative adn cultural as the Sydney Opera.
Practical implications The visual connection between city and harbor must be preserved. When designing public spaces on the waterfront, the view towards the river must be as open as possible and should include not only the natural and urban components of the landscape but also the specific industrial silhouette of the neighboring harbor. However, the noise created by harbor activities might be disturbing in such public spaces therefore the design must be on the opposing side of the river and/or at a distance of at least 500 meters from the harbor. CF
Hamburg’s harbor is another example of how the image of the city is culturally intertwined with the image of the harbor. Here the historical center directly faces the massive harbor activity just over the Elbe river. The image is part of the place’s identity. Even though they only use the city, people equally acknowledge the presence of the two sides of the river.
See also The waterfront; Urban settlements in meander rivers; The promenade; Urban palimpsest; The watercity; The city crossed by a river. 59
The sloped roof of TU Delft’s library, during a sunny day.
References Neufert Architect’s Data, Third Edition (2002), Oxford, Wiley Blackwell 60
026 The slope
Hypothesis
Sloped surfaces enrich peopleâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s interaction with the landscape. Theoretical backup Depending on the degree of their inclination, sloping surfaces in the public space create several new kinds of uses. Inclinations below 5 degrees enable a slow ascension, and allow easy access for people with disabilities. Between 5-30 degrees the surface receives an orientation, allowing people to easily sit or lie down. On a larger scale, the surface might cover a building. This way architecture becomes also an urban object, an urban floor.
Practical implications When designing inclined urban pedestrian surfaces, thus allowing other uses apart from walking and cycling, it is important to pay attention to the materials and safety. The finishing of the surface can be either mineral or vegetal, but it has to be clean and confortable for those who sit or lie on it. Below 10 degrees, walking surfaces must be harsh in order to prevent slipping. Above 10 degrees, access routes must have stairs. Inclined surfaces tend to be avoided by people passing by, therefore they must be designed for relatively stationary activities. CF
See also Multifunctional water protection; Traffic calming; Urban furniture; Water detention; Public spaces; Green roofs; Tempos in the city. 61
Cause and Effect - Ishikawa fishbone diagram.
References Portugali, J. (1997) Self-Organizing Cities, Futures, Vol. 29, No. 4/5, pp. 353-380 Portugali, J. (2011), Complexity, Cognition and the City, Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Pulselli, R. M. (2009) City out of Chaos, Urban Self-organization and Sustainability, Southampton, Boston: WIT Press. 62
027 Cause and Effect?
Hypothesis
The effects of a design cannot be fully predicted.
Theoretical backup According to chaos theory, chaotic systems cannot be described by the means of cause and effect anymore. Causal relations are too complex to comprehend, Cities, regarded as open and complex systems, are the best example of such chaotic systems. Even though it might be tempting to claim that future outcomes are clear and predictable, there are always uncertainties, unpredictable factors that could lead to totally undesirable effects.
Practical implications The urban designer must aim to trigger processes, not to create finite design products. The design must be as adaptive and open as possible. Multi functionality, spatial flexibility, accessibility and spatial integration are key characteristics of such an adaptive and sustainable design,
CF
See also Coincidences; Paradoxes; Pilot projects; The cluster. 63
Venice, a water city.
References Van Schaick, J. and Klaasen, I.T., 2010. The Dutch Layers Approach to Spatial Planning and Design: A Fruitful Planning Tool or a Temporary Phenomenon?. TU Delft. 64
028 The Water City
Hypothesis
The water city can be described as an overlapped open structure of the urban and water networks. Theoretical backup By looking at the Dutch Layers Approach, we might state that a water city needs to embed, or at least relate with, water on all of its layers: the built environment needs to benefit from the presence of water and form around it; water can be used as a valuable infrastructural element; water is generically defined as part of nature, the bottom layer in the Layers Approach.
Practical implications In delta cities where a large amount of water surface is needed, urban areas must integrate a certain amount of this surface. The architecture and whole structure of the city must be adapted to water dynamics. CF
See also The waterfront; Dikes are not safe; Water pressure; The city crossed by a river; Harborscape; The resilient delta; Sedimentation; Water mobility; Urban settlements in meander rivers; Multifunctional water protection; City as a part of nature; Vibrant water places; Swimming; Multifunctional water defense. 65
Illustration fo the proposed landscape in Ijland (Almere Buitendijks) by WEST8.
References Hoogtij voor Laag Nederland. werken met de natuur voor een veilige en mooie delta, World Wide Fund Report 200.8 Available at: http://assets.wnf.nl/downloads/delta.pdf (visited 03.05.2012) Saeijs, H. et al. ed., 2004. Changing estuaries, changing views. Erasmus University, Rotterdam & Radboud University, Nijmegen. The 2011 Delta Programme. Working on the Delta. Investing in a Safe and Attractive Netherlands, now and in the Future. Available at: http://www.deltacommissaris.nl/english/Images/Deltaprogramma_ENG1_tcm310286802.pdf (visited 03.05.2012) 66
029 The Resilient Delta
Sustainable land (and water) use is characterised by adaptation to the natural processes, and not vice versa. (Saeijs et al., 2004, p.7)
Hypothesis
Resilience is sustainable, resistance is not.
Theoretical backup In the context of delta interventions it is important to address the issue of sustainability because of the long-term character of delta strategies, extensive ecological implications, land subsidance, and high degrees of urbanization in the delta.
Practical implications Natural processes must be involved into the design process as much as possible. Understanding that natural processes are by definition sustainable is a strong argument to involve them into any kind of sustainable landscape or urban project.
Our defensive strategies might protect us, but they certainly raise the risks for future generations. By allowing/supporting natural processes in the delta, a balanced and safe environment will serve all generations.
CF
See also The waterfront; Dikes are not safe; Water pressure; The city crossed by a river; Shapes of the river; The watercity; Sedimentation; Sedimentation in the floodplain; Urban settlements in meander rivers; Purifying wetlands; Water detention. 67
Sedimentation in the floodplain.
References Hamblin, W.K. and Christiansen E.H. (2003) Earthâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Dynamic Systems, Prentice Hall 68
030 Sedimentation in the Floodplain
On the gentle slopes of shields and stable platforms, most stream valleys are covered with large quantities of sediment that make up a flat surface over which the stream flows.This surface is called the floodplain, and during high floods it may be completely covered with water.(Hamblin and Christiansen, 2003, p.317)
Hypothesis
Sedimentation is the natureâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s way of building â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;dikesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;.
Theoretical backup Land created by the process of sedimentation never breaks. Rivers landscapes are subject to constant change, as a result of a continuous and balanced process of erosion and sedimentation. The topography shaped this way is predictable, in the sense that the changes occur in very long time spans, not suddenly as in the case of broken artificial landscapes (broken dike resulting in sudden flood, for instance).
Practical implications Designers should integrate as much as possible the natural process of sedimentation when working in water defense strategies. Natural levees, safe areas must be completely used before creating new defensive structures. The concept of the natural floodplain can be extended to controlled flooadable compartments. When preparing areas for a controlled process of sedimentation, a good understanding of the mechanism of a floodplain, might help to achieve an accelerated and resilient sedimentation process. CF
See also Water pressure; Shapes of the river; The watercity; The resilient delta; Urban settlements in meander rivers. 69
Westminster fronted benches, London. Source: Natland
References Natland J. (2007) Urban by design: An evaluation of the public spaces in the downtown new Westminster 70
031 Urban furniture
Hypothesis
Distance between urban furniture elements enables or avoids specific patterns in the human behaviour Theoretical backup
Practical implications
Although some social groups, especially young tend to find their own staying places, it is important to allow a minimum quantity of them in an appropriate distribution. A concentration of benches or lack affects directly to the aggrupation of people in the street.
Urban designers should take into consideration the interaction between the urban space, their elements and the users in order to make an appropriate design. They should not only think about a â&#x20AC;&#x153;niceâ&#x20AC;? distribution in plan.
For example, the distance between pair of fronted benches should be enough to facilitate the conversation. (Jenifer Natland, 2007)
JGE
At the same time, an appropriate distribution of bins will help to maintain the quality of the space while a lack of them will facilitate the appearance of garbage. Provision of dog droppings bins plays also an important role in the quality of the space. The existence of them has not only a practical aim but an educational one too.
See also Infrastructure node, as an economic attractor, Wide Sidewalks, Swimming in the city, Sunny and Shaded, Waterside public space, Urban porticos, Traffic calming, Under the bridge, Vibrant water places, Add program to the highway, trees as confort provider, The slope 71
London Bus Stop
References Van Nes R. (2002) Design a multimodal transport network. A hierarchical approach TU Delft Berechman J. (1988), Modeling land use and transportation: an interpretive review for growth areas, Environment and Planning A, Vol. 20, pp. 1285-1309 Follet K. (2007) World without end. Penguin Books, London 72
032 Infrastructure node as an economic attractor
Hypothesis
Infrastructural nodes are economic buffers not only for allowing new connections but for the shops and services that appear in their surroundings. Theoretical backup Ken Follet in the novel “World without end” (2007) describes the impact of a bridge not only for the development of a city but for its importance as an economic attractor.
Practical implications Architects, planners and transport engineers should collaborate in the distribution of infrastructure nodes and providing the sufficient basis for allowing the establishment of external services…
All the infrastructures can perform as buffers no matter the size: central bus-train stations, airports, seaports… in different levels. Even small urban bus stops are able to attract local shops or cafes.
JGE
Berachman (1988) called this kind of structures the “Economies of agglomeration”. They provide positive externalities allowing for new or larger facilities (Van Nes, 2002)
See also The edge city, Train station,The cluster, Wide sidewalks, Infrastructure as a carrier of culture 73
Zurichsee lake. Switzerland
References Huynk B. (2011) The Cai Rang Floating Market, Vietnam:Towards Pro-Poor Tourism? Auckland University of Technology. 64. 74
033 Water mobility
Hypothesis
While land connectivity depends on the man-made linear infrastructures, water provides an infinitive number of connections. Theoretical backup There are multiple examples of water integrated region. Zurichsee, the lake in Zurich, is surrounded by 30 municipalities. A continuous urbanized strip can be identified at both shores. The train lines or roads surrounding it remain on a secondary background while a big number of piers used for leisure or transport porpoises can be found on the front. An extreme example of this type of connectivity could be the commercial use of the rivers and lakes in some Asian regions. The Cai Rang floating market at the Vietnamese Mekong delta is the most important concentration. The character of the area is in permanent variation. It starts early in the morning when the bigger ships arrive. They work as an anchor the the hundreds of small boats that follows them. Residential areas are situated along banks of rivers and canals, and densely concentrated in hubs of waterways and roads, just like in neighbouring provinces in the Mekong Delta (Nguyen, 2004).
Practical implications Enhancing the development on water areas and the access to public or private transport modes, we could improve the integration of a region. Therefore, there would be more economic, cultural, social opportunities. JGE
See also Floorproof infrastructure, Waterside public spaces, Public transport for all, The watercity, Urban settlements in meaner rivers, The waterfront, Shapes of the river, Large scale infrastructure, City crossed by a river 75
United Kingdom
London
Outer London
Inner London
London_City Age Pyramids 2010
References UK National Statistics, 2001. Census 2001: Local authority profiles & population pyramids (online) Available: 76
034 Kids and elders in big cities
Hypothesis
Proportion of kids and old people in big cities is lower than in small ones. This pattern is more apparent in the central areas of big metropolis. Theoretical backup
Practical implications
If we compare the different urban entities, National-Metropolitan-Inner and Outer city, taking London as a case study, it is possible to understand these social variations. The 2001 census shows a “balanced” pyramid in the national and the outer London, while the inner London and, more clearly, the City of London have an extreme low rate of young and old inhabitants.
Central areas in big cities should take into consideration the necessary requirement for the people between the mentioned ranges of age so that they could have access to the same facilities at the periphery such as green spaces, sports halls and so on. Mobility and the access to a “family size” flat in the central areas should also be enhanced.
Possible reasons for this pattern are main reasons for this pattern:
JGE
1. Urban conditions and prices are more affordable in the periphery of the city. 2. Issues with traffic, noise, safety… 3. Migration has a deep influence. It takes place mostly in the range of 20-35 year people who are looking for a livelier city or better job conditions. However, a big amount of people tend to return to their original places and settle down.
See also typology variation in neighbourhoods, Wide Sidewalks, Accesible natural areas, Traffic calming, Addaptative public space, Transport for all, City center, Public transport for all, Pocket parks 77
Dalston market, London. Source: J. Garate
References Huynk B. (2011) The Cai Rang Floating Market, Vietnam:Towards Pro-Poor Tourism? (online) Auckland University of Technology. p. 35 Available: http://aut.researchgateway.ac.nz/bitstream/handle/10292/1487/ Pro-poor Tourism Partnership. Web: http://www.propoortourism.org.uk/ 78
035 Street Markets
[â&#x20AC;Ś] When this connection of commerce and community is achieved markets become catalysts and centres of entire districts, offering a variety of places to shop, live, stroll and be entertainedâ&#x20AC;? (Huynk, 2011, p.35)
Hypothesis
Street markets perform as urban hubs not only for the tourist but the local inhabitants. Theoretical backup Borough Market and Brick Lane in London, Blaak market in Rotterdam or the street market in Delft are an important element of the identity of a city and society. Therefore, they become touristic attractors. From homemade food to furniture, they represent the traditional aspects of the society and make them interesting for tourists. It is a direct way of reading the cultural aspects of a place.
Practical implications Planners and politicians should allow the appearance of street markets, under regulated bases, so that they can become a sharing event and not an illegal activity. At the same time, existent markets should be preserved and revitalized. JGE
There are multiple types of markets: historical, food, floating, indoorâ&#x20AC;Ś They all play an important role in the social interaction. They can also be used for revitalizing poor regions as Hunk suggests about the Cai Rang floating market (2011). They offer multiple job opportunities for the poorest people. Pro-poor tourism is a kind of business interaction that enhances the economic activities, participation and involvement in poor regions through touristic strategies. Markets are one of main activities that help to produce this goal.
See also Services, Wide Sidewalks, Sunny and Shaded,The promenade, Districts, Add program to the highway, Under the bridge, Semi-flowing space 79
Traditional Ukranian house
References Nieves J. & Hernandez J. (2005)10th Congress of the International Colour Association, Proceedings Book (Online) Available: http://www.fadu.uba.ar/sitios/sicyt/color/2005AIC.pdf 80
036 Respect the local folklore
Polychromy = Joy (Le Corbusier, 1937)
Hypothesis
In regions where the landscape is snowy most of the year, people tends to have colourful house interiors. Theoretical backup Colour has been vanished from architecture design among several periods of history. Until the 18th century it was not discovered that Greek architecture was not white but polychromatic. In the beginning of the 20th century, Le Corbusier referring to the exhibition of the Pavillon des Temps Nouveaux of 1937, associated the creative ages of architecture to the vitality of chromatic color and the stagnant academicism to sad gray (Nieves & Hernandez, 2005). In the case of traditional houses in Ukraine, although there are different tons of white, in the interior tends to be more colourful that in other cultures contrasting the uniformity of the landscape that is white most of the year. It has cultural and tradition origins since their inhabitants keep vivid coloured decoration in their homes.
Practical implications Tradition and folklore has been always together with the use of colour. Therefore, a â&#x20AC;&#x153;sustainable architectureâ&#x20AC;? must understand their origins, rules and uses instead of vanish them and imposing new neutral trends. At the same time, colour plays an important role in the human behaviour and mood. Each colour has some psychological effects associated: green for calm, red for intense emotions, white for light spacesâ&#x20AC;Ś Designers should not only think on the spatial qualities but on the impact the surfaces have on the personality. JGE
See also Colour in public space, Identity and regeneration 81
Favela Painting project
References Cameron S. & Coafee G. (2005) Art, GentriďŹ cation and Regeneration, From Artist as Pioneer to Public Arts(online) European Journal of Housing Policy Vol. 5, No. 1, p. 40 Available: http://www.scholars-on-bilbao. Favella Painting Project: http://www.favelapainting.com/home Matiaello M. (2004) Colour and light in architecture (online) Available: http://www.fadu.uba.ar/sitios/sicyt/ color/aic2004/190-193.pdf 82
037 Colour in public space
[…] The use of colour to improve and organize underprivileged areas, as a means of stimulating the inhabitants to take better care of them and to protect them, is a good starting point. […] (Matiaello, 2004, p. 194)
Hypothesis
Colour can be used as a tool for revitalizing secondary urban spaces Theoretical backup Colour plays an important role in the identity of public space both in the positive and negative points of view. The relation between the public and private space does not only depend on volumetric or connectivity issues. Facades create the volume of the public space and therefore give them the “identity”. From this point of view, street artists can take a predominant position involving an aesthetic valorisation of the urban fabric of decayed neighbourhoods. (Cameron and Cofee, 2005)
Practical implications A correct use of the colour in the public space, can give a new character to a depressed neighbourhood. The investment doesn´t have to be big but smart. Strategic projects among the area can enhance the expansion of the proposal.
JGE
Together with a correct illumination, it can be used to reduce the crime rate, since the space is no longer anonymous and it led to an increase in solidarity amongst its inhabitants. (Matiaello, 2004) Painting Favela project, proposed by Jeroen Koolhaas and Dre Urhahn, brings pieces of colour to “unexpected places”. The projects, mainly based in the Rio de Janeiro slums, are founded by anonymous donations and created with the collaboration of local young people. There are several examples that transform grey façade spaces into colourful squares.
See also Identity and regeneration, Art in Public space, Respect the local folklore, Guerrila´s garden, Community gardens 83
London
Madrid
Dublin
Beirut
Image Sources: London-Jason Cuddy References Valdearcos E. (2008) El arte romanico (online) Clio. Available: http://clio.rediris.es/n34/arte/11%20 ElarteRomanico.pdf Klingmann A. (2003) Brandscapes (online) Archithese. Available: http://www.klingmann.com/new/NEWS/ byklingmann/015/015.pdf En.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franchising 84
038 Kate-Moss Land
Hypothesis
Due to global brands, the image of the cities all over the world tends to be similar. Theoretical backup The impact of International Corporations and franchise on the image of the cities through advertisement reduces the variety and differences creating similar landscapes. Globalization is not a new process. During the 10th century, The Romanic style was expanded through the pilgrimage routes by the Cluny monks. (Valdearcos, 2008) It had a big influence in the image of the cities. However, the impact was much lower than the current situation. Although there are some examples of repeated buildings such as octagonal churches, the expansion of the style merged with local ones. Nowadays, this merging process is not taking place.
