Monitoring networking between higher education institutions

Journal of Cleaner Production 49 (2013) 105e113

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Journal of Cleaner Production journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jclepro

Monitoring networking between higher education institutions and regional actors Marlene Mader a, *, Clemens Mader b, Friedrich M. Zimmermann c, Elisabeth Görsdorf-Lechevin d, Mario Diethart a a

Regional Centre of Expertise on Education for Sustainable Development (RCE) Graz-Sytria, University of Graz, Heinrichstrasse 36, 8010 Graz, Austria Graduate School, Leuphana University Luneburg, Scharnhorststraße 1, 21335 Luneburg, Germany Department of Geography and Regional Science, University of Graz, Heinrichstrasse 36, 8010 Graz, Austria d Treffpunkt sprachen e Centre for Language, Plurilingualism and Didactics, University of Graz, Johann-Fux-Gasse 30, 8010 Graz, Austria b c

a r t i c l e i n f o

a b s t r a c t

Article history: Received 22 August 2011 Received in revised form 4 July 2012 Accepted 24 July 2012 Available online 23 August 2012

As major contributors to research, higher education institutions have to tackle scientific questions that arise in connection with the transition of societies around the world towards more sustainable development. But universities are also significant societal actors e they shape their local, regional and national environments and are therefore important drivers for a sustainable future. A new way of cooperation and networking between higher education and regional actors is required in order to take up society-driven challenges for a cooperative solution-finding process. This paper aims at reflecting and analysing the diverse roles of higher education institutions in networking with regional actors. Three cases of networking and capacity building between higher education and regional actors, which were developed in the framework of the European Union project 3-LENSUS (Lifelong Learning Network for Sustainable Development), will be assessed in this paper: the COPERNICUS Alliance, the Database on Learning for Sustainable Development and the Seminar Series for Sustainable Development. The examples are methodologically reflected on the basis of the Graz Model for Integrative Development, as this model not only reflects the actions but in particular the processes behind the cases. Ó 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Networking Capacity building Higher education Graz Model for Integrative Development

1. Introduction Facing today’s challenges in social, natural or economic fields, the disciplines inherent in sustainable development do not coexist, bordering each other, but rather overlap, thus crossing these borders and influencing each other. This fact constitutes a huge challenge for research, education, and society. The UN Decade of Education for Sustainable Development (UNESCO, 2005) confronts universities throughout the world with these challenges as well as with resulting opportunities. Universities in particular bear a distinct responsibility for building a sustainable future in their role as educators for future leaders in society and economy.

Being major contributors to research, universities have to tackle scientific questions that arise in connection with the transition of societies around the world towards more sustainable development paths. But universities are also significant societal actors e they shape their local, regional and national environments and are therefore important drivers for a sustainable future. A scientific

* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ43 316 380 8824; fax: þ43 316 380 9886.

E-mail address: marlene.mader@uni-graz.at (M. Mader).

0959-6526/$ e see front matter Ó 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2012.07.046

discourse about the role of universities in the quest to interact with regional actors and to transform societies towards sustainable development is therefore required.

Academic research needs to become more open minded and cooperative with other disciplines, but to really understand global and local challenges research needs to learn from those who are involved and have an impact on the challenge itself. At the same time, society is facing complex challenges, which is reflected in wider impacts than ever. To understand these influencing systems, networking between society and research becomes more and more important. What we are currently experiencing is a new way of cooperation between regional and higher education actors, which not only consists in cooperation across disciplines but also in creating a scienceesociety interaction with a mutual learning process, taking up society-driven challenges for a cooperative solution-finding process.

In this paper, the authors concentrate on networking and capacity building between higher education institutions and regional actors in the field of sustainable development. The aim is to analyse and reflect the different roles of higher education institutions in co-operations with regional actors. This is done on the basis of monitoring three network cases. Experiences and findings

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of this monitoring can be used for the development and analysis of networks as well as to identify the roles and motives of higher education institutions to engage in regional developments.

The paper is structured as followed: - Networking and capacity building. This chapter highlights the importance of networking and capacity building for sustainable development by higher education institutions and defines “networking” within this context. Furthermore the roles and motives of higher education institutions in regional developments are addressed.

- Monitoring of cases on networking and capacity building in higher education. In the framework of the European Union project 3-LENSUS,1 different cases have been developed. Three examples of networking and capacity building between higher education and regional actors are reflected within this paper: namely a university network, a project database as well as a seminar series.

- Methodological approach. To monitor the three cases the Graz Model for Integrative Development by C. Mader (2009, 2012) is chosen as the main methodological approach. Not only does it reflect the actions, but in particular the processes behind the cases and shows further the roles of higher education institutions within networks as well as points to possible development potentials.

