Tribal College and University Research Journal: Volume 7, Spring 2024

Tribal College and University Research Journal

Tribal College and University Research Journal

Volume 7, Spring 2024

The Tribal College and University Research Journal is published by the American Indian College Fund, with generous funding from the Henry Luce Foundation. The College Fund believes it is critical to support tribal college and university (TCU) faculty in conducting research that benefits Indigenous communities and disseminating research to both Indigenous communities and the wider research community. Lead authors on manuscripts conducted their research as faculty and staff at tribal colleges and universities. Manuscripts are reviewed anonymously by an editorial board of Indigenous scholars within a range of academic fields. The journal editors work with authors to prepare manuscripts for publication throughout the submission, review, and revision process.

American Indian College Fund Staff

President & CEO: Cheryl Crazy Bull

Vice President, Research, Evaluation, and Faculty Development: David Sanders

Faculty Development Program Officer: Heidi Normandin

Editors, Tribal College and University Research Journal: Anna Lees and Natalie Youngbull

Editorial Board

Megan Bang, Northwestern University

Forrest Bruce, Northwestern University

Amanda LeClair-Diaz, Research Associate

Darold Joseph, Northern Arizona University

Lloyd Lee, University of New Mexico

Natalie Martinez, Central New Mexico Community College

Robin Minthorn, University of Washington Tacoma

Michelle Montgomery, University of Washington-Tacoma

Shawn Secatero, University of New Mexico

American Indian College Fund

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© 2024 American Indian College Fund

Cover Art

Jonathan Nelson (Diné), Badwinds Studio

The TCURJ cover and logo design embodies concepts of Indigenous knowledge, community, and place. The design intentionally incorporates symbols to reflect the mission of the journal. Tribal colleges and universities (TCUs) are for the community and the research that comes from the TCU community is an act of strength and reclamation.

Tree - The trunk reflects the resilience and knowledge of the community. The leaves reflect the community being served by TCUs.

Land - The land reflects the place of higher education and TCUs. The land also resembles an open book for education.

Sweetgrass braids - The braids acknowledge language, songs, and dances.

Derek A. Stewart

WELCOME TO THE TRIBAL COLLEGE AND UNIVERSITY RESEARCH JOURNAL

Mitakuyepi,

This past year, a good friend and mentor, Elizabeth Cook Lynn, left her human body and went to live with our ancestors. As I considered what to share in this welcome to the TCURJ, I thought of her. Liz was a prolific researcher and storyteller—all because she deeply believed that the political and cultural integrity of Indigenous people was intricately woven with our ability to tell our stories and advocate for our rights.

As a Lakota person, I am very aware that numbers are symbolic and representative of relationships and connections. The fact that this volume is the seventh edition did not escape my attention. I immediately connected the focus of this volume— teacher education and education philosophy—to the sacred number seven and to Liz’s passing.

We can all benefit from reflection on the purpose of research; for us, as Indigenous people, it is reflection woven with our lived experiences. For our allies, it is an opportunity to learn.

Liz believed, as do I and all the team members and scholars associated with the TCURJ, that our stories are powerful teachings and contribute not only to our contemporary well-being but bring the knowledge of our ancestors to life.

In honor of that knowledge and in appreciation of the opportunity to continue to learn, the College Fund is pleased to share the journal with you.

Wopila, Cheryl Crazy Bull President & CEO

Introduction

Natalie Youngbull, Editor

Anna Lees, Editor

Tribal College and University Research Journal

The Tribal College and University Research Journal (TCURJ), volume VII signifies a milestone in the American Indian College Fund’s Tribal College and University (TCU) Publication Series: it is the 10th issue of the series. This milestone provides an opportunity to reflect upon the impact of the TCURJ and TCU Publication Series since the first volume of the Mellon Tribal College Research Journal published in 2013. Thus far, 43 peer-reviewed journal articles have been published from authors representing 19 of the 37 TCUs. Theoretical frameworks, conceptual models, pedagogical approaches and program development, and numerous empirical studies across disciplines are represented within the articles. Each of these articles and its authors symbolize the knowledges—tribal/traditional, Indigenous, and learned—embedded within TCUs. This work depicts the intellectual generosity of TCU faculty and communities: a willingness to commit both time and resources to furthering community research initiatives and also to share their findings and frameworks with a greater network. As editors, we’ve noted that each contribution has strengthened the mission of the journal and furthered our own understandings across communities and disciplines; we are grateful for the opportunity to support this scholarship.

The TCURJ is an outlet for TCU faculty, staff, and students to publish from a specific tribal college perspective. No other academic journal provides this outlet specifically to tribal colleges. We see this unique contribution to the field as one necessary in realizing our sovereign potential in academic realms. As you read this issue, we ask you to support the TCURJ mission of expanding community scholarship by sharing these articles with others. The TCURJ encourages readers across contexts to engage the research disseminated through the journal; we see value for students, faculty, community leaders, and others committed to our collective continuance (Whyte, 2017).

Volume VII publishes three articles that address Indigenous knowledges and philosophies for holistic and academic growth. In “Sa’ąh Naagháí Bik’eh Hózhóón, the Educational Paradigm of Diné College,” Haskie provides an overview of the educational philosophy grounded in traditional teachings that guides Diné College (DC). Haskie, with her more than 30-year tenure at DC, provides a broad perspective of how Sa’ąh Naagháí Bik’eh Hózhóón has influenced the overall growth of DC. This theoretically grounded essay provides an in-depth description of the educational philosophy and several examples of how DC faculty have implemented elements of this philosophy into curriculum and pedagogical approaches. These examples provide faculty and instructors practical approaches to implementing traditional teachings in their teaching approaches and course development, supporting the goals of educational sovereignty within DC and across Indigenous nations and communities.