Practical implications We can´t stop the globalization process. However, architects, designers and planners should take into consideration the local traditions and be able to merge them with the global culture. In that direction, the impact of global brands in historical buildings or main public spaces should be regulated in order to maintain the local character and identity.
JGE
Mango has currently 700 shops in 73 countries. There is only one advertisement campaign with Kate Moss as the main corporative image. The advertsiment can be found in different places in the cities starting from the brand shop windows to bus stops or even building constructions covers. In contrast to traditional architecture, basing its formal articulation on notions of culture, context and function, brand architecture manifests its own cultural landscape, deriving from a particular brand identity (Klingmann, 2003).
See also Colour in public space, Identity and regeneration, Declining of diversity, Historic building 85
Oxford Street, London
References * Title has been borrowed from Klingmann article: Brandscapes Klingmann A. (2003) Brandscapes (Online)Archithese. Available: http://www.klingmann.com/new/NEWS/ byklingmann/015/015.pdf 86
039 Brandscapes*
Hypothesis
The amount and type of services depend on the size and character of the area they serve. Theoretical backup Similar services can be found in different cities under some hierarchical rules. Brands and franchises demand a minimum amount of potential market for being established in a certain area. Therefore, we will only find local shops in small villages, while in a big metropolis we will have access to international brands. The process of brand territorialisation affects mostly to the urban centres where they benefit from careful selected sites. Postdamer Platz in Berlin is strongly related to Daimler Chrysler and Sony, while Times Square relates to Disney. (Klingmann, 2003) These global interests result into a similar landscape-brandscape of services. A repetitive strip or shops can be found in the areas around London Underground stations: cafĂŠ Nero, Starbucks, bank offices, Pret a Manger, Top Shop, McDonalds, Primarkâ&#x20AC;Ś having a strong impact into the area. In the case of commercial streets like Oxford street, the pattern is repeated several times. It results into a vicious circle where the brand shops are the only ones able to afford certain premises.
Practical implications It is accepted that the appearance of services need a specific market. They can be a strong participant in the design of decay areas by using consumption as driving force (Klingmann, 2003). However, the urban planification should enhance variety between local and international brands regulating the possible inflation of the area and avoiding a repetitive landscape. JGE
See also Kate-Moss land, The cluster, Landmarks, Identity and regeneration, Abandoned buildings, City centre, Historic Building 87
London, 1860
ROTTERDAM
LONDON
FRANKFURT
Historic centre
Sedimentation
LOGROﾃ前
ZARAGOZA
References Hambling K. & Crhisritanshen H (2011) Earthﾂｴs Dynamic systems (online) Available: http://earthds.info/ Sengupta, S. (2001) Rivers and floods(online), Available: http://www.breakthrough-india.org/archives/flood. pdf 88
040 Urban settlements in meander rivers
Hypothesis
When there is no specific height difference that would make one of the riversides more preferable, the original settlements of big cities are on the concave riverbank. Theoretical backup Water flow and geometry of the river basins create 2 different types of soils characterized by sedimentation and erosion due to the centrifugal forces and different water speeds. While the concave bank is eroded, sedimentation takes place in the convex one. When there are no height differences that recommend the urbanization of one of the sites, urban settlements tend to be established on the concave side, more stable. Original settlements of major cities in Europe follow this pattern: London, Rotterdam, Frankfurt, Moscowâ&#x20AC;Ś The concave banks where left for secondary uses due to its low soil qualities. It was not until the urban pressure and technique evolution of the 19th and 20th century when they jumped to the other bank.
Practical implications Although the evolution of construction techniques has allowed us to urbanize weak soils, we should consider the natural fluctuations of the river in order to make the cities more sustainable. Instead of making great infrastructure interventions for changing and fighting those patterns, we should accept the challenge for integrating them. Future cities could have different characters and uses depending on the river banks. While one could follow the traditional principles because the soil is stable, the other could have more interrelation with the river and propose new typologies such as floodable or floating houses. JGE
See also Shape of the river, the city crossed by a river, Harbourscape, Shaping of the landscape, The watercity, Sedimentation in the floodplain, City as a part of Nature, The sedimentation, Edges, The Waterfront, Water public spaces, , Urban Palimpsest, Swimming in the city, Shoreline restoration, Purifying wetlands, Large scale infrastructure, Water pressure 89
San Francisco commuters
London Stadistics, reasons for usign the bcycle References Lynch K. (1988) The Image of the city. MIT Press. p. 49 Transport for London Report 3 (2010) pp. 68. (online) Available: http://www.tfl.gov.uk/assets/downloads/ corporate/travel-in-london-report-3.pdf Diario de Navarra (2010) Los usuarios de villavesa invierten 19 minutos de media en cada trayecto (Online) Available: http://www.diariodenavarra.es/20100216/pamplona/los-usuarios-villavesa-invierten-19-minutosmedia-cada-trayecto.html?not=2010021601285988&dia=20100216&seccion=pamplona&seccion2=pamplo na 90
041 Timescapes
Hypothesis
Commuting time perception is relative
Theoretical backup While the average travel time in big cities such as London or Sao Paulo is 67 (Transport for London, 2010) and 75 min respectively, it is 19 min (Diario de Navarra, 2010) in small cities like Pamplona in Spain, 250.000 inhabitants. However, the needed time for crossing the Spanish regional capitol might be 45 min with the public transport, a long trip for a short distance. When a person is adapted to a certain city and needs to adapt to a bigger one, his size perception changes. It will be perceived smaller than what it was originally. Short-long, big-small is relative to the perception and therefor it can be variable.
Practical implications Cities must display the coherent tools to be sustainable in mobility terms. It is not only referred to the necessity of an appropriate infrastructure system that will make the trips shorter but to provide enough information, references points and variety of options so that people can understand and make the best out of the structure of the city. Similar commuting trips can be hard or easy depending on the number of transfers, agglomerations, price or an interesting sightseeing. For instance, people might prefer spending more time cycling instead of using the public transport. (See chart on previous page) JGE
Learning also plays an important role in it. A place becomes more accessible and affordable when we know it. Distances become “shorter”. Landmarks are “used clues of identity and even structure, and seem to be increasingly relied upon as a journey becomes more and more familiar”. (Lynch, 1988)
See also Public transport for the edge city, Vertical references, City centre, Tempos in the city 91
Tree of Life, Bahrain.
References Nijhuis, S.; Van Lammeren, R. & Van Der Hoeven, F.D. (2011) Exploring the Visual Landscape. Advances in Physiognomic Landscape Research in the Netherlands. Amsterdam, IOS press (RiUS 2) Bell, S. (1996) Elements of the visual design in the landscape. London, E&FN Spon 92
042 The Single Factor
Hypothesis
A single element will always turn into a reference point.
Theoretical backup
Practical implications
In 1996, Bell made a description of the visual landscape based on its elements. The basic entity is the point, together with line, plane, solid volume, open volume. A point in space has strong impact into the observer. The context plays also an important role since it defines the character of it. â&#x20AC;? In an otherwise empty landscape a single tree or building may have a disproportionate visual effect, because it is the only object of contrast to attract our attention. Then it may become a figure standing out from the background.â&#x20AC;?
Understanding the spatial relations of the visual landscape and the consequences in the human perception is a useful tool in the design process. It will also add extra value to our proposal integrating the spatial conditions of the context and will help to avoid external factors and reduce the randomness of the design. JGE
He also established a coherent relation and manipulation of the visual landscape elements: 1. Variables: number, position, direction, orientation, size, shape, form, interval, texture, density, colour, time, light, visual force, visual inertia 2.O rganization: diversity, unity, genius loci a.Spatial cues: nearness, enclosure, interlock, continuity, similarity, figure and ground b.Structural elements: balance, tension, rhythm, proportion, scale c.Ordering: axis, datum, transformation
symmetry,
hierarchy,
See also
93
Edward Hopper, People in the Sun
References Holvik, K.; Brunvand, L; Brustad, K. & Meyer, E. (2008) Vitamin D status in the Norwegian population. (online) Oslo. Available: http://www.dnva.no/geomed/solarpdf/Nr_17_Holvik_Meyer.pdf Baute, N. (2010), Depression really does turn the world grey, study shows, (online) Available: http://www. healthzone.ca/health/mindmood/mentalhealth/article/839081--depression-really-does-turn-the-worldgrey-study-shows 94
043 Sun instincts
Hypothesis
A sunny spot in a grey day is always occupied by people
Theoretical backup In certain weathers, consciously or instinctively, we tend to move to the sunny bench or take the sunny sidewalk of the street. This behaviour is not just due to the warm satisfaction. There are multiple physiologic and psychological reasons. Adequate sun exposure helps our organism to synthetize Vitamin D. In Nordic countries, such as Norway there is a wide description of the relation between sun and this vitamin (Holvik, 2008). At the same time, it has been also analysed the relation between sun and the number of suicides. Opposite to what is commonly thought, the depression raises during the winter time, but the number of suicides remains stable. It is in June, when the weather condition changes when the rates change. (Holvik, 2008) At the same time, human mood has a strong relation with colour. A recent article published in the Biological Psychiatry journal states that clinically depressed people have difficulties detecting contrast between black and white, which means that while theyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;re feeling blue the world might actually look dull or grey (Baute, 2010)
Practical implications We, as architects, should take into consideration the human behaviour and relation with the weather conditions understanding how people will interact with our designs. This approach will fit into more sustainable projects that will take into account the sun, energy efficiency, human relationsâ&#x20AC;Ś JGE
See also Shade and sunny, Respect the local folklore, Colour in the public space 95
Felipe Morozoni Highway, Sao Paulo
References Koolhaas, R (2008) Junkspace. GG. Barcelona Rogers, R (1995) Cities for a small Planet. London 96
044 Residual city
Hypothesis
Interstitial spaces between 2 neighbourhoods can be used for connecting instead for separate. Theoretical backup Infrastructure networks in big metropolis create not only connections in the regional level but also divide in the local one. In the case of Sao Paulo, the differences are not just physical. They lead into different social and economic juxtapositions. The image of a favela next to a luxury building is widely recognisable. The city is full of what Rem Koolhaas calls Junkspace: “Junkspace is the sum total of our current achievement; we have built more than all previous generations together, but somehow we do not register on the same scales. We do not leave pyramids. According to a new gospel of ugliness, there is already more junkspace under construction in the 21st century than survived from the 20th…”
Practical implications However, an appropriate use and manipulation of these spaces can help us to create rich environments where both social groups can enrich from the other. Richard Rogers (1995) proposed the distinction between the single minded spaces and the socalled open minded space. “The first is designed by planners and developers with only one purpose in view. The second caters for a variety of uses in which everyone can participate.” JGE
See also Pocket parks, Community gardens 97
Volkswagen factory, Pamplona
References Martincigh, L. (2002) From the past for the future: visions and interventions (online) DIPSA - Roma Tre University. Available: http://www.walk21.com/papers/301B%20Lucia%20Martincigh%20From%20the%20 past%20for%20the%20future.pdf 98
045 The invaders
Hypothesis
Car drivers have the ability to find parking lots that architects would have never imagine. Theoretical backup Public space is being invaded by the enormous amount of cars we have. The character of the streets is defined by its level pedestrianization and the constant battle between cars and people. The visual landscape has suffered a strong influence by them. According to Lucia Martincigh (2002), streets are the space were most of the life is taking place. In Roman times, Pompeii already had bollards that defined the space of the forum. During the middle ages, there were 3 main squares in the cities with specific uses: meeting/ communication, religious/ theatrical and transacting business/open market. Jumping in history, one of the most relevant urban space of the 19th century were the boulevards. They had a strong impact in the society since people used to go there for demonstrate their social status. The first cars, a luxury, were also part of that interaction. Nowadays, we are suffering a car invasion that creates strong urban problems. It is ironic that because of that reason, we don´t have enough space for human activities.
Practical implications New approaches and policies are being applied to solve those spatial issues. Smaller cars or stratified carparks that would make the best out the space or tax impositions are some of those approaches. Apart from that, we could think on the changeable character that cars are giving to the urban landscape and make proposal for a better shared space. Parking lots, big avenues and city belts have different aspect in the weekends. We could think about full-empty spaces and find new opportunities in them. s JGE
See also
99
people gathering under the shade provided by trees.
References Jacobs, A. (1995) Great Streets. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1995 H. AKBARI†, M. POMERANTZ and H. TAHA. (2001) COOL SURFACES AND SHADE TREES TO REDUCE ENERGY USE AND IMPROVE AIR QUALITY IN URBAN AREAS. Solar Energy Vol. 70, No. 3, pp. 295–310, 2001. Elsevier Science Ltd 100
046 Trees as comfort providers
“Under the shade of a large tree, Feeling the soft cool breeze, Breathing the fresh countryside air, Listening the rustle of leaves, And enjoying the refreshment of an icecold beer. Yes, the perfect moment of peace.” (Lots of poem. A huge collection of poem. retrieved on 1 June 2012 from http://www.lotofpoems.com/shadeunder-the-tree/ )
Hypothesis
In public space trees are an important element to provide comfort to the people. Theoretical backup Trees provide shadow in sunny days, this is important during hot days to maintain the comfort zone in the space allowing people to stay in the place and therefore keeping it lively. In addition it can turn large open spaces into human-scale proportions defining the area for public space and protecting it from external undesirable elements e.g. cars. Furthermore trees can be an important aesthetic element in the landscape with many kinds of leafs, flowers, crown forms, size, etc.
Practical implications In public spaces make use of trees where it’s desirable to gather people. To complete the environment make use of tables, ponds, fountains or any other source of water to enrich the sensory experience. Interior spaces such as cafes, restaurants, pubs, can provide the excuse to go gather in the public space. LGO
See also Native plants gardens, Height with ratio, Pocket parks, Green network-greenways, Community gardens, Guerillas gardening, Public spaces, The promenade, The rooftop, Sunny and shaded, Vibrant water places, Wide sidewalks, Urban furniture 101
Windows in buildings surrounding a main square.
References Jacobs, A. (1995) Great Streets. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1995 102
047 The window towards public spaces
Hypothesis
It is important that buildings have windows towards the public space. Theoretical backup People feel safe because the space is being watched. In addition people inside the buildings are able to contemplate humanâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s interaction in the public space, driving in the desire to live that outsideexperience. On the other hand, people from the outside can see something is happening inside the building. This provokes certain interaction between the interior and the exterior.
Practical implications In buildings facing public space make use of windows to encourage interaction between interior and exterior. In the ground floor locate a store, cafe, restaurant, etc. to rise the degree of interaction between inside-outside experiences. LGO
See also The promenade, Public spaces, Transparency 103
chamfered corner in Barcelona, Spain.
References Corominas Ayala, Miguel (2010) Los orĂgenes del ensanche de Barcelona. suelo, tĂŠcnica e iniciativa. Ediciones UPC (2010). 104
048 The chamfered corner
Hypothesis
Neighborhoods with high built density and five or more story buildings need chamfered corners. Theoretical backup
Practical implications
Chamfered corners in high built density neighborhoods with buildings of five or more story height help to free space and give â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;opennessâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; to the already constrained urban setting.
When you are designing blocks of neighborhoods with high built density and high buildings, use the chamfered corners with an angle of 45 degrees and a minimum distance of 5m from the corner.
This design allows for increased natural light and ventilation as well as greater visibility at crossing points (roads and sidewalks).
LGO
See also Traffic calming, Wide sidewalks, Height/ width ratio, Public space 105
two kinds of promenade: in the waterfront and in the city References SUKRITI AGARWAL (Summer 2003). Urban Design Strategies for Revitalization of Public Spaces in Bucharest, Romania. School of Policy, Planning and Development. University of Southern California. -The promenade in action (2009). In: Promenades, Reading the Arcades/Reading the Promenades. Retrieved 10 May 2012 from: http://arcadespromenades.wordpress.com/2009/06/08/the-promenade-in-action/ 106
049 The promenade
Hypothesis
A promenade is a very important element to connect diverse activities and environments within a neighborhood. Theoretical backup The promenade as social space has to do with movement, surveillance and observation, display and distinction, and the integration of urban space. The use of the promenade, besides to connect and integrate urban space, is mainly for leisure so those engaging in leisure are to meet here. Pedestrian scale is very important as well as land uses along it. Flexible commercial, recreational and cultural activities bring a casual environment perfect for strolling around.
pedestrian system with bicycles, and public transit and linked to local shopping, services, housing, amenities and between adjacent developments. Surrounding buildings must enhance Public Spacepedestrian environment: There should be a mix of uses with interaction between inside and outdoors. Parking: Provide parking facilities nearby to make the promenade pedestrian oriented but at the same time accessible for car users.
Promenades can become the liveliest part of a neighborhood where many different things can happen and a place that people can do their own.
LGO
Practical implications A promenade must have the following attributes: Visual Interest: Created by different design elements such as trees, fountains and sculptures. Street Furniture. Signage system: Proper signage for orienting the users of the space to sites of interest. Also signs that â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;connect/engageâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; with people. Pedestrian
accessibility:
An
interconnected
See also Bicing, Green network-greenways, Edges, Harbors cape, Height width ratio, Mix of landuse, Multifunctional water defense, Native plants gardens, Paths, Pilot projects, Public spaces, Semi flowing space, Shared spaces, Street market, Sunny and shaded, Swimming, Trees as comfort provider, Urban furniture, Vibrant water places, The waterfront, Wide sidewalks, The window towards public spaces 107
children playing a public rooftop.
