Study skills by Colin Smith

Starting university A guide for new students Welcome to Plymouth University Common concerns Skills for learning Learning styles Active learning Reflection Feedback Work/life balance For further information and the full range of study guides go to: http://www.plymouth.ac.uk/learn

Welcome to Plymouth University! Congratulations - you are on a Plymouth University programme! Like many other students, you may be feeling a little apprehensive about studying in higher education. Perhaps you have concerns about your ability to study at this level, or you may have been away from education for some time and feel that you are out of practice. Donâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t panic! These feelings are quite natural and can be overcome with time, practice, motivation and support.

Common concerns Many students feel anxious when they first start university and may experience culture shock, perhaps due to leaving a familiar environment. It can result in a mixture of feelings and emotions such as reduced confidence or homesickness. However, as an individual with unique life experiences, you have many resources to draw upon to help you through the challenging times. Although you are expected to be more autonomous in Higher Education (HE), this does not mean that you are alone. Other students, lecturers and personal tutors, advisors and counsellors as well as family and friends can offer support. Refer to you Student Handbook, the prospectus or website for useful contact names and numbers. Reflecting upon your reasons for attending university may help boost enthusiasm during difficult times. In any case, think about what it means to be a student in general, and what it means to be a student of your particular discipline, on your particular course.

Skills development You are probably here because you want to learn about your subject, but there is much more to it: as well as the broader life skills, you will learn the ‘academic literacy’ of your subject: that is, the communication and other skills associated with your field. Perhaps one of the best things about studying in HE is the opportunity to hone your thinking skills. As well as taking in material in your lectures, reading and other work, you are expected to engage with other’s work critically. The centre of academic culture is to do with testing and furthering knowledge, and you are part of this culture. As you progress through your degree, developing your skills for critical thinking and use of literature to explore and rationalise your knowledge of your subject will become increasingly important. Refer to our range of study guides for help, and particularly ‘Study Guide 8: Critical Thinking’. For help with referencing, use Pears and Shields’ Cite them right. You will be increasingly expected to take responsibility for your own learning; your success depends on your knowing how to make the most of the learning opportunities provided and make the most of the resources and support available. Getting a degree does not just depend on how much you know, or how much work you do, but also on how well you communicate and apply your knowledge and understanding. So it is really helpful to develop self-awareness in relation to your personal, professional and academic strengths and weaknesses in order to work on them.

Learning styles It is worthwhile spending some time thinking about how you learn best. There are numerous learning strategies and everyone has their own learning styles. There are a number of free online questionnaires available to help you identify your learning style: search under ‘learning style’ or’ learning style inventory’. A particularly useful site is http://www.vark-learn.com/.

Deep and surface learning Learning can be undertaken in a passive (surface) or active (deep) way. A passive approach to learning limits what you learn and how you learn it. This approach involves reducing what is to be learnt to the status of unconnected facts to be memorised and recalled during the assessment process. In contrast, a deep approach involves making decisions about what is to be learned and making sense of it, looking for connections and relationships between ideas, and understanding concepts and principles. Figure 1 is a model (after Kolb, 1984) to help you adopt an active rather than passive approach to learning. This process can be used when approaching all your study: for instance, doing specific coursework; establishing which revision methods to use; reflecting on how best to look after your physical or emotional wellbeing. ‘Starting University’, Learning Development, Plymouth University (2012)

Figure 1: Active learning cycle STAGE 1: Reflection Reflect on what you want to change. Give yourself some thinking time. Talk it over with someone if you can. If you’ve had some problems, reflect on them and what went right and wrong. STAGE 5: Relapse Inevitably you ‘lose’ some part of what you have been doing, so return to STAGE 1 Reflection.

STAGE 2: Goals Set yourself some targets – make them as realistic in size and time as you can.

STAGE 4: Maintenance Maintain what you are doing – keep yourself going with lots of rewards.

STAGE 3: Action Take action – do what you have set yourself to do.

Reflection As a way of monitoring your progress, try recording your experiences of learning in a diary, log or journal. Include your main concerns, how you wrestle with them and any understandings that emerge. Think about the approaches that work, and those that don’t. In this way you will concentrate on the process of your learning. Some educational practitioners believe that reflection is a fundamental part of learning, and it is particularly important in becoming an independent learner. See our study guide on reflection’ for further guidance.

Feedback Feedback is an extremely useful way of finding out how you are doing and what you need to do to improve. Make the most of the advice and feedback you receive from lecturers, tutors, fellow students, family and friends; accept that you are human and that you will inevitably make mistakes. Try not to receive feedback as criticism or interpret it as failure, but be open to working with it. There is always room for improvement.

‘Starting University’, Learning Development, Plymouth University (2012)

Work/life balance Working whilst doing your degree invariably places extra demands on your time and energy. It is important to think about your routine and how much time you allow for study. If you are a full-time student, you should allow at least 40 hours per week for degreerelated work; spending less time studying may increase your stress levels and mean that you do not achieve your full potential. Think positively about employment. Regard the time spent at work as an opportunity to develop skills that will be complementary to your academic activities. View your current study and work activities as useful preparation and practice for your future. Breaks and holidays are a valuable part of your time spent at university – it can’t be all work and no play! It is important to take time away from your studies and use vacation time wisely. Think about doing something that you could not do during term time: earn some money or gain some valuable experience; do something useful to put in your CV if possible. Use the time to look at your study habits: make resolutions, think about areas of your skills development which could be improved and plan time to focus on these.

References Kolb, D. (1984) Experiential learning. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Recommended reading Cottrell, S. (2008) The study skills handbook. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan Northedge, A. (2007) The good study guide. Milton Keynes: Open University Press. Pears, R. and Shields, G. (2008) Cite them right: the essential referencing guide. Newcastle upon Tyne: Pear Tree Books. Race, P. (2007) How to get a good degree: making the most of your time at university. Maidenhead: Open University Press.

www.plymouth.ac.uk/learn learn@plymouth.ac.uk Learning Gateway, RLB 011 01752 587676

Tutorials Drop-in Zone Taught sessions Peer Assisted Learning Scheme Online support

‘Starting University’, Learning Development, Plymouth University (2012)

Getting organised Managing time Assignment planning Using daily/weekly timetables Procrastination Creating a study environment Stress management For further information and the full range of study guides go to: http://www.plymouth.ac.uk/learn

Managing your time The time you spend at university will be taken up with a variety of study-related tasks including, for example, attending lectures, seminars and workshops, reading, gathering information from the library and the internet, and writing drafts. As well as study-related tasks, you will have a number of other important commitments, such as employment, family, friends and a social life. It is important, therefore, to develop an effective approach to time management so that you can meet all your deadlines and commitments. Managing your time is the starting point for any serious activity and one of the keys to success! Begin to organise your time by finding out which modules on your course require you to complete work, and when this work is due (the deadline). If you are not sure, ask your tutor and/or consult your programme handbook. Consider constructing a table or wall chart which will help you to visualise your long-term commitments. For example:

Figure 1: Assignment schedule Semester Autumn

Module name / code European Social Policy / SPA 1234

Brief details of assessment

Deadline

Oral presentation about welfare state in Britain and France Presentation worth 30% of overall mark

1/11/01 12:00pm

ď&#x192;ź

Once you have met a deadline, make sure you tick the box on the far right to indicate this. Display the table in a prominent place so you will be frequently reminded of your study tasks. Once you have received your course timetable and are clear about your future deadlines, you are in a good position to begin to plan your daily/weekly schedule. The timetable below is particularly useful for students who feel that they waste time and don’t get as much done as they would like. Experiment with it or consider developing your own. Aim to make it realistic. Allocate more time to those tasks which are uncomfortable or difficult for you. Make sure you leave sufficient time for travelling between university and home, and build-in time for eating, sleeping, employment and socialising. Figure 2: Daily/weekly Timetable Wk Commencing.:................................... Morning

Afternoon

Evening

Deadlines

Mon Tues Wed Thu Fri Sat Sun Starting early and planning ahead will help you to meet your deadlines more successfully. Quite often just getting started is the hardest part of an assignment. However, there are times when you may do everything you can to avoid studying. The tendency to put things off until a later date is a work-avoidance strategy called procrastination.

Procrastination Letting your mind wander, welcoming interruptions, getting sidetracked by far less important jobs and taking extended tea and meal-breaks, are all good indicators of procrastination. Low selfesteem can also play a part in procrastination. If you find that you are procrastinating, refer back to the weekly schedule you have established for yourself so that you will be less likely to forget or put-off important tasks. ‘Getting Organised’, Learning Development, Plymouth University (2011)

If you are still finding it difficult to get started, brainstorm what you know. Jot down a few ideas or key words onto a blank piece of paper. Try making a spider-diagram or mind-map (see our study guide on notemaking for more on this). Write the key words or topic in the middle of the page and use lines to make connecting links to other points surrounding and branching out from the central topic. Tell yourself that you will only work for five minutes. This will get you started and even if you stop after five minutes, you will have completed at least some of your task. Break tasks down into smaller jobs to make them more manageable and set yourself a goal of doing a small task by a specific deadline, attempt to stick to this. You do not have to start at the beginning of the task, you just have to start.

Creating a study environment Managing your study time is one important aspect of getting organised; creating a suitable study environment is another. The environment in which you study can, to a certain extent, determine the quality and quantity of work you are able to produce. It can also facilitate the deeper concentration required for successfully completing certain study tasks, such as revising for an exam or working on a project. If you study at home, ensure, as far as possible, that your study space is comfortable, sufficiently private, well-lit and heated, and that you have adequate access to facilities (such as toilets and refreshments) and study materials. If you are unable to create your own space at home, consider alternative locations, such as the campus/public library, empty classrooms, or at a friendâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s house. It is important to consider not only where you study, but when. Do you prefer to study in the evening, perhaps when the children are in bed, or are you a morning person, only able to concentrate before lunch? The key is to practise different strategies until you find one that you feel comfortable with. Experiment by working in different places at different times - you may be surprised at how flexible you can be in your approach to studying and learning.

Stress management Stress can be thought of as mental, emotional, or physical strain or tension, and a normal part of everyday living. Experiencing stress as a student at university is extremely common. Although a mild degree of stress can be helpful in keeping you motivated, excessive levels over a long period of time can damage your health. Think about what causes you to experience stress and how it affects your thinking, body, emotions, social life and behaviour. â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Getting Organisedâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;, Learning Development, Plymouth University (2011)

If you are feeling stressed, manage your workload and your time by prioritising tasks and setting realistic goals according to a timetable you have established for yourself. Try to be positive. Tell yourself that you can cope rather than how difficult everything is. However, if you start to feel overwhelmed, there are a number of sources of help that you can turn to, including your family, friends, work colleagues, fellow students or professional counselling services. Refer to the Student Handbook for details of various sources of help and advice, whether for personal or study-related issues. If you would like to discuss your time management in more detail, you can make an appointment with one of the Learning Development team.

Recommended reading Levin, P. (2007) Skilful time management. Maidenhead: Open University Press Northedge, A. (2005) The Good Study Guide. Milton Keynes: Open University Press. Race, P. (2007) How to Get a Good Degree: making the most of your time at university (2nd ed.) Maidenhead: Open University Press.

For further information and the full range of study guides go to: http://www.plymouth.ac.uk/learn

www.plymouth.ac.uk/learn learn@plymouth.ac.uk Learning Gateway, RLB 011 01752 587676

Tutorials Drop-in Zone Taught sessions Peer Assisted Learning Scheme Online support

â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Getting Organisedâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;, Learning Development, Plymouth University (2011)

Learning settings Lectures Seminars Experiential learning: placements and work-based learning Open and flexible learning Group work For further information and the full range of study guides go to: http://www.plymouth.ac.uk/learn

Introduction During your time at university you will encounter a number of different teaching situations and environments, quite how many and of what type will largely depend upon your discipline area and degree programme. In order to get the most out of your studies you must think of each situation as equally important and relevant, take responsibility for your learning and make the most of every learning situation. Whilst lectures and seminars will play a central role in most degree programmes, increasingly diverse teaching methods and technologies are also being integrated into programmes. This may be for any number of reasons for instance experiential learning through field trips, work placements, laboratory or studio work gives students valuable vocational experience. Open and flexible learning approaches such as video-conferencing and podcasting can enhance the accessibility and overall learning experience.

Lectures Lectures are usually delivered by a single lecturer to groups of students, up to 250 (on occasions). The lecturer will introduce the topic, highlight relevant points of interest, current debates, and areas of future work. They will use subject specific language and technical terms that you will be expected to become familiar with. Lectures are not designed to give you everything you need to know, they are supposed to act as a starting point and a â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;springboardâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; for further independent studying.

Student interaction in lectures will vary greatly according to the style of the lecturer. Some may talk at great length uninterrupted, whilst others will ask questions, encourage discussion and give students the opportunity to offer their opinions. Whatever the lecturers’ style, students are expected to listen, make notes on the key points, and prepare any questions they might have. Making notes Few people are able to maintain concentration on what someone is saying whilst also making comprehensive notes. This means that you might have to compromise one or other of these activities. You can listen intently, so you don’t miss any of the information, making only brief notes that you will hopefully be able to build upon at a later date. Or you can listen out for the key points, whilst focussing on making more comprehensive notes. There is no right or wrong way, and it is up to you to experiment with different techniques, see study guide 5 on note-making to find what works best for you. You might consider using a voice recorder or mp3 player to record the lecture; it is polite to ask the lecturer before you do this. Concentration If you find it difficult to concentrate during lectures there are some things you might want to consider. Position, whilst it is nice to sit with friends, if they tend to sit where it is difficult for you to see or hear the information, then move closer to the front. Similarly, if you find your concentration regularly interrupted by conversations going on around you, you might want to think about moving to a place where you are better able to concentrate. Questions Most lecturers will give students the chance to ask questions at some point, take this opportunity to verify or clarify any points you might not have fully understood. It will be very much harder to do this once the lecturer has gone, and remember others will probably have similar questions or queries. Attendance Lectures are a very important part of most university programmes and there is no substitute for attending. Reading or copying notes that others have made, or picking up a textbook will not provide you with the same valuable experience. However, there may be occasions when you are not able to attend lectures. If this happens, you can use another person’s notes as a starting point for further reading. Try to obtain details of any work that was set during the lecture and ask the lecturer how you should attempt to fill the gap in your own notes. Preparation Prior to attending lectures some preparation can be very valuable. Consult the module/programme handbook, or the lecturer, for information about the lecture series. Alternatively, look back at your notes from the previous lecture. Try to prepare for lectures ‘Learning Settings’, Learning Development, Plymouth University (2011)

physically and mentally, by ensuring that you have the proper equipment and arrive in a good frame of mind. Active learning During lectures think, pose questions, summarise the points being discussed, and generally get enthused about the subject. Such an active approach will mean that you are more likely to learn and understand the material. In contrast, if you spend your time gazing out of the windows, watching the clock, copying things from the board, worrying that you canâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t understand what is being talked about, you are taking a passive approach, which will mean that you are less likely to gain much from the lecture. Consider engaging in the following active learning process, which can take place during and between lectures. Figure 1: Active learning process

After the lecture, allocate time to regularly review, revise and build on your lecture notes to reinforce your understanding of the material. This will cement the information into your long-term memory and benefit you considerably when it comes to revision.