In “Culturally Responsive Student Support Model for Native American Undergraduate Teacher Education Students,” Chelberg and Villagomez present a conceptual model developed by faculty in the teacher education department at the College of Menominee Nation. Drawing upon their experiences in supporting their students, faculty designed the model around five specific areas identified through direct experience with students and supporting literature. Descriptions of how the program and faculty engage students in each area are provided. Chelberg and Villagomez describe how the model has affected the growth of the teacher education program by being inclusive of basic student needs and broader institutional and navigational needs. With Indigenous student supports and retention being a continual area of need in higher education, this article offers an example of how such efforts can be conceptualized through local needs and values. We hope others are inspired to develop similar models within their educational settings.

In “The Relationship Between Cultural Wellness and Academic Achievement,” Stewart discusses how data address the needs for teacher development within TCUs. Stewart interviewed teachers from a reservation-based school to identify teachers’ cultural understandings of Native/Indigenous students, the disconnect between school policies and students’ needs that continue to harm students, and recommendations for teacher professional development. Stewart describes how the Medicine Wheel could serve as a model to inform teacher professional development and broader school policies and practices to better serve reservation-based Native/Indigenous PK–12 students. Because of an overrepresentation of Indigenous students in discipline data, Stewart’s work is vital to navigating ways in which teachers may become better prepared to positively engage Indigenous learners.

The three articles in this volume bring the total amount of literature published within the TCU Publication Series to 46 articles and total number of TCUs represented by authors to 20. As an open-access journal, the TCURJ provides a direct line to individuals outside of the TCU movement to learn about the scholarly and research activity in which TCU faculty, staff, and students are engaged. The College Fund’s investment in the TCURJ will directly influence the next generation of Indigenous scholars and philosophers who will be grounded in the theoretical frameworks, conceptual models, and empirical research published in this journal. We commend the College Fund for its continued investment in the TCURJ and express our gratitude for the relationships fostered with Heidi Normandin, faculty development program officer, and David Sanders, vice president of research, evaluation, and faculty development, during the development of the current and previous volumes. Néá’ésé, Chi miigwech to the College Fund leadership and staff, TCURJ reviewers, writing retreat faculty mentors, and authors for their contributions to volume VII.

Author Biographies

Natalie Youngbull (Cheyenne & Arapaho/Assiniboine & Dakota) is editor of the Tribal College and University Research Journal and assistant professor of adult and higher education in the educational leadership and policy studies department at the University of Oklahoma. Her research interests include the experiences of American Indian Gates Millennium Scholars, Native/Indigenous student success, Native Nation Building, and intellectual leadership and capacity building within TCUs.

Anna Lees (Little Traverse Bay Bands of Odawa Indians, descendant) is editor of the Tribal College and University Research Journal and associate professor of early childhood education at Western Washington University. She partners with scholars and communities to prepare teachers for the holistic needs of children, families, and communities by sustaining reciprocal relationships with Indigenous communities.

Reference

Whyte, K. P. (2017). Food sovereignty, justice and indigenous peoples: An essay on settler colonialism and collective continuance. In A. Barnhill, T. Doggett, & A. Egan (Eds.). Oxford Handbook on Food Ethics (pp. 345-366). Oxford University Press.

Assessing Teacher Awareness of HBFIA and

Years Taught on Standing Rock

Reservation: Understanding What Impacts Educational Outcomes

Derek A. Stewart

Sitting Bull College

Abstract

To address academic achievement concerns for Native students in North and South Dakota, it is imperative that we not only assess standardized achievement as the measure, but also research systemic factors impeding academic outcomes within education. This mixed methods study investigates teacher awareness of the following: historical trauma, boarding schools, forced assimilation, intergenerational trauma, and adverse childhood experiences (HBFIA) and years taught on Standing Rock Reservation to determine if years taught on a reservation increased teacher awareness of HBFIA. These findings were further assessed with qualitative interview questions to determine additional staff needs to effectively address student academic outcomes.

Assessing Teacher Awareness of HBFIA and Years Taught on Standing Rock Reservation: Understanding What Impacts Educational Outcomes

The push for improving educational outcomes for Native American students has changed the focus from cultural integration that addresses student and community needs to that based on standardized test scores (Nelson-Barber & Trumbull, 2015). This is in part based on public education’s focus on standardized test scores as the measurement of academic success. According to South Dakota News Watch, in the 2020–2021 school year, only 14% of Native American students were considered proficient in math and only 23% in English language arts (Pfankuch, 2022). These findings mirror the most recent graduation reports in South Dakota, showing on-time graduation rates for Native American students at 54% compared with the overall 87% for students of all backgrounds (National Indian Education Study, 2015). Moreover, standardized test scores continue to be the most highlighted component regarding education today. This focus overlooks other factors such as harsher disciplinary actions, absenteeism, cultural discontinuity of learning materials, and lack of adequate culturally responsive professional development

for teachers working with Native American students that continue to impact our students’ education.

One major component to consider in addressing the academic success of Native American students is the consistent trend in the U.S. education system by which Native American students receive harsher and more frequent disciplinary actions than that of other non-Native students (Ko et al., 2021). Harsher disciplinary actions in public education for Native American students are widespread and continue to negatively impact Native students and communities across the United States. However, many districts view disciplinary actions as a means for addressing student concerns before working to increase academic achievement. Furthermore, schools look to increase English and math instruction and zerotolerance attendance and behavior policies as tools for improving educational outcomes, further negatively impacting students by failing to acknowledge the barriers that are impeding student academic achievement (Henry et al., 2022). With standardized achievement being the bar of academic success in public education, we see school systems solely addressing the result, test scores, rather than the causes. Because of this, even with increased content rigor, negative academic trends in Native education prevail. Indigenous communities in the state of South Dakota understand the current issues impacting Native student success and have a broader focus on addressing many areas that will increase standardized test scores, such as addressing current classroom management practices, college readiness, attendance rates, graduation rates, and cultural integration (Pfankuch, 2022).