- Networking universities e The COPERNICUS Alliance. The first case deals with COPERNICUS Alliance, the European Network on Higher Education for Sustainable Development. It demonstrates how a European higher education network can contribute to more transdisciplinary research.

- Networking and knowledge transfer e 3-LENSUS Database on Learning for Sustainable Development. The second case focuses on the Database on Learning for Sustainable Development, which is analysed regarding the impact its contributors and users have. Projects that have been entered in the database are analysed and discussed.

- Capacity building e a Seminar Series for Sustainable Development. The third case presents a seminar series, which concentrates on the interactive exchange between regional and higher education actors. The experience of these seminars relates not only to aspects of communication but also highlights the importance of participation in research and community development.

2. Networking and capacity building between higher education institutions and regional actors Both networking and capacity building are two main aspects representing an integral part of university life; and happen on various levels of universities’ activities. Universities for instance act within their local environment, but at the same time show a strong national and international orientation e also depending on the research discipline. For sustainability research, interactions and networking with regional stakeholders are essential e following the motto ‘think global, act local’. While acting on the local and regional level, the global dimension and possible impacts of local activities on a global scale are taken into account and hence refer to a systemic approach.

In the following part, a literature review on networking and capacity building for sustainable development in higher education

1 3-LENSUS stands for “Lifelong Learning Network for Sustainable Development”.

The project is funded with support from the European Commission as a project within the framework of the Lifelong Learning Programme.

is presented. Furthermore the roles and motives of higher education institutions to engage with regional stakeholders are explained.

2.1. Networking and capacity building for sustainability Networks are essential to stay competitive as they help to share practical knowledge and experiences as well as enable access to current developments. Within networks, synergies are being used, knowledge is effectively applied, innovations and new developments are commonly created, and the exchange of knowledge, experiences and support are provided. Sustainable development requires collaboration and the ability to integrate various disciplines and people from various backgrounds in order to solve complex societal challenges. The importance of higher education institutions in fostering innovation processes in regional developments is pointed out by Nijkamp et al., who state that ‘innovation is highly dependent on information and knowledge; these elements are becoming the critical success factors in new models of regional development’ (Nijkamp et al., 1994). Information and knowledge is being produced by universities but it requires networks and people within these networks who share this knowledge and experiences and get in contact with regional actors. Furthermore, regional actors contribute their knowledge and practical expertise. A high level of trust and collaboration are prerequisites for networks that pursue sustainability targets.

What are the characteristics of such kinds of networks?

According to Wasserman and Faust (1994), a social network consists ‘of a finite set or sets of actors and the relation or relations defined on them’. Hence, networks are defined by the people who are part of the network as well as by the kind of collaboration. The three cases within this paper show how different such networks may look, depending on their purpose, intensity of communication and collaboration as well as the level of trust among the network partners. Three network models can be defined: (1) information networks, (2) knowledge networks and (3) innovation networks (Huggins, 2004, p. 103). This classification can also be found in the Graz Model for Integrative Development (Mader, C. 2009), which is used as a methodological approach to monitor the network cases in this paper. Huggins argues that ‘networking capacity at its most simplistic level can be seen as the disposition to collaborate to achieve mutually beneficial ends’ (2004, p. 102). This is in accordance with the network models mentioned above; for example, information networks present a simple form of networks that do not require a high level of collaboration and trust between the network partners, where on the other hand innovation networks require identification-based trust between the actors as well as a high level of collaboration in order to develop new innovations. In both cases the results should be mutually beneficial, though they pursue different objectives. But sustainability networks are characterised by more than the provision of information and the level of cooperation. It is also a question of knowledge and know-how of the network partners how particular information is being used and hence how the network develops further (cf. Huggins, 2004). This is again related to capacity building, which ‘...refers to the skills and attitudes in individuals and groups of people’ (Groot and van der Molen, 2000). Capacity building describes the process of acquiring knowledge e and the know-how to apply the newly gained knowledge, which is in turn highly depended on the personal skills of people involved. The UNDP (2009, p. 5) describes capacity development as ‘the process through which individuals, organizations and societies obtain, strengthen and maintain the capabilities to set and achieve their own development objectives over time’. Hence it is about empowering people and fostering sustainability actions. Networking and capacity building are closely linked

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to education and learning. Tilbury (2007, p. 117) argues that ‘in the context of sustainability learning is understood as a reflective process’.

Network partners learn by acquiring knowledge as well as by continually reflecting their knowledge, experiences and development processes and hence build capacity to take actions for a sustainable development.