References Duany, Andres; Plater-Zyberk, Elizabeth; Speck, Jeff (2000). “Suburban Nation: The Rise of Sprawl and the Decline of the American Dream”, North Point Press, 2000. Mattson, Kevin (1999); “Reclaiming and Remaking Public Space: Toward an Architecture for American Democracy“. National Civic Review, Volume 88, Issue 2, pp. 133–144, Summer 1999. Squires, Gregory (2002). “Sprawl: causes, consequences and policy responses”. Urban Institute Press, Smiley, David J; Robbins, Mark (2002). “Sprawl and public space: redressing the mall”. National Endowment for the Arts, 2002. Garreau, Joel (1992). “Edge city; life on the new frontier“. Anchor/Doubleday 1992. 108
050 The public rooftop
Hypothesis
Over densification of cities is no excuse for giving up public space. Theoretical backup Theoretical backup Theoretical backup Theoretical Many big metropolises suffer from over densification, and not adequate urban policies have led to lack of sufficient public space. On one hand the over densification cause the rise of land value making the public space the last investment since there is no direct money return. On the other hand local governments are giving in the responsibility for urbanization to private developers.
Practical implications When there is no room for public space due to over densification of the land, engage private developers and foster the mixed programs in the buildings to create public space e.g. allow developers to increase the built area as long as they include public space in the building. It can be a public rooftop preferably within the first 5 stories. LGO
Under this panorama public space is losing importance since malls, sports clubs, private gyms, social clubs etc. are replacing public areas. Nevertheless public space is an important element of cities from the ancient civilizations up today. Public spaces are what the philosopher Michael Walzer has called Open Minded Spaces. Spaces that are good for civic life as they are places where a wide variety of people can coexist, places where a wide variety of functions encourage unexpected activities, places whose multiple possibilities lead naturally to the communication that makes democracy possible.
See also Public spaces, Trees as comfort provider, Native plants gardens, Mix of landuse, Water detention, Community gardens, Pocket parks 109
shoreline before, during and after restoration References IBA-Machbarkeitsstudie. Deichpark Elbinsel. IBA Hamburg GmbH 2011. What are living shorelines?. Melody Ray-Culp, Florida Panhandle Coastal Program U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service. 8 June 2010 Karen A. Duhring, Overview of Living Shoreline Design Options for Erosion Protection on Tidal Shorelines. Retreived on 27 March 2012 http://www.vims.edu/cbnerr/ 110
051 Shoreline restoration
“There has been a long time disconnect between how nature operates and how we as humans have built our civilization.” Alsenas, Paul. Director of Cuyahoga County’s planning commissio (retrieved 27 March 2012 http:// www.cuyahogariverrap.org/ newsgreenbulkhead.html)
Hypothesis
Water defense is not only against flooding, but also against erosion since this phenomenon can cause loss of property and damage other water defense systems such as dykes, as well as the decay of the ecosystem qualities.
Theoretical backup
Practical implications
In order to maintain the inhabited territory untouched by natural processes of sedimentation and erosion, or to gain space to water for industrial or estate developments, human-being have relentlessly controlled shorelines during years.
When natural shorelines have been altered it is time to restore them based on natural processes that facilitate environmental cycles, through the strategic regarding and placement of plants, sand fill, stone support and other structural
On the one hand, port activities have caused that entire urban areas located by water streams become environmentally affected, losing natural qualities that could be used when the port decay and an urban transformation is needed. On the other hand climate change and affectation of natural reefs have caused that coastal shorelines around the world are threatened by wave energy erosion, losing natural qualities required not only by estate developers but by owners of properties along shorelines.
and/or organic materials such as bio logs. The concept of living shoreline must be applied in order to fulfill the aforementioned processes as well as to engage community and lay the foundations for a sustainable future.
The problem is not only about the affectation to stakeholders’ properties, but the harm to natural processes necessary to regenerate physical limits and environmental qualities of shorelines. Those qualities are: Reduce wave energy, reduce storm water velocity, buffer storms, reduce erosion and property loss, trap sediment, maintain natural sediment movement, improve water quality, filter pollutants, allow tidal exchange, preserve shoreline resiliency, provide fish and wildlife habitat.
LGO
See also Urban settlements in meander rivers, City as a part of nature, Identity and regeneration, Native plants gardens, Pilot projects, Purifying wetlands, Sedimentation, Shapes of the river Soft interventions for nature areas, The waterfront, Waterside public spaces 111
public space emphasizing the dynamics of nature
References Tjallingii, S (2000) Ecology on the landscape: Landscape and ecology between town and country. Landscape and Urban Planning 48 103-119 Corner, J (1992) Representation and Landscape: Drawing and making in the landscape medium. Word & Image 8 (3), 243-275 112
052 Adaptive public space
Hypothesis
Public space should be flexible to the way people use it, but also able to adapt to the way nature embrace it. Theoretical backup Public space studies are focused on how to make it flexible to the different ways people use it. However nature can be considered as another user since public space use nature as an important element, sometimes even as a transition between urbanization and natural areas (buffer zones in the Randstad, waterfronts, peripheral urban parks or environmental reservationsâ&#x20AC;Ś). Nature is always changing and public space is static. Designers often recognize visual, material and weather characteristics of a place -as the genius loci(Corner, J 1992) in order to incorporate them to the final artifact. However very few times they make use of the dynamics of nature to approach a process based artifact or spatial plan (Tijallingii, S 2000).
Practical implications Make use of natural changing conditions of powerful landscape elements such as water in sea or rivers, snow in cold winters, rainwater in heavy rain places, to make public space an evolving and dynamic process that give diversity to urban landscapes in cities. LGO
See also City as part of the nature, Public space, Shoreline restoration, Waterside public spaces, Waterfront, Urban settlements in meander rivers 113
buildings that characterize the Edge City References Bontje, Marco; Burdack, Joachim (2005). “Edge Cities, European-style: Examples from Paris and the Randstad”. Cities, Vol. 22, No. 4, p. 317–330, 2005. Crawford, Margaret 2002. “Suburban Life and Public Space”, in Sprawl and public space: redressing the mall. National Endowment for the Arts, 2002. Garreau, Joel (1992). “Edge city; life on the new frontier“. Anchor/Doubleday 1992. Helling, Amy. 2002, “Transportation, Land Use, and impacts of Sprawl on Poor Children and Families” in Sprawl: causes, consequences and policy responses”. Urban Institute Press, pp. 119-139, 2002. 114
053 Public transport for the Edge City
“Look at the size of Yaohan Plaza. It would not be possible to build something like this in Manhattan. Where would you park the cars? A place this large and sophisticated needs support from people all over the region. Even here, the major problem is that there are only four hundred parking spaces, and they are so full now on weekends” (Hiroaki Kawai, Yaohan Plaza’s spokesman in “Edge city; life on the new frontier“ Garreau, Joel 1992.)
Hypothesis
Edge cities are necessary for diversification of urban environments. Theoretical backup Edge cities have been criticized by many urbanists for being part of a problem called ‘suburbia’. They are impersonal, mono functional, car-based, out of the human scale, not planned and based on the private property (Garreau, J 1992) that even public spaces are private (Crawford, Margaret 2002).
Practical implications Instead of planning to avoid the rise of edge cities, plan in a model of regional cities network connected by different means of transport (private and public, roads and tracks, multi modal-multi scalar) through a variety of land uses. LGO
However edge cities are the new engine of the economy, where most of the jobs are created and where the opportunity for an affordable house is (Garreau, J 1992). The edge cities are a new phenomenon from the last forty years that are currently evolving, as all the cities are. The edge cities arose as alternatives to the traditional old centers, and are located nearby important nodes of mobility infrastructure (highways), where the private developers is more decisive than the involvement of local governments. These conditions have caused that these places are commuter destinations, leading to oversaturation of roads and to low accessibility by public transport, leading to certain level of segregation and lose of quality of life (Helling, Amy. 2002).
See also City as part of the Nature, Clusters, City center, Decline of diversity, Large scale infrastructure, Infrastructure node as economic attractor, Mixed Use, Mixed of Land Use, Time scapes, With the Edge Cities 115
typical urban sprawl in the suburbia
References Altshuler, Alan, and José A. Gomez-Ibanez. 1993 Regulation for Revenue: Political Economy of Land Use Exactions. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Cieslewicz, David J. 2002, “The Environmental Impacts of Sprawl” in Sprawl: causes, consequences and policy responses”. Urban Institute Press, pp. 23-38, 2002 Duany, Andres; Plater-Zyberk, Elizabeth; Speck, Jeff (2000). “Suburban Nation: The Rise of Sprawl and the Decline of the American Dream”, North Point Press, 2000 Galster, George; Hanson, Royce; Ratcliffe, Michael R.; Wolman, Harold; Coleman, Stephen; Freihage, Jason (2000). “Wrestling Sprawl to the Ground. Defining and Measuring an elusive concept.” Fannie Mae Foundation. Vol. 12 Issue 4, pp 681-717, 2001 Helling, Amy. 2002, “Transportation, Land Use, and impacts of Sprawl on Poor Children and Families” in Sprawl: causes, consequences and policy responses”. Urban Institute Press, pp. 119-139, 2002. Squires, Gregory D. 2002, “Urban Sprawl and the Uneven Development of Metropolitan America” in Sprawl: causes, consequences and policy responses”. Urban Institute Press, pp. 1-22, 2002 116
054 Measuring sprawl
Sprawl is â&#x20AC;&#x153;Continuous low density residential development on the metropolitan fringe, ribbon low density development along major suburban highways, and development that leapfrogs past undeveloped land to leave a patchwork of developed and undeveloped tracts.â&#x20AC;? (Altshuler and Gomez-Ibanez 1993)
Hypothesis
In order to produce better living environments it is necessary to reduce sprawl in the suburbs. Theoretical backup Sprawl causes decentralization of urban areas and raises the inefficiencies in land use which cause the constant and growing use of automobile as main mode of travelling, due to longer distances among different activities (Galster et al. 2001 and Duany et al. 2000), leading to the loss of natural and farm land, decaying of environment (Cieslewicz, David J. 2002). and to segregation and poverty over society (Squires, Gregory D. 2002, Jargowsky, Paul A. 2002 and Helling, Amy 2002).
Practical implications To prevent the loss of centralization, separation of different kind of activities in different clusters far away or inaccessible from each other, spatial segregation and concentration of poverty it is important to combine the aforementioned different dimensions always close to natural environments. Even when cluster of activities are needed locate them adjacent, accessible and close from each other. LGO
Galster et al. (2001) define sprawl as a pattern of land use that exhibits low levels of some combination of eight distinct dimensions: Density, continuity, concentration, clustering, centrality, nuclearity, mixed uses, and proximity.
See also Decline of diversity, District, The cluster, The edge, Mixed Use, Mixed of Landuse, With the Edge Cities 117
urban plan for the Elbe Island in Hambrug, Germany with many different pilot projects IBA Hamburg
References Tjallingii, S. 2000. Ecology on the edge. Landscape and Urban Planning 48 118
055 Pilot projects
Hypothesis
Small projects can make bigger changes.
Theoretical backup Because of the large scale nature of regional planning and its complexity, it is hard to solve problems in a visible and therefore many times perceived effective way for different actors â&#x20AC;&#x201C; especially non-experts actors-. In most of the cases the vision is set for a long term time span. For this reason many visions start by realizing small interventions.
Practical implications Start small with Pilot Projects to make big changes; because a vision is adaptable and can be implemented gradually, starting with small interventions often becomes more effective and powerful through time as actors and public enthusiasm gains support LGO
Pilot projects are necessary nowadays due to the complexity of cities, regions, globalized economy and fast changing times. Pilot projects make visible the strengths and weaknesses of how things were planned/designed, how actors react. If a pilot project fails something can be learned and corrected, if it is successful it becomes the basis for policy in larger scale (Tjallingii, S. 2000).
See also Cause and effect, Coincidences, Shoreline restoration, Under the bridge, Waterfront, swimming, cause and effect, land, Shared spaces, Public bicycles 119
map of an integrated public transport system
References UITP (2007) Tackling Social Exclusion: The Role of Public Transport. Retrieved 22 May 2012 from: http://www.uitp.org/ public-transport/urban/index.cfm Ward, Gareth; Smith, Sydney; Barron, Jeffrey. (1997). Transport for all. In: A city for all; Valuing Difference & working with Diversity. (ed.) Beall Jo. Zoed Books Ltd. (1997).
120
056 Public transport for all
“Accessibility is important, not only for its role in facilitating regular and stable income-earning employment but also for its role as part of the social capital that maintains the social relations forming the safety net of poor people in many societies,” (World Bank; in Tackling Social Exclusion: The Role of Public Transport)
Hypothesis
Public transport is decisive for the inclusion of people in urban life. Theoretical backup Living in a city is not only to occupy a space in it, it is about the inclusion of people in urban life, and public transport plays a decisive role. It is documented that many groups have disadvantages manifested in their lack of means for mobility being prevented from the potential economic development opportunities, access to city services such as health, recreation, culture and education as well as affect by long time daily journeys and to the elderly, physical impeded people or with learning disabilities (UITP 2007; Ward, G et al 1997).
Inter-district transport system that connects centralities and support the creation of new ones. Analyze the existing transport technologies and if necessary make adaptations for your particular case. Set a standard fare paid by all bus users and a full fare integration between all modes of transport. Use special systems for the elderly, impaired users or with learning disabilities. (Ward, G et al 1997) LGO
Transport system must be seen as a fundamental goal for fulfill the inclusion of people in urban life.
Practical implications Therefore make the choice of the ‘anchor’ public transport system as a practical and affordable solution according to the specific natural, social and economic context. Design a transport system based on structural axes according to the urban setting. Complete the system with a hierarchy of feeder or interconnecting subsystem, and design the way the axes function.
See also Bicing, Bus stations, City center, Flood proof infrastructure, Infrastructural node as economic attractors, Kids and elders in big cities, Shared spaces, Train station, Water mobility, Public transport for the Edge City 121
promenade at Benidorm, Spain that integrates public space with coastal water defence.
References IBA-Machbarkeitsstudie. Deichpark Elbinsel. IBA Hamburg GmbH 2011. Warren E. Walker, Allan Abrahamse, Joseph Bolten, James P. Kahan, Odette van de Riet, Matthijs Kok and Marjan Den Braber (1994). A Policy Analysis of Dutch River Dike Improvements: Trading off Safety, Cost, and Environmental Impacts. Operations Research Vol. 42, No. 5 (Sep. - Oct., 1994), pp. 823-836. INFORMS. Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/171542 Nicholls, Robert J., Dr., Senior Lecturer, Middlesex University, School of Geography and Environmental Management, Queensway, Enfield, Middlesex EN3 4SF, United Kingdom (1995). Coastal Megacities and Climate Change. Geodournal 3Z3 369-379 1995 (Nov). Kiuwer Academic Publishers 122
057 Multifunctional water defence
Hypothesis
Water defense systems should allocate different programs that help to erase its image of hard border and boost new solutions for complex urban relations. Theoretical backup Water defense systems such as dams, dykes or surge barriers are always standing by themselves with no other function but keeping water out of the protected areas. One reason for this is the sole engineering technical approach of its own safety design (IBA-Machbarkeitsstudie 2011) – as it’s been designed by water boards in different countries e.g. in The Netherlands and Germany-. Yet since the cost of its construction and maintenance is so high - the cost of actual construction, including compensation for land purchased, building materials, and labor costs and the cost of maintaining the dikes - (Warren E. Walkel et al. 1994) they should not be understood and planned as single use infrastructure. They should be part of an integral spatial planning becoming part of the programmatic activities within the city, sharing costs but also possibilities for developing new urban and landscape environments. Water defense systems won’t be borders –borders for land uses and safety standards- anymore, but flexible areas for an uncertain future.
Practical implications When new or existing water defense systems are being planned or modified, make sure to allocate different land uses and programs, along, on, in and within them. Not only include more infrastructure uses as roads on the top of dykes, or bridges on the top of dams, but public space, residential, office, leisure, retail, agricultural among other functions. And finally make a set of complementary uses to increase the interest of the city for these peripheral areas. LGO
See also Inside and outside the dikes, Mixed uses, Mix of landuse, The slope, The promenade, Waterside public spaces, The water city, Public spaces, Vibrant waterplaces 123
process of community engagement in the regeneration of an industrial area. References Cuyahoga River community planning organization n.d. Retrieved 17 March 2012 from http://www. cuyahogariverrap.org/ Michael Carley, Mike Chapman, Annette Hastings, Karryn Kirk, Raymond Young (2000). Urban regeneration through partnership: A study in nine urban regions in England, Scotland and Wales. Great Britain: Policy Press. Michael Walzer (1986). Pleasures and Costs of Urbanity, Dissent, Fall, 1986:470-475 Richard Meegan and Alison Mitchell (May 2001). ‘It’s Not Community Round Here, It’s Neighbourhood’: Neighbourhood Change and Cohesion in Urban Regeneration Policies. Urban Studies, Vol. 38, No. 12, 2167–2194, 2001 PPS-Project for Public Spaces (n.d.). Eleven Principles for Turning Public Spaces Into Civic Places. Retrieved 1 May 2012 from http://www.pps.org/reference/11principles/ ; 9 steps to creating a great waterfront. Retrieved 21 March 2012 from http://www.pps.org/articles/stepstocreatingagreatwaterfront/ Smiley, David J. Sprawl and public space: Redressing the mall 2002 National Endowment for the Arts. 124
058 Identity & regeneration
“The most powerful resource in turning around neighbourhoods should be the community itself. Community involvement can take many forms: formal volunteering; helping a neighbour; taking part in a community organisation. It can have the triple benet of getting things done that need to be, fostering community links and building the skills, self-esteem and networks of those who give their time” (SEU, 1998, p. 68; emphasis added in It’s Not Community Round Here, It’s Neighbourhood)
Hypothesis
When a neighborhood has decayed engage community to regenerate it in order to gain support and prevent its decay in short time. Theoretical backup Many places have flourished in the past because the activities taking place are important for the time. However when those activities change of place or importance the area decay. Such is the case of harbors, industrial areas, city centres.
Practical implications When it’s time to regenerate an urban or natural area start by defining a shared community vision, ideals to strive for; Make different actors – society, academies, ONGs, people from all ages - feel part of the success and daily users of the new environment.