Seminars Seminars or small group tutorials, like lectures, will vary according to the discipline and degree programme. They usually consist of a meeting between a tutor and a group of between 6 and 30 students. The purpose of seminars is to explore and extend your knowledge of the topics that have been covered in lectures. This may be through in-depth discussion of the key issues, related key texts and articles; differing theories; and current debate. Quite often the tutor will set work or topics in advance for you to research and present to the rest of the group at a later date. Seminars are a great opportunity for you to practice a number of essential academic and professional skills, such as: discussing your subject with clarity; arguing logically and tactfully; listening to â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Learning Settingsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;, Learning Development, Plymouth University (2011)

different points of view; making considered criticisms and comments; and, expressing your opinions and identifying the evidence upon which they are based. As such they offer a great environment for you to develop and hone skills that will be very valuable now and in the future. As with lectures, you will benefit more from seminars if you prepare in advance and always try to attend. You will find it very hard to find out what you have missed if you are not able to attend, it is very unlikely that there will be a record of the discussions or the information that others have presented during the seminar. A successful seminar is a collective process, in which the whole group participates and contributes, whether this is through open discussion, researching or presenting information. So try to get involved and even if things don’t go well for you, keep this in perspective and try to improve for next time.

Experiential learning: placements and work based learning Experiential learning or work-based learning is used to describe learning situations where students are given the opportunity to access, utilise and build on their knowledge from practical encounters with the subject being studied. These encounters can come in a number of different forms from long term professional placements, up to a year in some programmes, to short timetabled slots in a studio environment. Why are placements included in programmes?:  They give an insight into how theory relates to practice  They give students the chance to practise and hone specialist skills or equipment  They help to develop other attributes such as organisational, communication and interpersonal skills All of these, and others beside, help to give students a deeper understanding of their subject and will appeal to potential future employers. Recording and reflecting Most placements will involve some form of report, portfolio or reflective essay on your experience, in which you might be expected to outline and discuss your learning and development. Maintaining a diary, journal or log throughout any placement will therefore be very beneficial, if not required. Get into the habit of thinking, analysing and writing about what is happening, what has gone well and what could have been better. Also think about what you have learned from these experiences and perhaps what you might do differently in the future (see our study guide on reflection). Not all placements will match your expectations. If you do find ‘Learning Settings’, Learning Development, Plymouth University (2011)

yourself in a situation that is perhaps not ideal, it is important that you still try to make the most of the experience. Leaving a good impression will usually mean positive feedback, which is important for the success of the placement and may also improve your employment prospects. Other forms of experiential learning include studio work, field work or laboratory work, all of which aim to develop relevant skills, build personal practice and provide professional experience. As with work placements, keep a good record of what takes place in these situations, it will help you a great deal when it comes to writing-up a report. When you do think, reflect and write about the actions and decisions you take, try to think about them critically. Not just describing a chronological order of events, although some of this will be needed. Look to explore why and how you made your choices, what they were based on and what was the impact (see our study guide on critical thinking). In all of the situations mentioned above it is very important that you prepare well in advance - time is valuable. So make sure that you make best use of the equipment, the people and the whole experience.

Learning and technology Increasingly programmes are diversifying their delivery and teaching styles, making content more accessible and generally trying to improve the overall student learning experience by incorporating digital technologies. When these are integrated with more traditional teaching methods it is often called ‘blended learning’ or ‘m-learning’, which stands for mobile-learning. Intranets and Virtual Learning Environments Most programmes make use of an intranet or Virtual Learning Environment (VLE) such as Tulip (Teaching and Learning in Plymouth) here at Plymouth. These can be an invaluable source of information and materials and might include lecture notes, key texts, programme handbooks and calendars, and assignment briefs. Your tutor might also use it as a communication channel with the class. It is therefore important that you become familiar with checking and accessing it regularly. Make sure that you have access to the correct module pages, and if not get in touch with your tutor or programme administrators. Whilst VLEs and intranets act as access points or vehicles for a wide range of materials, how these are presented or used can vary greatly. Many will be simple text documents while others may be audio or video files, or online exercises. Most are supplementary, intended for independent study and are not supposed to replace lectures. The great benefit is that you can return and revisit them when you want. Some tutors might monitor how often students visit their module pages, and even get in touch with you if they see little or no activity, whilst others will leave it entirely up to you.

‘Learning Settings’, Learning Development, Plymouth University (2011)

Video conferencing and webcasts Technologies such as video conferencing or webcasts might be used instead of, or during, some lectures. These enable lectures to be delivered remotely, to a number of sites at the same time. Interaction with the presenter in these circumstances can vary. When video conferencing, short breaks might be allocated for questions or they might be kept until the end. Webcasts generally have ongoing discussion boards or chat-rooms to encourage discussion at the same time as the presentation. Blogs and wikis Some programmes might facilitate and encourage the use of blogs or wikis. These can be set up by staff or by groups of students who want to share ideas and work together. Blogs (weblogs) are predominantly used for discussions and provide opportunities to air opinions on key topics. They may be ‘controlled’ by the tutor. Before posting on a blog it is important to think about what you want to say and how it might be interpreted. Always try to respect others’ opinions and never make personal attacks. It is OK to criticise ideas but not individuals. Think before you click. Wikis are set up to enable students to contribute to a shared document, site or file. It is the students’ responsibility to upload information and content that they feel is significant and useful. The tutor might maintain editorial rights or even hand this over to the class. The ‘goal’ or end point of the wiki is a shared document or file that gives a comprehensive coverage of a specific subject. As it is collaboratively built by a number of people, all with differing views and opinions, it can provide a very rich learning experience and end product. As with experiential learning it is important that you try to engage with whatever technology, system or process on offer. Quite often it is better to try and immerse yourself into anything that is new to you rather than ‘sit on the edge’ and just ‘dip your toe in’.

Group Work Group work is an important part of the student learning experience, and more programmes than ever before are incorporating it into their curriculum. There are a number of reasons why group work is so important:  We are interdependent learners, our learning is most effective when we watch, share, discuss and use knowledge collectively with our peers  Many of the key benefits of group work match skills employers are looking for in graduates, such as communication, working with other people and presenting information  Group work can help develop essential personal skills such as listening, assertiveness, persuasion and compromise  It can also enable much larger and more comprehensive projects to be completed, than would be possible individually ‘Learning Settings’, Learning Development, Plymouth University (2011)

However, students can be resistant to group work for any number of reasons, such as:  Some prefer to work on their own, lacking experience and confidence when it comes to working with others  Others may feel that they end up responsible for large portions of the workload and ‘carry’ other members of the group If groups are set up and run well there are rarely any significant problems, and the overall experience and sense of achievement can be overwhelmingly positive. Whether your group work involves a short presentation and discussion in a seminar setting, or conducting field work on a wind-swept beach, here are some tips that should be relevant in almost all group work situations: Individually:  Always try to be enthusiastic and committed  Be assertive and express your ideas, but be prepared to listen and compromise too  Be tactful and diplomatic, never heckle or bully others  Consider and respect others’ social, cultural and human needs Collectively:  Set and maintain ground rules  Before starting consider your collective strengths and weaknesses, try a SWOT analysis  Establish clear agendas and objectives Much research has been conducted on how effective groups or teams operate. Belbin’s (2010) research observed teams in a number of environments, and found that individuals generally fulfil one or two roles when we are placed in a team, each role having certain characteristics, benefits and possible weaknesses. Adair (1987) looked at how teams develop, and found that they often go through stages of forming; storming; norming; before finally, performing. Assessment of group work can vary greatly according to the nature of the assignment, marks may be awarded for the group as whole or individually. In some cases you might have to assess each other, it is therefore important to get on, work well together and make the most of this opportunity. For more information on group work see www.learnhigher.ac.uk

‘Learning Settings’, Learning Development, Plymouth University (2011)

References Adair, J. (1987) Effective team building: how to make a winning team (14th ed.). London: Pan Books Belbin (2010) Belbin team role theory. Available at: www.belbin.com (Accessed: 1st July 2010).

Recommended reading Burns, T. and Sinfield, S. (2008) Essential Study Skills: the complete guide to success at university (2nd ed.). London: Sage. Northedge, A. (2005) The Good Study Guide. Milton Keynes: Open University Press. Race, P. (2007) How to Get a Good Degree: making the most of your time at university (2nd ed.) Maidenhead: Open University Press.

For further information and the full range of study guides go to: http://www.plymouth.ac.uk/learn

www.plymouth.ac.uk/learn learn@plymouth.ac.uk Learning Gateway, RLB 011 01752 587676

Tutorials Drop-in Zone Taught sessions Peer Assisted Learning Scheme Online support

â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Learning Settingsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;, Learning Development, Plymouth University (2011)

Reading effectively What to read and where to find reading matter The first stage is preparation Reading techniques The SQ3R method Reading difficult material Making notes Checklist For further information and the full range of study guides go to: http://www.plymouth.ac.uk/learn

What to read and where to find reading matter There are many different types of reading material available: magazines, the internet, newspapers, journals, novels and textbooks, to name a few. You will need to consult a variety of these sources to fulfil the requirements of your degree. Although you are not necessarily expected to read everything on your reading lists, nonetheless you will have to read a great deal of material, and so may need to improve your proficiency. The type of material you choose will depend upon the purpose for reading it. For example, you may read in order to find a particular piece of information, or to get an overview of the subject in order to write a literature review, or to find out how to do something. Different reading techniques will be useful at different times, so being clear about the purpose for reading will determine which reading technique you choose.

The first stage is preparation Preparation is very important and involves being selective about your reading and finding material which is suitable; refer to your module reading list or tutor for appropriate texts. Use MetaLib (the Plymouth Universityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s e-library catalogue) to explore a wide range of additional sources to those included in the reading list. Start by making a plan to determine what you already know and what you need to find out. This might be a set of questions developed using the critical thinking model (in the critical thinking study guide). If you find reading hard at first, break it up into small

manageable chunks and gradually increase these as you become more efficient. You don’t need to read everything cover to cover. Scan your sources first to determine how much attention to give them. Be selective by checking the organisational features, such as the title page, table of contents, index, headings, abstract, conclusion and bibliography, and prioritise the publications that will be most useful. When you think you have found a relevant text, skim it or ladder read it to get an overview before deciding whether to read it in depth. Several fast readings may give you a better understanding than one slow reading.

Reading techniques There are a number of basic techniques in the table below that are useful for different purposes, depending on what you want from the source. Using these techniques will ensure that you are reading actively as well as quickly. This will help you glean the most relevant information and build on your knowledge and understanding recall at a later date. Figure 1: Reading techniques What you want to achieve... Locate specific information

Reading technique... Scanning

a) Skimming Gain a general overview b)Ladder reading Revision; consolidating existing knowledge Develop full understanding; retrieve detailed information Assess and evaluate information and ideas

Rapid

In-depth Critical

Proofreading

Intensive

Read for background information

Extensive

What is involved... Searching the text looking for key words and phrases e.g. using the telephone directory a) Moving your eye quickly over the text, not necessarily from top left to bottom right b) Reading subheadings, beginnings and endings of paragraphs and/or sections Moving a pointer perhaps down the right hand margin will help move your eye quickly over the page Careful, slow and repetitive reading while taking notes; requires a high level of concentration Questioning and analysing to determine the author’s purpose Thorough reading, checking spelling, punctuation and sentence structure; requires a high level of concentration e.g. a legal contract Reading large amounts in a single session. e.g. a novel

You will need to learn to vary your reading style to suit both the material and your reason for reading that material and you will need to develop the ability to quickly switch from one method of reading to another. Good planning and strategic reading will save you time in the long run.

‘Reading Effectively’, Learning Development, Plymouth University (2011)

The SQ3R method Rowntree (1976) discusses a systematic reading strategy called SQ3R (Survey, Question, Read, Recall, and Review) which combines the use of these techniques. This strategy is particularly useful when you need to study a topic in depth in order to master it and when revising and making revision notes. Figure 2: SQ3R Survey

Read

Question

Recall

Review

3R Begin by surveying the text – check the organisational features, layout, subheadings, etc. – this helps you find what you need from the text more quickly. Question what you already know before reading in-depth. Be clear about what you want from the text – decide what question(s) you need to answer and keep them in your head while you read. Next, read, but pick only a manageable ‘chunk’ at a time – a paragraph or smaller. Before you make notes, put the text aside and see if you can recall what you have read. Is it useful? If it is, make notes, then look again to review. If not, go on to the next ‘chunk’. Using these reading techniques will, with practice, enable you to improve the speed of your reading. However, it is pointless to read many texts and gain little comprehension. Aim to read effectively first, improving your understanding, and then more quickly.

Other reading techniques Reading aloud and recording it to listen to again can be a good strategy for some learners, although may take extra time. Formulate a list of questions with which to interrogate the text. For example, what key arguments are the authors putting forward? Why? How valid are they? What conclusions have they drawn? How? Why?

Reading difficult material You may come across material which you must read but which you find difficult. Start with the simplest texts to get a basic understanding. Read the title and the first paragraph and look for the main ideas. Look up difficult words and make use of the web and reference books. With practice your reading will improve as you become more familiar with the specialised vocabulary and academic style of writing.

‘Reading Effectively’, Learning Development, Plymouth University (2011)

Making notes Reading and note-making are closely linked, and the quality of your notes will certainly be reflected in the overall quality of the academic work that you produce, such as essays and your answers to exam questions. The point of reading is not to commit the whole text to memory, but to understand the main principles. Being creative with your notemaking can help this, so that more than just making a record, you are fully processing material as you go. There are many different ways of making notes, some more successful than others, and you need to find a system that works for you as both a recording and a learning process. Linear notes but especially visual notes can help you to work out the interconnections between key points and ideas. Remember to always include references with your notes.

The final stages of the reading process include reflecting on what you have read and the notes you have made; re-reading it/them for clarification and increased understanding; reformulating for commitment to memory; and revising for recall.