2.2. Roles of higher education institutions in networking and regional sustainable development Activities towards sustainable development require a holistic approach. It is important to integrate the global perspective when planning activities and projects on the local level e as recommended for Local Agenda 21 processes (Lukman et al., 2009; Zilahy and Huisingh, 2009). Implementing sustainability projects on the local and regional scale makes sense insofar as the local level concerns the personal living environments of people and hence is more tangible than abstract global problems in other parts of the world. On the basis of local actions, an understanding for global challenges and impacts should be developed. Higher education institutions are valuable partners within regional activities for sustainable development as they act on a global as well as local and regional level and thus provide a broad field of experiences and know how. Academic disciplines that are involved in such networking activities work on applied research, i.e. amongst others sustainability, social or economic sciences. Networking between higher education institutions and regional and societal actors happens at all levels that higher education is dealing with: education, research, outreach and management.

Education and research present the core tasks of universities and contain great potential to foster collaboration with regional actors. On the basis of education and teaching, universities can make important contributions to sustainable development, as they highly influence the range and offer of study programs and courses.

Besides the imparting of fundamental basic knowledge, universities also have to perform the task to promote an understanding for sustainability, which is based on ethical values and a holistic perception of society, environment and economy (Zimmermann, 2006).

Universities shape the identity of regions in which they are located and operate in. Many universities have already established co-operations with businesses, however, for sustainable regional development, a multi-stakeholder cooperation is more desirable.

Beside businesses, public organisations and authorities, nongovernmental and non-profit organisations, educational institutions as well as the general public would be included. A variety of higher education institutions that put sustainability on their agenda have also started to enhance their teaching and learning systems towards more interactive, participatory as well as interdisciplinary course settings. The linkage with regional challenges and conditions present a good opportunity to foster interactive and applied teaching, which is furthermore an important basis of knowledge acquisition as it includes reflexive learning as well as application-oriented learning (‘learning by doing’) (cf. Lukman et al., 2009; Hansen and Lehmann, 2006; Zimmermann, 2006; Zimmermann and Risopoulos, 2009; Adomßent and Michelsen, 2011).

In the field of research, a variety of networking activities between higher education institutions and regional actors arise, promising mutual benefits. Strong partnerships are essential for universities to identify research demands within society and the region. On the basis of such transdisciplinary research settings, more valuable results are expected. Especially research activities by PhD and master students offer a great potential to engage with regional stakeholders e may it be businesses, NGOs or public

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organizations (cf. Hansen and Lehmann, 2006). However, it should be mentioned that it is of importance for universities to do research in various scientific fields and also without the involvement of society as somebody cannot anticipate what would be of relevance in the future (cf. Hansen and Lehmann, 2006). A combination of both regional as well as international research networks thus is the key.

Outreach and hence the involvement of civil society and regional actors present another task of universities. This might happen on the basis of transdisciplinary research activities and applied study courses. Additionally, a variety of universities offer specific programs and events that aim at involving the public, making research attractive and addressing societal needs as well as regional development. An example for a platform that successfully combines research, education and outreach is the Regional Centre of Expertise (RCE) Graz-Styria. RCEs, in general, act both within a regional network of different stakeholders as well as within the global network of about 100 RCEs all around the world (as of January 2012). According to Mochizuki and Fadeeva (2008) an RCE ‘is a network of existing localeregional institutions mobilised to jointly promote all types of learning for a sustainable future’ (p. 370). The idea to initiate RCEs first evolved at the Johannesburg World Summit on Sustainable Development in 2002 and was further developed by the United Nations University’s Institute of Advanced Studies, who presented the idea of RCEs at various conferences and meetings since 2004 (Mochizuki and Fadeeva, 2008). RCEs serve as interfaces between education, research, business and society (Mader et al., 2008). A further example, which is also based at the University of Graz, is the establishment of the Centre for Society, Knowledge and Communication with the main aim to foster scienceesociety communication and open the university to a broader public (University of Graz, 2011).

In the field of management, higher education institutions again have the possibilities of networking with regional actors. Universities should try to cooperate with these partners and companies for procurement activities in order to strengthen the regional economy as well as to reduce the ecological footprint of the university. Policy actions can also be added to this category.

Besides the division into academic fields where higher education institutions are cooperating with regional actors, the universities’ role of networking can also be seen from the perspective to which degree higher education institutions are involved within these networks. Devine-Wright et al. (2001) divide the role of universities in regional networks into the level of their involvement into five categories: hence the universities might (1) be leaders who guide and actively shape the development processes in such networks; (2) be gatekeepers who manage access to the network and have more a role as facilitators; (3) be spokespersons who represent the university and speak with one academic voice within the network; (4) be bridging institutions who have the role to connect to other stakeholders or networks; and (5) be independent actors who monitor and evaluate the networking developments (cf.

Devine-Wright et al., 2001). A further approach how the role of higher education institutions can be classified is with regards to the type of network in which they collaborate with regional actors, as mentioned in chapter 2.1 (cf. Huggins, 2004). The differences of these network types are addressed in chapter 3, especially in the analysis of the cases. It goes without saying that these three approaches overlap.