Nowadays planners realized that people can’t just move to a better place and the regeneration of entire areas has been taking place in many cities around the world. For this purpose bottom up strategies are getting into use more than years ago. The advantage of these strategies are that once community is engaged, different alternatives can arise in an exercise of democracy. Also the commitment from all actors to preserve it as they are involved in the regeneration making it part of their lives (Cuyahoga River community planning organization; PPS-Project for Public Spaces; Michael Carley et al. 2000; Richard Meegan and Alison Mitchell 2001). Moreover by engaging community the possibility of creating Open Minded Spaces (Michael Walzer 1986) is high. These spaces are good for civic life as they are places where a wide variety of people can coexist, and a wide variety of functions encourage unexpected activities. Successful different examples are Granville Island, Vancouver Canada (industrial district), the ongoing Cuyahoga River, Ohio United States of America (former harbor).
LGO
See also Art in public space, Brandscapes, Coincidences, Community gardens, Historic building, Kate Mossland (-), Respect the local folklore, Street market, Shoreline restoration, Pilot projects, Under the bridge, Urban palimpsest, Decline of Diversity, Cultural heritage monuments. 125
Fontana di Trive nowadays a very lively lankmark in the city of Rome once was the endpoint of an aqueduct References A. Aal Hashemi ( April 2012) . Water fountains in city. Retrieved 25 April 2012 from http://zibasazi.ir/en/ comments-and-article/item/146-water-fountains-in-city Byoung-E Yang and Terry J. Brown (1992). A Cross-Cultural Comparison of Preferences for Landscape Styles and Landscape Elements. Environment and Behavior 1992 24: 471 David Macaulay (1974). CITY: a story of roman planning and construction. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Serkan Ă&#x2013;zer and Neslihan Demircan (2010). Place of fountains in urban space: A case study in Erzurum city, Turkey. Journal of Food, Agriculture & Environment Vol.8 (3&4): 1188-1192. 2010 126
059 Vibrant water places
Hypothesis
In public space water is an important element that can attract people and shift the perception of the place. Theoretical backup
Practical implications
Water as urban landscape element has great conditions to transform a place into a lively public space and complete the tapestry of different urban activities. In cold weather, canals, lagoons or lakes are used as ice rink for skating during winter while in summertime or warmer weathers it provides of an attractive place for many leisure activities such as sunbathing, swimming or just refreshing.
Whenever itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s possible the use of water, it should be an important element in the design of a main square, park, important streets and even part of the urban fabric. Important activities of public interest should be located by canals, lagoons, lakes, ponds and fountains yet this water elements must remain for public use and well connected to other areas of the neighborhood, town, village, district or city.
In addition, water in history has been used to set the importance of places making it a recognizable sign that goes with important buildings or places (Tidal basin, constitutionâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s garden pond and reflecting pool in Washington D.C., Plaza Espanya Barcelona, The Opera Building Copenhagen, Fontana de Trevi Rome).
LGO
See also Mono functional water defense, Mixed uses, Mix of landuse, The promenade, Waterside public spaces, The water city, Private landscape resource, Public spaces, Swimming in the city, The waterfront. 127
space under a bridge transformed into public space
References Jing Su (July 2000). Reclaiming residual space from elevated transport infrastructure: Time, Space and Activity under Chicago Brown line. Thesis (S.M.) Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Dept. of Urban Studies and Planning. Massachusetts Institute of Technology 2005 Ian Bourdain (May 2009). Stimulating senses in the public realm. Archfarm Non-periodical fascicles on architecture, 12, 3-10. 128
060 Bajo puentes
Hypothesis
The space under the bridge shouldnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t be residual space.
Theoretical backup Bridges are a necessary element of the infrastructure. However the bigger it is, the space underneath becomes less attractive to the point of being residual space in the city. This kind of residual spaces are not properly maintained and soon becomes territory for gangs, thieves, garbage dumps; undesirable places.
Practical implications Therefore use of the space underneath bridges to allocate activities that canâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t afford to use other proper space, or just when there is no room available. CSG + LGO
On the other hand there are activities that are difficult to find room for in constrained cities, such as public space for young people (skaters, graffiti artists, performers etc.) or commercial activities that find expensive to rent a proper commercial space. There are examples such in Mexico City where skate parks are using this residual space to transform the whole environment. Also due to the growing offer of services from local authorities, the low budget and lack of available space in governmental buildings, many spaces under the bridges were used for allocate almost ephemeral low budget offices. After this transformation, not only young people were benefit, but also pedestrians that have to cross walking through these spaces. Safety and cleanliness of the place increased, changing the image of the under the bridge.
See also Highway program, Identity & regeneration, Pilot projects, Public spaces 129
Dock in Dordrecht
References Schaick, J., Klaasen I. [2011] The Dutch Layers Approach to Spatial Planning and Design: A Fruitful Planning Tool or a Temporary Phenomenon? , European Planning Studies October 2011, Taylor & Francis 130
061 Tempos in a City
[...] to distinguish three ‘layers’ in the spatial organisation of the Laagland: the layer of the substratum, the layer of the networks and the layer of the occupation pattern. These layersknow different ‘times’[...] (Schaick, J., Klaasen I., 2011)
Hypothesis
In a city where there are various tempos, urban rules for higher dynamic groups are set by the elements with lower dynamics. Theoretical backup A people may change his position very minute; buildings could exist for 50 years and infrastructure may exist for more than 100 years in a city. Where people stay is regulated by buildings and where buildings situate is decided by infrastructure network.Urban rules are set by the elements that transform slower in the light of the impact of systems with lower dynamic has longer influence on built environment.
Practical implications In design context like Dordrecht where nature dynamic has strong, slow and long-term influence on the quality of urban environment and life, respecting nature topography and dynamic is important for designing elements in urban environment. For the situation of Dordrecht city centre, where under deliberated protection, streets and some buildings exist longer than surrounding environment, rules for design should then respect these elements. Additional measures to improve the spatial quality should not change the street structure; and human activities is not supposed to bring damage to historical buildings. For example, adding a flexible dock in the river is acceptable, while changing a part of the street into a dock should be carefully considered.
MDG
See also Sedimentation; City as a Part of Nature; City Centre; Timescapes; Urban Palimpsest; The Slope. 131
Markeroog Project References Sediment and Suspended Sediment, http://ga.water.usgs.gov/edu/earthriverssed.html, accessed online May 29th 2012 Markeroog Project, http://www.west8.nl/projects/sustainable_planning/markeroog/, accessed online May 29th 2012 Sedimentation, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sedimentation, accessed online May 29th 2012 132
062 Sedimentation
[...] Sedimentation is the tendency for particles in suspension to settle out of the fluid in which they are entrained, and come to rest against a barrier. This is due to their motion through the fluid in response to the forces acting on them: these forces can be due to gravity, centrifugal acceleration or electromagnetism.[...] (Wikipeida)
Hypothesis
Sedimentation is a method to create landscape, protect and reshape the land. Theoretical backup Sedimentation is a strong high dynamic process. it could play a positive or a negative role according to the need of projects. In history the soil brought by sedimentation is used for urban construction. Reshaping river bank to avoid sedimentation in waterway with heavy traffic. It is possible for people to control the process and amount of sedimentation with the help of technology. Thus, it is possible to apply sedimentation as a tool to help shape land.
Practical implications Sedimentation has also been applied as a method to create landscape. If open some of the small dykes and allow water to come into the polder, the high lands are where new sediments will deposit. Consciously create small high lands in water may result in a nature boundary shaped by the sediments. The sediments can be collected and reused or stay as they are situated. MDG
See also Sedimentation; City as a Part of Nature; Shoreline Restoration; Shaping of the Landscape; Urban Settlements in Meander Rivers; Water Pressure; Shapes of the River; the Resilient Delta; Sedimentation in the Flood Plain. 133
Plan of ‘Chaining the Water’ Project
Plan of ‘Amstelveen Water Scheme’ Project
References Tjallingii, S. [2002] Ecology on the edge: Landscape and ecology between town and country. Landscape and Urban Planning 48, pp 103-119 134
063 City as Part of Nature [...]Whether we like it or not, nature works, even in the heart of the city. The workings of rainwater, climate and soils, the growth of trees, all these processes are at work in cities and, therefore, industrial and urban planning, and, in fact, both culture and cultivation is working with nature.[...] (Tjallingii, S., 2002)
Hypothesis
The functioning of city is part of natural mechanism.
Theoretical backup Traditionally nature is regarded as an object antagonistic to urban development. There is no clear boundary between urban and nature. There are green areas such as parks or lakes in the city; there are also villages and estates in rural area. Nature and urban is not necessarily to be clearly divided. In the emerging discourse, nature is treated as a physical process and a rudimentary principle for both urban and rural development.The functioning of both city and nature could then be considered as a unityfollowing a same suit of principle. The flows of water and traffic can perform mainly as the role to connect different parts of this unity.
Practical implications Flows of nature elements are important for both urban and rural part. Take these flows in the nature process (water flows) and adapt proper urban functions to them. In the ‘chainning the water’ program, the water flows are connected to fresh water reservior. In the ‘Amstelveen Water Scheme’ Project, the flows of water is applied for dealing with retention water from heavy strom. This retention is connected with purification lakes and water service in the city. Meanwhile this lake helps to improve the environment of neighbourhoods. MDG
See also Tempos in a City; Urban Settlements in Meander Rivers; The City Cross by a River; Shaping of the Landscape; Purifying Wetlands; Water Detention; Soft Interventions for Nature Areas; Shoreline Restoration; Adaptive Public Space; Public Transport for the Age City; The Water City; Green Network Green Ways; Shapes of the River. 135
Space Syntax Calculation of Integral map of London
References McAdams M. [2008] Complex Theory and Urban Planning, Urban Affairs and Urban Policy, Volume IX 136
064 Decline of Diversity
[...]Urban environments are complex. Urban areas are the environment for multiple activitiessuch as people working in offices, shopping, purchasing services, interacting with friends andfamily, eating at restaurants, purchasing and constructing structures (homes, banks, factories, etc.)[...] (McAdams M. 2008)
Hypothesis
There is a decline of diversity from city centre to periphery further to rural area. Theoretical backup The diversity of user group has influence on the diversity of landuse and urban typology. Centre of a city serves various type of people, has different functions and services. Correspondingly there is a complexity in urban pattern. Moving to the residential area and peripheries, the need of people is not as complex as that of city centre, spatial pattern are simpler compare to the centre of a city.
Practical implications Diversity and complexity should be considered when developing a certain area. In urban regeneration projects, when accessibility of an area has been increased, there will be a increase of need for local services. Correspondingly, when developing a former industrial zone or a residerntial area, planner should be prepared for the coming increase in the diversity of user groups and requirements. MDG
See also Distribution of Landuse; City Centre; Kate-Mossland; The Cluster; Measuring Sprawl; Identity and Regeneration; Public Transport for the Edge City. 137
The Function Mix Triangle and the Distribution of Seven Types of Urban Areas within the Triangle.
References Hoek, J. van den [2008] The MXI (Mixed Use Index). An instrument for antisprawl policy? Proceedings of the 44th ISOCARP congress 2008 138
065 Distribution of Landuse
[...]more and more urban projects can be considered â&#x20AC;&#x153;mixedâ&#x20AC;? and the grain sizes of both housing offices and amenities are diminishing within those projects, in order to result in lively and urban environment[...] (Hoek, J. van den, 2008)
Hypothesis
Different proportions of the distribution of landuse refer to differnet types of spatial vitality. Theoretical backup
Practical implications
The MXI model is introduced to measure various degree of multi-functionality. Different kinds of distribution of landuse refer to different user groups and different urban areas. The mixture of lanuse represents a diversity of need in a place, which has a direct relation with the spatial vitality of urban environment.
Before developing certain area, study the current functional composition and desired mixture of landuse would help clarify the need for change in lanuse. Developing a former harbour area into an office park need to reduce the proportion of housing and increase the amount of work opportunities in the area.
A neighbourhood with higher integration of functions has more public character than a monofunctional neighbourhood. The centre of a residential area has different urban vitality from the centre of office park. And the atmosphere of city centre is different from the above two types of urban area. This is related to the distribution of landuse.
Strategies about landuse should respect the designed type of urban area and also neighbour areas. The extention of historical city centre should has similar functional distribution to the type of historical city centre. MDG
See also Decline of Diversity; Trace of Former Infrastructure; City Centre; Measuring Sprawl; Public Transport for the Edge City; Wide Sidewalks; Adding Program to the Highway; the Public Rooftop; Multifunctional Water Defense; The Promenade. 139
Hiking on Private Landscape in Sweden
References Peil T. [2003]Landscape, Law and Justice, Proceedings of Landscape, Law and Justice Conference, http:// tallinn.academia.edu/TiinaPeil/Books/258259/Landscape_Law_and_Justice, accessed online May 29th 2012 140
066 Private Landscape Resource [...]The presentations include studies relating to common property, rights of access for recreation in forest and mountain landscapes, desired and preserved landscapes, and the preservation of cultural heritage[...] (Peil T., 2003)
Hypothesis
If a hill or a lake belongs to one private propery, the owner can charge a little bit for sharing the landscape with the general public. Theoretical backup People have right to embrace the nature, while private property of landscape resource should also be protected. Under the condition that private profit being protected and respected, private owner could share the landscape in a way that the general public has an access to embrace the landscape. Open high quality private landscape to the public with a fair price contribute to improving the quality of life, it would also help contribute to economic development.
Practical implications Recreational activities such as hiking and camping is a method to share landscape. Create a route to the river will also allow people to get access to nature. Certain commercial activities such as sport clubs are possible for sharing nature. Owner of land sometimes may block the view of nature landscape such as river or hill with their buildings and architectonic constructions. In this condition, the owner of land can provide an visual corridor to the landscape under the condition that his privacy is well protected. MDG
See also City as Part of Nature; Water Side Public Space; Soft Interventions in Nature Areas; the Community Gardens; Guerilla Gardening; Vibrant Water Space; Share Spaces; Pocket Parks. 141
Water Way connects Rotterdam Sea Port and Dordrecht
Drechtsteden Divided by the River
References Meyer H. [1999] City and Port. Transformation of Portcities. London, Barcelona, New York, Rotterdam, Utrecht, International Books 142
067 Large Scale Infrastructure
Hypothesis
Large-scale infrastructure connects regional environment and divides local urban environment. Theoretical backup Large-scale infrastructure such as highway and waterway is important in the network connecting urban environment. For example the waterway surrounding Dordrecht connects the city with the rest of Rijnmond Metropolis and the Randstad. At the same time large-scale infrastructure behaves as the boundary of local environment, in certain aspect, when situating at the centre of urban region, it impedes local development.
Practical implications In the process of regional planning, where largescale infrastructure plays an important role in the whole system. The location of large-scale infrastructure need to be carefully chosen. Both rail track and waterway serve as public transport, thus the rail stations and ferry stations should have close connection to urban environment(e.g. city centre). Thus in design process, it is important to deal with both sides of such urban environment. For Highway, the situation is different. They could behave as the boundary of different urban functions (e.g. industrial and residential), or situate at the border of urban fabric, limiting urban expansion.(e.g. A 15)
MDG
See also Infrastructure as a Carrier of Culture; Trace of Former Infrastructure; Adding Program to the Highway; Flood Proof Infrastructure; Public Transport for the Edge City; The City Cross by a River; the Waterfront; Water Mobility; Edges; Urban Settlements in Meander Rivers; Inside and Outside the Dikes. 143
Track of Berlin Wall
References Language is a carrier of culture, http://discuss.tigweb.org/thread/8612, accessed online May 29th 2012 144
068 Infrastructure as a Carrier of Culture
Hypothesis
Infrastructure is a type of carrier of culture and history.
Theoretical backup Infrastructure exist longer and change much slower than the architectures and antiques. It's long existing character provides an ability to be recorded in history and 'record' the memeory of a place. This track of infrastructure itself is a record of historical development. Streets, waterway, and a city gate can all be carrier of specific history and culture. In frastructure with such kind of historical and cultural value should be preserved or transformed with a respective attitude.
Practical implications The track o railline in former harbor area could be kept as a cultural issue reminiscing the industrial character in history after the new plan may has changed the entire structure of space. The track of this infrastructure can exist in different means. The story of Berlin is told by the design of brick and signs tracking the trace of the Berlin wall. MDG
See also Tempos in a City; Trace of Former Infrastructure; Large Scale Infrastructure; Train Stations; Historic Buildings; Rural Network; Add Program to the Highway; Infrastructure Node as a Economic Attractor; Flood Proof Infrastructure; Culture Heritage Monument. 145
Dordrecht 1881
Dordrecht 1910
Dordrecht 2009 Historical Maps of Dordrecht
References Dordrecht, Ancient Capital of Holland, http://geerts.com/dordrecht.html, accessed online May 29th 2012 146
069 Trace of Former Infrastructure
Hypothesis
The trace of former infrastructure is an important element in constructing new urban structure. Theoretical backup As the backbone of urban structure, infrastructure plays an important role in urban development. Its location and track are carefully chosen and is important to urban life. Trace of infrasturcture indicates certain spatial order and hierarchy. Infrastructure such as streets are also related to the route of basic electricity, gas, and water pipes. When new plan launch on certain area, the order of space will also change. Functionally and conceptually, former infrastructure plays an important role in the restructuring of the area. These former infrastructure may be upgraded or down-graded in the furture plan, but they are still in their role as a tool to structur the urban space.
Practical implications When the change is necessary, the trace of former infrastructure could be reused in new design or plan. Respecting the former infrastructure in design process could also in certain aspect reduce unnecessary cost. In Dordrecht, major infrastructure is also related to high land and safe land (e.g. dykes and streets on high level). It is important to keep these connection on the safe level for infrastructure. It is also important to make sufficient use of the high land for important nodes such as evacuation station and hospital. MDG
See also Tempos in a City; Infrastructure as a Carrier of Culture; Large Scale Infrastructure; Coincidences; Urban Palimpsest; Shapes of the River; the Passage; Flood Proof Infrastructure; Culture Heritage Monument; Paths; Edges; Green Network Green Ways. 147
Delft City centre
References Salingaros, A. N., [2000] Complexity and Urban Coherence, Journal of Urban Design, vol.5 2000, page 291-316 Handy S. L., [1996] Urban Form and Pedestrian Choices: Study of Austin Neighborhoods, Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board, volum 1552 1996, page 135-144 148
070 City Centre
[...]the right design will encourage walking, thereby encouraging interaction and a greater sense of community and discouraging automobile dependence.[...] (Handy S. L., 1996)
Hypothesis
Static and dynamic groups together create a quality of space in city centre. Theoretical backup There are people who own the place in city centre and stay there; they are the static group. There are also people who come visit city centre and go back; they are the dynamic group. Both groups have different life styles. The city centre is where this different life styles meet each other. The dynamic group brings in new elements to local life, while they get to know the story of local life.The communication between both groups create a quality of life.