Checklist/tips         

Plan your reading into manageable chunks Pick the best time of day and the best place to read Be selective; ensure the material is relevant Practice using a range of techniques to improve proficiency Start with a pen in your hand Make notes on the important points/arguments Keep track of references in your notes Reflect and re-read to ensure understanding Read aloud when proofreading, starting from the end

References Fairbairn, G. (2001) Reading at university, a guide for students. Buckingham: Open University Press. Rowntree, D. (1976) Learn how to study. London: Macdonald and Jane’s. University of Hull (2009) Study Guide Advice Centre. Available at: www.hull.ac.uk/studyadvice (Accessed: 5th May 2009)

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Reading technique... Scanning

a) Skimming Gain a general overview b)Ladder reading Revision; consolidating existing knowledge Develop full understanding; retrieve detailed information Assess and evaluate information and ideas

Rapid

In-depth Critical

Proofreading

Intensive

Read for background information

Extensive

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Read

Question

Recall

Review

‘Reading Effectively’, Learning Development, Plymouth University (2011)

Checklist/tips         

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Critical thinking What is critical thinking? Structure: organising your thoughts and materials Generating critical thinking Critical questions – a linear model Description, analysis and evaluation Developing an argument For further information and the full range of study guides go to: http://www.plymouth.ac.uk/learn

What is critical thinking? This guide to critical thinking stresses the importance of asking and answering questions. In everyday life the term ‘critical’ is often seen as negative or destructive. Being critical in academic life, however, does not mean questioning things randomly, or for the sake of ‘nit-picking’. Instead, academic work aims to get as near as possible to the truth. Critical thinking in any subject or discipline is the way in which this is done, along with the more specialised applications of theory, the methods and techniques, which have been developed for the subject. Critical thinking then, is the attempt to ask and answer questions systematically. This means asking the most useful questions in the most productive sequence in order to yield a coherent and credible ‘story’ So thinking critically means asking questions. Instead of accepting ‘at face value’ what you read or hear, critical thinkers look for evidence and for good reasons before believing something to be true. This is at the heart of what it means to be a scientist, researcher, scholar or professional in any field. Whatever you are studying, critical thinking is the key to learning and to making progress. The common question words: what, who, where, when, how, and why will help you to get started; along with the phrases: what if, what next, and so what. Attempting to answer these questions systematically helps fulfil three vital functions for any serious study – description, analysis and evaluation. These are the things you need to do: Describe ... e.g. to define clearly what you are talking about, say exactly what is involved, where it takes place, or under what circumstances. Fulfilling this function helps you to introduce a topic. More complex description will become analysis. Analyse ... e.g. examine and explain how parts fit into a whole; give reasons; compare and contrast different elements; show

your understanding of relationships. In this way analysis forms the main part of any in-depth study. Evaluate ... e.g. judge the success or failure of something, its implications and/ or value. Evaluations lead us to conclusions or recommendations and are usually found at the end of a piece of academic work, a paper, chapter or other text.

Structure: organising your thoughts and material To summarise what we have said so far: the diagram below shows how asking and answering questions helps to fulfil the three key connected functions of description, analysis and evaluation. This is a reliable basis for introducing, discussing and drawing conclusions about your topic. Beginning with ‘what’, this systematic questioning will encourage you to consider every aspect of your topic or question. Figure 1:

Model to Generate Critical Thinking Description When?

Who?

Where?

Why?

What?

Analysis Topic / Issue / Title

How? What next? So What?

Evaluation

What if?

John Hilsdon, Learning Development Advisor. University of Plymouth

You should aim to address most, but not necessarily all, of these questions for your topic and subtopics. The crucial questions for almost any topic are: ‘what’, which identifies the issue; ‘why’, which explores it in depth, addressing causes and using theory; ‘how’, which helps you look at the processes at work; and ‘so what’, which helps you make judgements or conclusions, showing that you have reflected on implications. The model can be used in a number of ways at different stages of tackling an assignment. Use it before and during your reading; for planning the structure of a whole assignment; and also to structure each point within it.

‘Critical Thinking’, Learning Development, Plymouth University (2010)

Generating critical thinking: 1. Identify a topic. This can be your essay title, a subtopic, or a point you might want to explore in a particular section or paragraph. Write key words in the middle of a sheet of paper, or a blank document screen. This is the ‘Topic or Issue’ in the diagram above. Or you could do it in a linear way and put these keywords in the place of a title, with the questions that follow spaced out in the margin, or as subheadings (see page 4 below). 2. Try to answer the questions on the diagram starting with ‘what’ questions. Your answers may become part of an introduction, defining your terms or identifying issues. 3. Using the ‘who’, ‘when’ and ‘where’ questions, generate descriptive background information. This will provide context or scene-setting material which is also useful for an introductory section. 4. ‘How’ requires consideration of the ways that something operates or works – e.g. processes or procedures. Attempting to answer questions using ‘how’ takes you from descriptive to more analytical work. 5. ‘Why’ also moves you deeper into analytical territory. It gets you to find reasons, explanations or causes. Think about all the possible questions to do with ‘why’ (see the model below for some suggestions). Answers to such questions are likely to emerge over time from your reading and use of specific theories and findings reported in academic journals; published books and research reports; or from other authoritative sources such as policy documents. 6. Asking questions using ‘what if’ moves you into a more evaluative phase of your thinking. It helps you to consider the possible implications or results of a particular action. This question is also useful for considering predictive work done by others, or engaging in forecasting of your own. 7. ‘So what?’ is really the key question for an evaluation. It gets you thinking about value or values, meaning and significance. It is also about discriminating between more or less important factors in any situation. It helps you to think through and justify your own position, and discuss its implications. 8. ‘What next?’ might refer to recommendations and predictions that your argument has brought to light. It leads you to consider and plan for more specific actions that might be necessary in certain kinds of assignment, such as a project or business report.

‘Critical Thinking’, Learning Development, Plymouth University (2010)

DESCRIPTION

Figure 2. Critical questions – a linear model WHAT?

What is thi s about? What is the contex t / situation? What is the main point / proble m / topic to be e xplored?

WHERE?

Wher e does it take place? Who i s thi s by?

WHO?

Who i s invol ved? Who i s affected?

Introductory and background information to contextualise problem / topic

Who might be inte rested?

WHEN?

When doe s t his occur? How did thi s occur?

HOW?

How does it wo rk – in theory? - in p ractice / context? How does one factor affect another? Or,

ANALYSIS

How do t he part s fit into t he whole? Why d id t his occur? Why was that done?

WHY?

Exploration of relationship of parts to whole

Why this argumen t / theo ry / suggestion / solution? Why not some thing el se? What if thi s we re wrong? What are t he alternat ive s?

WHAT IF?

What if the re were a proble m?

Possible si tuations and alternative response s

What if thi s or that factor were – adde d? – remo ved? - altere d? What does this mean? Why i s thi s significant?

EVALUATION

SO WHAT?

WHAT NEXT?

Is th is convincing? W hy / why not? What are the implications?

Implications

Is it successful?

Solutions

How does it meet the c rite ria?

Conclusions

Is it tran sferable?

Recom mendations

How and whe re else can it be applied? What can be learn t fro m it? What need s doing now?

Developing an argument: from description to analysis and evaluation Notice how the three functions are not strictly separate but lead into one another (see the dotted lines in the diagram above). Here is a simple example of the model in action: imagine that an archaeology student has discovered something at a Roman site. As the dirt is cleaned away, the object is revealed. The archaeologist asks herself questions to help clarify her understanding:

‘Critical Thinking’, Learning Development, Plymouth University (2010)

Description What is it? Where was it?

When? Who used it?

Description becoming analysis

A small bowl with a handle At the site of a Roman villa (was this the kitchen or dining room?) Roman period – approx 300 AD? Big house - maybe a wealthy family?

What was its purpose?

Could have been to contain liquid

How would it work?

Bowl shape holds liquid and prevents spillage Easy to drink from

Why this size and shape? Why the handle?

Can be held and carried

The archaeology student could develop her answers to these questions in a written report or assignment by reference to academic texts. This would help in building an ‘argument’ – e.g. to justify her view that what she has found is a drinking cup. In one of her books she might find: “Containers for food and drink are found in every part of the world and have been used by humans over several millennia. Cups and other drinking vessels have evolved from naturally occurring structures such as seed pods and gourds (still used by some tribal peoples) through to handmade ceramic and metal objects and, more recently, industrially manufactured items. The essential characteristics of drinking vessels are their ability to hold liquid and to be held. Some may have handles and spouts, or may be enclosed with stoppered tops … ” Notice how this text functions to describe by answering mostly what, who where and when type questions. Now let’s see how the student might also use the critical thinking model for analysis and evaluation of her find: Analysis How is it made? How was it decorated?

Why is it here? Why intact?

Analysis becoming evaluation Rings are evidence it was made on a wheel Burnished (polished) with wavy lines typical of Roman period? Kitchen or dining area? Preserved in soft soil. Durable

What next?

Need to compare the design and decoration with similar objects to verify its age

So what?

Very rare to find intact pot – highly significant and valuable find!

In building her argument, the student might use her own reasoning prompted by the model, in combination with material she has read. She might find the following extract useful: ‘Critical Thinking’, Learning Development, Plymouth University (2010)

“Romano-British Pottery: AD43 410. Most (but not all) pottery was wheelmade and very standardised. Locally made coarseware jars and bowls were used for cooking, food preparation and storage. Finewares, mainly used for dining, included bowls, dishes, cups and beakers. During the late Roman period numerous British industries produced finewares. Decoration was varied and included burnished zones, wavy lines or lattice patterns. Reference: Harris, J. (2008) Pottery Identification Sheet ONLINE: http://www.scribd.com/doc/3888712/Pottery-identification-sheet accessed 30.05.2010 Using her notes from a variety of sources, she might then produce a text like this: th

A small, intact pottery vessel was uncovered at the site of a Roman Villa in Worcester on 12 June 2009. The vessel is a ‘fineware’ cup which would have been used for drinking at table (Harris, 2004). It has a handle and is decorated by burnishing with a motif of six parallel wavy lines scored into the outside surface. It is thought that the cup may have been used by occupants of the villa, who were likely to have been members of a wealthy merchant family. Other evidence suggests that the villa was occupied between 100 and 300 AD (Smith, 2008) There are regular symmetrical ridged rings visible on the inside of the cup, suggesting that the construction of the vessel was by turning on a pottery wheel. It is known that this method for producing pots was common throughout Gaul and Britain from the middle of the Roman period. The decoration is also typical of the period and confirms it as ‘fineware’ as opposed to ‘coarseware’ (Harris, 2008; Smith, 2004). The location of the find is not surprising since it is an item which would have been in common domestic use. The precise spot, in the corner of a ground floor room, could possibly suggest that this was a dining or a pottery storage area; although without further information from the surroundings it is not possible to be sure of this. Recent investigations of the site have resulted in an outline plan and findings (Diggings and Tinker, 2008) which speculate that this part of the villa with its mosaic floor could have been an area used for dining. Although this vessel is not a particularly unusual pot in terms of its size and pattern, it is nonetheless a significant find because it was found intact. It is also valuable in that there is only a slight amount of damage to the patterned surface. This is rare because of the fragility of pottery and the likelihood of it being crushed under the weight of falling masonry or being trodden upon by human or animals. This pot seems to have survived whole because of the soft earth which surrounded it. It was further protected at some later stage when, luckily, an arched piece of stone fell or was placed above the pot, enclosing it within the space below the arch. In order to discover more about the vessel it will be necessary to make comparisons between it and others found from similar sites and periods. From a comparison of the decoration, style and construction of the vessel it may be possible to be more precise about its age, where it was produced and its use. References Diggings, I. and Tinker, B. 2008 “Findings from recent examinations at the site of a Roman Villa near Worcester”. Journal of Imaginary Archaeology, Vol 26. 3. 34-50 Harris, J. 2008 Pottery Identification Sheet ONLINE: http://www.scribd.com/doc/3888712/Potteryidentification-sheet accessed 30.05.2010 Smith, D. 2004 Comparing Roman Pottery. London: Shovel Press

Try going through the example above and deciding what the function of each sentence is. Ask yourself: is it description, analysis or evaluation – or is it a combination of one or more function? If you go through, sentence by sentence, you will ‘Critical Thinking’, Learning Development, Plymouth University (2010)

probably find it easy to see that most of the description happens in the first paragraph; the analysis in the second; and the evaluation in the third. There will always be instances where it is hard to say whether part of a text fulfils one or another function – and often two or more functions are being undertaken together. This is because using language and writing is not an exact or purely mathematical activity. People use words in different combinations and attempt to do things in various ways and for various reasons. In order to be considered sufficiently ‘critical’, (academic) university level writing must go beyond being merely descriptive. Use the following table to compare the functions of writing in terms of being descriptive on the one hand, or analytical and evaluative on the other. Analytical and evaluative writing (mostly ‘a’ and ‘e’)

Descriptive writing (mostly ‘d’) States what happened (d)

Identifies the significance (e)

States what something is like (d and a) Gives the story so far (d)

Judge strengths and weaknesses (e)

States the order in which things happened (d) Says how to do something (d and a) Explains what a theory says (d) Explains how something works (d and a) Notes the method used (d)

Makes reasoned judgments (a and e)

Says when something occurred (d) States the different components (d) States options (d and a)

Identifies why the timing is important (a)

Lists details (d)

Evaluates the relative significance of details (e)

Lists in any order (d)

Structures information in order of importance [etc.] (a and e) Shows relevance of links between pieces of information (a)

States links between items (d and a) Gives information (d)

Weighs one piece of information against another (a and e)

Argues a case according to evidence (a and e) Shows why something is relevant or suitable (a) Indicates why something will work (best) (a and e) Indicates whether something is appropriate or suitable (a)

Weighs up the importance of component parts (a and e) Gives reasons for selecting each option (a)

Draws conclusions (e) (Adapted from Cottrell, 2005) The way academic writing follows this pattern, from description, to analysis, to evaluation’, tells us something important about academic work – whether it is in the sciences, arts or humanities. All subjects, when studied at advanced levels, require these three things (description, analysis and evaluation) to be done,

‘Critical Thinking’, Learning Development, Plymouth University (2010)

and in largely that order, to tell a coherent story which is supported by critical reasoning and evidence. Academic work is intended to be ‘scholarly’. This means it should be of a high standard and appropriate to the particular level of study it represents. It is usually assessed by a lecturer – who will be a critical reader. So far we have used the critical questions model to think about generating material; but it can equally be used to ask questions about, and assess other people’s writing. You could try asking questions about a text to see how scholarly or scientific it is. What does it claim to be true? Can you believe its claims? Does it provide you with good reasons, evidence, or both to support its claims? And how ‘good’ are the reasons, or is it ‘good’ evidence? An important way to demonstrate the quality of your arguments, or evidence in your academic writing is by referring to work by others. The status of this work depends on how authoritative it is. If you are a critical reader, you look for ‘authority’ in the form of references to relevant supporting work which has been published in academic journals, or text books. In these kinds of publications the content has been ‘peer-reviewed’. This means that it should have been independently evaluated by another qualified academic who will have read it critically to ensure that the material it contains is factually accurate and that the reasoning behind it is sound. This is unlike the material which may often be found in newspapers, magazines or from many online sources, where the content may not have been checked by anyone else, or where the work simply puts forward one person’s opinion. We are always keen to hear from students and staff about whether or not you have found our study guides useful. If you have any comments, questions or suggestions, please do respond to our surveys using the links below or contact us by email at learn@plymouth.ac.uk. Staff survey link: http://www.surveymonkey.com/s/SFBBDSV Student survey link: http://www.surveymonkey.com/s/M9DTCPL

References Cottrell, S. (2005) Critical thinking skills. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan Cottrell, S. (2008) The study skills handbook. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan Van den Brink-Budgen, R. (2000) Critical Thinking for Students. Oxford: How To Books

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Notemaking Why take notes? Notetaking versus notemaking Linear notes Visual notes Techniques and tips For further information and the full range of study guides go to: http://www.plymouth.ac.uk/learn

Why take notes? The notes you make whilst studying at university are a valuable way of learning. They also form a record of knowledge encountered and of your thinking as you encounter this new knowledge. They should help you to explore and map what you are learning, and then to recall and understand it later. You will depend upon your notes for exam revision, as well as for preparation of essays and other coursework assignments. It is therefore important to develop efficient and effective skills for both creating notes and keeping study records. This guide suggests ways in which you can use the note-making process to engage with your subject as well as ensuring that your records are easy to use and contain all the information you need.