Furthermore, my past research focused on the teacher component and the impact teacher awareness has on student academic outcomes by assessing specific culture-related components with reported classroom management outcomes. This research assessed teachers’ awareness of the following terms: historical trauma, boarding schools, forced assimilation, intergenerational trauma, and adverse childhood Experiences (HBFIA) with negative classroom indicators (Stewart, 2022). Negative classroom indicators assessed teacher-reported yelling, holding grudges against students about student behavior, and monthly in-school suspension (ISS) referrals. This research found a relationship between increased teacher HBFIA awareness and decreased negative classroom indicators, suggesting that with more HBFIA awareness we can further decrease negative classroom management that impacts Native American students’ educational outcomes (Stewart, 2022). This finding is promising as it can help direct professional development for improving teacher classroom management and relational interactions with Native students.

As a non-Native educator on Standing Rock Reservation, I understand the current lack of knowledge non-Native teachers have regarding Native American culture. The purpose of this study is to assess the educators’ role in the current academic trends seen in Native education, specifically assessing the differences HBFIA awareness has on reported teacher classroom management. Moreover, in education, we often see a student deficit model that focuses on accessing and defining the students as the cause and/or the need for change. This research

demonstrates the roles teachers have on student academic outcomes, specifically looking at the impact HBFIA awareness has on classroom management.

This research intends to move educational practices beyond such policies as zero tolerance and replace them with positive cultural contexts for building teacher understandings and relationships with students as a means of improving educational environments that support Native American students’ academic growth. With an absence of historical knowledge and understanding of its lasting impacts on Native American communities, teachers lack cultural awareness of how to address current issues in Native education (Martinez, 2014). Additionally, the cultural discontinuity between teacher and student creates understanding barriers that hinder student performance (Lomawaima, 1995; Morgan, 2009). For many educators, there is a lack of cultural awareness given their limited exposure to Native culture/communities and/or lack of cultural training within their educator preparation programs before graduating. The majority of teachers on Standing Rock Reservation are non-Native, and given the historical trends in college preparation programs, HBFIA was likely not covered during their educational coursework.

Given the current demographics of teachers and lack of Native American educational background, this research hypothesis is that if teachers formulate stronger relationships over time with students and communities HBFIA awareness will increase with years taught on a reservation. Importantly, this research does not overlook the systemic oppression (gender, race, class, sexual orientation, language, etc.) that still exists within society and its impact on Indigenous students and communities. This research study assesses what can be done singularly within educational settings for addressing one facet of a multifaceted issue for improving educational outcomes.

Previous Research

This research follows previous research I conducted on the Standing Rock Reservation as part of my dissertation, “Understanding the Relationship Between Cultural Wellness and Academic Achievement on Standing Rock Reservation” (Stewart, 2018). This initial research component analyzed teacher HBFIA awareness with the following negative classroom indicator questions through a survey:

• How often do you raise your voice to what would be considered a yell in your classroom?

• How often do you find yourself holding a grudge regarding student behavior?

• How often do you send students out of your classroom (ISS) as part of your approach to discipline?

Findings from this initial research demonstrated that increased cultural awareness of HBFIA significantly predicted a decreased report of teacher negative classroom management indicators, meaning a decrease in teacher yelling, holding grudges based on behavior, and sending students to ISS. This finding revealed the

relationship between teacher HBFIA awareness and positive academic outcomes for Native American students in the form of improved teacher classroom management. The findings, analyzed through a linear regression model, showed approximately 17% of the variance in HBFIA is explainable by positive responses to negative classroom indicators. This means positive responses to negative classroom indicators significantly predicted higher responses of HBFIA. This indicates that on average a one-unit increase in positive responses to negative classroom indicators increases the value of HBFIA awareness by 0.33 units (Stewart, 2018). In this research, HBFIA was labeled as “mental familiarity” and negative classroom management was labeled as “emotional wellness.” These terms were assigned and used as categorization tools to explain the vocabulary being covered.

This prompted additional analysis on HBFIA awareness and years taught on Standing Rock Reservation to determine if years taught on Standing Rock Reservation increased teachers’ awareness of HBFIA given the facts that the majority of teachers on Standing Rock Reservation are non-Native and were hypothesized as having a limited understanding of HBFIA. Moreover, HBFIA was predicted to increase with years taught on the Standing Rock Reservation, showing awareness of growth over time as the relationship between teacher and community was established.

Research Methodology

This research utilized a mixed methods design, implementing an initial survey and follow-up interviews with 10 of the originally surveyed participants. The broader objective of this research serves to continue studying effective cultural integration for determining factors that improve teacher practices and improved academic outcomes for Native American students. This research is needed for determining whether awareness of HBFIA increased with years taught on Standing Rock Reservation to further analyze key factors that improve teacher practice and the impact this has on academic outcomes for Native students. The specific research question answered in this study was “Do teachers’ awareness of HBFIA increase with years taught on a reservation?”