Practical implications The city centre should provide places with a quality for static group and dynamic group to meet. A square with seats is the best expression of this communicational space. Catering places such as bar and cafe are where people would get together and talk. Events such as open market in NL is a successful example for this communication. The event itself is a part of the culture, it is also where people would gather and communicate. A seat or cafe in the event is where communication takes place. MDG
See also Tempos in a City; Decline of Diversity; Kids and Elders in Big Cities; Clusters; Share Spaces; Public Transport for All; Brandscapes; Nodes; Timescapes; Free Wifi Spots. 149
Open Cafe is a type of Semi-Flowing Space
References Gehl J. [2003] Life Between Buildings: Using Public Space, The Danish Architectural Press Hoek, J. van den [2008] The MXI (Mixed Use Index). An instrument for antisprawl policy? Proceedings of the 44th ISOCARP congress 2008 150
071 Semi-Flowing Space
[...] mixed-use urbanity can be seen as the urban patina after numerous steps of transformation and redevelopment resulting in richness and diversity[...] (Hoek, J. van den, 2008)
Hypothesis
Semi-flowing space separate at the same time connect static space from dynamic space Theoretical backup
Practical implications
The function and form of semi-flowing space differ a lot in different discourses. The definition of static space and dynamic space differ a lot according to different scales. A square is static space comparing with the streets next to it; while, it is a dynamic space when comparing with the cafe next to it.
This semi-flowing space perform as a type of boundary of an area that would help improve spatial quality of both static space and dynamic space. Functions for people to stay and communicate can play the role of semi-flowing space. Open cafe is a good example of it.
Static space ensure the efficiency for people to concentrated; while dynamic space and semiflowing space are necessary for people to meet and communicate. The need for separation comes from functional requirement. Separation is necessary for guarantee the quality of static space, but visual communication of different type of space is also not neglectable. Semi-flowing space plays an important role in connecting & separating the two parts.
An area between building and street can be regulated for such semi-flowing space and related functions. This will influence the arrangement of space of building on the ground floor. Part of ground floor of building can be opened to public functions or even open as semi-flowing space. MDG
See also Height/Width Ratio; Transparency; Street Market; Wide Sidewalks; Urban Porticos; the Passage; Traffic Calming; the Promenade; Paths. 151
Rail Line, High Way and Train Station of Dordrecht
Rail Line Highway Train Station
References Dordrecht, Ancient Capital of Holland, http://geerts.com/dordrecht.html, accessed online May 29th 2012 152
072 Train Station
Hypothesis
Train stations in the Netherlands are situated next to the border of historical city. Theoretical backup This is the result of historical development. Historical city exist longer than train stations. The complete integrality of historic city indicates that there is no space for big constructions such as train stations. Thus by the time train station start to appear, they mainly stay next to the historical city, being a part of the city border. After city has been expanded, the train station is concluded into the city; and the location of rail line separates the city. The major residential area (towns) and city centre in Dordrecht are separated by rail lines. Train stations then becomes the entrance to the historical part of city. Train stations bring people from other place to the city by public means of transport.
Practical implications Make fully use of the location of train station and make it a sub-centre of the city. Services for not just visitors but also local people can be set surrounding the train station. It is also a good location for offices to situate. In zoning plan, the train station can be posit in the centre of an area, which in development will make similar spatial patterns on both parts of the station. Then continuous atmosphere created by spatial experient and the variety of services and functions on both sides of the train station will connect the city divided by rail line. MDG
The design of train station as a local entrance to the centre. It is not just a trainstation, it also plays a role as a connector of different parts of the city. At the same time, the diversity of user group also indicate that there is a possibility to develop train stations into a sub-centre.
See also Distribution of Landuse; Large Scale Infrastructure; Infrastructure Node as a Economic Attractor; Public Transport for All; Nodes; Free Wifi Spots. 153
Space With Different Height/Width Ratio
References Luranraison [1979],Machinami no bigaku(Art of Street),Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten 154
073 Height/Width Ratio
Hypothesis
The Height/Width ratio of pedestrian street is closely related to type of activities happening on streets. Theoretical backup Taking H as the height of street facade, D as the width between facades. The H/D ratio can express the character of street space. H/D higher than 2 would contribute to the character of a narrow street, which is endowed with the character of the space of flows. H/D equals 1 could provide certain activities for stay and rest. This ratio is related with moderate and comfortable street space in most situations. H/D lower than 0.5 is close to the character of square space, which is broad enough to hold activities like street cafĂŠ, street arts, and some small sales places.
Practical implications Relative height/width ratio can help analyzing character of the streets and neighbourhoods. Different H/D along the street will help enrich spatial experience, and spatial quality. Considering functions of the buildings along the street and related activities the Height/width ratio could help create better public environment. For example, broaden part of a commercial street with retail stores will change partly the Width, then create a space for stay. Lower down the H of facade will also change the impression of space. Trees in the street sometimes can perform as facades. They divide the street into different part, for broad streets, this division will make street space more friendly. MDG
See also Semi-Flowing Space; Transparency; Wide Sidewalks; the Waterfront; Sunny and Shaded; the Promenade; Urban Porticos; Paths; Trees as Comfort Provider; the Chamfered Corner. 155
Commercial Street in Avignon France
Main Square Delft
References Luranraison [1979],Machinami no bigaku(Art of Street),Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten 156
074 Transparency in the Street Facade
Hypothesis
Ground floor or second floor of buildings with public function (retail,commercial, public service) should be visible from the street. Theoretical backup Transparency of the facade towards street plays an important role in enriching the communication on both sides of the facade. In areas with public function such as commercial or office zone, this improves the quality of street as open space. The light through transparent facades in the evening help to improve the quality of street space. Activities such as window shopping enrich street experience. Visual information perceived from windows or glass walls is also an important part of indoor experience. This, in certain aspect, improves the liveliness of streets. Being visible through transparent facades is also a tool for social control, while helps to guarantee the safety of street. People feel safe because the space is being watched. In addition people inside the buildings are able to contemplate humanâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s interaction in the public space, driving in the desire to live that outside-experience. On the other hand, people from the outside can see something is happening inside the building. This provokes certain interaction between the interior and the exterior.
Practical implications Certain regulation of facade transparency towards street could be set according to different functions of areas. In commercial streets, transparent facades help to improve the quality of street space. However, in residential area, the transparency sometimes may cause trouble to privacy of a family. Transparency of street facade is necessary to all kinds of streets, but the transparent ratio in areas with mainly private function(housing) should not be as much as that of public functions(commercial). In buildings facing public space make use of windows to encourage interaction between interior and exterior. In the ground floor locate a store, cafe, restaurant, etc. to rise the degree of interaction between insideoutside experiences. Windows in commercial street can be all transparent; while for the residential area, part of windows (eye level) should be able to block the view from street. MDG & LGO
See also Height/Width Ratio; Urban Porticos; the Promenade; Wide Sidewalks; Public Spaces. 157
The Wangâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Courtyard in Shanxi China
References Functional Replacement in Historic Buildings, http://www.verylib.com.cn/detail/8/244/505951.htm, accessed online May 29th 2012 Yang C. [2007] Protecting Historic Building in Modernisation, http://www.cqvip.com/Read/Read. aspx?id=24963920, accessed online May 29th 2012 158
075 Historic Building
[...] functional replacement is an important method to preserve the historic neighbourhood.[...] (Yang C., 2007)
Hypothesis
Replace functions of residential buildings with historic value from to public character will help to protect them. Theoretical backup Historic buildings, especially residential buildings with historic value, can not satisfy the requirement of high indoor spatial quality. Maintance of such buildings may also cost a large amount of money. Compare to private property, public property is able to collect more power to better protect fragile historic buildings. Open some of the buildings to public may also help to rouse a public awareness of protection.
Practical implications Museums is one typical way for protection. Many private houses or estates has been changed to museums. Adding commercial function, tourism for example, also helps to protect. The courtyard of Wang family in Shanxi Province of China has high historical and cultural value. It has been switched into a popular tourism spot. The income of tourism provides budget to maintain the courtyard; while tourism itself is an activity to rouse public awareness of protection. Besides tourism, studio, chamber, club, and retail may also replace the original functions of historic buildings. MDG
See also Infrastructure as a Carrier of Culture; Urban Palimpsest; the Passage; Identity and Regeneration; Kate-Mossland; Cultural Heritage Monuments; Landmarks; Brandscapes; Abandoned Buildings. 159
Chart showing Urban density and transport related energy consumption.
References Newman, P. and Kenworthy, J. (1999), Sustainability and Cities: Overcoming Automobile Dependence, Island Press, Washington DC. 160
076 High density cities and transportation
Hypothesis
Higher density cities are more sustainable in terms of energy use for transportation.š Theoretical backup
Practical implications
The area that a high density city covers per person is smaller in comparison with low density cities, which results in shorter distances within the city and therefore a reduction in energy use for transportation.
By encouraging walking, cycling and the use of public transport higher density cities can become even more sustainable in terms of energy use for transportation.
Higher densities will have more services available within walking or cycling distance of someoneâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s home or work, which encourages people to walk or cycle instead of using the car.
MG
Due to a higher density, a public transport system will be more economically viable and can run on a higher frequency, which will make it an even more competitive alternative for the car. In high density areas with busy roads and traffic jams, the time efficiency of cars drop and other means of transportation become more attractive, like cycling or public transport. For example in cities like London or the centre of Amsterdam, transportation by bike is quicker than by car for certain distances.
See also Walking and cycling in the city; Public transport 161
Historical map of Rotterdam â&#x20AC;&#x201C;1837
References Rossi, Aldo (1982), The architecture of the city, MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts / London 162
077 Historical urban context
Hypothesis
To design a building or masterplan in a city it is essential to understand the historical urban context. Theoretical backup Cities have developed over many years starting from small settlements to complex metropolitan areas. Each city is shaped in a different way due to historical and contextual influences and has many different elements and layers, which all have a relation with each other in some way. Together they form the complex system of the city. If an element in the city changes, this will have a certain implication on the complex system and therefore it is crucial to understand the implications of a new building or area on the structure of the city. An analysis of the historical urban development will give an understanding of these elements, layers and the structure of the city and form the basis for the design of a building or masterplan to establish the connection to this city and become part of the city.
Practical implications By analysing the historical context with all its different layers and elements the structure of the city will be understood and can be taken into account in the design. Examples of these layers and elements are street patterns, flows of traffic, public and private space, building shapes, functions and typologies, materiality, ecological structure. The importance of each element for the design will vary depending on the context, circumstances and the requirements of the design. MG
See also Public Space; Urban Palimpsest; Historic building; Cultural heritage monuments 163
Piazza del Campo, Siena, Italy
References Meyer, H. (2006), Het ontwerp van de openbare ruimte, SUN. Mayor of London (2009), Londonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Great Outdoors, A Manifesto for Public Space 164
078 Public spaces
Hypothesis
Public spaces should invite people to spend time in them to bring the city to life. Theoretical backup
Practical implications
Public spaces are the physical network of the city as they provide access to buildings or other elements of the city, which is essential for the existence of the city. Besides the physical network, public spaces also form the social and cultural network of the city. They give inhabitants of the city the opportunity to meet each other, encourage cultural and commercial activity and contribute to forming communities and neighbourhoods, which are the pillars of social and cultural life in a city.
To strengthen the social and cultural network in the city public spaces like squares and parks should invite people to spend time in them by:
A strong social and cultural network in the city will have a positive influence on the development of the city. For example a lively city centre will attract more inhabitants as well as visitors, which will contribute to the economical development of the city and enhance the experience of the city. Buildings and public spaces form the city, people will bring the city to life.
- initiating possible activities for certain age groups
-
making them feel safe at all times of the day
- giving them a comfortable size, shape and proportion - making them aesthetically pleasing, for example by natural vegetation and street furniture
-
making them accessible for pedestrians, bicycles and public transport
-
establishing connections with surrounding public spaces and buildings MG
See also Mixed use; Walking and cycling in the city; Edges in the city; Trees in the city; Farming in the city; Adaptive public space; City centre; The promenade; Vibrant water places. 165
Amsterdam city centre with residential units above commercial units.
References Jacobs, Jane (1961), Death and life of great American cities, Random House, New York. 166
079 Mixed use
Hypothesis
A mixture of uses within a development will enhance the livelihood of the area. Theoretical backup Historically cities and neighbourhoods have developed as mixed use environments as walking was the most important means of transportation which made it essential to have different uses close to each other. This changed as a result of the industrialisation period when living and working started to separate for health reasons and this was even further stimulated by the introduction of the car and the modernist movement at the beginning of the 20th century. Separation of uses, which result in purely residential or commercial areas, are seen as monotone and repetitive and are often the reason why areas are experienced as uncomfortable or unsafe at certain times of the day, for example a shopping street after closing time. At the end of the 20th century most industries have drastically reduced pollution, therefore the need for separation of uses is no longer valid and neighbourhoods can become livelier again by a variety of uses.
- it will contribute to local activity in neighbourhoods, like local shops or restaurants, which have the benefit of having customers living around them, while residents have the benefit of having shops or restaurant within walking distance. - mixed uses will create a variation and diversity in the townscape in comparison to purely residential or commercial areas, which will enhance the experience of the area.
Practical implications In areas where there is demand for other uses than residential (usually higher density areas), it is key create lively environments by mixing residential developments with other communal and commercial uses, like offices, shops, restaurants and public buildings. MG
A mixture of uses within an area will enhance the livelihood of the area as: - areas will be actively used throughout the day and night by different groups of people, for example workers during the day and residents during the evenings and weekends.
See also Public spaces; Edges in the city; Public transport; Typology variation in neighbourhoods 167
Two different communal residential entrances of Piraeus in Amsterdam by Christian Rapp.
References Slessor, Catherine (2002), Contemporary doorways: Architectural Entrances, Transitions and Thresholds, Mitchell Beazley 168
080 Building entrances
Hypothesis
Entrances are an invitation to enter the building.
Theoretical backup
Practical implications
The entrance of the building is an important reference point of the building as it will have to guide visitors and occupants into the building. Emphasizing the entrance will contribute to the readability of the building and guide visitors naturally to the entrance. It is for example much more difficult to understand a building if the entrance is not clear.
The design of entrances should be considered carefully in the design of the building and relate to the identity of the building. For example by emphasizing them in different ways by using a different material, positioning the entrance in a different plane than the faรงade, using a double height space or involving the landscape around it (for example Versailles uses the landscape to introduce the entrance extensively).
The design of the entrance will have an impact on the expectations people have when they enter the building and therefore it is important to consider the identity of the building and its occupant. For example the use of individual entrances to residential buildings is preferred above communal entrances, so that people can identify themselves with their front door and it feels like coming home. Communal entrances of larger residential buildings are important reference points for occupants and visitors as it will form the first and only expectations of home from the outside and should therefore be designed carefully.
MG
See also Public Spaces; Mixed use; Materiality; Detailing; Edges of the city 169
The Great Court of the British Museum in London.
References Andersen, Marilyne; MIT Daylighting Lab; Available at http://daylighting.mit.edu (visited 05/06/2012). 170
081 Natural lighting
Hypothesis
The use of natural lighting in buildings can enhance experience of the space. Theoretical backup Light allows us to experience architecture as it provides us with the means to reveal spaces and volumes. Natural light has the benefit above artificial light that is has a proven positive impact on peopleâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s mood, health and productivity. Natural light is part of our biological needs and therefore people are naturally drawn towards places with lots of natural light. This effect can be used to enhance the experience of spaces by directing the natural light into the space and therefore draw peopleâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s attention towards the lit area. Compared to artificial light, natural light will create a much livelier setting due to the changes of the weather, the season and the time of the day. Another positive benefit is that natural lighting can reduce the use of artificial lighting and is therefore more sustainable.
Practical implications When designing a building the quality and levels of natural light within the building will be influenced by: - The shape of the building. For example a shallow floorplan will have shorter distances to the windows and therefore higher lighting levels than a deeper floorplans. - The orientation of the building and the type of spaces. For example an artistsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; studio will benefit from north light and east light is generally desirable in bedrooms. - The size, position and orientation of the windows in relation to the inside space. For example a rooflight has a different effect on the space than a window in the wall. The amount of daylight will need to be controlled to avoid too much glare and balance the heat gain and loss of the building. MG
See also Materiality 171
The use of different materials
References Weston, Richard (2003), Materials, Form and Architecture, Laurence King Publishing, London. 172
082 Materiality
Hypothesis
The use of exposed materials like timber, brick, concrete, stone or steel in buildings will create richness in colours, shapes and textures and enhance the experience of the building/space.
Theoretical backup
Each material has its own colour, texture, shape and technical qualities; together they form the unique character of a material. By exposing the material these qualities will become part of the visual, tactonical and acoustical experience of the building or space. Which materials are used and how they are used will have an impact on the character of the building or space and can therefore strengthen the concept of the design. For example timber with its natural colour differences will give a space a warm character and exposed steel has a more industrial character.
Practical implications
The different qualities of each material should be valued and used to strengthen the concept of the design and form the character of the building or space. A combination of materials can also enhance each other, but should be carefully selected. MG
See also Building Entrances; Natural lighting; Detailing. 173
Detail of a stairwell
References Weston, Richard (2003), Materials, Form and Architecture, Laurence King Publishing, London. 174
083 Detailing
Hypothesis
Architecture is in the details of the building.
Theoretical backup A well designed detail should have the following characteristics: - Functional; there should be no compromises to the functionality of a detail, for example the external envelop should be waterproof and a door should be able to open.
Practical implications The architectural idea on the scale of the building should be translated into the details, in this way it will support and even strengthen the architectural idea. MG
- Constructional; you should be able to build it without too many difficulties. - Sustainable; the lifetime of the detail should be maximized and the use of sustainable materials considered. - Aesthetical; the appearance and impact of the detail on the overall building should be taken into account. For example the relation of certain elements to each other should be considered. By concealing, exposing or emphasizing certain elements of the building a certain language of the building will be formed. A concealed or exposed rainwater pipe will give a completely different appearance to the faรงade of the building.