Note-making or note-taking Note-taking can mean you write down what you hear or read without thinking about the material, perhaps by copying from the original source and re-written in a similar format. Notes are often non-selective, covering most or all of the information given. Notetaking is a passive study technique, where note-making is active. When making notes, be selective, find one or two ‘learning points’ rather than noting everything the speaker or writer says (Levin, 2009). Remember that the introductions and conclusions usually summarise the key ideas. Note-making requires concentration as you have to select, analyse and summarise what you hear or read. If you have never thought about how you make notes, ask yourself:  What sort of notes do I make?  What do I do with my notes after I have made them?  Are my notes effective for revising or assignments? (After Burns and Sinfield, 2004)

Note-making techniques Sequential or linear notes usually follow the same order as the speaker or writer. Good sequential notes include key words, headings and sub-headings to express the connections between key concepts, accompanied by extra information in brief. It helps if you leave wide margins and write on every other line as this provides space for comments or the addition of further notes at a later date; the inclusion of diagrams and flow charts enhance sequential notes and usually reduce the number of words you need to write. Underlining and highlighting will focus your attention and enable you to find the important points quickly. Both annotating (making brief notes in the margins) and abbreviating speed up your note-making. Summarising, which involves writing a much shorter version, may save time and reduce the risk of plagiarism (using others’ words or ideas and representing them as your own). When making sequential notes, you are following the sense of what is being said/read and creating a set of notes for review that can be quickly scanned for the main points. You should also be helping yourself to think creatively by focusing on concepts and ideas, rather than becoming immersed in the detail. Visual notes Some learners prefer to make visual notes organised around particular concepts or ideas. Pattern notes, spider-diagrams and mind maps use lines, arrows and circles to link key ideas. Pattern note-making reduces the impulse to make notes in the order the information was presented– you have to re-process and organise it at the point when you receive it. When using visual note-making, you are expressing your understanding of the information by thinking through where each aspect fits in relation to all other aspects. You are also creating a unique visual image which may be easy to recall. These techniques can take many forms but may look something like the example below in figure 1. There are a number of other methods of visually, or graphically, representing what you have heard or read. These include:  flowchart/series of events chain – to express stages or sequencing of an event or process  continuum scale – to rank items from one end of a spectrum to another e.g.: time line or low to high  compare and contrast matrix – table or chart which is good for showing similarities and differences  fishbone map – shows the causal interaction in a complex setting  cycle/process – with an emphasis on circularity, a cycle stresses patterns of repetition

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Figure 1. Notetaking versus notemaking Notetaking

Notemaking

Robinson (2010)*

1. Record keeping

2. Relatively passive - not always easy to maintain concentration 3. Easy to try to include too much 4. Hard to write fast enough 5. Many identical pages to look through/recall 6. Neat, tidy and manageable 7. Seems safe 8. Familiar

1. Record keeping + understanding + consigning to memory 2. Active – forces engagement and aids criticality, thinking on your feet and learning as you go; physical creativity stimulates creative mental activity and vice versa 3. Forces focus and selection 4. Illustrate connections quickly - ‘say’ more, more quickly and more memorably than in text 5. Offers varied multisensory memory triggers 6. Can get/seem chaotic 7. Generally more challenging (that’s why it’s effective!), especially at first 8. Creative and fun Essentially, any note-making technique that supports quick, easy and informative review is good. Experiment and choose the approach which best suits your needs.

Record keeping Plan how you are going to keep and store your notes before you begin to make them: Paper notes:  Ensure you have the necessary notebooks to meet your needs – avoid merging all your notes together on consecutive pages, especially when you are working on more than one module at the same time.  Keep lecture notes separate from your own research notes for assignments so you can navigate your files quickly and easily.  Label and store handouts, photocopies and notes in folders.  Consider having a colour code to represent specific topics. Electronic notes:  Organise your work folders in a clear and logical way.  Use comment boxes to annotate documents and colour (text and highlighter) to indicate key ideas and themes.  Keep video and audio files within your electronic storage system. Important: When making notes from books, journals and web sources remember to record the bibliographic or reference information. This includes: name(s) of author(s), year of Note-making’, Learning Development, Plymouth University (2011)

publishing, title of book/journal and the specific chapter/article title, place of publishing and publisher (in the case of a book) and volume number and issue number (in the case of an article) and the exact page(s) that your notes come from (Pears & Shields, 2008). If the book or journal you accessed is an e-version, include the exact URL and the date you accessed the material. The university library has Metalib and Voyager which can track your resource searches. For further information contact the library. For other electronic resources copy the exact link with your notes. If you do not do this, you may have difficulty finding the page again later.

Note-making tips You will make your best notes when you are well-prepared. Consider what you already know about the topic, how it fits in with the whole course and what you now need to find out. Do not be intimidated by academic language. You may not be familiar with all the terms you hear and read or the way in which language is used, but you will get used to it. Note any terms you do not understand and check their meanings later. Be aware that some sources are more valid than others – many websites, magazines and newspapers base their content on opinion rather than research-based evidence. Remember this if you are considering referencing them in your academic work. If you understand why the source exists – to inform, advertise, entertain etc – this will help you to select according to your need. Regard your notes as part of a learning cycle. Any activity which takes you back to your notes later will contribute to your learning. So set yourself regular review tasks based on your notes.

References Burns, T. and Sinfield, S. (2004) Teaching Learning and Study Skills. Sage: London. Levin, P. (2009) Write great essays. Open University Press: Maidenhead. Pears, R. and Shields, G. (2008) Cite them right: the essential referencing guide. Newcastle upon Tyne: Pear Tree Books.

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Writing essays What is an essay? Why write an essay? How to research, plan and write an essay Language and style Presentation of your work An essay-writing checklist For further information and the full range of study guides go to: http://www.plymouth.ac.uk/learn An extended version of this study guide is also available from this site.

What is an essay? An essay (one of the most common types of assignment at university) is a piece of academic writing generally between 500 and 5000 words long. The word ‘essay’ originally meant a first attempt or practice, which perhaps suggests some kind of provisional exploration. Essays are an intellectual exploration of a topic, involving looking at different arguments and evidence and developing the writer’s perspective. An essay is more ‘discursive’ than, say, a report – i.e. the points are developed in more depth and the language may be a little less concise. Typically, it will consist of a number of paragraphs that are not separated by subheadings or broken up by bullet points (unlike in a report). However, some lecturers may allow or encourage subdivisions and headings, as this can help both the writer and the reader with the structure of the content. In that case, an essay may begin to look more like the preferred format of some journal articles. Please note that different courses and programmes at the Plymouth University have different expectations and assessment criteria regarding the content and structure of essays. Always consult your course handbook and/or the module leader if you are unsure about any points of style or presentation of your essay.

Why write an essay? The purpose of writing an academic essay is to provide written evidence of your ability to research a topic, weigh arguments, organise your thoughts, express these thoughts in a logical, coherent and critical manner, and reach conclusions which follow from the evidence and the arguments you put forward. There will be a constraint on the number of words you can use so, inevitably, you need to be selective about content.

How to research, plan and write an essay - a 10 step process Writing an essay, no matter what the topic, is a complex process; it requires a lot of practice, and unfortunately no formula can guarantee good written work. There is no right or wrong way of approaching an essay; however there are certain tasks that should help you produce a good piece of work. Step 1: Interpret the question and identify the key topics The first crucial step is to interpret the question; essays questions use specific terms and which reveal how the question might be answered. Question analysis is a crucial part of the essay writing process; the most common reason why students fail assignments is because they do not read or analyse the question correctly. One method of question analysis is the ‘T.A.P. model’. First identify the Topic - what the main theme is; then the Action(s), i.e. what you have got to do; and finally the Parameters – the scope or confines of the task. It is worth spending a bit of time on this, making sure you are clear on what is being asked of you. If are still not clear, contact your tutor BEFORE you start work on the assignment. Figure 1. Question analysis using the T.A.P. model

‘Writing Essays’, Learning Development, Plymouth University (2011)

Following on from the question analysis, try to identify the key topics and what you already know about these; a ‘mindmap’ can be a good way to collect your thoughts and identify essential information and make and record connections between related points. You will find out more about mindmaps in Study Guide 5 Note-making. Step 2: Organise your time You need to plan your time carefully, find out when the essay is due and work backwards, allowing sufficient time for proofreading and re-drafting. You will need to spend at least half your time on research and gathering information, and the other half on writing. Construct a weekly schedule (refer to our study guide on getting organised for an example of this), and block out set periods of time during each week to work on your essay. Keep your schedule to hand and consult it regularly. Step 3: Read (do your research, make notes) There are numerous sources for you to make use of when collecting relevant information, much of it available in the University library as well as online. These sources include academic texts (books and journals); government statistics; newspapers and magazines; and research reports. This gathering and researching stage is important as the quality of your written material will reflect the range and quality of information you have gathered. Step 4: Think (and establish your position) Think about what conclusions your reading has led you to draw. Then write a brief outline of what you would like the essay to say. Keep this outline to hand and refer to it on a regular basis. This will help keep you on the right track and prevent you from over- or under-writing key sections. Step 5: Plan (to give your writing structure) Arranging your notes into a logical order will help you develop a structure for your work. A well-structured essay comprises an introduction, main body and conclusion. Each of these sections has a distinct purpose and is equally important. The introduction is essentially a map for the reader; it sets out the path that your essay will follow. The purpose of the main body is to set out your argument; the conclusion draws together the main threads of your argument as you summarise the most important points and then show that you have answered the question. To help structure your argument, consider using a framework for each paragraph, such as ‘Claim > Justify > Support > Implications’ (adapted from Mitchell and Riddle, 2000; see figure 2 below) or the Critical Thinking Model. Step 6: Writing You do not have to write the various sections of the essay in the order that they appear in the final draft. Some people write the ‘Writing Essays’, Learning Development, Plymouth University (2011)

introduction last, after the main body of work has been written. On the other hand, if you’ve done plenty of planning, then writing the introduction first can give you a clear idea where you are going – as can starting with the conclusion. This might help keep your writing more focused. Given that your essay or assignment is fundamentally your exploration of the topic, its purpose is to present your wellresearched argument. Your opinion should always be supported by evidence. As highlighted by Coles (1995), evidence can take different forms according to your discipline, including: examples, quotations, the results of case studies, data in the form of figures, diagrams, tables, graphs and anything else that is appropriate to the subject you are discussing. Importantly she also emphasises that simply quoting, reiterating or referring to the evidence is insufficient: every kind of evidence needs to be discussed, addressing possible different interpretations, implications and conclusions that can be drawn from the data. Use the following model (figure 2) to help you keep your argument focused and your paragraphs structured around a specific point. Think of each paragraph as a micro-essay, in other words, just like the entire essay, each paragraph should have an introduction, main body and conclusion. The introduction to your paragraph is the best place to make your claim. This may be a ‘topic sentence’ which summarises and introduces the main point of what you are going to say in your paragraph. The body of the paragraph then expands on this sentence by providing definitions, further explanation and discussion of the evidence and examples. The argument then needs ‘wrapping up’ - the paragraph has its own conclusion. This may involve discussing the implications, which can often link to the next point, in the next paragraph. The extended version of this study guide provides further detail on using theory and structuring paragraphs. Figure 2. Using theory and structuring paragraphs

‘Writing Essays’, Learning Development, Plymouth University (2011)

(Adapted from Mitchell and Riddle, 2000) Step 7: Referencing It is important to identify the sources of material you use, whether quoting from (i.e. using their exact words) or paraphrasing (changing the wording of) the work of others. Whether you are quoting or paraphrasing the work of others, you must acknowledge the original author and include the reference, both within the essay and in an organised list at the end in the ‘reference list’. Referencing is not really a step in its own right but rather something you should begin as soon as you start to gather information about different sources: keep track of what material comes from where so that you can easily include the correct references in your writing. If you are not sure whether to reference something or not, err on the side of caution and reference it. Omitting references is not acceptable and may result in losing marks or even failing an assignment and being accused of plagiarism. Plagiarism is the act of taking and using another person’s ideas and presenting them as if they were your own, and is taken very seriously by tutors. If even a small section of your work is found to have been plagiarised, you may be assigned a mark of '0' for that assignment. Many tutors and programmes now use plagiarism software that searches electronically for similar or matching text.

The extended version of this study guide provides examples of citing and referencing various sources under the Harvard system, and more guidelines can be found either in your programme handbook, in the Plymouth University’s A Guide to Referencing on the portal, or in Cite them Right (Pears and Shields, 2010).

Steps 8 & 9: Draft (redraft) and refine (edit and proofread) The purpose of your first draft is to test the developing structure and framework of your essay and begin to construct and develop your argument. This draft is only rough; it is not supposed to be perfect and it will need revision. The aim of the second draft is to improve the overall presentation, comprehension and coherency of the essay. Before approaching the final draft, leave the work alone for a short while. You may find it necessary to re-read and edit your essay more than once. It is extremely important to proofread what you have written before submitting your work; you will invariably come across mistakes which can easily be corrected. Preferably proofread your work aloud, as you tend to take more notice of the punctuation, natural pauses and general sentence structure, compared to when you read silently. At the proofreading stage you should check for errors with spelling, grammar and punctuation, coherence and structure of the essay and the overall presentation of your work (see the checklist, below). Note that other people are allowed to ‘Writing Essays’, Learning Development, Plymouth University (2011)

highlight errors or areas for improvement in your work, but any revisions must be done by you. Step 10: Review marker’s feedback If your marker has given you comments about your writing, it is really valuable to think about how you might put their suggestions into practice next time. It will probably help you to look through your work and see if you can spot where you’ve lost marks, and consider swapping with a friend so you can help each other.