Research Setting

The Standing Rock Sioux Tribe reservation members are Lakota and Dakota and descendants of the Teton and Yankton bands of the Lakota/Dakota Nation (Standing Rock Sioux Tribe, n.d.). According to the Standing Rock Sioux Tribe website, “The total land area of Standing Rock is 2.3 million acres, and of that 1,408,061 million is tribally owned.” The Standing Rock Sioux Reservation is the sixth largest reservation by land area in the United States with a total population of 8,217 and 1,492 between the ages of 10 and 19 (U.S. Census Bureau, 2010).

This research included 65 participants from eight school districts on Standing Rock Reservation. These schools included public, grant, and Bureau of Indian Education (BIE) school districts comprising elementary, middle school, and high school teachers; administration; and support staff, such as paraprofessionals. This

research included participants in all subject areas with at least 1 year of experience teaching on the Standing Rock Reservation. All faculty on Standing Rock school districts were emailed the survey along with the consent form. Faculty who met the 1-year requirement had the choice to participate in the survey and accessed the survey online through their K–12 email account. The following is a list of the school districts that were included in this research:

• Smee/Wakpala school district

• Little Eagle Day School

• Fort Yates public school district

• Standing Rock Community School

• Solen Public School

• Rock Creek Day School

• Selfridge public school district

• McLaughlin public school district

This research included Native and non-Native teachers, administration, and support staff with one or more years of teaching experience on the Standing Rock Indian Reservation. Furthermore, based on the survey data, Indigenous teachers and non-Native teachers with 8 years of teaching experience on Standing Rock Reservation were selected from the surveys and randomly chosen for followup interviews. These interviews took place in person at their schools in their classrooms during their prep period or before classes started. All interviews were recorded and transcribed verbatim.

Methods

This study utilized a mixed methods research design, comparing quantitative data with qualitative data to determine if findings from the quantitative data depicted similar themes as the qualitative data. According to Creswell (2015, p. 537), “In general, you conduct a mixed methods study when you have both quantitative and qualitative data, and these types of data, together, provide a better understanding of your research problem than either type by itself.” A mixed methods research design helps bring more light to the quantitative findings by providing an opportunity for more specific questions to be asked. This also allows Indigenous teachers and veteran teachers to provide more insight into the research question than quantitative surveys alone can accomplish. Furthermore, the mixed method research design provided quantitative and qualitative data that strengthened each component and allowed for the narration of findings from community members and longtime educators of Standing Rock Reservation. The quantitative component provided the impact awareness has on student classroom experience that impacts student wellness; however, the interviews provided needed documentation of recommendations that specifically highlight what teachers need to know and need to address these concerns. The first, qualitative data, highlights the impact, whereas the second, quantitative data, provides us with a recommendation for action.

Research Design

The quantitative subsection of this study was accomplished with a linear regression analysis, assessing HBFIA awareness with years taught on Standing Rock Reservation from 65 participants. The quantitative subsection assessed years taught on Standing Rock Reservation with HBFIA awareness and collected data from current cultural integration seen on Standing Rock’s seven school districts, K–12: Wakpala, McLaughlin, Little Eagle, Rock Creek, Fort Yates public and Fort Yates grant school, Selfridge, and Solen school district. From the original 65 participants, 10 individuals were purposely selected for gathering perspectives from Native American teachers and non-Native teachers who reported 8 years or more teaching on Standing Rock Reservation. Out of the 10 interviewed, eight participants were Native American from Standing Rock, and two non-Native teachers were included. Based on the feedback provided by the surveys, some were used as indicators of potential interviewee candidates, which included various schools, Native American instructors, and other non-Native teachers based on their HBFIA awareness. Furthermore, qualitative interview data provided the needed opportunity for experienced Native American teachers to share their perspectives in relation to this study given their roles working with Native American students on Standing Rock Reservation.

Quantitative Data

Quantitative data included information on years taught on Standing Rock Reservation, HBFIA awareness, disciplinary practices, and current cultural integration being practiced by teachers. The quantitative data were collected from eight schools/districts on Standing Rock Reservation, four from South Dakota and three from North Dakota (see Table 1). One district was excluded from this research: McIntosh school district (located on the western edge of the reservation) because of its majority (75%) non-Native population.

Summary of Schools

Public school

Smee/Wakpala school district

Fort Yates public school district

BIE Tribal schools/other

Little Eagle Day School

Standing Rock Community School

Solen public school district Rock Creek Day School

Selfridge public school district

McLaughlin public school district

TABLE 1

Quantitative data measured faculty cultural awareness of HBFIA using a Likert scale survey. A linear regression analysis was conducted to assess the variance between HBFIA and years taught on Standing Rock Reservation. Table 2 documents the survey format. The (________) section had one of the HBFIA terms indicated in it; however, for this example, without repeating each section, note that the survey repeated this format five times with each of the HBFIA terms indicated in the (___________) field.

TABLE 2

HBFIA

Public school

BIE Tribal school/other

Please mark how familiar you are with the following term: (________________)

• Not familiar (I have not heard of this term)

• Vaguely familiar (I have heard of this term)

• Familiar (I have an understanding of this term)

• Very familiar (I have a strong understanding of this term and how it relates to my students)

Qualitative Data

The second section of the research used qualitative data from 10 interviewees who were drawn from the surveys, and interviews ranged from 20 to 40 min in length. The 10 interview participants were purposely selected from the original 65 survey respondents and asked the interview questions seen in Table 3.

TABLE 3

Qualitative Questions

Public school BIE Tribal school/other

• What do you think the staff needs to know in regard to student wellness to better serve the student population?

• What do you think the staff needs to more effectively address student concerns?

All interviews were audio-recorded and transcribed verbatim using transcription software from gotranscribe.com. Qualitative data transcriptions were themed and coded in comparison with each other for assessing patterns in the interview sample for determining findings from the interview questions (Creswell, 2015).