See also Materiality 175
Oxford Circus in London before and after the new pedestrian crossing (2010).
References Gehl, Jan (2010), Cities for people, Island press, page 10. 176
084
Hypothesis
Improving conditions for pedestrians and cyclists will bring the city to life. Theoretical backup The invasion of cars into the city has contributed to the gradual breakdown of the opportunities of city space to function as a meeting place, as for example shown in cities in the South of the US like Houston. When transportation is mostly by car it prevents people to meet spontaneously and be invited to become part of the public space.
Practical implications Create pedestrian and cyclist friendly environments, like for example widened pavements, cycle lanes and car-free areas. This will attract more pedestrians and cyclists and invite people to be part of activities in the city. Car free areas will stimulate other activities to flourish which contribute to a lively public realm, like promenades.
When the conditions for pedestrians and cyclists improve, more people will start walking and cycling (as proven in Copenhagen). When more people are walking or cycling the feeling of security will increase and attract even more people, as people will naturally seek other peopleâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s presence. In this way public space will start to flourish and create a lively place.
MG
See also High density and transportation; Public spaces; Bike sharing program. 177
A shopping street in Leeds, England.
References Gehl, Jan (2010), Cities for people, Island press, page 79. 178
085 Edges of the city
Hypothesis
Open and active edges in the city will contribute to a lively urban space. Theoretical backup The edges of the city, in particular the lower floors of buildings, define the urban space of the city as they are the key elements you see and experience when moving through the city. This is where people enter and leave buildings and where inside and outside space meets each other. Open and active edges with many entrances and large windows provide an interesting view for people passing by, who are more likely to slow down and stop and will therefore have an opportunity to interact with the inside of the buildings or the urban space around them. This will contribute to contact between people and a lively urban space. Closed and inactive edges stimulate people to walk faster, prevent people to interact with the inside of the buildings and reduce the opportunities to initiate activities in the urban space. For example a study in the shopping streets of Copenhagen (2003) shows that the activity level in front of active facades is seven times greater than in front of passive facadesยน. This increase of activities was not just related to shopping, but also included people talking on the phone or tying their shoe laces.
Practical implications To initiate open and active edges the design of the faรงades is crucial. Lots of entrances and large windows will create places where the inside and the outside space meet each other, create connections and initiate activities. It will also enhance the attractiveness of the facades and give pedestrians something interesting to look at. MG
See also Public Spaces; Mixed use; Building entrances; Human scale; The window towards public space. 179
Market in Brick Lane, London.
References Gehl, Jan (2010), Cities for people, Island press, page 195 & 198. 180
086 Human scale
Hypothesis
Designing on a human scale is critical to create a great living environment for people. Theoretical backup
Practical implications
There are different scales on which designers have to operate. Roughly there are three scale levels, the larger scale of the city, which is the city as it is seen from an aerial view showing functions and traffic connections. The middle scale is showing how buildings and city spaces are organised. And last but least the small scale, which is the scale at which people experience the city, the city at eye level.š
By starting the design with the small scale and working up through the scales will allow designers to use the people in the city as a starting point and not the functions and traffic connections of the city. Ideally the different scales should continuously be treated at the same time, so that they all get equal attention in the design
The small scale is often neglected by designers with cities like BrasĂlia or Dubai as a result, where the city looks great from above, but walking through the city as a pedestrian the public spaces are too large and uninviting for people to actually use them.
MG
See also Edges of the city, Urban furniture distribution 181
Earls court station in London.
References Gehl, Jan (2010), Cities for people, Island press, page 5. 182
087 Public transport
Hypothesis
A public transport system will create activity spots within the city. Theoretical backup A public transport system will draw people towards a certain spot like a metro station and create flows of movement by people walking towards this spot which will intensify as you get closer to the spot. This spot and its direct environment will become an interesting area for public and commercial activities as many potential customers will pass by or wait for other people to meet. For example in London you will see that the flow of pedestrians increases the closer you get to an underground station as well as the level of activity as the number of shops and places to drink and eat increases. Compared to cities where the main means of transportation is by car there will be more opportunities for activity spots due to increased pedestrian activity around public transport nodes. Although cars have a similar flow of movement around for example large intersections they usually donâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t engage with city life in the way pedestrians do when they interact with each other. Except for the drive-in restaurant.
Practical implications A well used public transport system will intensify pedestrian traffic around public transport nodes and create an opportunity for public and commercial activities to take place. MG
See also Public space; Mixed use; Infrastructure as an economic attractor; Train stations; Transport for all. 183
Beestenmarkt in Delft
References Gehl, Jan (2010), Cities for people, Island press, page 189. The City of New York and Mayor Michael R. Bloomberg (2007), Plan NYC: A Greener, Greater New York. 184
088 Trees in the city
Hypothesis
Trees enhance public space in an aesthetic and sustainable way. Theoretical backup Trees in the city have many advantages besides the fact that they are aesthetically pleasing elements, like for example providing shade in the summer months, cooling and cleansing the polluted air of the city and creating a feeling of recreation.ยน Trees can define and shape public spaces, for example trees along boulevards which underline the linear sequence or trees in a public square which break up the space as at the Beestenmarkt in Delft.
Practical implications Designing and planting trees in public spaces are an effective way to enhance public spaces and contribute to the sustainability of the city. MG
Due to their ability to absorb carbon dioxide trees contribute to the sustainability of the city. For this reason New York City is planting one million new trees in public spaces across the city
See also Public spaces; Green roof; Farming in the city; Trees as comfort providers 185
An extensive green roof in the city
References Green Roofs for Healthy Cities (GRFC), http://www.greenroofs.org/index.php/about-green-roofs/green-roofbenefits (visited 04/06/2012) 186
089 Green roofs
Hypothesis
Green roofs improve the sustainability and aesthetics of the urban landscape. Theoretical backup Besides the benefits of green roofs to individual buildings, like for example improving the aesthetics of the building and the insulation value of the building, green roofs have even greater benefits for the city itself: - Green roofs improve the aesthetics of the urban roofscape and could create a recreational outdoor space or a place for agriculture in the city when using an intensive green roof. - Green roofs absorb rainwater and form a buffer for the drainage system of the city, which will reduce the required capacity of the system. They also act as a natural filter for rainwater which happens to run off.
Practical implications The benefits of green roofs on the scale of the city should be considered when designing or refurbishing roofs of buildings. The disadvantages of green roofs like higher initial costs and the higher maintenance costs should be easily outweighed by the long term benefits for the building itself, like increasing the life expectancy of roof membrane and reducing the demands for heating and cooling of the buildings due to the higher insulation value and additional mass of the building and the benefits for the sustainability of the city itself. MG
- Plants are able to cool cities in hot summer days and reduce the Urban Heat Island (UHI) effect through their daily dew and evaporation cycle. Green roofs are also forming a good alternative for the black rooftops, which create the hottest surfaces of the city. - Green roofs improve the air quality as the plants on the roof capture airborne pollutants and filter noxious gases. - Green roofs increase biodiversity in the city by their variety of plants and creating a habitat for wildlife in the city like insects and birds.
See also Farming in the city, The slope 187
A roof farm in New York City
References *Steel, C. (2009), Hungry City â&#x20AC;&#x201C; How food shapes our lives, Vintage Publishing **Smit, J. (2001), Urban Agriculture: Food, Jobs and sustainable cities, The Urban Agriculture Network, Inc. Chapter 1, page 6. 188
090 Farming in the city
Hypothesis
By introducing farming into cities again, the city will become a healthier, greener and more sustainable living environment. Theoretical backup Due to the industrial revolution the current food supply chain has been disconnected from the city and its inhabitants. Efficient transport systems and preserving methods have allowed food production to be situated far outside the city and often out of the country, with the result that the food supply chain has become invisible for people is being controlled by large multinational companies. Although this current food supply chain with its intensive farming is cost effective, it also produces a lot of waste, pollution, resources, diseases and health issues like pesticides and overuse of antibiotics.*
Practical implications Neglected external spaces, roofs and empty buildings can become part of the city again by using them for growing our own food. This will re-create the connection between the inhabitants of the city and their food and improve the environment of the city by creating more green areas. MG
These disadvantages could be overcome by establishing a local small scale self-reliant food production chain in the city managed by inhabitants. This will not only result in a reduction in resources for transportation, distribution and preservation, but also avoid the negative effects of intensive farming and establishing a healthier environment and making the food supply chain visible and controllable again. Urban agriculture will also have a positive impact on the city itself. It will dispose much of a cities organic solid and liquid waste by transforming them in a resource for agriculture. It will contribute to improving the urban soil, water, air, and living environment while closing the urban open-loop ecological system of â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;resources in, wastes out.â&#x20AC;&#x2122;**
See also Green roofs, Communal gardens 189
The “Ruins of Detroit “
References Lefebvre H., 1968, Dialectical materialism, in Sabin Bieri, Contested spaces: Squatting and the construction of “the urban” in Swiss Cities, Geogournal ed. 58, 2003, Kluver Academiv Publishers, Netherlands, p. 2072015. Angus, I., 2001. Emergent publics: an essay on social movements and democracy. Winnipeg: Arbeiter Ring. Mouffe, C., 1992. Democratic citizenship and the political community. In: C. Mouffe, Dimensions of radical democracy: pluralism, citizenship, community. London: Verson.
190
091 Abandoned Buildings
“Beyond the mere idea of integration and heterogeneity, an urban setting implies the possibility of innovative projects aimed at overcoming so-called alienated living- spaces.” (Lefebvre,1968)
Hypothesis
Abandoned Buildings should be given to people or groups of people that can use them either for housing, for cultural or for social uses. Theoretical backup Abandoned Buildings are empty buildings that fell into disrepair and eventual abandonment, losing their prior use. These buildings can be old mansions, housing estates, hotels, landmarks constructed for uses of commerce like “beacon of power” resulting in failure. Many abandoned buildings have been squatted from people for a variety of reasons such as housing, protest, poverty or recreation.
Practical implications Abandoned Buildings under squatting or legally given to groups of people get refurbished and acquire a new use from the people who use them. Most of the times these people are homeless people, artists or social servers, organizations and volunteers helping weaker social categories of the population.
“This perspective of citizenship emphasizes the active, historical, and contested dimensions of democracy, where questions of inclusion have the potential to open spaces for radically altering political identities and practices” (Mouffe 1992, Angus 2001).
OB
See also Historic Buildings, Trace of Former Infrastructure. 191
Carthagene, Spain
References Sennett R. (1992) The Fall of Public Man, New York, Norton
192
092 Art in the public Space
“The communicational meaning of public space tends to modify itself in new urbanterritories. The nature of messages and the appropriation of public space, place the question of the meaning. In a graffiti we can recognize the attributes of space as a gesture “to signal”, as to leave a “mark of individuality”. (Richard Sennet, 1992)
Hypothesis
Once placed in the public space, art should be perceived and “work” in the space that is emerged and deal with the local in commitment to freedom and identity. It cannot be moved or sold as happens in galleries.
Theoretical backup
Public art in general sense, is the art placed in public space. The social dimension of art makes it popular and communicative. In many cities
Practical implications
Motives given to artists or street artists to produce art in “contact” with the loci and the public- in the public space.
Public art has been accepted from the majority of the society and people did not Feel that something imposed in their space without taking into account their needs. Example of that are the paints in the Favela Morro Da Providencia, Rio de Janeiro from JR artistphotographer.
OB
See also Color in Public Space; Identity and regeneration. 193
Bike Station
References Bicing in Barcelona, https://www.bicing.cat Mitchell J. William, Sustainable Urban Mobility through Light Electric Vehicles, Ecological Ubanism, Harvard University, Germany, Lars M端ller Publishers, p.383 MIT Media Laboratory,2008, Mobility on Demand Future Transport in Cities, Massachusetts, MIT, p.12
194
093 Bike Sharing Program
“The Bicycle is an extraordinary elegant and efficient vehicle type with a tiny footprint…The problem with bicycles on urban streets and roads exists because this thoroughfares are predominantly occupied by much larger, heavier, faster vehicles.”(William J. Mitchell)
Hypothesis
Cities should introduce Bike Sharing Programs as modes of public transport using a large-scale public bicycle sharing system. Theoretical backup A Bike Sharing Program provides a bicycle sharing system- Utility Cycling, which enables convenient point-to-point travel within urban areas and extent availability to those who cannot or don t want to use their own vehicles. Large scale systems racks of bicycles Vélib’Paris, Vélo’vLyon, Bicing in Barcelona and Bixing in Montreal, are spread around the city such as potential users can “borrow” a bicycle from one destination and drop it off to the rank near the next destination of their preference. (MIT Media Laboratory)
Practical implications The bike- sharing programs run by Municipalities. have several social, economic and environmental benefits. Cycling, when implemented, provided a sustainable public transport system by improving the quality of life and public health of the citizens, It can also reduce traffic congestion, air pollution and improve road traffic safety.
Pick up and drop off points should be evenly spaced, at intervals determined by comfortable walking distance, and varied in size according to surround population density.
OB
See also Public Transport for all, Pilot Projects, The promenade. 195
Atlantic Wall
References Ricoeur P. ,1961, Universal Civilization and National Cultures, History and Truth, Illinois, Northwestern University Press,), p. 276. Konstadinides A.,1972 - Vessels for Life or The problem of a genuine architecture, Agra Publications, Greece
196
094 Cultural Heritage’s Monuments
Every culture cannot sustain and absorb the shock of modern civilization. There is the paradox: how to become modern and to return to sources; how to revive an old, dormant civilization and take part in universal civilization. . . . (Paul Ricoeur 1961)
Hypothesis
The Cultural Heritage’ s monuments should be preserved as livable and invaluable testimonies of our historical memory. The need for protection, preservation, development is imperative in the contemporary globalized
Theoretical backup
Cultural Heritage’s Monuments are monuments / artifacts bearing the stamp of history, interwoven with the neighboring buildings, with the natural or near-urban environment, a “pot of life” that can be whether a simple house/entity or an ensemble, a residential complex, a city, a theater, a church, a fortress, a landscape, created in a historical moment expressing the dominant style. Since their construction became “bodies of memory” (embodied collective/mineralized memory) according to their uses (function and meaning) in the passage of time and their historical, economic, social and cultural transformations. (Konstadinides Aris, 1972)
Practical implications
Possibilities for the protection of historical buildings that coexist harmoniously with the urban fabric in a sustainable balance of past and future, old and modern, time and space to achieve harmony adapted to the demands of modern life. In order to achieve an aesthetic and historical continuity we have to know in advance the purpose and objective of the intervention that will be determined by the new or the old use of the monuments.
Nazi’ s Atlantic Wall constitutes an historical landmark of the Cultural Heritage renovated for educational purposes. OB
See also Urban Palimpsests, Urban Porticos, Historical Buildings, Infrastructure as Carrier of Culture, Trace of Former Infrastructure, Identity and regeneration, Trace of former infrastructure. 197
Sternschanze, Hamburg, Germany
References
Sassen S., 1997, Ethnicity and Space in the Global City: A New Frontier ?, Barcelona, Ciutat i immigraci贸 City and immigration, (Urbanitats 2) Lynch, K., 1960, The Image of the City, 19th ed., Massachusetts: The MIT Press, p. 47
198
095 Districts
Politically it is of central importance to be able to document the economic viability of the working-class uses of 14th Street and the desirability of social and income diversity. Gentrification and offices are not the only viable and desirable options for these types of districts. Workingclass uses of the street, from shops, to warehousing, meat packing, and manufacturing, are viable whether in New York City, London, Frankfurt, or any of today’s major cities.” (Sassen Saskia, 1997)
Hypothesis
Districts have their own internal quality which is consisted by natural features such as symbols, types and construction structures, land uses, the residents, the degree of preservation and the topography.
Theoretical backup
According to Lynch districts are areas with perceived internal homogeneity- “ Districts are the medium-to-large sections of the city, conceived of as having two-dimensional extent, which the observer mentally enters “inside of,” and which are recognizable as having’ some common, identifying character. Always identifiable from the inside, they are also used for exterior reference If visible from the outside. Most people structure their city to some extent in this way.” (Kevin Lynch,1960)
Practical implications
Forms of organization of the city in sub-entities with an inner quality and inner diversity.
E.g.- center, midtown, its in-town residential areas, organized industrial areas, train yards, suburbs, college campuses etc.
OB
See also Street Markets, The cluster, Measuring sprawl. 199
Tel Aviv Seashore
References Haken H., Portugali J., 2003, The face of the city is its formation, Journal of Environmental Psychology, ed. 23, p.396 Lynch, K., 1960, The Image of the City, 19th ed., Massachusetts: The MIT Press, p. 47
200
096 Edges
“Quite generally, broken symmetries may help our orientation. This is particularly true for seashores, such as in Tel- Aviv that constitute a boundary line for the city and also helps our orientation with respect to direction”. (Herman Haken, Juval Portugali, 2003)
Hypothesis
Edges are linear elements that the observer does not perceive as axes but as the borders or boundaries between two kinds of zones, linear breaks in continuity. Theoretical backup According to Lynch edges are the dividing lines between districts. ”They are lateral references rather than coordinate axes.. These edge elements, although probably not as dominant as paths, are for many people important organizing features, particularly in the role of holding together generalized areas, as in the outline of a city by water or wall”. (Kevin Lynch,1960)
Practical implications As edges we can consider the barriers that separate one area from another but also the “seams” or boundaries where two regions or two spaces are joined with each other.
E.g.- shores, railroad cuts, edges of development, walls...
OB
See also Urban Settlements in Meander Rivers, Waterside Public Space, Add Program to the highway, Measuring sprawl, Large Scale Infrastructure, Trace of Former Infrastructure, The city crossed by a River, The waterfront, The promenade. 201
Londonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; s Landmarks
References
Burdett R., 2005, Changing Values, Public life and urban spaces, London, Urban Age Conference Publications, LSE Lynch, K., 1960, The Image of the City, 19th ed., Massachusetts: The MIT Press, p. 48
202
097 Landmarks
“The simple act of reuniting one side of Trafalgar Square to the National Gallery, and opening a grand staircase to the north, has redefined the sense of both enclosure and permeability to one of London’s iconic urban landmarks. Today, tourists and Londoners alike use the space as a stage-set of theatre and reality”. (Burdett Richard 2005)
Hypothesis
The landmarks are material elements that their scale varies from different distances and their form is characterized by uniqueness. Theoretical backup According to Lynch a landmark is a point of reference- “Type of point-reference, in which the observer does not enter in, is external. They are usually self-referenced defined physical objects.