Language When writing your essay, try to be concise. The most impressive answer is invariably presented in a direct and straightforward manner. Attempt to be natural and sincere in your writing and avoid the use of jargon and slang. However, as essays are a formal kind of writing, you should also take care not to use conversational or colloquial language. The language you use in your essays should not reflect prejudice or discrimination on the grounds of race, gender, sexuality, religion or ability. ‘Coloured’, for example, was once considered acceptable for use but, since the 1960s, it has come to be regarded as offensive to many black people. If you are unsure about the appropriateness of certain words or phrases, refer to your course handbook or ask your tutors for more guidance.

Presenting your written work Good presentation demonstrates that you are thorough and organised, whereas mistakes (‘typos’) and an inconsistent format do not reflect well upon your work. Ensure your essay is formatted as requested in your assignment brief or programme handbook; otherwise you may lose ‘easy’ marks. Some courses require you to submit your work electronically – but do check with your tutor as the rules can vary. Hand-written work, where your lecturer accepts it, should be legible and clear, and written on every other line. Leave sufficient margins and only write on one side of the page. For wordprocessed work, type essays in 12 point font size with 1.5 or double spacing. Choose typefaces and fonts that are clear and easy to read, for example, Times New Roman or Arial. Leave top, bottom, left and right margins of 2.54cm (the standard default), and number the pages. Ensure that your name, student registration number, title of the relevant module, code of the relevant module, name of the module leader, assignment title, and date of submission are all included on the title/front page.

‘Writing Essays’, Learning Development, Plymouth University (2011)

Essay-writing checklist Before you submit your work check it over one more time. Use the list below to help you: 1. Does the essay answer the question/deal with the topic that was set? (Read the brief again) 2. Does it cover all the key points and a range of arguments or viewpoints? (Have you missed one side of the argument?) 3. Have you covered the main points in sufficient depth? (Use the Critical Thinking Model in study guide 8) 4. Is the essay analytical in style and questioning in approach? (as above) 5. Have you developed and sustained the argument throughout the essay? (Check what you’re actually saying) 6. Is the argument logical and realistic? (as above) 7. Is the content accurate and relevant? (check your sources are reliable and up to date) 8. Is the material logically arranged? (check the structure by drawing up a contents list) 9. Is there a sense of direction, a reason why one paragraph follows another? (Consider doing some mindmapping, or going back to ones you’ve already made) 10. Is each main point well supported by examples and argument? (check your use of evidence) 11. Does it clearly distinguish your ideas from those of others? (make sure there’s a reference by every bit you’ve borrowed) 12. Do you acknowledge all sources, in the main body and at the end? (check your referencing, and Plymouth University guidelines on plagiarism) 13. Have you used an appropriate number and range of sources? (you don’t have to read the whole library, but one or two authors’ viewpoints won’t be enough) 14. Is the essay the correct length? (check the brief) 15. Have you included a word count? (on the cover sheet) 16. Have you written the work in an appropriate style, and simply and clearly? (Would an academic who wasn’t a specialist in your subject understand it?) 17. Is the grammar, punctuation and spelling correct? (Spell-check, grammar-check, and use a dictionary and grammar guide) 18. Have figures and tables been used appropriately and referenced? (check your guidelines or the generic Plymouth University referencing guidelines) 19. Is the essay well-presented, with the right spacing, font, font size and cover sheet? (check your handbook)

‘Writing Essays’, Learning Development, Plymouth University (2011)

References Coles, M. (1995) A student’s guide to coursework writing. Stirling: University of Stirling Mitchell, S. and Riddle, M. (2000) Improving the quality of argument in higher education. Middlesex: University of Middlesex Pears, R. and Shields, G. (2008) Cite them right: the essential referencing guide. Newcastle upon Tyne: Pear Tree Books.

Recommended reading Cottrell S. (2008) The study skills handbook. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan Press Northedge, A. (2007) The good study guide. Milton Keynes: Open University Press Levin, P. (2009) Write great essays. Maidenhead: Open University Press

For further information and the full range of study guides go to: http://www.plymouth.ac.uk/learn An extended version of this study guide is also available on our website.

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Writing reports Abstract/Summary: This study guide outlines some general principles of report writing. The abstract tells a reader what they are going to be told, in outline, unpacking a succinct and specific title. It gives the reader a clear idea of what to expect from the start, and of whether the document is worth reading in full (Turner et al., 2010). As well as describing the processes involved in report writing, this guide is presented and formatted in the style of a report to serve as a possible model (Wilson, 1996). In other words, this is a report showing how to write reports. It identifies what a report is, what different types there are and what purposes they serve. It then offers some guidelines on how to write one, outlining steps such as researching, planning and presenting a report as well as offering some discussion of challenges in report-writing. It finishes with a checklist for writing a good report.

Contents:

Page 1. Introduction / background / context: the nature and function of a report………………………..…1 2. Literature review: reading matter that contextualises and helps you develop your ideas……….2 3. Planning: purpose and structure……………………………………………..…………………………2 4. Method: writing and presenting the report - audience, language and layout………………….…..2 5. Results / findings and presenting them visually…………………………………………………..…..3 6. Discussion / analysis………………………………………………………………………………..…...3 7. Conclusion and recommendations……………………………………………………………….….…3 Reference list. Appendix: Checklist for a good report

1. Introduction: the nature and function of a report This section will sometimes be called ‘background’ or ‘context’. In all cases it should introduce the topic or problem and any key information required to ‘set the scene’ for your reader, including defining terms and scope. (See our study guide on essay writing for more advice on writing a good introduction.) 1.1 The nature of a report A written report is a document that presents specific information as accurately and as concisely as possible to a particular audience. Reports are often used to communicate the results of a project or investigation to, for example, an employer or other critical reader who might be looking for specific information. Like an essay, it will probably have one or more key messages for the reader based on the research or procedure reported on. Normal referencing principles apply, though the writing style and presentation will differ from those of an essay. 1.2 The function of a report There are a number of reasons for writing a report, including one or more of:  providing a record of an event or meeting;  aiding decision-making;  persuading or influencing an audience;  setting out procedures.

1.3 Types of report: Different disciplines use different types of report, such as those outlined by Unilearning (2000):  



Technical and business reports often simulate the process of report writing in industry, where a problem or a case study is addressed and resolved for the benefit of an imaginary client. Field reports are common in disciplines such as law (e.g. a Court observation), industrial relations, psychology (e.g. a child development report), nursing (e.g. a patient’s history), history (e.g. a site report) and education (e.g. a teaching observation), where observations of phenomena or events in the real world might be analysed using theories studied in the course. Scientific reports (also called laboratory reports) are common in all the sciences. They use a standard format describing methods, results and conclusions to report on an experiment or other empirical investigation.

2. Literature review: reading matter to contextualise and help you develop ideas As with any project, the first step is to understand the task you’ve been given. Then once you have understood the brief, you can begin researching the topic. Aim to find material from a variety of sources according to your subject and purpose. Sources include material available in the library and online, such as books, journals, websites, archives, newspapers and other written and non-written sources, including previous reports, minutes of meetings, broadcasts etc. Methods of collecting primary research material can include interviews, questionnaires, brainstorming sessions, focus groups and meetings. The main purpose of the literature review is to map the work already done by others on your topic. This is like a mini essay, with an introduction to the main issue(s), a main body and a conclusion (Turner et al., 2010). You can organise this section by grouping sources into themes in order to outline trends in the field. Turner et al., recommend summarising others’ work critically, showing how it relates to your research, and concluding with how this reading has informed your research in terms of ‘things you’ll be building on, gaps you’ll be filling etc.’ (ibid.).

3. Planning: purpose and structure As with an essay, you will only be able to determine the structure when you’ve identified your key message. Having established the type and purpose of your report, you need to plan before you begin writing. Reports are generally more formally structured than essays, so as well as identifying and organising the main themes/subtopics, you will need to rationalise these into sections such as in this guide. Bear in mind that although a marker will read your entire report, other readers wouldn’t necessarily do so, perhaps just reading the abstract, findings and/or conclusion instead. Figure 1: the order in which people tend to read reports (Turner et al., 2010)

Knowing how people commonly read a report can help you consider how to influence your reader’s experience of your report, i.e. where to put the most important or interesting material and so on.

4. Method: writing and presenting the report It is generally advised that this section should be written very clearly, simply and factually for your reader so that they could exactly replicate the procedure you describe. As well as explaining how you did it, what materials and equipment you used, who was involved and how and so on (whilst maintaining confidentiality in most cases), you also need to justify why you did each bit the way you did. It is also important to comment on anything you did differently from the method you first planned (Unilearning, 2000). 4.1 Language The kind of language used in the report will depend upon the reader. Always aim to use the most appropriate word for context; be specific with words and phrases; use language that is straightforward; keep sentences and paragraphs reasonably short; use humour only when appropriate (very rarely); be objective; and be sensitive to issues of inclusivity around, for example, gender, age, ability, race, sexuality and religion. 4.2 Presentation and layout Reports, unlike most essays, will be broken down into small numbered sections much like this one. Like essays, they should be presented using at least 11 or 12 point font size with 1.5 or double spacing. Don’t use a range of typefaces and font sizes; choose one that is clear and easy to read, for example, Times New Roman or Arial. To emphasise a word, phrase or heading, use CAPITALS, bold, italics, and/or underlining; whichever style you use, be consistent. Headings, sub-headings and numbering can be very effective in presenting the main points and make it easier for the reader to follow the sections.

5. Results/findings and presenting them visually Turner et al., (2010) suggest that ‘this section has only one job, which is to present the findings of your research as simply and clearly as possible’. She goes on to recommend that you ‘use the format that will achieve this most effectively: e.g. text, graphs, tables or diagrams. For ideas on how to present information graphically, see either http://www.visualliteracy.org/periodic_table/periodic_table.html and/or http://www.learnhigher.ac.uk/learningareas/reportwriting/graphicaldata.htm. All of these must be properly referenced in the same way as other material (for more information on referencing, see your programme handbook and the latest edition of Pears and Shields’ Cite them right).

6. Discussion/analysis: This section is also like a mini essay in structure and style, exploring the issues in some depth. It is your opportunity to show off your thinking skills as you discuss any problems encountered, analyse the implications of the findings, evaluate pros and cons, and examine the key themes in more detail. This section will usually be the longest section of text and your marker may pay special attention to it.

7. Conclusion and recommendations This section sums up the implications of the findings as discussed above, identifying the main issues brought to light by your research (Turner et al., 2010), how these relate to the original brief (ibid.), and what further work, research or action you would recommend, and the reasons for this. So a good report does as outlined in this text, but there are a number of reasons why a report may not achieve well. It may fail to respond to the brief (Turner et al., 2010), which is perhaps the most fundamental flaw. It may be mistargeted, with a lack of purpose, inappropriate scope, or too much or too little material (ibid.). It may not relate the results to the purpose (ibid.). All of these may be due to misunderstanding of the brief or topic and/or may reveal a lack of knowledge or critical thought of the subject (see Critical Thinking for help with developing and organising your ideas).

Building a clear structure will help your reader and also reflect well on your thinking, planning and focus. Avoid overly subjective language so as not to show inappropriate bias. A consistent style should reflect your consistent approach to the whole project and help reassure your reader of its validity. Good spelling and grammar and the avoidance of exclusive jargon are important because they too will help raise your readerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s confidence in your work. So, Turner et al (ibid.) sum up report writing in one sentence: â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;This is what was done, and this is what it means.â&#x20AC;&#x2122;

Reference list Burns, T. and Sinfield, S. (2008) Essential study skills: the complete guide to success at university (2nd ed.). London: Sage Pears, R. and Shields, G. (2008) Cite them right: the essential referencing guide. Newcastle upon Tyne: Pear Tree Books. Turner, J., Shahabudin, K. and Reid, M. (2009) Better report writing for university students. Available at: http://www.learnhigher.ac.uk/learningareas/reportwriting/betterreportwriting.htm (Accessed: 9th June 2010) Unilearning (2000) Report writing. Available at: http://unilearning.uow.edu.au/report/index.html (Accessed: 9th June 2010) Wilson, J. (1996) Report writing for business students. Preston: University of Central Lancashire

Appendix Checklist for a good report (adapted from Burns and Sinfield, 2008) 1. What is the purpose of this report, and has it fulfilled that clearly? 2. Are your ideas presented logically so that your reader can follow and get sufficient information to make the decisions you hope for? Is there enough accurate, relevant material, or too much? 3. Does it cover the key points? Do you analyse your evidence/data to support your points? 4. Does your conclusion follow logically from your arguments, and do your recommendations follow logically from your conclusions? 5. Are the language, tone, style and pitch clear, direct and formal, suitable for the reader and the subject? 6. Is the grammar, punctuation and spelling correct? Is the report the correct length? 7. Is the layout simple, clear, logical and consistent, with conventional sections, headings, labels and numbers? Is the right material in the right sections? 8. If illustrations such as figures and tables have been included, are they clear and purposeful, usefully integrated and properly referenced? 9. Have you used an appropriate number and range of sources? Have all sources and references been acknowledged, in the main body and at the end in a list of references? 10. Should there be a glossary? If there is one, is it comprehensive? 11. Are the appendices clearly labelled? Is the reader directed to each appendix in the body of the report? 12. Have you left the report on one side for a while before going back to review and edit it?

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Writing a dissertation What is a dissertation? What does it contain? What is a research proposal? What is a literature review? How do I choose my methodology? What is quantative research? What is qualitative research? How do I collect data? What do I write in the discussion section? Dissertation top tips For further information and the full range of study guides go to: http://www.plymouth.ac.uk/learn

This is a general guide to writing dissertations. Your departmentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s policy must take priority over anything contained in this guide. If you are unsure or unclear about anything check with your dissertation supervisor.

What is a dissertation? A dissertation is an extended piece of academic writing which is often (but not always) based on a research project. The average length of an undergraduate dissertation is usually 10,000 words. However, different programmes have different requirements, so check your module handbook. Because it is a long piece of work, you need to approach your dissertation in a systematic and organized way. Dissertations are usually divided into a number of chapters as this helps the reader to negotiate their way through your work, but thinking about chapters can also help you to organize and structure your ideas, and to break the work down into more manageable chunks.

What does it contain? A dissertation will usually (but not always) contain some or all of the following.     