2.3. Motives of higher education institutions in networking with regional actors The aims and motives of academic institutions in cooperating with regional actors are manifold; some have been mentioned

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above, such as the demand for transdisciplinary research. Zilahy and Huisingh (2009) found out that universities engage in regional sustainability initiatives and networks because of common visions and the better communication between stakeholders.

Scientists can link their research to societal, problem-driven research questions that aim at serving society’s needs. The link between research and practice can bring about new solutions that are holistic and commonly reflected, and hence widely accepted among the various stakeholders. Due to the fact that universities involve a broad range of disciplines, they can provide exactly the expertise needed to address specific regional challenges. But this also leads to the challenge for universities to open their research and engage with non-academic stakeholders at an equal level. For collaborations it is essential that universities acknowledge the know-how and experiences of regional stakeholders and treat each other with respect in order to be able to learn from and with each other. Furthermore an external academic perspective on the region might also help the regional actors to understand regional processes. Critical and systemic thinking can thus be fostered; the engagement of universities in a variety of regional as well as international networks can support these developments. Furthermore, research outcomes can be disseminated more effectively across the stakeholders (cf. Brown, 2008; Zilahy and Huisingh, 2009; Tandon, 2008; Adomßent and Michelsen, 2011).

In a study carried out by Lukman et al., the main reasons for universities to cooperate with regional stakeholders were identified; these consisted of generating and acquiring knowledge, mutual problem solving as well as the possibility for graduates to find employment in the region (2009, p. 1151). Hence, universities see themselves as drivers for the regional labour market. Due to the fact that students are involved in regional research activities during their studies, it is more likely that they will not move away after graduating and hence brain drain might be reduced. This is especially important for universities that are located in rural areas. The involvement of regional actors in university courses furthermore strengthens the awareness of students for regional challenges and the importance for sustainable development (Zilahy and Huisingh, 2009).

The following elaborations exemplify three different cases of networking between higher education institutions and regional actors.

3. Monitoring cases on networking and capacity building in higher education The three examples in this chapter represent results of the European Union Lifelong Learning project 3-LENSUS. The idea behind the cases has emerged from a network of partner universities, which has gradually developed by common project experiences, such as the Virtual Campus for a Sustainable Europe, an elearning platform for sustainable development courses, as well as former engagements in Copernicus activities (Görsdorf et al., 2009).

On the basis of their collaboration and experiences, the following three cases appeared to be of importance: (a) a European network on higher education for sustainable development and hence relaunching COPERNICUS, (b) an online database on learning for sustainable development to enable networking and knowledge transfer between multi-stakeholder groups, as well as (c) a seminar series that concentrates on capacity building and the interaction between higher education institutions and regional actors.

The description and reflection of the cases below are uniformly structured: in the first place the background of the case is shortly explained before describing how the development process of the case is monitored and analysed on the basis of the Graz Model for Integrative Development.

3.1. Methodological approach e the Graz Model for Integrative Development In order to monitor the roles of higher education institutions in the cases of the COPERNICUS Alliance, the Database on Learning for Sustainable Development and the seminar series, the Graz Model for Integrative Development (in short: Graz Model) has been applied. The Graz Model is designed as a tool for describing, monitoring and assessing development processes of regional, entrepreneurial or institutional projects and initiatives. Clemens Mader developed the model in the course of a research project at the University of Graz between 2008 and 2009. It is based on investigations of three case studies in Egypt, Sweden and the United States; and was further tested in a variety of other regional as well as entrepreneurial and institutional development processes (Mader, 2012).

In this paper the Graz Model was chosen as methodological approach as it reflects the processes behind the cases and not only the actions. Furthermore, this assessment method allows a structured approach for the benchmarking of activities. In contrast to usual project evaluation systems, the Graz Model is not based on quantitative indicators to measure the actual state of impact of a project e no matter if it is a project of regional development or within an enterprise. It focuses on the qualitative process of how the project is being implemented and therefore how the effects of the project come into place and are being carried out by a shared leadership of actions (Mader, 2009, 2012). Nevertheless the question remains how the results of networking activities can be objectively analysed. In particular networks that pursue complex goals, such as partnerships between universities and regional actors that aim to solve societal relevant challenges, are difficult to assess. Fadeeva (2004) therefore suggests that the process as well as the network’s goals present essential elements that need to be considered in the analysis. The Graz Model for Integrative Development includes these aspects. The monitoring on the basis of the Graz Model presents a self-analysis, as demonstrated in following cases.