Participants

The targeted population for interviews was based on Native American teachers and non-Native teachers with 8 years of experience teaching on the Standing Rock Reservation in various school districts to provide a sample that

represented a broad range of schools with quality long-term educators. The criteria for interviews were based on being either an Indigenous educator with 1 year of teaching experience on Standing Rock Reservation or being an educator (Native or non-Native) with 8 or more years of teaching experience on Standing Rock Reservation. Out of the 65 initial survey respondents, those who met these qualifications were pooled together and selected from randomly. This sample included eight Indigenous teachers and two non-Native teachers with 8 or more years of teaching experience on Standing Rock. They comprised two middle school, three elementary, and three high school teachers; one administrator; and one paraprofessional. This sample included various school districts, subject matters, and age levels from the original seven school districts included in the initial surveys. All participants were found through purposeful sampling that reflected participants’ high understanding of cultural knowledge; professional experience teaching on Standing Rock Reservation; and diversity of the school, subject matter, and grade level taught. This was accomplished by reviewing survey responses about years taught on Standing Rock Reservation and higher reported HBFIA awareness.

Data Analysis

A linear regression analysis was conducted of the 65 completed surveys to assess whether years taught on Standing Rock Reservation significantly predicted HBFIA awareness. A linear regression analysis used the dependent variable “HBFIA awareness” and the independent variable “years taught on Standing Rock Reservation” in determining a correlation between both variables (Creswell, 2015). The “Enter” variable selection method was chosen for the linear regression model, which analyzed all of the selected HBFIA variables together, for determining whether higher HBFIA reported by each individual predicted years taught on Standing Rock Reservation.

A thematic analysis was used to review emerging themes and record patterns within the qualitative interviews. A thematic analysis, according to Braun and Clarke (2006, p. 79), is defined as “a method of identifying, analyzing, and reporting patterns within data.” The qualitative analysis followed the following three steps: (a) read all transcribed interviews, (b) review for general content meaning, and (c) identify meaning based on units that represent the collected codes into meaningful units of understanding (Warren, 2013).

Findings

The quantitative findings analyzed teachers’ awareness of HBFIA with reported classroom management indicators to determine, based on the 65 participant samples, whether higher reported HBFIA predicts a change in reported classroom management practices. Furthermore, interviews from the initial 65 participants were chosen for follow-up questions to get a deeper understanding of the factors impacting student classroom management and teacher practices.

Quantitative Findings

The quantitative data analysis assessed the independent variable “years taught on Standing Rock Reservation” in relation to the dependent variable “HBFIA awareness” for determining if higher reported HBFIA awareness correlated with more years taught on Standing Rock Reservation. This section answers the following question: Do teachers’ awareness of HBFIA increase with years taught on a reservation?

The results of the linear regression model were not significant, F(1, 63) = 0.04, p = .848, R2 = 0.00, indicating years taught on Standing Rock Reservation did not explain a significant proportion of variation in cultural awareness of HBFIA. These results contradict the hypothesis that cultural awareness increases with years taught on Standing Rock Reservation. The overall model was not significant in corresponding years taught with increased awareness of HBFIA. Table 4 summarizes the results of the regression model.

TABLE 4

Results for Linear Regression with Years_working_scale Predicting HBFIA Awareness Variable

Note. Results: F (1,61) = 1.22, p = .273, R2 = 0.02. Unstandardized regression equation: HBFIA awareness = 3.37 - 0.05*Years_working_scale.

Qualitative Findings

The qualitative questions guiding this study were as follows:

• Interview question 1: What do you think the staff needs to know regarding student wellness to better serve the student population?

• Interview question 2: What do you think the staff needs to address student concerns?

Theme 1: Understanding Student Trauma

The main theme reported from Interview Question 1 was understanding student trauma as a staff to better serve the student population. Responses reflected trauma being intergenerational, related to history, and within educational settings. The subthemes were behavior as a result of trauma and how school districts and teachers address these behavior-related concerns. This reflects various examples of how not addressing these issues properly perpetuates student trauma and escalates negative classroom experiences. This finding reflects teachers’ unawareness of student circumstances through school behavioral practices that continue to reinforce the following narratives:

• Teacher power dynamics

• Reinforcement of racist/biased beliefs about Native students

• School as trauma and retriggering

• Penalization for socioeconomic disadvantages seen as behavior that marginalizes student access to educational activities

These are important subthemes as they reveal the educator’s impact on student school outcomes when not handled correctly. The major takeaway from the first question is that, when lack of understanding (where behavior comes from and how it manifests in the classroom) takes form, we see a lack of appropriate handling of student behavior that further impacts either student behavior or student access to education.

Theme 2: Relationship Building

The main theme of Question 2 was relationship building. This reflects students, family, and community as a needed area for addressing student-related concerns. This was mentioned in each participant’s responses and with equal frequency as that of trauma-informed practices; however, trauma-informed practices were interpreted by participants as another component of building relationships and understandings. Furthermore, a subtheme from Question 2 was understanding students and culture in terms of today as a needed relationship-building component for addressing student concerns. When we see cultural integration in schools on Standing Rock, it is in retrospect and disconnected from Indigenous culture today. This was viewed as an important area in need of further development.