Practical implications Buildings that are distinguished from all other buildings and can be easily memorized and recognized.
(Kevin Lynch,1960)
E.g.- building, sign, store, or mountain The landmarks become more easily identifiable if they have a clear form; if they contrast with their background; and if there is some prominence of spatial location. Their use involves the singling out of one element from a host of possibilities. Some landmarks are distant ones, typically seen from many angles and distances, over the tops of smaller elements, and used as radial references. OB
See also Brandscapes, Urban Palimpsests, Urban Portigos, Vertical references, Pilot Projects, Historic Buildings. 203
Waterloo Station, London
References Lynch, K., 1960, The Image of the City, 19th ed., Massachusetts: The MIT Press, p. 75 Lynch, K., 1960, The Image of the City, 19th ed., Massachusetts: The MIT Press, p. 47
204
098 Nodes
“The transition from one transportation channel to another seems to mark the transition between major structural units.” (Kevin Lynch,1960)
Hypothesis
Nodes are strategic focal points, meeting points, connecting roads and points of concentration of certain features. The nodes besides point- elements can also be areas or
Theoretical backup
According to Lynch “Nodes are points, the strategic spots in a city into which an observer can enter, and which are the intensive foci to and from which he is traveling. They may be primarily junctions, places of a break in transportation, a crossing or convergence of paths, moments of shift from one structure to another. Or the nodes may be simply concentrations, which gam their Importance from being the condensation of some use or physical character, as a street-corner hangout or an enclosed square. Some of these concentration nodes are the focus and epitome of a district, over which their influence radiates and of which they stand as a symbol. They may be called cores. Many nodes, of course, partake of the nature of both junctions and concentrations.” (Kevin Lynch,1960)
Practical implications
The scale of observation plays an important role. At national or international level the entire city can be regarded as a node.
E.g.- primary junctions, places of a break in transportation, a crossing or convergence of paths, moments of shift from one structure to another.
OB
See also Traffic Calming, The Cluster, Public Transport for the Edge Cities, City Center, Train Station . 205
The Highline, New York
References Dauenhauer, Bernard and Pellauer, David, “Paul Ricoeur”, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2011 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), Lynch, K., 1960, The Image of the City, 19th ed., Massachusetts: The MIT Press, p. 48 206
099 Paths
“The space of experience is made up of past natural or cultural events that a person remembers or is influenced by in the present. It is the past now made present and thus it serves as the point of departure for a new decision or action. The horizon of expectation, on the other hand, is the unfolding of the array of projects that one can now undertake, of paths that one can now begin to explore on the basis of this space of experience.” (Paul Ricoeur)
Hypothesis
The paths are channels through which the observer moves occasionally, out of habit or dynamically. All elements of the urban environment are arranged in relation to these axes but their importance varies according to the degree of intimacy with the city. Theoretical backup
Practical implications
According to Lynch, paths are familiar routes – “the channels along which the observer customarily, occasionally, or potentially moves. They may be streets, walkways, transit lines, canals, railroads. For many people, these are the predominant elements in their image. People observe the city while moving through it, and along these paths the other environmental elements are arranged and related.” (Kevin Lynch,1960) E.g.-streets, railroads
walkways,
transit
lines,
Important links between two different conditions so that the element of surprise could operate.
canals,
OB
See also Wide Sidewalks, Add Program to the Highway, Passage, Promenade, Height/Width Ratio, Trace of Former Infrastructure, Semi-flowing space. 207
Pocket Park in
References Blake A., Pocket Parks, ULR:http://depts.washington.edu/open2100/pdf/2_OpenSpaceTypes/Open_Space_Types/pocket_parks.pdf Newcomb T., 30 July 2011, “Chasing Pavement: Why cities are big in pocket parks”, TIMES magazine. Roger J., Nov 200, “Small Spaces Make a Difference” Landscape Australia 1999, v.21, n.4 (84), p.292-294 Seymour W., 1969, Small Urban Spaces. The Philosophy, Design, Sociology and Politics of Vest- Pocket Parks and Other Small Urban Open Spaces. New York University Press: New York. 208
100 Pocket Parks
“Their presence should be felt everywhere throughout the area – on the way to work, on the way home, as well as during the lunch hour. If such a system of parks is to succeed, there must be proximity, as well as profusion – one such park for each square block”. (Whitney North Seymour 1969).
Hypothesis
Pocket parks should provide greenery, a place to sit outdoors, and sometimes a children’s playground for the people of the neighborhood. Theoretical backup A pocket park is a small park accessible to the general public. Pocket parks can be urban, suburban or rural, and can be on public or private land. They may also be created as a component of the public space requirement of large building projects. Philadelphia was one of the first cities to begin developing pocket parks within its neighborhoods. These were constructed on the site of vacant or abandoned lots that had become eyesores and were located in low-income areas that needed local open space in addition to the limited facilities already available. “These parks involved the community in their design and construction and had a specific focus on children’s play areas”.
Practical implications Pocket parks an operate as bioclimatic enclaves in the urban tissue and simultaneously as intermediate social spaces especially in areas with high density. “Pocket parks are frequently created on a single vacant building lot or on small, irregular pieces of land”.(Newcomb ,2011)
“Many pocket parks are the result of community groups, private entities or foundations reclaiming these spaces for the benefit of the local neighborhood”. OB
(Jasprizza Roger, 2000)
See also Kids and Elders in Big Cities, Sunny and Shaded, Water Detention, Public Rooftops, Private Landscape Resources. 209
The Finger plan-1947 in the inner city of Copenhagen
References Portaliou E., 30 Apr 2007,“Urban Redesign in Athens and the Region of Attica”, Monumenta Magazine. Schwartz M., 2010, Ecological Urbanism and the Landscape, Ecological Ubanism, Harvard University, Germany, Lars Müller Publishers, p.524 210
101 Green networks/Greenways
As architects, learning to design with “green” in mind is core to what we do as a profession.” (Martha Schwartz)
Hypothesis
Green should penetrate cities like green fingers, to inundate and fill the open spaces so that the open surfaces do not be isolated and fragmented. Theoretical backup “Green spaces operated as functional components in the historic city as well as in the modern city”. (Eleni Portaliou, 2007) Within the cities there are many fragmented and neglected areas as parks, squares and urban voids. These spaces along with the open spaces on the plots of the blocks in conjunction with existing roads and sidewalks can be unified green spaces. An example is the Finger plan-1947 in the inner city of Copenhagen.
Practical implications Nature should operate as an integrated network with the urban and suburban environment with greennetworks to connect the different functions of the city. Then, the quality of life within the city will be improved- by changing the thermal comfort and urban microclimate- creating opportunities for recreation and the enrichment of the urban biodiversity.
OB
See also Rural Network, Natives Plans Gardens, Purifying Wetlands, Water Detention, Green Interventions in Natural Areas, Passage, Promenade, City as part of Nature, Trace of Former Infrastructure. 211
References The Associated Press (21 Nov 2006). “In Europe, less is more when it comes to road signs”, International Herald Tribune. Simon Jenkins (29 Feb 2008). “Rip out the traffic lights and railings. Our streets are better without them” , The Guardian. 212
102 Shared Spaces
“User behavior becomes influenced and controlled by natural human interactions rather than by artificial regulation”. (Associated Press,2006)
Hypothesis
Streets that allocate distinct spaces to the different modes of transport can be transformed into Shared Spaces. Theoretical backup A major characteristic of a shared space is the absence of traditional road markings, signs, traffic signals and the distinction between “road” and “pavement”. Conventional road priority management systems and devices such as kerbs, lines, signs and signals could be replaced with an integrated, peopleoriented understanding of public space, such as walking, cycling, shopping and driving, all as integrated activities.
Practical implications Opportunities for safety, economic vitality community severance and reduction of congestion can be effectively tackled in streets and other public spaces if they are designed and managed to allow traffic to be fully integrated with the human activity and not separated from it.
“The shared space philosophy distinguishes between the fine-meshed slow network of the Street hierarchy, and its larger-meshed fast network. The slow network, which is the subject of the shared space philosophy, is characterized as the street network which make public space vital and accessible…The fast or supra traffic network, which allows traffic to reach destinations quickly, and which is designed using traditional traffic engineering methodologies, is essential if the slow network is to function properly”.
OB
See also Wide Sidewalks, Add Program to Highways, Traffic Calming, Promenade, Public Transport for all, Pilot Projects. 213
Free Wi-Fi in Bryant Park
References Hampton K., Livio O., Sessions L. The Social Life of Wireless Urban Spaces Internet Use, Social Networks, and the Public Realm, “Mobile 2.0: Beyond Voice?” Pre-conference workshop at the International Communication Association (ICA) Conference Chicago, Illinois 20 – 21 May 2009
214
103 Free Wi-Fi in parks
Although urban public spaces are not a public realm for wi-fi users, the activities in which they engage do contribute to broader participation in the public sphere. (Hampton, Livio, Sessions 2009)
Hypothesis
Free Wi Fi spots should be placed in central parks and operate as projection of peopleâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s working environment. Theoretical backup Free Wi Fi in public spaces like parks can increase the daily attendance of visitors and contribute to the social life of the neighborhood. With the free Wi FI access, these parks can also be transformed into places of concentration for young people or into open-air libraries especially if they are close to Universities or Public Libraries.
Practical implications Along with other facilities like kiosks wi fi spots can be transformed to condensers of the urban life. Municipalities in charge to install Wi Fi spots, can offerfree wireless access in central parks.
Bryant Park and Union Square are two large public parks with free wi- fi access provided by NYC Municipality.
OB
See also Pilot Projects, Train Station, City Center. 215
Community Garden in Brooklyn
References American Community Garden Association (2007). What is a community garden? Retrieved on 2007-11-01 from http://www.communitygarden.org/learn/. Hannah, A.K.; & Oh, P. (2000). Rethinking Urban Poverty: A look at Community Gardens. Bulletin of Science, Technology and & Society. Wright R., 1922, Truly Rural, Berkeley Community Gardening Collaborative. 216
104 Community Gardens
“A garden is a public service and having one a public duty. It is a man’s contribution to the community.” (Richardson Wright, 1922)
Hypothesis
In urban areas the green spaces can be gardened collectively by a group of people under public community programs. Theoretical backup “Community gardens provide fresh products and plants from urban agriculture as well as satisfying labor, improvement of the sense of community in the neighborhoods, ecological awareness and connection to the environment”. (American Community Garden Association 2007).
Practical implications Possibilities for the creation of gathering places for the neighborhood with food production cherished. Also, “provision of access to gardening to those who otherwise could not have a garden, such as the elderly, the immigrants or the homeless”. (Hannah A.K., Oh P. 2000).
These areas, the community gardens, are publicly functioning in terms of ownership, access, and management, as well as typically owned by local governments or from non-profit associations. Community Gardens also combat two forms of alienation that plague modern urban life, by bringing urban gardeners closer in touch with the source of their food, and by breaking down isolation by creating a social community.
OB
See also Color in Public Space, Native Plans Gardens, Water Detention, the Public Rooftop, private Landscape Resources. 217
Guerilla’s Grdening Intervention
References Paddison, R. and Sharp, J., 2003, ‘Towards democratic public spaces’ paper presented at Nothing Special? The potential of neighborhood space Urban Design Group conference, The Lighthouse, Glasgow 21-22 October 2003, http://web.ges.gla.ac.uk/Online_Papers/rpaddison001.pdf last accessed 12/9/2007 Reynolds R., 2008,in Mooallem J., June 8 2008, Guerrilla Gardening, New York Times magazine. Wickham-Crowley TP., (1987) ,‘The rise (and sometimes fall) of guerrilla movements in Latin America’ in Sociological Forum 2, 473-499 Zanetti O., 2007, Guerrilla Gardening Geographers and Gardeners, Actors and Networks: Reconsidering Urban Public Space, p.56 218
105 Guerilla Gardening
“Public space should not only be public in the sense of accessibility but also in conception and design. What are the mechanisms for this? Spaces for the people should be democratic not just in their physical presence and openness but also in the decision-making processes underlying the creation and management of them.” (Paddison and Sharp 2003)
Hypothesis
Neglected urban space, which tends to be devoid of natural landscapes, is gardened by urban activists who reclaim land in order to cultivate plants in the open spaces of the city.
Theoretical backup
Guerilla Gardening is “the cultivation of someone else’s land without permission.”(Richard Reynolds) Guerilla Gardening is political gardening, a form of nonviolent direct action, primarily practiced by environmentalists. It is related to land rights, land reform and permaculture. Activists squat an abandoned piece of land, which they do not own in order to grow crops or plants. In addition, Guerilla gardeners promote re- considering land ownership and land reform.
Practical implications
Guerilla gardening has implications in reclaiming land from perceive neglected or misuse and give a new use on it.
Guerilla Gardeners occupy space in which there is a political vacuum: the untended public spaces of the modern city. In contrast to the ordered spaces of Public City Guerilla Gardening can be summarized as ‘any voluntary, and potentially illicit, gardening in space which can in some way be deemed public, over which the gardeners hold no direct or explicit ownership’. (Zanetti 2007) Like authentic guerrillas for whom ungovernable rural areas were their strongholds (WickhamCrowley 1987), Guerilla Gardeners make their mark in spaces out of reach of the authorities, generally the untended, derelict areas of inner cities. Such spaces were inevitably located largely in places of low economic development.
OB
See also Color in Public Space, Native Plans Gardens, Private Landscape Resources. 219
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OB Olga Balaoura
During this course we were asked to produce a set of urban rules translated into patrons. Therefore, each of us organized a set of patrons according to each specific interest, memories and reflection over space according to design knowledge, practice or observation. Finally, all of the patrons should be able to operate as a common language, a “manual” for all users. This language should also have a vocabulary filtered by different individuals and a grammar- the patron field- as a linking language for all patrons. The purpose of this project was to make a logical and practical case for any user in order, he or she, to get oriented over the structure of the city. These patrons became an interesting inter-play between different representations and mentalities, an encouraging dialogue between urbanists that I would personally call “creative cartography” derived from the multidimensional experience of the space. Although these representations have been analyzed with different approaches, there were three linking elements guiding their definition: identity, structure and meaning. As well as the city is a field of different memories, experiences and approaches in the designing process; we can also observe, in general, different kinds of patrons. Patrons specific and patrons abstract, patrons that have been referred to a regional scale and patrons referred to user- behavior, patrons that search for bottom- up and patrons for top- down definitions or practices. There were patrons related to water, as water was a central element in our designing and research process this semester and patrons more “urban” related to the organization of a city. There were patrons related to the historic city and its monuments and contemporary patrons as actions of people. Also patrons more technical adopting formal rules for the construction of the city and patrons more critical depicting urban transformations. In fact, the process of constructing patrons, produce a definition, search for theoretical back- up and for examples already implemented, makes this research interesting both for personal and collective production. It works as a learning tool not only as a final product, a typical pattern formula, but as a data- set always “in progress”. It will be really interesting, this book of patrons, not to be published once but to function as an open book, an open source where urbanists but also users could add new ideas. Hence, an interactive patron-field providing urban information and rules could improve both the users and the architects’ experience.
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CF Claudiu Forgaci
We gradually understood the qualities of the patterns during our Theory course. Let’s have a closer look at the qualities, particularities and shortcomings encountered during the process. At the beginning of the course we had a general confusion about what a pattern (or patron) is. Maybe our previous understanding of a pattern as a visually identifiable, consistent arrangement of shapes distracted us from grasping the more particular definition of Christopher Alexander. Also, our parallel study in the Technology course might have prevented us from clearly spotting the difference between a design rule and a pattern. When writing our first patterns, we aim to influence the final spatial outcome of our design: the physical shape of a river, the proportions of a street, a quality of the pavement. Yet, in my opinion, it is more to the potential of patrons than just directly guiding spatial outcomes. They can also address issues of the design process, point out abstract frameworks or stimulate the designer’s cognition, thus have an indirect, yet significant influence on the quality of a design. Therefore I propose a set of three abstract, scaleless patterns (Coincidences, Paradoxes, Cause and effect?) which I consider to be important to the way we approach our designs. It is interesting how a designer may be recognized by simply looking at his/her patterns. This means that patterns are not only subjective, as stated above, but they are also imprinted with the character of their author. Just by looking at the seven sets of patterns made by our team members, we can spot this as a quality. I will not differentiate the patterns among the authors, but rather point out the ones that I found the most interesting for each person: Carlos explores the potential of integrating natural processes into urban areas by proposing the Native plants garden, Purifying wetlands, Sunny and shaded, Water detention and Soft interventions for nature areas; Jesus describes surprising phenomena and singularities with his last patterns The single factor, The invaders and Sun instincts; with Measuring sprawl, The public rooftop and Public transport for all, Lenin seems to be concerned with the effects of sprawl, density and local urban interventions; Tempos in a city, Decline of diversity, Distribution of land use, Semi-flowing space and Large scale infrastructure clearly illustrate Meng Di’s fascination with urban dynamics and infrastructure; Monique takes a broader position and investigates general urban issues such as Public spaces, Mixed use and Public transport, but also looks to very tactile details, such as Building entrances and Materiality; Olga keeps her patterns in the realm of public space awareness and shared spaces with Pocket Parks, Community gardens, and Guerrilla gardening.