The Graz Model is essentially based on the following five principles (Mader, 2009): (1) Leadership & Vision, (2) Social Network, (3) Participation, (4) Education & Learning, and (5) Research Integration. During the research of case studies in Egypt, Sweden and the United States these five principles were identified to be essential for development processes towards sustainability. Each of those five principles is again divided into three hierarchical levels.

Lower levels are placed in the outer circle of the model. When getting closer to the middle of the model, the process is becoming more integrative. Principles overlap in their characteristics with each other and the process strives towards transformative development. Complex processes, such as sustainability processes, require a holistic and integrative approach, whereas more simple processes do not necessarily need to be highly integrative to be successful. The five principles are shortly described in the following (cf. Mader, 2009, 2012): a. Leadership & Vision: Leadership is leveraged into the stages of: - Administration where one is only following tasks but not being proactive.

- Transactional leadership where one is taking proactive steps towards a vision and communicates this to the network.

- Transformational leadership where one is building up a shared vision within the network and advancing towards innovative solutions via the active involvement of affected people. b. Social network is related to people who are affected by the process, as well as all relevant stakeholders. The social network

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supports the process by means of knowledge, experiences, human resources or financial means. The following three levels of intensities of networks exist: - An information network simply aims to exchange information without following a common aim to combine this information.

- A knowledge network not only exchanges information, but aims at cooperation and development and follows a common aim. More trust towards each other in the use of one’s knowledge is required.

- An innovation network follows a common vision, requires high trust towards each other and aims to pose new innovative solutions for coming challenges. c. Participation focuses on how all the people as well as institutions of the social network are involved in the process.

- Information is just a one-way communication without reflection. People are informed without having the possibility of active involvement.

- Consultation involves relevant people by seeking interests and opinions but calls for a decision from the leader on how to react to the feedback.

- Decision influencing participation involves people in the leadership of the process and transforms a shared leadership with highly trusted people. d. Education & Learning: Education focuses on knowledge building activities that contribute to building a shared vision.

Learning implies an ability to learn from one’s experiences and reflect the process.

- Single loop learning only implies a reaction to one’s activity, but does not affect learning to adopt the vision.

- Double loop learning also affects the adaptation of the vision.

- Generative learning requires the ability of systemic thinking to be able to adopt the vision and to have an impact on the whole system according to the learning. e. Research integration provides the opportunity to find new solutions for existing and upcoming challenges.

- Disciplinary research only focuses on a single discipline.

- Interdisciplinary research creates connections between disciplines and demonstrates systemic interrelations in-between.

- Transdisciplinary research takes up challenges posed by the people involved and creates a mutual learning environment with interdisciplinary systemic understanding.

During an assessment, the vision of the development process of a project or initiative is taken as the basis for investigating how each of the principles is represented by various types of actions.

Those actions can be reported and thus characterize the integrative approach of the process. A picture of the process is drawn by the model, the user consequently may investigate opportunities for improvement and further development. Over individual periods of time, a re-assessment makes sense to monitor the progress of development and to react according to the different experiences.

In the following, the COPERNICUS Alliance (the European Network on Higher Education for Sustainable Development), the Database on Learning for Sustainable Development, as well as the Seminar Series for Sustainable Development are presented as examples of networking and capacity building as well as are monitored on the basis of the Graz Model for Integrative Development.

3.2. Networking universities e the COPERNICUS Alliance The COPERNICUS Alliance was established with the vision to connect European higher education institutions in the field of sustainable development. This university network aims to promote the role of sustainable development in European higher education

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and to improve education and research for sustainable development in partnership with society and policy. The platform enables the exchange of knowledge and experiences as well as the common development and implementation of sustainability actions and policy. The re-establishment of the network was initiated by a consortium of universities and RCEs that had also been actively involved in former COPERNICUS initiatives. The COPERNICUS Alliance is connected to and based upon the COPERNICUS Charta that was already developed in 1993 and signed by more than 300 universities until 2005. A new draft of the Charta, which includes the goals of the network, was developed by the consortium members at the COPERNICUS Alliance kick-off meeting at Graz, Austria (July 2e3, 2010), and further developed in a working group (cf. COPERNICUS Charta version 2.0/2011, in Zimmermann et al., 2012). Both the University of Graz, Austria, and Leuphana University Luneburg, Germany, took over the co-leadership and commonly represented the president board as well as the founding management team. When looking at the principle of ‘Leadership and Vision’ within the Graz Model for Integrative Development it can be stated that the process of re-establishing COPERNICUS Alliance started as a form of transactional leadership. First, proactive steps were taken by the universities in Graz and Luneburg by communicating their aim to revive the COPERNICUS network to other European universities and RCEs. An NGO was established, goals and a management structure were defined and the presidents were elected for the first two years by a small consortium of universities. After the first administrative and strategic steps had been taken, the founding team started to comprehensively spread the idea among all European universities that had formerly signed the COPERNICUS Charta, and invited them to a kick-off meeting, which took place in Graz in July 2010. The idea of establishing the COPERNICUS Alliance as well as its further development was openly discussed. All participants were invited to bring in their ideas and knowledge, and build working groups. A common vision was developed on how the COPERNICUS Alliance should perform in future. Therefore a new COPERNICUS Charta including aims and missions was discussed and developed. This shared form of leadership also affects the social network. The network consists of European higher education institutions, such as universities, universities of applied science or open universities, as well as affiliated organizations, such as NGOs, public organizations and student organizations in the field of higher education. The activities within the network address all activity levels universities operate in, but focus on common research activities, management issues and outreach to foster sustainability issues in European higher education. The Alliance aims to build up an innovation network among its participants in order to develop innovative ideas and initiatives. Innovation networks present the most integrative form of networks. They are based on a shared vision as well as identification-based trust among its members. Actors within innovation networks closely collaborate, commonly reflect and work hard on creative and innovative development processes (Mader, 2011; Zimmermann et al., 2012).