Discussion

Data from each component, qualitative and quantitative, reveal similar themes that support each finding. Considering the findings of the quantitative data, revealing HBFIA awareness did not increase over years taught on Standing Rock Reservation although this was hypothesized to increase as relationships build over time between teacher and school. With the qualitative findings also revealing the need for relationships as staff needs for addressing student concerns, one can conclude that relationship building is an area of importance that currently is not being met. Both qualitative questions reflected a lack of student behavior/understanding of where it is coming from and further expressed negative responses to student behavior when not understood, causing negative behavior, escalation, and retriggering. This finding can also be interpreted as a lack of relationship building that has further prevented educational systems from properly addressing student behavior.

Furthermore, quantitative data reveal HBFIA awareness did not increase with years taught on Standing Rock Reservation. This can be interpreted as a lack of relationship established over time as I hypothesized these understandings would increase with time taught on Standing Rock Reservation. The qualitative data further reveal the impact a school’s lack of awareness has on addressing behavior. The relationship between teachers and students can be conceptualized as a component of culture, and effective cultural integration can improve educational practices that improve students’ school outcomes based on these findings. This was also a theme mentioned in Question 2 regarding a need to build an understanding of students and culture today. Lakota/Dakota philosophy emphasizes relationship, mitakuye oyasin, meaning all is related, a common phrase and reflection of the holistic ecological views of Indigenous people of Lakota, Dakota Nations (Deloria, 2007; Margot & Lauretta, 2006). These teachings show us the importance of relationships within Indigenous cultures as a tool that can improve academic outcomes. The connection between classroom management and academic outcomes is well understood as a means of improving student success; however, teacher classroom management and discipline measures are still a common concern regarding Native American educational experiences. Native American students are more likely to be sent out of the classroom or expelled than non-Native students, further highlighting the need for increased teacher understanding for addressing classroom management through positive relationships in reservation schools (NCNASL, 2008. This research highlights the connection between the need for teacher HBFIA awareness as it is related to improved classroom management, which impacts academic outcomes.

Limitations

The findings of this study were limited to one reservation; the research could be expanded to include other reservations to determine if this is a substantial problem throughout reservation schools in North America. Moreover, this study needs to be replicated to take into account high turnover rates that may be impacting the data sample. Additional research could be conducted on other Lakota/Dakota reservations in the State of South Dakota, to further validate these findings. About the first finding, further research needs to be conducted to conclude that HBFIA was not offered as part of the school’s professional development training. This will shed light on whether these results are about a lack of professional development, teacher community engagement, or staff apprehensiveness. This will also help assess correlation or causation in determining whether HBFIA awareness caused a decrease in negative classroom indicators or a result of other factors associated with both. However, this initial study was promising and needs to be followed up to further understand why HBFIA training improves negative classroom indicators. I would also like to know whether current teachers view HBFIA training as having an impact on their teaching practices in other areas of instruction.

Conclusion

Key findings from this research revealed the importance of HBFIA awareness and its impact on educational practices. For most, HBFIA content is very challenging to talk about within educational settings given its horrific history of education in America; however, these are topics that need to be discussed in reservation schools and within educational programs. HBFIA training further develops teacher awareness, which aids in better educational practices. When putting teaching into context, meaning, and understanding behavior as a product of the history and environment we create, educators have the tools to make better classroom management decisions. Revealing that the relationship cultural context has to improve teaching practices that change Native students’ educational outcomes has important potential to positively impact Native American student experiences in schools. Improving classroom management and decreasing student ISS and out of school suspension is a major step in one area of needed improvement for increasing academic achievement.

Furthermore, a takeaway from this study should be the importance of HBFIA awareness as a means of professional development that directly impacts teachers’ classroom management and is a needed area of teacher development. The result of having low HBFIA awareness reflects a lack of teacher awareness of issues impacting Native education both past and present. Additional research can be conducted on the topic of HBFIA awareness and other academic outcomes, such as teacher retention and cultural integration. Moreover, whereas these initial studies are promising, they need to be further assessed to determine the larger impact on educational practices. More needs to be understood regarding why HBFIA awareness improved teacher classroom management and how to develop professional development training that produces the same results.

References

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Creswell, J. (2015). Educational research: Planning, conducting, and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research (5th ed.). University of Nebraska-Lincoln.

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Culturally Responsive Student Support Model

Kelli Chelberg College of Menominee Nation

Introduction

The College of Menominee Nation’s (CMN) teacher education program prides itself on nurturing and supporting all students. Our teacher education faculty members seek to provide opportunities and experiences that enrich students’ perspectives and build on student’s self-efficacy and confidence. Our students come to CMN and are eager to learn and grow professionally. They value the opportunity to put into practice and translate what they have learned in the college classroom into their own early childhood classrooms. Individuals who make up our teacher education program are professionals who work as day care, immersion school, and Head Start teachers. Some serve as paraprofessionals, teacher assistants, and long-term substitutes, all seeking new knowledge on providing a warm, supportive, caring, and educational environment for the children in their care.

CMNs teacher education program is small; a majority of our students are considered nontraditional as they have returned to college after experiencing some life and work after high school. Many are first-generation college students, single parents, and have full-time jobs and families to care for. In addition to the daily challenges of maintaining a busy schedule, students struggle to adapt to “academia” and all the required demands. Beyond the academics that can be challenging for many students (as they have been out of high school for many years before returning to take classes), they experience many challenges affiliated with attending and persisting in college. The challenges become even more significant for students who attend classes part-time, have family responsibilities, and spend limited time on campus. Furthermore, students often lack the technology (i.e., laptops) and skills (i.e., Microsoft Word, PowerPoint, etc.) to complete assignments successfully. Finally, many of our students are called on to support their families during crises and are left to juggle working on their educational goals without a robust support system. Nontraditional students juggling full-time work, children, classes, and homework have little time to focus on studying and learning new content.