 

   

Title page Table of contents – (it’s a good idea to do this last as it is important that your page numbers match up) List of figures, tables, photographs etc. Glossary of terms (if appropriate) Statement of originality – this is signed and dated and confirms that you have fully acknowledged all your sources and that where there is no such acknowledgement the work is your own Acknowledgements Abstract – at undergraduate level this is a (approximately) 200 word summary of the aims, methodologies, key findings and conclusions of the dissertation. Main body – (remember each new chapter should start on a new page) Reference list Bibliography (if appropriate) Appendices – these are supporting documents such as graphs, maps, questionnaires, transcripts etc. that you may wish to include because they provide supplementary information that may be useful to the reader but which may obstruct the flow of the actual dissertation and/or not be directly relevant.

What is a research proposal? You may be asked to submit a research proposal to your tutor prior to undertaking your dissertation. A research proposal outlines the purpose of your dissertation and how you intend to go about doing your research. Writing a research proposal is an extremely effective way to plan out your dissertation, and a good research proposal can form the basis for the first three chapters of your dissertation: Introduction, Literature review, Methodology. Even if you are not required to formally submit a research proposal, you will still need to go through the process of identifying a suitable ‘research question’ and an appropriate methodology as part of your planning for your dissertation.

What is a literature review? This is the starting point for your dissertation because it shows the relevance of your research to your topic area and that the methodology you have chosen is appropriate. In an ideal world, once you have decided on the broad focus for your research, you would spend time reading around the subject in order to familiarise yourself with other research that has been conducted in the project area. This would help you to identify what kind of research is already out there and this would hopefully lead you to being able to ‘Writing a dissertation’, Learning Development, Plymouth University, 2012

identify a ‘gap’ in the research. Identifying a gap might mean noting that a particular (methodological) approach to the topic that hasn’t been taken before or it might be that a particular group has been underrepresented. It might simply be that you have a different perspective (ontological stance) because you are a student, or female, or from Plymouth, or because of any other relevant variable. Identifying a ‘gap’ or research space is very useful because it can provide a strong justification for your research project. However, not all research projects need to be totally original, there is a lot of value in conducting a piece of research that replicates other similar studies (albeit on a much smaller scale) because by undertaking your own research project you will have the opportunity to confirm or question what is already out there for yourself. Therefore, the purpose of your literature review is to provide a sound basis for the project you want to carry out by showing that you have a clear understanding of current and relevant issues relating to your topic and a good knowledge of the kind of research that has already been carried out in your chosen area. It is important to remember though that you are discussing not cataloguing the available literature. In many ways, what you are doing is writing a mini essay, not so much about the topic of your dissertation but rather what the current/relevant literature says and/or does. Therefore, you might find it helpful to organise the literature around themes, issues or methodologies rather than simply discussing each individual piece of research in turn

How do I choose my methodology? Research methodologies can be broadly divided into two main types; qualitative and quantitative. Although it is important that you understand the difference between these two approaches, it is also equally important that you are also aware that much research nowadays combines elements of both (mixed methods). Qualitative and quantitative methodologies both have their own particular advantages and disadvantages, and it is vital that you choose the approach that is most suitable for the kind of research you want to carry out. Not all dissertations are based on primary research and it might be worth considering whether secondary research would achieve your aims more effectively. Secondary research entails looking at what is already out there and evaluating its usefulness and importance, perhaps in relation to a particular issue, context or development. In many ways this is rather like doing an extended literature review, but would obviously require you to go into a lot more depth in terms of evaluation, analysis and critique.

What is quantitative research? Generally speaking, quantitative research is very much concerned with number-crunching and is often used to gather statistical data from (often) large numbers of participants. The main advantage of this kind of approach is that the data is easy to quantify and it is also often regarded as more ‘objective’ than qualitative data (although this is a matter for debate). ‘Writing a dissertation’, Learning Development, Plymouth University, 2012

What is qualitative research? Qualitative research is often concerned with participants’ opinions, ideas, perceptions and feelings. Some researchers argue that this kind of data is much richer than pure numerical data; others suggest it can be unreliable.

How do I collect data? Most of us are familiar with questionnaires as a means of collecting data, however, it is important that you think carefully about which data collection tool is most suitable for your project, and the most practical, before you decide. There are many different types of questions and questionnaires ranging from ‘closed’ types where the participants can only choose from a pre-given range of options (multiple choice), to more ‘open’ types which invite individual comments and responses. Obviously the type of question you ask will influence strongly the kind of response you obtain, therefore questionnaire design has become almost an art in itself. It is a very good idea to run a pilot if at all possible, even if you just try out your questions on a small group of friends. It is amazing how often questions are misinterpreted or even misunderstood and if this happens it will negatively impact on your data. Ironing out glitches early on can really improve the quality and usefulness of the data you collect, and can be a great time-saver in the long run. While sending out a number of questionnaires might initially seem like an easy and attractive data collection method, it is important to remember that people are busy and often don’t respond to surveys unless they have a very good reason to. It can be very disappointing if you spend a lot of time and effort putting together a good questionnaire and only to get a handful of responses. Other means of collecting data are face to face interviews, focus groups and/or case studies. In these contexts, the researcher is also often more closely involved with the participants and as a result these types of data collection tools are sometimes seen as producing data that is more subjective. If you choose to undertake qualitative research, it is important that you consider questions of influence and bias. It is also essential that you consider different interviewing techniques and are familiar with how qualitative data can be most usefully recorded, transcribed and coded. Qualitative research often produces large amounts of data, therefore it can be very time-consuming to analyse and as a result qualitative research is often conducted with a small number of participants. Whether you see this as an advantage or disadvantage depends on your research perspective (epistemological stance). It is easy to get tied up in knots with data collection, but remember it is what you do with the data that really counts, not how much you collect. Therefore it is a good idea to choose a simple data collection tool which is practical and easy to administer and which will provide you with enough data to analyse effectively and meaningfully. Most research, even if it is conducted over years at great expense by professional researchers, is flawed in some way. Remember, at undergraduate level, you are only expected to undertake a small-scale project that will hopefully add another (perhaps tiny but hopefully interesting) perspective to an ever-growing body of research in your ‘Writing a dissertation’, Learning Development, Plymouth University, 2012

subject area. Your PhD may change the world, but at this stage in your academic career what you are trying to demonstrate to your tutors is that you have developed the kind of thoughtful research skills that a successful graduate should possess.

What do I write in the discussion section? One of the most interesting and important parts of your dissertation is the analysis/discussion of results. This is where you will try and draw some useful conclusions from the research you have carried out. What you are trying to do in this section is to put your findings into the context of previous research (most usefully this would be the research you identified in the lit review). Questions you might want to consider when writing this section are: have you confirmed your expectations and those of other researchers in the field or have you found something different/new/contradictory/anomalous? Can you make sense of your findings? Can you offer some sort of explanation, however tentative? What are the professional/practical/political implications of your findings (Hannan, 2008)?

Dissertation Top Tips Before you do anything make sure you know your programme’s exact dissertation requirements 

What length is required?



What is the exact submission date?



Are there any intermediate deadlines?



Do you need an ethics protocol?

Make a timetable 

Get a year planner or calendar.



Note all formal deadlines.

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Give yourself a final deadline well in advance of the official deadline - you need to allow time for proof reading, binding and for things that might go wrong.



Divide up the time you have available and set dates for the completion of specific tasks.



Work backwards what do you need to have done by when?



Plan the next 4 – 6 weeks in terms of specific tasks.



Remember most things take longer than expected - surveys and questionnaires etc. can be very time consuming to administer and analyse.

‘Writing a dissertation’, Learning Development, Plymouth University, 2012



Remember you may not be able to get the information you want quickly and easily – busy organisations may not respond to your requests as and when you need them to. Try and have a plan B just in case.



Allow plenty of time for printing, collating and binding

Find a manageable research focus 

Do NOT rush through this stage



Write down ALL your ideas



Focus on topics that interest YOU



See how many research projects you can identify and choose ONE – remember you can’t cover everything



Read around your topic to see what’s already out there



Try and come up with a well-defined ‘research question’ before you begin any empirical work

Keep notes 

Make clear notes on your reading and keep them organized



Keep a full record of your sources – it can be very time consuming trying to find this information later on

Work with your dissertation tutor 

Arrange to see your supervisor as soon as possible. Your tutor is there to guide you in terms of the way you tackle the research and write the final product. People who do not see their tutor are more likely to fail or fail to submit their dissertation.



Prepare for each tutorial – make a list of precise queries and areas that need clarifying, but don’t expect to be spoonfed the answers.



Don’t avoid meeting with your tutor because you haven’t made any progress. Talking to them might help motivate you.



At the end of the tutorial set a date for your next meeting.

‘Writing a dissertation’, Learning Development, Plymouth University, 2012

Write as you go along 

Don’t wait until you have finished your research to start writing.



Write the sections you are most comfortable with first.



Write your dissertation using real names – you can change them later.



Save each draft carefully and in various locations. It might be a good idea to email each new version to yourself, or to store them in the cloud rather than on a memory stick (which may be lost). Make sure it is clear which draft is which – use dates or numbers to help you.

Beware of plagiarism 

You must give full credit to the people’s words and ideas you refer to in your writing. If you do not do this you will be accused of plagiarism and there are very serious consequences for this. See www.plymouth.ac.uk/refman for guidelines, and follow the advice on good writing practice given in our study guides on essay writing and critical thinking.

Pay attention to spelling, punctuation and grammar 

Be accurate and consistent



Leave time for proofreading – one good technique for spotting mistakes is to read the work out loud.



Remember the spell check on your computer will not pick up correctly spelt words used in the incorrect context

‘Writing a dissertation’, Learning Development, Plymouth University, 2012

Useful links The Royal Literary Fund website has two particularly useful resources for dissertation writing: For undergraduates, on what tutors want; literature reviews; planning and structure; and making an argument: http://www.rlf.org.uk/fellowshipscheme/writing/undergraduatedissertations/index.cfm For post-graduates, on starting to write; keeping going; editing and finishing; plus quotes and advice from students who have gone through the process: http://www.rlf.org.uk/fellowshipscheme/writing/diswriting/intro.htm

References Hannon, A. (2008) Writing Up Research. Faculty of Education, University of Plymouth. Available from: http://www.edu.plymouth.ac.uk/resined/resedhme.htm [Accessed 31/05/2012]

For further information and the full range of study guides go to: http://www.plymouth.ac.uk/learn An extended version of this study guide is also available on our website.

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Exams and revision What are exams for? Revision techniques Maximising memory, minimising stress Taking exams For further information and the full range of study guides go to: http://www.plymouth.ac.uk/learn

What are exams for? Exams are just one of many different types of assessment that you will encounter on your programme at university. Just like other assessments they are designed to help you consolidate and further your learning as well as to give you an opportunity to demonstrate it. Exams will vary according to what it is that is being tested. For instance you may be asked to write one, two or three essays in a given amount of time, such as two hours. This aims to test your knowledge and understanding of the subject, and your ability to present and express ideas logically and coherently. On the other hand, short answers and multiple choice exams test your ability to recall more specific information from a broader knowledge base.

Why is revision different to other kinds of learning? Revision is the process of consolidating your learning. It is a way of reprocessing your knowledge and understanding by, literally, â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;seeing it againâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; from different angles and contexts. This process should lead you to a fuller understanding of the material and will help you to remember important details and principles on a long-term basis.

When should I start preparing for exams? NOW! All the learning you do on your course prepares you for your exams, so exam preparation really starts when your course starts. Get into the habit of regularly revising topics soon after they arise. Little and often is best for both learning and recall. Consider setting

aside a little time every few days, or at least every week, to write, draw or map summaries of the new material you have learned. Figure 1: The longer term effectiveness of regular learning

What do I need to know about my exams? The date, time and place of the exam; the type of exam; organisation of the paper; timing; marks and their weighting; any supporting material required or allowed (e.g. trigonometry tables, textbooks) and equipment you need to take with you. There are also a number of sources that can give you some idea of the likely content of the exam, try module handbooks, aims, objectives and learning outcomes, and/or assessment criteria. Past exam papers, which can be found on the library pages of the student portal are also a good source.

What should I revise and how should I prioritise topics? You will not be expected to know everything about your subject. Furthermore you may find that you can’t revise everything that you have covered during the course, but do as much as you can. Prioritise the topics that seem to have been central to the course and the ones that interest or challenge you most. You will have noted what your lecturers consider to be the most important topics because of the time they devoted to them (or other clues). Follow any advice from your lecturers as you prepare for the exam. Be realistic about what you can revise in the time available to you, at the same time as recognising that this is a critical point in your studies, which is going ‘Exams and revision’, Learning Development, Plymouth University (2011)

to contribute in a measurable way to your study success, so you may need to work extra hard for a short period.

How should I revise? Revision is not just about reading and memorising information, which is a relatively passive activity. If you try to revise actively, you could find that it helps your brain to take in the material either more easily or more permanently, so revise actively and creatively according to your learning preferences. Have a look at some of the strategies below.

Revision strategies for effective learning and recall • Keep focused: devise a study plan and stick to it but be realistic about what is possible if you have other commitments such as domestic or work responsibilities and ensure you allow yourself some free time too. • Time is your friend: manage your time so that you know when your breaks will come and at what time you will have completed your revision for the day. When you are up against the clock, you may focus better than when your study time stretches out endlessly ahead of you. • Organise your material and summarise it in your own words: create notes and mindmaps in a style which suits you. (See our study guide on Notemaking.) • Use index cards to write or draw a brief outline or summary immediately after completing work on a topic. • Tighten up your reading technique for speed, focus and efficiency. (See our study guide on reading effectively.) • Make revision meaningful: attempt to link your material, in different ways, to what you know already or ‘real world’ examples such as events in your life, or current news. For example, try to learn the steps in a process by matching them to your own morning routine. Alternatively linking facts to humour can sometimes help you to remember them.

‘Exams and revision’, Learning Development, Plymouth University (2011)

• Use all your senses to help you to remember: use a sound to remember a formula; a taste to remember a reference, a smell to remember the lines of a poem. • Learn general rules and principles where possible, rather than masses of facts. Sometimes you need to have lots of accurate information at your finger tips, but often you demonstrate your academic competence through the way that you think, analyse, synthesise – through the questions that you ask, and by showing that you can apply rules intelligently. • Revise sociably: Form a study group with other students on your course and try teaching and testing each other. If you can teach something, it usually demonstrates that you really know it. The support, encouragement and motivation will really help you all. • Make voice recordings of your notes so you can listen to them on your MP3 or phone whilst doing other things such as travelling on the bus or washing up. • Practice the art of taking exams: It’s not just what you know that counts; it is also important that you are able to answer exam questions well, so do timed practices; interpreting exam questions; making quick plans, perhaps in diagram form; prioritising points to make (must know / should know / could know); writing neatly with flow and coherence; using the specialist language of the subject; working in uninterrupted silence and writing full timed answers. • Reward yourself when you meet targets: plan your rewards and try to vary them to include a change of scene and some exercise where possible – a walk to the park or a swim at the local pool will really enhance your feeling of achievement and well-being.