The COPERNICUS Alliance would be defined as a knowledge network; knowledge networks are not as integrative and strong as innovation networks. They also focus on a common aim and vision, further develop their knowledge by research and develop strategies for implementing their gained knowledge and insights. Although knowledge networks also target collaboration and further development, their aims not necessarily focus on innovation. Furthermore the trust between the members does not have to be identification-based, but relies on common previous experience.

The degree to which the network is knowledge-based or innovation-based very much depends on the members involved. By inviting various institutions affiliated to European higher education

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for sustainable development, the COPERNICUS Alliance tries to build a framework for developing an innovation network. This openness towards different institutions aims at creating a basis not only for disciplinary research among the members, but for transdisciplinary research. By means of inviting important stakeholders of higher education institutions, such as student organizations and NGOs, but also public institutions, COPERNICUS Alliance likes to consciously involve regional actors. In order to promote sustainable development, it is helpful when universities are aware of their local and regional anchoring as well as responsibility.

The importance of the active involvement of the network members has already been mentioned. The COPERNICUS Alliance homepage and intranet serve as an information and exchange platform for members as well as interested people. Within the network, participation primarily takes place in the form of consultation and decision influencing. Consultation means that members are asked about their positions, and respectively, they have the possibility to bring in their opinions, knowledge and experiences. This approach allows decision makers to respond to opinions of other network members. Within COPERNICUS, ‘decision-makers’ refer to the president board as well as other members who are actively involved in the further development of the alliance. Consultation primarily took place in the phase until the kickoff meeting in Graz, Austria and to some extent afterwards. During the meeting, the network was characterized by decision influencing, which marks the highest level of participation. Within this level all members and stakeholders concerned are able to actively contribute and commonly decide about further developments. A high level of trust, respect as well as the ability to reflect and learn are essential elements.

This in turn means that education and learning come into play.

Within the Alliance, learning takes place on the basis of double loop learning, which means that decision makers as well as networking members not only reflect their actions, but also their aims and vision. This presents an added value as processes can be reconsidered and adapted according to new situations. The COPERNICUS Alliance kick-off meeting in 2010 presented an important learning phase for the network as a shared vision was discussed within a larger group of participants. The aims were constantly critically reflected and updated.

3.3. Networking and knowledge transfer e 3-LENSUS database on learning for sustainable development The online project database, which was developed by the project partners of the 3-LENSUS project, mainly by the Department of Geography and Regional Science at University of Graz, Austria, and by the Environment Centre at Charles University Prague, Czech Republic, presents a source for networking, support and inspiration, aiming at broadening, strengthening and promoting learning for sustainable development (cf. Dlouhá et al., 2012). It provides information on ESD research and practice for sharing and exchanging information among academic and non-academic stakeholders working in the field of sustainability. The database contains a range of projects that deliver sustainability activities dealing with regional development, multi-oriented learning approaches, multi-stakeholder involvement, transdisciplinarity as well as empowerment. Within the 3-LENSUS network, the partner universities were involved in the development of the database, but after implementation their role shifted to facilitating and maintaining the database.

Initially, 27 European projects were contributed to the Database on Learning for Sustainable Development in the first ten months after its launch (3-LENSUS Moodle, 2010). These 27 projects were analysed and a conclusion is presented here. When contributing

a project to the database, an online form has to be completed. This form includes 30 questions related to general information about the project, a project description, information about the stakeholders involved, learning activities as well as possible impacts on sustainable development. The form includes a mix of open and closed questions. The Database makes a contribution to learning processes and gathers information on how projects progress, which challenges they face and how actors react on these challenges.