There is no pattern that I would regard as useless or incomprehensible. However, some patterns are maybe too general (Sedimentation, Public space, Detailing), some might seem too abstract (Cause and effect, Paradoxes, Coincidences), some could have been merged (Sedimentation and Sedimentation in the floodplain; Public transport for all and Public transport; Vertical references and Landmarks; etc.). These shouldn’t be seen as defects of our collection, but rather as a lack of optimization. The final pattern field and, in our case, the pattern book marks the end of our process. But what is its purpose? Can others design by following its guidelines? Is it a book that worth buying? I wouldn’t declare it a guidebook. For me it is rather a field of ideas that might be consulted by designers dealing with the same issues. However, the more people work on it, the broader the result is, and, consequently, the book becomes more reliable to guide. Individual subjectivity is reduced by the involvement of different approaches. On the other hand, individual pattern fields are highly introspective, therefore I see no point in being followed by someone else. Overall, the method of recording, visualizing and structuring ideas with patterns was eye-opening for me. So far, my fascination with complexity theories of cities has been translated only in abstract assumptions or questions. Working with patterns made me more aware of the fact that complexity is not something to deal with only by means of theoretical explorations. I will definitely continue writing, drawing and using patterns. I don’t know whether the outcome will lead me to something clear, but at least I will end up with an easily compiled personal collection.
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JGE Jesus Garate Esain
Introduction During the 2012 spring semester of the TU Delft EMU program, we have been experimenting on the creation of patterns following the Christopher Alexander principles. The design of the present book is the result of group debates about the most particular ones. The patterns Each of the patterns are understood as a real axiom that tries to explain certain aspects of the society first and more in detail the urban landscape in particular. Since Alexander first wrote there have been many authors have used this technic for defining specific aspects of their environment. The aim of the patterns is to achieve a global knowledge about certain aspects of the society. Patterns are not independent or universal. Each person may have different interpretation of reality. According to that, we could say that this is the beginning of a never ending publication. We can find different categories of patterns. In the present book, we can find some of them that try to identify the relation between the water and natural processes with the creation of human settlements first and cities later. Others deal with the human behaviour and the public space or the character of the cities. Finally, the patterns can be used as a tool for creating basic design rules that don´t necessarily have to be written but that will be applied by the designers as design principles. Randomness In my opinion, randomness is one of the most interesting aspects of the book. Although they are presented on a fix structure, the arrangement within the book tries to enhance this characteristic they are aim to describing the global knowledge so neither beginning nor end can be identified. The pattern book is in principle a compilation of random ideas of 7 urbanism students with very different backgrounds, experiences and nationalities: Spanish, Romanian, Greek, Mexican, Chinese and Dutch. Each of us had total freedom for proposing 15 ideas or theories that were the result of our interpretation of our interests about the city and human behaviour. We can find several similarities on the patterns since we are influenced by the delta-water urbanism, main topic of the master we are part of. Few patterns were rejected depending on their interest or lack of theoretical background. At the same time, other patterns were merged since they had similar basics and a more complete meaning together.
Creation of patterns Each pattern arises from different ideas or analysis of the urban environment. Once they achieve a sufficient consistency, we tried to confirm and complete them with proven theories and references. The Pattern Field The pattern field is a map representation of a certain part of reality. It has the ability to position each idea within a conceptual framework. However, I found it difficult to estimate its scientific value because of the method applied. Each person positioned its patterns trying to be objective. The position of previous patterns influenced on the new ones. In my opinion, a non-necessary complex equation could have solved the human behaviour factor and enhance once again the randomness I mentioned already. Each pattern could have an applied code (X,Y) that would position it on the map. Although it is apparently a complex system, there are simple connections: pre and post pattern. Patterns can´t be isolated. They are connected to other ideas and have the ability to produce new ones. At the same time, the structure of the pattern field can be as complex as the study want. It could have multiple shapes: circular, axialâ&#x20AC;Ś The creation of a 3d pattern field would also show more interpretations. Conclusion Although there was there was a desired unclear organization during the initial part of the course, it has demonstrated being an interesting self-organizative experiment. Few ideas that started just as axioms could be transformed into possible theories that can be interpreted individually or as part of a whole within the Pattern Field. The patterns that I have suggested in the book are the result of my personal experiences after having lived in different cities. My personal interest is focused on finding the common elements that make them successful in order to be able to create new designs that would transfer them from one city to other. The continuation of the study individually would result into a personal design agenda, a personal vademecum, summary of our human, life, urban, architectonic and many other interests.
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LGO Lenin Garcia Ortiz
During this spring semester 2012 in Theory assignment we, E.M.U. students, had the task to write a small book based on urbanism, landscape and architecture patterns. Since the beginning, personally, I had two ways to approach the search for patterns: first by looking around in my daily environment, second, by thinking in my past environment. By looking around the daily environment and thinking in the past, I started to look for answers to certain phenomena I was particularly attracted or concerned. Soon I spoke with some colleagues about the task, and their procedure was the same: connecting our daily experience to the search for answers. Under our daily experience a very strong and influential factor was the current task for the Studio assignment, related to water. Because of this in the end there are a lot of patterns related to water. In addition during the process of writing a pattern, it is required to understand the specific topic that is going to be written about, therefore research, in the sense of gathering information to learn about a topic, is a very important part of the process. On the other hand there are very different patterns and some don’t have anything to do with others because each of us have different concerns and fascinations, for example: some patterns were really abstract and I would say with a philosophical approach such as paradoxes and coincidence, while others were very practical. This shows that the patterns are not only a tool for design but also a tool for learning and to reflect about a topic. Moreover, by talking about patterns we talk about a model or original considered worthy of imitation, which makes me think that making patterns could be a tool for Design research since the goal of design research is “to combine, coordinate, and simplify the findings of experiments by developing generalizing concepts” (Glanville 1999). This is that the analysis of existing designs (considered as previous experiments) represent knowledge that can be generalized in concepts or principles which can be used in the process of design as foundation or “theoretical models” (Klaasen, I. 2007). The last two paragraphs shows that the patterns are a tool to connect the theoretical stand of a researcher and the practical approach of a designer in order to produce designs that are diverse and express the personal ideals and aesthetic expression of the designer yet are outcomes based on scientific research and therefore can be repeated and applied with certain degree of predictability. Moreover by writing patterns the knowledge contained in existing designs can be recorded and disseminated, otherwise the problem of design disciplines that is making just by experience will be a vicious circle for professionals of design.
In one way a book of patterns can be understood as a guide book for the designer but also can be used as an organizer of ideas. A book of patterns is structured in the way that each pattern works together with another group of patterns. In this way by writing one pattern the designer is able to organize his or her ideas in groups and then can assemble them in a coherent design. Also by organizing the groups of patterns the designer is dissecting the problem in its parts and this can help to design or trace the route in order to produce the outcome. On the other hand the researcher is able to recognize the threads resulting from the very first topic and furthermore can recognize missing or defective fields of knowledge within the research. I can think about two more fields of implementation for the patterns. These fields lay on the relation with the user. The first is about using the patterns as a tool for recognizing the needs and interests of community. The patterns could be used as a tool for read and interpret results in participatory planning. As I already said, patterns can be organized in sets of patterns because there is a thread that links them. In this sense when different actors come with different sets of needs or concerns, the planner can use the same logic and create patterns about these needs and concerns. By organizing it in sets of patterns a common vision for the majority can be presented and the different concerns linked to each other. The second implementation is using the patterns for interaction design. Since patterns state what is a right solution (proved in the more practical patterns) for a certain problem then users could have an array of possible solutions to choose from. Conclusion A book of patterns is more than a reference for good design. It is a tool to organize the process of design or research; it is a tool to connect the realm of theory and the one of practice. In addition it is a tool for interaction design since the patterns define sets of characteristics that can be chosen from. Furthermore it is a tool for participatory design since the designer can identify all different patterns presented by the different actors involved. A book of patterns can be seen as restrictive but it is a tool for a better integration of knowledge (theoretical and practical) and the own expression of the designer. References: Glanville, R. (1999) Researching Design and Designing Research. Design Issues: Vol. 15 No. 2 Summer 1999. Klaasen, I. 2007. A scientific approach to urban and regional design: research by design. In: J. Design Research, Vol. 5 No. 4, 2007.
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MG Monique Gorisse
Writing patterns For me as a practising architect it was an interesting adventure to write patterns instead of designing buildings. In a way writing patterns is similar to designing buildings, in both cases you are working towards a goal; what is the essence of this building or this pattern? And in both cases you will need to do research to make sure your building or pattern works. Usually a design assignment has requirements and a context, which you can use as a starting point of the design. But what is the starting point of a pattern? A pattern is a tool to communicate design ideas between the author and other designers. In order to make sure that a pattern can be used by other designers who will have a different design assignment, the pattern must be generalized to a certain extent. So what are my design ideas and how can these ideas be used by other designer with a different requirements and a different context? Writing patterns is a good way to evaluate your personal design ideas. What are important aspects when designing a building or space? And how can you catch the essence of this idea in a couple of sentences, in a way that it is useful for other designers as well? Writing patterns also gives you an opportunity to research interesting subjects to develop the idea further and come across new ideas, which can be translated into more patterns. In this way you can keep on expanding the set of patterns. By writing patterns they became a valuable communication tool for myself as well, next time I will start designing I will have a set of patterns to use. We have been working on the patterns with a group of designers from different parts of the world, each with their own background, experience and fascinations. This provides an opportunity to cross-fertilize certain ideas and exchange patterns. The process of exchanging patterns is similar to a brainstorming session; someone has an idea which is an inspiration for the next person and so on. Exchanging patterns also shows that patterns are subjective, patterns with similar subjects can have a very different implementation and will result in a different approach to the design. There are for example several patterns about Public Space and they all argue how to improve the public space, but the practical implications are very different and vary from introducing art into the public space to widening pavements for pedestrians. This creates an interesting dimension to The Pattern Book, as there are different solutions to a similar problem and this gives other designers the opportunity to choose which solution is most suitable in their situation. Organising patterns The Pattern Book compiles all the patterns and is currently organised by author with references to related patterns. Initially this seemed a random way of organising patterns, but when reading the book you will notice that each author who has its own recurring subjects which he or she focuses on, which explains the
views of this designer, how this designer would approach a design and what elements are important. Examples of these subjects are Landscape (CRSG), Water (CF), Public Space (JGE&LGO), infrastructure (MDG), Buildings (MG), Cities (OB). This gave me the idea of organising the patterns by subject instead of by author and also to apply this to the patternfield, which is currently organised by scale and the level of abstractness. Reading The Pattern Book is actually similar to reading a newspaper. You won’t read the newspaper from A to Z like a book, but you will scan the headlines and images and decide on that basis which articles you will read depending on your interests. Organising The Pattern Book in subjects will be similar to the different sections of a newspaper, for example Economy or Sport. Within a subject all patterns are relating to each other by default and between subjects there are specific relations between the patterns or between patterns and subjects, which encourages you to start reading about other subjects. Advantages of organising the patterns by subject are: - Relations between patterns become clearer as patterns within a subject automatically relate to each other. Relations between patterns of other subjects will be specifically shown in the patternfield. - Patterns from different authors with the same subject will be clustered, in that way you can compare the patterns and choose which one is most relevant in your situation. - As a designer you will work at different scales and integrate all scales into your design, for example when designing a public space you will have to think about the connecting public spaces in the city as well as the trees within the public space. By clustering patterns relating to different scales but similar subjects encourages designers to work at different scale levels simultaneously. Disadvantages of organising the patterns by subject are: - Some patterns will be difficult to catch in a subject. They could either be a minor subject on their own or if appropriate included in the subject where they have most relations with. Patterns: a method or an inspiration? Christopher Alexander ‘invented’ patterns in his book ‘A Pattern Language’ to provide a structured method of describing good design practices to allow ordinary people to design their own houses, streets and communities. This idea came from the observation that ‘most of the wonderful places of the world were not made by architects but by people’. (ref Alexander, C) It is questionable if Alexanders’ Pattern Language is the right method for people to create their own environments as each place has its own complex design problems and it is impossible to anticipate all these problems within a method. It is also questionable if a common problem always needs the same solution or that creativity can also solve these problems, create ‘wonderful places’ and add diversity to the built environment. If this Pattern Language is fulfilling the intended goal or not, most of the patterns described in the book are actually a very inspiring way of thinking about the built environment and it does inspire lots of people, designers and architects to contribute to building this dream of a world full of wonderful places. With this idea in mind The Pattern Book was created and will form a collection of potentially great ideas for people or designers and can be used as an inspiration for anyone to start writing patterns. References: - Alexander, Christopher ( 1977), A Pattern Language, Oxford University Press, New York - Reviews of ‘A Pattern Language’ by C. Alexander available at www.amazon.co.uk (visited 02/07/2012)
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MDG Meng Di Guo
of thinking. This in my opinion is a part about complexity: the complexity of different actors. The way we work on the pattern field is a model of multi-actor design setting. The patterns together provide a lot of unorganized information. The information was organized by connecting the patterns. It is one way to organize information, but it has to be further analysed and divided to see detailed information. The amount of the connections is so big that it does not show information directly. I would prefer to conclude the pattern field as a chaotic structure. This structure reveals that there is more information to be explored, which makes the pattern field intriguing, and attracts people to explore more about the patterns.
I didnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t really realize what the patterns are about at the very beginning. The beginning of selecting a pattern is a testing process; and the origin of patterns varies a lot. The first four patterns I tried to make did take some effort. And I would say I spent more time figuring out whether a hypothesis could be regarded a pattern or not than the patterns themselves. The patterns came into my mind from every detail of daily life: travelling experience, books and papers, lectures, information online, talk with other people, and experience in design etc. This is the first part that reveals the complexity. There could be a thousand hypotheses, but not all of them can be regarded as a pattern.Later after starting to make more patterns, this was no longer a problem. Then the new challenges came for making new patterns and enrich the content of each pattern: looking for theoretical backup and providing practical implications. Looking for theoretical references reflects to a process of actively searching papers and books to read instead of passively accepting a reading list from the professor. For some patterns collected from reading, lecture and courses it is not difficult to find references, but for others such as inspiration or experience from daily life it is not that easy. This part for me is an active form of the traditional definition of â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;theory courseâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;. The difference is that I was searching for papers to read for a clear purpose, or to say for solving a problem. I can directly implicate my theoretical backup in the patterns book and link it with practical implications after reading. In the traditional type of theory class, there is no such practical motive. This different motive of reading makes the process of enriching the theoretical knowledge interesting because I was the one to decide the topics of patterns. The practical implication is another important part that needs consideration as long as the patterns are built for use. The practical implication is closely connected to the technology course (urban rules), is also a standard to evaluate and test the hypothesis. Some topics express common or interesting phenomenon but do not directly influence the practical process. For these patterns I have to choose to give up the topic or to think about another hypothesis to express the same idea. Some abstract patterns can be divided into more concrete ones; similarly, some very practical patterns can also reflect back to the abstract and context ones. I would say the implications are not just for guiding design practice, but also for assisting the process of working The most interesting part of the entire process of working is the communication on the patterns, making connections and producing a pattern field. By communicating with the others about patterns and reading more patterns, it is not hard to find a tendency or preference in the process
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CRSG Carlos Rafael Salinas Gonzalez
During this semester I had the opportunity to research on different patterns that could be applied to urban design or landscape projects. At the same time, I also had the opportunity to share them with my classmates as well as reading the ones they produced. Both their patterns and mines had a big influence from the design task we were working on at that moment, a project in the island of Dordrecht facing the challenges and opportunities that water safety management poses for urban areas. That can be easily noticeable since several of the patterns we came up with, had a direct or indirect relation with water related phenomena. As common elements in our patterns it is possible to identify the way in which we approach water, generally not as a problem but a as design element that could enhance the qualities of a place and that represents big potential as attractor and recreational factor. Reflecting about my patterns, I think that during this work I had the opportunity to explore some issues that interest me. The patterns I made could be classified in three big topics: environmental issues, the qualities of public space and urban synergies. Firstly, I am interested in environmental issues such as ecology services proved by wetlands or the use of native plants for instance as way in which the relation between nature and city could be re-establish, taking advantage of the relevant role that nature and ecosystems could play as part of the metabolic system of the city. On the one hand the natural flows and ecosystems in which the city is submerged could help to purify and treat some of the negative outcomes of urban population and on the other hand this natural ecosystems inside and outside the city could be also relevant elements that provide urbanities with interesting phenomena that could provide diversity of events and inspiration to city living an even some resources that could be incorporated into the urban economy, for instance in case of urban agriculture. In the second issue, related with the qualities of public space, one of my main interests is related on how design could enhance and support the activities currently happening in an area as well as how design can integrate different elements and artefacts from the siteâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s past in order to use them in a way they could still maintain a meaning, be source of understanding and inspiration on designing a place and how they can contribute to strengthen the qualities of a site. Finally, one my interests is related with the way urban activities support each other and how certain activities present specific locations, infrastructure and critical mass needs. In that sense, a research I would like to explore for future works is about which urban measures
could be applied to positively influence in optimizing the functioning of different clusters of existing activities or even how, to take advantage of existing conditions that could give rise to the appearance of new urban synergies. One of the most important learning I obtained on working with patterns is how can I take advantage of them not only as principles for design but also as way for recording information and deepening in a specific subject in a non-linear way. In that regard, elaborating patterns could become an observation tool for systematically registering different aspects or findings we have in our daily life or during research trips. In that way, recurrent characteristics or combination can be first registered as hypothesis and later they can compared with other examples and complemented with more detail research that will allow not also to remember a fact but also to find theoretical and practical support to our observations. In that sense, I think that patterns have a great potential as learning tools to turn on our mind and really pay attention to what happens around us, besides representing a way to sharpen our critical stance towards reality. Patterns could be useful also when doing research for designing a specific project. In that way, as part of the observation a designer makes, one can come up with a set a patterns reflecting the phenomena happening in a site. Those patterns could be registered and later used not only by the designer but also for other professionals or designers working in the area, corroborating or opposing to observations in them. This patterns could be also applied by authorities or residents in a certain area for mitigating some of the problems that where described in the patterns. In relation with the usefulness of creating a text in this way, I believe that one of the strongholds of such a method is the diversity of points of view and topics. As disadvantages of that same diversity, the depth and the way the issues are presented vary considerably. However, having access to the patterns made by others could be a mind broadening experience and part of a learning process. Personally, I think it is worthwhile both to enter in touch with otherâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s patterns but is also relevant to the develop our owns, because by doing so, one can reflect seriously on a topic, question it and internalize the knowledge and ideas obtained and developed in a stronger way. Finally, in my opinion, working with patterns opens a wide array of possibilities for generating and sharing knowledge, learning from past and present patterns or ideas that implemented in a creative way could open new doors and paths for understanding the way in which the cities live and the way in which that life transforms and could be enhanced.
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