As a result of the challenges our students face, CMN’s teacher education department has always looked for ways to guide students successfully through each semester (i.e., avoid failure) as well as to identify ways to retain students so that they can attain their educational goals. We see creating a strong sense of community through student-to-student and faculty-to-student relationships, faculty/peer mentoring and tutoring, culturally responsive practices, student resources, and support as critical strategies and support for our students in the education program. Our experience in higher education tells us that solid

student relationships and a safe space where students feel cared for and have a relationship with faculty and peers are necessary for students to be successful in their educational attainment. Personal connections and interactions allow students to feel connected to CMN, our program, and their peers and provide students with a feeling of belonging, which is critical to student persistence and perseverance. Fostering relationships through building connections and mentoring provides a strong foundation for creating relationships and leads to student success. This paper aims to present a culturally responsive student support conceptual model based on our experiences working at CMN. In addition to proposing our model, this paper examines research on retention and student support strategies related to American Indian success in higher education.

Authors’ Statement

We propose a culturally responsive student support model based on our work with American Indian teacher education students at CMN, a tribal college and university (TCU) in Wisconsin. Based on the success of our teacher education students who graduate and go out and teach in our local school districts, our proposed model’s tenets are effective in their success and are critical components of a culturally responsive and welcoming environment in higher education. Dr. Kelli Chelberg’s doctoral research and subsequent research around identifying strategies to support building on postsecondary students’ self-efficacy when pursuing higher education has been an impetus for much of our work. We believe our proposed model brings value to the work that is being done at tribal colleges across the country as there is limited research in the area of student success, retention, and persistence at TCUs.

Background/Literature Review

Before we present our culturally responsive student support model, we review the literature on persistence, retention, and student support in higher education. Whereas a growing body of research, literature, and funding opportunities has focused on researching college access, persistence, and retention strategies for students of color entering postsecondary education, American Indian student populations are generally missing from the conversation (Brayboy et al., 2012). In addition, very little current research identifies culturally responsive student supports specific to American Indian college students pursuing their postsecondary opportunities. During the transition to postsecondary education, American Indian students face navigational, academic, and social–emotional challenges. Much of the prior research on American Indian student success has focused on academic preparation. However, the “psychological-social barriers and lack of institutional support encountered by many minority students” may be equally important (Ovink & Veazey, 2011, p. 371). Research suggests that, beyond the challenges many at-risk/first-generation college students face, those who are most at risk of noncompletion or completing a semester are those students who experience feelings of not fitting in, rejection, and those who may not be able to adjust to the common academic challenges that come with college (O’Keefe, 2013).

Specific challenges exist for American Indian students entering postsecondary educational opportunities. Early research has found that, when American Indian students pursuing higher education were surveyed, they noted the “lack of adequate academic preparation in high school as a top obstacle to college completion” (Gilbert, 2000, p. 4). Furthermore, once in college, American Indian college students are also more likely to take remedial coursework while being the least likely to graduate from college (Mosholder & Goslin, 2013). As a result of Mosholder and Goslin’s (2013) research, several factors arose that promoted American Indian persistence: skill development, peer support, and appropriate role models. This suggests that American Indian success is tied to tutoring, peer support, modeling relevant skills for growth, and having role models who are American Indian.

Mounting evidence points to the need for academic and psychosocial support for underrepresented minority students (Keith et al., 2016). Many American Indian students are first-generation college students with limited knowledge of the higher education system and the navigational skills needed to meet the rigorous requirements of postsecondary institutions (Flynn et al., 2012). Beyond academic and psychosocial support, there is long-standing research that suggests the higher education system currently promotes ways of teaching and learning that are distinctly different from the traditional ways of being, teaching, and style of learning that is typically presented and learned by many American Indian students (Swisher, 1990). Finally, the support services that institutions of higher education provide must be personalized and culturally responsive to meet the demands of the changing landscape of students pursuing higher education.

Tutoring

Dvorak (2001) states, “Tutoring is an active learning process with tutors functioning as facilitators and role models” (p. 35). Tutoring has roots back to the Greeks, Romans, and the Middle Ages (Dvorak, 2001, p. 34). Harvard provided tutoring to its students in Latin in 1630 because all instruction was in Latin. During the 19th and 20th centuries, more and more underprepared and first-generation college students attended college. As a result and in an attempt to retain college students, many colleges developed learning centers and sought to support struggling college students through tutoring.

Research suggests that tutoring helps students achieve higher grades, increases course passing and completion rates, and assists with short-term retention rates (Hendriksen et al., 2005). Furthermore, Laskey and Hetzel (2011) found that tutoring positively influences retention and college success for at-risk students. A study by Strayhorn et al. (2016) found that tutoring improved at-risk students’ persistence, increased retention and graduation rates, and demonstrated an increase in student success across all individual classes than students who did not receive tutoring. American Indian students who may enter postsecondary education academically unprepared (Gilbert, 2000) would benefit from remedial and academic support, which includes tutoring. Additionally, tutoring can

provide valuable support for American Indian students as tutees provide support and scaffold student understanding of the specified content knowledge. More importantly, tutees must model and guide explicit thinking and reflection skills as they seek to meet the learning needs of each student. The use of understanding individual learning styles and personalized tutoring specific to students’ needs “makes learning personalized … and a feeling of respect for their cultural background” (Pewewardy, 2002, p. 41) and ultimately provides motivation and encouragement for learners to succeed. Tutoring is not to be mistaken for mentoring in that tutoring provides academic support that guides and reinforces students’ attainment of new content and guides students to think more critically about their learning.