Furthermore it shows how actors recognise impacts on sustainable development as well as the benefits of their research. The explanation of project challenges provides a valuable opportunity for learning and reflection. According to the project contributors, the communication between stakeholders is seen as a main challenge.

Especially language barriers present a challenge in transnational projects. Another challenge relates to learning systems, the way the stakeholders learn and reflect their developments and how learning takes place within the project. Management issues have also been mentioned as challenging parts of projects, especially for those focusing on regional development.

The field of projects’ impacts on sustainable development (see Fig. 1) implies that the relation between the three sustainability dimensions is well balanced. On average, each project mentions five effects it has on sustainable development. In order to receive more general statements the answers of these open questions have been clustered. The allocation of statements to the three sustainability dimensions reflects the perspectives of the persons who contributed their projects. As illustrated below, social aspects mainly deal with informing people and raising awareness regarding specific social issues (15 cases). Generating new and mutual knowledge, as well as educating people represents another focus (13 cases). The projects, especially those that operate on a regional level, aim at empowering people by involving different stakeholders and raising interest to sustainability issues. This happens via workshops, lectures or information folders. Active participation of the public however is seldom supported. With regards to the environmental impact, the reduction of ecological destruction is mainly stated (13 cases). When discussing sustainable development the needs of future generations become evident e and hence the maintenance and preservation of our ecological resources. In many cases this aspect is closely connected to educational activities, where people are being informed about the importance of our environment. Topics that are highlighted include climate change, energy efficiency, sustainable production and water resources. Raising awareness for environmental issues as

Fig. 1. The impacts of projects within the 3-LENSUS Database on Learning for Sustainable Development (Trummler et al., 2011).

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well as the development of sustainable technologies is also mentioned. Eleven projects indicate a contribution to regional economic development as an objective related to economic impacts on sustainability. Initiatives include Local Agenda 21 processes, entrepreneurial activities to create new jobs, increasing the regional value added by fostering regional products, i.e. food, handcrafts, tourism activities as well as the use of local energy sources. Furthermore, some projects aim at developing competitive advantages based on sustainability activities, acquiring sustainable economic thinking as well as fostering economic vitality.

Within the framework of the Graz Model for Integrative Development, the Database on Learning for Sustainable Development assumes two main functions: firstly it serves as an information network, and secondly it provides education and learning facilities. As an information network the database presents a simple and basic form of networks. The main motivation is to offer, share and exchange information on specific projects in the field of sustainable development. On the contrary, the database is not targeted on cooperation, and hence does not necessarily require a high level of trust between the users. People view projects and/or contribute their own projects. They trust each other that the presented information reflects the truth, but at the same time they do not have to know each other. The database presents a platform for both higher education actors as well as regional actors to present their project activities, to share their good practices, but also challenges and experiences with other people interested in sustainable development. Consequently the database also serves as a source for learning.

3.4. Capacity building e a Seminar Series for Sustainable Development The third case highlights a Seminar Series for Sustainable Development focusing on the interactive exchange between regional and higher education actors. Four seminars were held between January 2009 and November 2010: (1) European and Global Networking for a Sustainable Development, focusing on partnership building and networking for sustainable development at the University of Graz, Austria (January 2009), (2) Establishment of RCEs & Communication of Sustainable Development, focusing on regional actors’ collaboration and learning for sustainable development at the Leuphana University Luneburg, Germany (May 2009), (3) Regional Innovation for Sustainable Development, focusing on RCEs as incubators for regional innovation at the Charles University Prague, Czech Republic (May 2010), and (4) Virtual Learning for Sustainable Development at the University of Macedonia, Greece (November 2010). Within the seminar series, input statements were given and during interactive parts, topics were discussed and further developed. The group of participants were composed of 3-LENSUS project partners as well as invited regional partners from academic institutions as well as NGOs and enterprises.

The seminar series presents an example of knowledge transfer as well as capacity building and moreover demonstrates the importance of participation and learning in research processes and community development. Furthermore the Regional Centres of Expertise on Education for Sustainable Development (see chapter 2.2) were promoted as platforms to deliver ESD activities to local communities and regions within the framework of a global network.

As this example shows, the seminars concentrate on the interaction and exchange between science-based expertise at higher education institutions and experience-based expertise of local actors. This interaction and collaboration form the basis for knowledge networks and especially for transdisciplinary exchange within the Graz Model for Integrative Development Processes. The

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social networks of each seminar e especially regional cooperations such as the RCE networks in Austria, Germany and the Czech Republic are hereby addressed e are characterized as knowledge networks. Compared to information networks, such as within the Database on Learning for Sustainable Development, knowledge networks not only focus on the exchange and allocation of information but additionally aim at cooperation between the actors involved (Mader, 2009). Actors in knowledge networks pursue shared goals and visions concerning the further developments of the network. Their exchange of knowledge is targetoriented. Experience has shown that especially in regional cooperations for sustainable development, participation and trust play a crucial role for the success or failure of the network.