What if…

…I don’t understand what I am revising? Ask questions about what you are doing and why you are revising it; think about how each topic fits into the rest of your course. …I’m late starting my revision? Do your best, start immediately. Prioritise carefully. Begin with a small task on a subject that interests you. …I can’t keep to my revision timetable? Develop a schedule and experiment with it. Be flexible, allow contingency time, and change what doesn’t work. (See our study guide on getting organised.)

‘Exams and revision’, Learning Development, Plymouth University (2011)

…I have a disability? Make sure that you inform your Faculty early in your course if you have a disability that may make taking an exam difficult. Special provision may be possible, such as assistance with mobility or computing equipment, or writing/typing assistance. Get in touch with Disability Assist, das@plymouth.ac.uk, for more information. …I panic and go blank during the exam? Prevent this by being well prepared. Read the whole paper first making bullet points for each answer, then build on bullet points, develop a mindmap, use trigger words or images etc. Jot down a few words that have something to do with the question; this may stimulate your memory. If this doesn’t work, ask basic questions about the subject, such as ‘what?’, ‘who?’, ‘when?’, ‘why?’ to get going. Try another question, or even allow a minute of rest. Slow, deep breaths can also be calming.

How can I improve my memory recall and minimise stress? We remember things best when we’ve learnt them on a deeper level, and this requires optimum concentration. Improve your concentration levels and avoid high stress levels by… …creating a positive study environment  Ensure your lighting, temperature, chair and desk match your needs, making you feel comfortable but not too relaxed.  Have a clock in the room so that you can keep to targets and work smart, not endlessly.  Use motivating post–its. …looking after yourself Everything in moderation - a stressed mind doesn’t learn well so:  Eat a balanced and healthy diet.  Exercise releases frustration, helps relaxation, and lowers blood pressure.  Sleep well and take time to wind down after studying and before bed.  Talk to people who care about you – including staff at the university -if there’s anything that’s bothering you (Tracey, 2002) …making study active Follow some of the suggestions earlier in this Study Guide …taking just one step at a time Keep a manageably limited focus. ‘Exams and revision’, Learning Development, Plymouth University (2011)

…thinking positively If you believe that thought shapes energy and energy shapes action, then replace negative thoughts with positive ones and always remember that you have achieved great challenges in the past and so you can do it! Refer to our study guide on getting organised for some preliminary ideas about dealing with stress. There are people who are available to help you when you are feeling like you can’t cope, including tutors, counsellors and Learning Development advisors.

How can I get better at memorising facts and figures and detail? • Spend time writing out the full workings of numerical problems to ensure that you understand how you arrive at the answer. Consider using colour coding for formulae, and visual images to help recall. • If you need to recall detail in diagrams and graphs, test yourself on small sections of the figure. • Use graphics to create visual memories: diagrams, charts, tables, images, symbols, colour coding and mindmaps can all be used to plot topics in forms that aid understanding and create triggers for recall. • Exercise your memory regularly: crosswords, Sudoku and other puzzles keep the memory in good shape. • Build up your memory little by little: link each bit of learning onto what you have already learnt and understood. • Be positive: believe that you can learn and remember material. • Be creative in your links by using mnemonics and acronyms – and even tunes! Remember that the real key to remembering is understanding in the first place, so question the material continually and work out the connections between the issues.

What do examiners want you to do? • • • • •

answer the question that has been set demonstrate your understanding and its relevance to the question present your answer logically and coherently critically analyse the relevant material from your course answer all the parts of the questions and give appropriate examples and illustrations

‘Exams and revision’, Learning Development, Plymouth University (2011)

What don’t examiners want? • • • • •

answers that are much too long all you know, descriptively, unselectively and uncritically illegibility and poor structuring confused and muddled answers unsubstantiated opinions, i.e. ‘I think’ or ‘I believe’ without adequate explanation or argument • to be irritated by a lack of care in use of language. • to fail you.

What should I do the day before the exam? Check that you know where and when the exam will be held don’t rely on information from others. If you are unsure contact the programme administration. Visit the room and familiarise yourself with the surroundings. Check you have all the equipment and resources you need to take with you, including pens.

What should I do on the day? Do what’s right for you. If you want to run through your notes, do so. Allow extra travel time and arrive early. Think about what causes you to feel stressed and plan ahead in order that you can avoid these situations before the exam.

At the start of the exam The first few minutes of an exam are very valuable, so: • check that you have the correct paper for your course • complete the details on the front of the paper: name, student number, module code etc. • read the instructions twice and check all the pages • establish how many sections or questions you need to answer • decide how to tackle the paper, take a few moments to plan this. If it helps, answer the easy questions first; you may then find that the more difficult questions become clearer as you get into your stride • analyse the questions just as carefully as you would for an essay (see the normal or extended version of the essay writing study guide).

During the exam ‘Exams and revision’, Learning Development, Plymouth University (2011)

• answer the question set, regurgitating text that doesn’t answer the question is a common mistake that will earn you few marks • show that you have understood the meaning and principles behind the facts rather than that you have just learnt the facts by rote • write neatly, leave plenty of space, use clear and simple language • where possible use and acknowledge the work of others. • if time runs out, write an outline of your answer(s), showing the specific points you wanted to make • cross out but do not obliterate rough work and planning, this could gain you marks: ensure it is clear how you arrived at your answer • stay until the end – and use all of the time.

After the exam Review your performance after the exam and think about what you could improve for the next time. Did you find that you were sufficiently prepared? If not, why not? Do learn from your mistakes and be prepared to try new approaches until you find what works for you.

What if I fail an exam? You may have the option of retaking once or even twice – check with your Faculty Administration Office. Find out whether the re-sit will follow the same format. Assess your performance critically and honestly. If possible, seek feedback from a marker or tutor. Similar questions can appear in re-sits so spend some time on these topics.

References Buzan, T. (2000) The Mind map book. BBC Publications Tracy, E. (2002) The student’s guide to exam success. Buckingham: OUP (p. 86-91)

Recommended reading Cottrell, S. (2008) The study skills handbook. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan Press (p200-230) Marshall, L. and Rowland, F. (1993) A guide to learning independently. (2nd ed.) Buckingham: OUP (pp.53-58).

www.plymouth.ac.uk/learn learn@plymouth.ac.uk Learning Gateway, RLB 011 01752 587676 ‘Exams and revision’, Learning Development, Plymouth University (2011)

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Presentations What is a presentation? Planning and preparing presentations Giving presentations Features of a good presentation Poster presentations For further information and the full range of study guides go to: http://www.plymouth.ac.uk/learn

What is a presentation? At some point in your degree programme you will have to present your work. In its most basic form this just means telling someone else about it. With such a simple definition it is easy to see that presentations can vary greatly, from reporting back to a small and informal group to standing up in front of a whole class with lecturers and industry professionals watching. For some presentations you might be restricted to different forms of audio or visual methods, such as posters or other multi-media formats. Regardless of the type of presentation there are some key points to consider that will help you deliver a good presentation. Effective communication, once developed, is a skill that will help you throughout the rest of your life, from the classroom project presentations of today to the wedding speeches of tomorrow. You should look at presentations as an opportunity to practise effective communication and presentation skills, which are often desired by employers. Presentations may also provide those who prefer speaking to writing with an alternative way to demonstrate their abilities. The purpose of your presentation, and the specifications provided in the assignment brief, will help you decide factors such as:     

Presenter(s) – individual or group? Duration – how long have you got? Formality – what is appropriate? Audience – who and how many? Assessment – by whom and on what criteria?

Planning and preparing a presentation Even the most experienced presenters can be nervous before they present. One of the keys to success is using any nervous energy to help drive the planning and preparation. Think of it as a challenge that will offer great opportunities. Effective presenting, like effective writing, is a skill that can be acquired and developed. With sufficient preparation and practice you will be able to deliver an excellent preparation with minimal anxiety. As well as this guide, the one on Critical Thinking will help you to plan and structure your presentation. When planning a presentation ask yourself the following questions: Why? The first important step is to find out why you have to present. This information can usually be found in module handbooks or from the lecturer. Before thinking about the content of your presentation, read the guidelines or brief carefully – and in particular check how it will be assessed. Who? Once you have established the reason for giving the presentation, you should then consider the audience. Are you presenting to fellow students, and/or to lecturers, or to individuals or groups not connected with the University? What is their level of understanding of the topic? Will they have any background knowledge and, if so, how much? What will they expect from you? The audience is the most important part of any presentation, if you keep them listening and interested, and they can understand your topic then your presentation will go well. What? Once you have considered the above points you will automatically be starting to consider the content. Organise the information or ideas into a logical structure; summarise any notes that you have made and the key points or findings. Write down the main points on index cards and move them so that you can identify which are the most important. (This will also help you to decide on a logical sequence for them – see below). Presentations generally have very specific time slots, and a common mistake is to try and cover too much. Consider the time you have and what you would like to cover, are the two compatible? If you have ten minutes, that means a minute or so for the introduction, and a minute for summarising, leaving approximately eight minutes for your main discussion. You will not be able to address more than four or five key points in that space of time, depending on how much discussion you need for each point. If you haven’t got enough time to cover what you would like, decide on what is most important and briefly explain in your introduction why you have made these choices. Remember “less is more”! ‘Presentations’, Learning Development, Plymouth University (2010)

How? Once you have decided on the material to include, you then need to consider how you are going to structure it. Your introduction should contain an outline of what you aim to cover; put the presentation into context; and, highlight its relevance. Think about including a ‘hook’, something that will get your audience interested and listening, such as relevant current debates or hot-topics from the news. Where appropriate, personalise your talk, perhaps with a little bit of humour. The main body should then develop your material in a logical order, only giving the most relevant and important detail, and clearly highlighting any significance to the central theme. The conclusion is your opportunity to summarise your key points, any significant findings or results, and possibly emphasise how this compares or contrasts with the literature or what was expected. You might also need to outline what you would do differently in the future or how it could have been improved upon. Finally, thank the audience for their attention and ask if there are any questions. Using visual aids Visual aids can add something special to your presentation, provided they are used appropriately. Graphs, images, music or video clips can all help to emphasise key points, or communicate ideas and information more effectively, and they have an immediate impact on the audience in providing detail and direction. There are a number of different types to choose from, including white or blackboards, flipcharts, OHP (overhead projector), slide projector, video, computer-generated display (e.g. PowerPoint), and objects (e.g. models, experiments, products). Try to keep them simple - don’t “go overboard” on these as they can end up detracting from the content. Ask your tutor or the media services staff in the library for more information about the availability of different types of visual aids. PowerPoint When using PowerPoint you should automatically consider and cater for people with sight problems, dyslexia or other disabilities, here are a few pointers:      

Use a maximum of two font styles and no smaller than 24pt Use plain ‘sans-serif’ fonts such as Verdana or Arial Pale backgrounds with dark texts are easiest to read Use bold rather than italics or underlining Do not use all UPPER-CASE Don’t overload slides: a maximum 6 bullet points per slide

Keep the design and style simple; there is strong evidence that suggests people have better recall of simpler slides. Rehearsal Try to spend as much time rehearsing your presentation as you do putting it together, you don’t want the delivery to let down the content. Remember to speak OUT LOUD when you rehearse and time yourself carefully. Rehearsing will improve presentations in many ways, such as: ‘Presentations’, Learning Development, Plymouth University (2010)

 Getting to know the timing, pace and volume to use  Familiarising you with the content, language and wording  The more you ‘hear’ yourself do it the more comfortable and relaxed you will be about it  It reduces your need for notes (never just read from these!)  Helps you identify any gaps  Makes sure that any technology you are using works properly

Giving presentations Just beforehand try spending some time doing something different and distracting: rather than sitting and waiting, perhaps go for a walk. Get your voice ready by stretching your vocal chords with ‘oooooooos’ and ‘aaaaaahs’, and practise projecting your voice, so it is nice and clear when you start. When you begin the presentation start with introducing yourself, what you are going to talk about and why it is important. Check with the audience that they can hear and see both you and any visual aids, and let them know when they can ask questions. This can help you relax, improve your confidence by helping you feel in control, and build a rapport with your audience. Aim to talk to the audience, not at them. Pay attention to the pace of your speech, tone of your voice, the emphasis on key words, and the volume. Try to make eye-contact with as many of the audience as you can, this will help you communicate with them, give it a personal touch and keep them engaged. Body language is an important part of giving presentations: try to move around, but not fidget, as this helps keep the audience’s attention on you. Maintain an open and friendly posture, using your hands to help with emphasis. Standing still with your arms folded or your hands in your pockets can look defensive and offputting for the audience. Also try to avoid fiddling with hair, a pen or the slide changer, as this can also be distracting for the audience. Direct your attention to where you want them to direct theirs. Before you conclude, summarise the main issues raised in the presentation, and if appropriate ask the audience for any questions or feedback. Repeat what the audience members say so that the whole group can hear. If you don’t understand a question, ask the speaker to clarify. If you don’t know the answer, say so - you are not expected to know everything. You could ask if anyone else in the room has any suggestions, and/or advise where they might find the answer, and/or offer to look it up for them.

‘Presentations’, Learning Development, Plymouth University (2010)

Features of a good presentation The following is a list of questions to help you prepare a good presentation: 1. Do you know who the audience is and have you pitched your presentation accordingly? 2. Have you identified the purpose of the presentation and made the aims and central message clear? 3. Have you gathered the relevant information and identified the key points? 4. Does the presentation have a clear structure (introduction, main body and conclusion)? 5. Is the introduction engaging and interesting, and does it include an outline of the presentation? 6. Does your conclusion draw together the key points, indicate what might happen next and leave your audience with something to think about? 7. Have you selected an appropriate method of delivery e.g. PowerPoint, and have you checked the technology is working and available on the day e.g. computer and projector? 8. Have you rehearsed the presentation several times, perfecting the timing, fluency (not reading a script), ensuring the flow (like telling a story), and use of body language? 9. Have you considered what questions might be asked and thought about possible answers?