Another principle of the Graz Model that is integrated in the seminar series for sustainable development is education and learning. It is self-explanatory that the seminars aim at knowledge exchange and capacity building. During the seminars, mutual learning takes place, on the one hand on the basis of input statements by both academic as well as non-academic experts, and on the other hand by interactive workshop sessions. Participants exchange their knowledge and experiences, learn from and with each other and create new ideas. People coming from different disciplines and backgrounds jointly work on current challenges of societal and regional relevance. Open, transparent and respectful discussions are possible e requirements for mutual learning processes. Besides acquiring new ideas, information and knowledge, participants also reflect their own projects, aims, perspectives and learning. This circumstance characterizes the added value of transdisciplinary research and learning.

4. Conclusion The aim of this paper was to analyse the roles of higher education institutions in networking with regional stakeholders.

This was done on the basis of a literature review as well as the monitoring of three cases that were analysed with the Graz Model for Integrative Development. The roles and motives of higher education institutions to engage in regional co-operations can be analysed from different angles. The authors of this paper described three perspectives how the universities’ role can be classified: (1) in the way higher education institutions collaborate with regional actors in the framework of the universities’ fields of activities: - education - research - outreach - management; (2) with regards to the level of higher education institutions’ involvement within the regional networks (cf. Devine-Wright et al., 2001): - as leaders - as gatekeepers - as spokespersons - as bridging institutions - as independent actors; (3) according to the type of networks that higher education institutions and regional stakeholders collaborate with each other (cf. Huggins, 2004): - as an information network - as a knowledge network - as an innovation network.

When monitoring the role of higher education institutions in regional development, it is obvious that the three perspectives can

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be applied together, and categories (i.e. of an activity or project) could overlap even within the same approach. To give an example, a university can have a partnership with regional actors in the framework of a knowledge network, where educational as well as research activities are undertaken and where the university leads and coordinates the network as well as acts as bridging institution between regional stakeholders. The perspective chosen in order to monitor or identify the role of higher education institutions in regional networking activities depends on the purpose of investigation. The first perspective addresses the fields of activity and is recommended if the type and level of thematic orientation of higher education institutions within the regional partnerships shall be identified. It provides a valuable overview on the different fields of activities (i.e. research and education) that university representatives have in specific regional networks. The second perspective aims at identifying the concrete role of higher education institutions within these networks. This might help departments or individual researchers to get a structured overview about their range of involvement in various networks. The third perspective aims at identifying in which kind of network the higher education institutions are operating. This should be seen in a broader perspective as it also reflects the level of leadership and especially the level of participation of the different stakeholders.

The cases within present paper have been analysed on the basis of the Graz Model for Integrative Development, hence the role and motives of the universities to engage with regional actors have predominantly been reflected in regard to the type of network (third approach). Regarding the COPERNICUS Alliance, the scope of ‘region’ needs to be looked at from a broader perspective, namely the perspective of European higher education. Although the alliance members act within their regions, the focus is on the exchange and networking between the European member universities. The COPERNICUS Alliance combines both virtual networking (by an online social platform) as well as physical networking (by annual physical meetings). COPERNICUS is analysed as a knowledge network, although the aim is to develop into an innovation network. The network is active at all universities’ fields of activities, but focuses on collaborations in policy issues (management and outreach) as well as research partnerships. Additionally, an exchange between experiences in teaching and education is provided. Within the alliance, universities undertake all possible management roles e they act as leaders, facilitators, spokespersons as well as bridging institutions.

The Database on Learning for Sustainable Development on the other hand serves as an information network. Higher education institutions as well as regional actors are involved on the basis of gathering information from the database or contributing their own project experience to the database. The thematic field includes research and to some extent education. At the beginning of the development process of the database, universities led the process, but after implementation the role changed into maintaining the database; hence, universities can be identified as gatekeepers.

The Seminar Series on Sustainable Development are defined as knowledge networks as they focus on the intensive physical exchange and involve both actors from science and society into participative discussions and outcome oriented workshops. The seminars deal with research as well as outreach activities where higher education institutions and regional actors collaborate with each other. Depending on the different seminars, where different network actors participated, the role of universities can be seen as partly leaders, gatekeepers as well as bridging institutions.

The described three initiatives provide platforms and the capacity to react on sustainability challenges which require the interaction between global and local as well as regional and higher education actors.

On the basis of this analysis it can be concluded that the roles of higher education institutions in regional networks are manifold and overlap in terms of fields of activities, levels of involvement as well as types of networks. Higher education institutions’ activities and initiatives in regional development are diverse and multifaceted; so are their roles within these networks.

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