Poster presentations Poster presentations are usually displayed at conferences and other similar gatherings. Since they offer an excellent way of summarising and presenting work they are now becoming increasingly used as an alternative form of assessment for students. As with any presentation it is important to carefully consider what the purpose of the poster is, and what you would like it to communicate. Who will be looking at it and what message do you want them to take away? Consider design issues such as the layout and style. You might find a metaphor for your topic than can determine the design of the poster to communicate your message visually to your audience. People may only look at your poster very briefly, so your message or theme needs to be very clear and comprehensible. An eye-catching poster attracts attention: meaningful content will then impress and influence your audience. Here are some general guidelines:  Aim for a 50:50 balance between text and graphics/visuals  It should be readable from 2 - 3 metres away ‘Presentations’, Learning Development, Plymouth University (2010)

 There should be a natural flow or storyline through the poster that the eye follows easily  Keep text brief but informative  Do not overload it: too much information can reduce the impact of the message

Recommended reading Burns, T. and Sinfield, S. (2008) Essential study skills: the complete guide to success at university (2nd ed.). London: Sage Levin, P. and Topping, G. (2006) Perfect presentations. Maidenhead: Open University Press. Race, P. (2007) How to get a good degree: making the most of your time at university. Maidenhead: Open University Press.

For further information and the full range of study guides go to: http://www.plymouth.ac.uk/learn

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Reflection

What is reflection?

Becoming reflective How is reflective practice applied in academic life? Reflective writing Reflective writing for assessment For further information and the full range of study guides go to: http://www.plymouth.ac.uk/learn

‘The best thing any education can bequeath is the habit of reflection and questioning.’ (AC Grayling, The Guardian: 22/07/00) What is reflection? When we reflect, we consider deeply something which we might not otherwise have given much thought to. This helps us to learn. Reflection is concerned with consciously looking at and thinking about our experiences, actions, feelings and responses and then interpreting or analysing them in order to learn from them (Boud et al., 1994; Atkins and Murphy, 1994). Typically we do this by asking ourselves questions about what we did, how we did it and what we learnt from doing it. Schön (1991) distinguishes between reflection-on-action and reflection-in-action in the following way: Reflection-in-action is concerned with practicing critically. So, a physiotherapy student working with a client on an exercise programme is making decisions about the suitability of particular exercises, which exercise to do next and judging the success of each exercise at the same time as they are conducting the activity. Reflection-on-action on the other hand, occurs after the activity has taken place when you are thinking about what you (and others) did, judging how successful you were and whether any changes to what you did could have resulted in different outcomes. This is usually the type of reflection which you are asked to write about as part of your studies.

Here is an example of reflection-on-action in the discipline of Social Work: You are a social work student reflecting on a role-play which you participated in earlier in the day. The role-play involved various professionals, including social workers and their clients. Reflection leads you to recall the planning you did before the role play began, the events and processes which took place during the role play, the way you responded to other participants and your overall contribution to the role-play. You may note interactions with which you were either satisfied or dissatisfied and you might also have ideas for how it could have been done differently. Reflecting on this event will also have the result of reminding you about how the role-play made you feel: frustrated, confident etc. Box 1: Reflection-on-action Reflecting on academic or professional practice in this way may make your personal beliefs, expectations and biases more evident to you. This understanding of yourself should help you to carry out your studies more successfully as it makes you aware of the assumptions that you might make automatically or uncritically as a result of your view of the world.

Becoming reflective The skills associated with stepping back and pausing to look, listen and reflect, are closely related to those concerned with critical thinking which also requires you to ‘unpack’ whatever you are focusing on, not simply accept what you read or hear at face value. Through this process you will probably identify things you would not otherwise notice. Moon (2004: 181) notes similarities between being reflective and using an imaginary instrument called a ‘pensieve’ (Rowling, 2000: 518) in Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire: ‘One simply siphons the excess thoughts from one’s mind, pours them into the basin, and examines them at one’s leisure. It becomes easier to spot patterns and links, you understand, when they are in this form.’ (Rowling, 2000: 518) The key to reflecting is spotting the patterns and links in thought which emerge as a result of your experiences in life and in learning. Sometimes this is difficult for learners because the focus is on you and this might not feel comfortable – especially in an academic context where you are usually encouraged to depersonalise your work – particularly your essays and reports. Remember, you try to avoid saying ‘I’ in essays? So, when writing reflectively, you need to find a way to be both academic and also personal and that is not always easy. You may be both referencing academic theory and, in the same piece of writing, describing an exciting learning experience you had during a seminar. Becoming reflective is, in part about feeling comfortable with this dual process. ‘Reflection’ Learning Development, Plymouth University (2010)

The great benefit of including reflection in your learning is that, by understanding why you do something in a particular way and recognising how you feel about it, you can spot where your strengths and weaknesses lie. This gives you the chance to build on your strengths and develop strategies to minimise your weaknesses. Here is an example of this in the context of essay-writing: You might think that you are not very good at writing essays. Closer reflection might help you to see that, of the many different things which could present you with problems, getting started on the actual writing of an essay is the thing you have the greatest difficulty with. By using strategies which help you to overcome that particular challenge when writing essays, you can change your whole perception of yourself as an essay-writer. Strategy 1: free-writing - write on the topic of your choice for a specified length of time, such as 5 minutes, without stopping, reading back or editing at all. This technique should get you writing and thinking. Note: The text you produce through free-writing is not going to form part of the finished version of your essay but it should help you to get over the writing hurdle (for more information about free-writing, see: Elbow, 1998). Strategy 2: mind mapping – use a mind-map to plan and organise all your content, literature and allocate numbers of words to each section. Begin writing straight away starting with any section of the essay except the introduction and in the end, you can jigsaw it all together. Box 2: Using reflection to improve essay writing Did you know that your beliefs about learning are extremely powerful and very difficult for you to change? So, if you believe that exams are the best form of assessment, even positive experiences with coursework assessments will not easily dislodge your learner belief. Your feelings also influence your learning and it can be both fascinating and uncomfortable to use reflection to ‘discover’ how you really feel! Here is an example of how your feelings influence your learning: You are learning a foreign language and you don’t like speaking in the foreign language in class because you feel self-conscious. So you contribute as little as possible and this has an effect on your learning. Your friend, on the other hand, loves speaking in the foreign language and speaks as much as possible. Your feelings have led to completely different learning experiences. Box 3: Feelings and learning Do not be discouraged by the suggestion, discussed by Moon, that some people simply cannot reflect (Moon, 2004: 88) because it is at odds with their way of thinking. It does appear to be true that some learners have difficulty in understanding what is required of them or resist engaging with reflection and it may also be true that some subject disciplines have an approach which corresponds better with reflective discourse than others.

‘Reflection’ Learning Development, Plymouth University (2010)

However, there are ways in which you can overcome these challenges and one way is to use the Critical Thinking Model (Fig: 1, below). The Critical Thinking Model is especially helpful for those learners for whom reflective thinking and writing seems at odds with the type of study they usually do – but it is, of course, a useful model for everyone. The Critical Thinking Model contains a set of carefully ordered questions which move you, step-bystep, through a thinking process. First you are encouraged to be descriptive, then analytical and finally evaluative. Each part of this process is important, but taken all together, it provides a framework for questioning which, when used thoroughly, constitutes critical analysis or, in this case, reflection. Figure 1: Model to Generate Critical Thinking

Model to Generate Critical Thinking Description When?

Who? Where?

Why?

What?

Analysis Topic / Issue / Title

How? What next? So What?

Evaluation

What if?

John Hilsdon, Learning Development Advisor. University of Plymouth

The progression through question types from thinking which is mostly descriptive to thinking which is much more analytical, reflective and evaluative, does require you to actually formulate the question words into proper questions which will help you to really examine the experience you are reflecting on. This takes practice – it may not be easy the first time you try to do it. Who was there? (descriptive) What did she say? (descriptive) What did I say? (descriptive) Why did I respond in that way? (analytical/reflective) How did each of us feel as a result? (analytical/reflective) What if I had chosen my words more carefully? (analytical/reflective) So what? Would that have made any difference to the outcome? (reflective/evaluative) Where can I go from here in my interactions with this person? (reflective/evaluative) Box 4: Formulating questions for reflection ‘Reflection’ Learning Development, Plymouth University (2010)

The questions in Box 3: Formulating questions for reflection are simple examples connected with a particular learning situation. All three phases – description, analysis and evaluation - are important and must be included. This reflection is designed to help the learner to improve their effectiveness when working with a partner. It might lead the reflective learner to modify their behaviour or choice of language in a future pair working situation and this could contribute to more successful outcomes.

How is reflective practice applied in academic life? There are numerous ways in which reflection has been incorporated into study processes and certain settings for reflection will link naturally with specific disciplines. So, work placements are a logical choice for reflection on vocational courses such as nursing and teaching. In this section some of these settings for reflection are briefly explained: Placements: Practice-based learning, and work-based learning are examples of vocationally-oriented experiential learning in which the learner participates as a member of a community of practice for a period of time and the resulting learning is measured and assessed formally. Reflection commonly forms part of this assessment, often through use of a learning log which is kept throughout the placement. Alternatively, a critical incident analysis form may be used and a set of descriptive and reflective questions answered in respect of a specific ‘learning moment’. Knowledge construction: Approaches to learning such as Problem-Based Learning (PBL) and Enquiry-Based Learning (EBL) are primarily concerned with problem-solving through asking questions, testing hypotheses and finding ways forward by the application of theory in practical settings. The resultant learning is substantially located in the project processes, how they were decided and how they were enacted. Reflection provides the ideal vehicle for expression of these concepts. Action learning: is a variation on learning by doing in which learners work in small groups called Action Learning Sets with the aim of collaborating to improve their individual performances over a period of time. One participant explains to the group a situation which is problematic to her and to which no obvious solution is evident. The set asks questions and, together, they analyse the situation and formulate a possible solution. The solution is then tested and the action learning cycle is completed if the solution is successful or repeated if the solution is unsuccessful. Research methods: Action Research (AR) and Exploratory Practice (EP) are examples of research methods which embed reflection in the research process and are particularly well-suited to practitioner research – where you examine your own professional practice. ‘Reflection’ Learning Development, Plymouth University (2010)

Reflection on the study experience: some modules allocate a percentage of the module mark to an assessed piece of reflective writing which embraces the whole learning of the module or alternatively may be focused on a critical learning incident within it.

Reflective Writing Whilst you can develop skills and strategies to help you to reflect, as described previously, reflection is more than a set of skills, it is an expression of the natural relationship that exists between learning and language (Hilsdon, 2006). The process of finding the words to express something with which you are already familiar often seems to distil and crystalise it and you see it with new eyes. Sometimes, the heightened awareness that comes with reflection generates new understandings and you get a completely new perspective – this is the benefit of putting reflection into words. A learning log is a regularly updated journal where you can record your experiences as a learner. It is frequently used to activate the reflective thinking process. Sometimes it forms part of the academic assessment itself and at other times it simply contributes to the body of experience you draw on when producing reflective writing. As reflection is slippery (Moon, 2004: 4), it is advisable to pin experiences down whilst they are still fresh in your mind. If you leave it for a while, it may be hard to recall exactly what happened and how you felt about it, so you may lose accuracy. A good learning log not only describes what happens but also asks critical questions about why and how this occurs and may also introduce variables or alternative scenarios which might have been possible, leading to alternative outcomes. Frequently the learning log provides an opportunity for you to express your feelings about parts of the learning process.

Reflective writing for assessment Reflective writing is firmly established as a valuable learning process and, in view of this, it forms part of the assessment of many courses. This section identifies and addresses some of the challenges this raises for learners: Too descriptive: failing to achieve a balance between description, analysis and evaluation is the most common challenge faced by students writing reflectively for assessment. The narrative of what happened is usually told in detail as an interesting story, and the next stage, in which you process this narrative account and ‘unpack’ the experience by asking relevant questions such as ‘why’ and ‘how’, does not take place at all, or only slightly.

‘Reflection’ Learning Development, Plymouth University (2010)

Writing style: reflective writing combines academic and personal or diarist genres. Unlike most academic writing you do, which discourages use of the first person pronoun ‘I’, in an attempt to depersonalise the writing and make it more objective, reflective writing for assessment needs to use ‘I’, since the writing is personalised. However, you are also trying to maintain a degree of objectification so that your writing ‘sounds’ academic at the same time. You might feel that you have not really got to grips with finding your academic voice yet and you are already being asked to do something different. This is a challenge. As a consequence of the combination of the academic and the personal, there is some risk of dissonance or lack of consistency of style. Reflective writing for assessment presents another style problem. Since the content of the reflection is ‘real-life’, it is tempting to write as you speak. This is acceptable in a nonassessed learning log but less appropriate in writing for assessment. A student midwife might talk about ‘mum’ and ‘baby’ because that is typical of the language used during the ward placement. In fact, the slightly more formal reference to ‘mother’ and ‘child’ is actually more appropriate in academic writing. Honesty: If you believe that there is a ‘right’ and ‘wrong’ set of values or way of thinking within your academic discipline, you may feel that honesty in reflection is not a priority. You may be so concerned to get it right that you would prefer it if someone told you what you should think because you don’t want to drop marks for thinking the wrong thing. Disclosure: one of the issues facing you when you are writing reflectively for assessment is how you can “protect the ‘sensitive frontiers’ (Bolton, 2001) between personal and professional life” (Hilsdon, 2006:68). This might relate to ethical questions concerning those with whom you are working and how you feel about ‘exposing’ them in your writing. It also concerns yourself and the extent to which you are prepared to open yourself up to scrutiny by assessors – perhaps of your innermost thoughts – and how you are going to feel when this generates a numerical response – a mark – as it will. The assessment may feel like more of a judgement of you as a person than essay marks do.

Check list/tips  Start your reflection as soon as you can. You will forget things with time and may lose valuable learning experiences or even marks as a result.  Do some free writing on your experiences to get you started  Use the reflective questions on page 5 to improve your critical approach.  Remember that reflective writing is personal; it’s OK to write about your feelings and emotions.  Get the balance right, don’t be too descriptive. The marks will be awarded for analysis and synthesis. It’s easy to write about ‘Reflection’ Learning Development, Plymouth University (2010)

what happened where, it’s the why, how and what if which is really important.  Keep practicing, your reflective skills and therefore your understanding and learning will improve  Read your work aloud to yourself to check the formality of the language. Remember, if it is to be assessed it needs to sound academic.

References Atkins, S. and Murphy, K. (1994) ‘Reflective practice’. Nursing Standard. Vol. 8, No. 39, June, pp 49-54. Bolton, G. (2001) Reflective Practice: Writing and Professional Development. London: Paul Chapman Publishing. Boud, D., Keogh, R. and Walker, D. (1994) Reflection: Turning Experience into Learning. London: Kogan Page. Elbow, P. (1998) Writing without Teachers. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Hilsdon, J. (2006) Re-Thinking Reflection. The Journal of Practice Teaching in Health and Social Work 6(1) pp 57-70. Moon, J. (2004) A Handbook of Reflective and Experiential Learning: Theory and Practice. London: Routledge. Rowling, J. K. (2000) Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire. London: Bloomsbury Publishing Plc. Schön, D. (1991) The Reflective Practitioner. Aldershot: Ashgate Publishing Ltd.

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