Mentoring

Mentoring is when a senior person provides a junior person with information, advice, and emotional support (Lev et al., 2010). According to Chelberg and Bosman (2020), mentoring can help students overcome challenges and barriers by guiding “them to better understand the role of value, self-efficacy, and environmental factors underlying their potential and likelihood of student success” (p. 1). Cropper (2000) traces mentoring to African and Ethiopian roots, finding an Ethiopian word “jegna,” meaning mentor (p. 4). In the Menominee language, we have words such as nātamowekow (helps someone) or kaehkenohamowaew (teaches him or her). In addition, mentors; elders; and wise, trusted family members in American Indian communities have always provided guidance shared through oral history and teachings. Beliefs and understandings provide guidance in helping American Indians understand who they are and how to live (Lee, 2013). Mentoring provides a supportive space for American Indian students to learn navigational skills on navigating the challenges of higher education while building on student self-efficacy and confidence in successfully navigating postsecondary educational opportunities and successfully connecting with their communities and families.

Peer mentoring is reciprocal and supportive, as Clark and Andrews (2009) noted in their peer mentoring and peer tutoring review. Peer mentoring is also personal although mentors need more experience and understanding of higher education’s academic skills and requirements. Research has suggested that mentoring is essential as a pedagogical approach in addressing critical components needed for academic success and is significant to student motivation, learning, and confidence in degree attainment by creating a supportive environment (Jackson et al., 2003). Research from Mosholder et al. (2016) established that American Indian mentoring of other American Indian students increased student persistence. In addition, focal students noted that their preference for peer mentoring occurs naturally and informally rather than with a formal mentoring approach (Mosholder et al., 2016). These findings support the value that peer mentoring brings to the American Indian mentee and their preferences in the mentoring relationship.

At Leech Lake Tribal College, peer mentoring has served several purposes and

helped fill the learning center’s mission. The learning center encourages student learners to be more inclusive of their classmates by looking beyond their own goals and building a support network necessary for nontraditional learners to succeed (LeClaire, 2010). In addition, they believe that students who commit to peer mentoring and supporting fellow students give students essential leadership skills and demonstrate a commitment to the seven Anishinaabe values of humility, truth, courage, honesty, respect, love, and wisdom.

Faculty mentoring early in a student’s academic career can provide a strong foundation to build and expand on student success and increase navigational skills. Chelberg and Bosman’s (2020) research suggests changes in students’ confidence and self-efficacy due to their participation in faculty mentoring for a semester. Results indicated that study participants “recognized whom they could turn to for support and increased confidence in communicating with peers and instructors” (Chelberg & Bosman, 2020, p. 10). Finally, the benefits of faculty mentoring enrich students’ learning experiences, providing access to a relational connection that provides important navigational skills and encouragement needed for success.

Student Resources and Support of Culture

Student resources and support provided to American Indian students should be focused on providing specific and individualized assistance that meets the needs of all students. There is not one resource that will meet the needs of all students. However, colleges and universities must be prepared to “create special social networks to support American Indian students and their families in order to make the necessary connections with the university environment” (Harrington & Harrington, 2012, p. 44). Additionally, Harrington and Harrington (2012) find that best practices for retention of American Indian students are done by valuing the influence that family and community have on American Indian students and creating flexible policies that permit students to preserve their tribal and family connections.

Gilbert (2000) reported that, oftentimes, American Indian students attending mainstream institutions experience social norms that are different from those that they have learned in their home community. Boyer (1997) indicated that the transition to college for many American Indian students could be a disorienting experience. Being separated from home, American Indian students experience the discomfort of unfamiliar values and expectations. Some university officials seemed to attribute academic programs and camps (i.e., bridge programs, orientations, etc.) as a persistence factor related to American Indian students’ persistence throughout their college experience (Guillory & Wolverton, 2008). More specifically, they believed individualized advising and meeting special cultural needs strengthened students’ responsibility and desire to continue and persist throughout graduation.

Culture and Extended Family Structure and Support

Successful American Indian college students with a strong cultural identity and a solid connection to their cultural ties are likelier to persist in their postsecondary endeavors (Alberta, 2001). Windchief and Joseph (2015) state that “the dominant narrative in educational curriculum limits student development … and is described in a historical context” (p. 274). This proves to be problematic for American Indian students pursuing higher education because they cannot see their ancestral histories and culture presented in mainstream educational media. Windchief and Joseph (2015) believe the only solution to this complicated system is to include Indigenous perspectives in all aspects of education. Providing an educational curriculum from an Indigenous lens “highlights the reality of how Indigenous students’ experiences often conflict with mainstream curriculums” (p. 274) and empowers American Indian students to understand better their culture and history as well as clear up any misconceptions non-Native students might have about American Indians.

Beyond the importance of understanding American Indian culture, of equal importance is understanding that the learning styles and cognitive processes of American Indian students differ from those of other cultures. According to Morgan (2009), American Indian students view the world and respond to teaching strategies differently than their non-Native counterparts due to cultural values and early socialization experiences. Understanding these differences, values, and learning styles specific to American Indians is critical when providing a culturally responsive classroom positive student experience. Identifying learning styles specific to field dependence/independence, reflectivity/impulsivity, perceptual strengths, and cooperation versus competition are a few classifications to be considered when considering the integration of understanding American Indian culture into one’s classroom.

Finally, extending the family structure within the college culture “enhances the student’s sense of belonging and leads to higher retention rates” (HeavyRunner & DeCelles, 2002, p. 29). HeavyRunner and DeCelles (2002) developed a family education model based on three beliefs that situated the student’s family as an integral part of an American Indian college student’s success and persistence in college. These three assumptions included (a) the TCU acting as a liaison for critical community support, (b) TCUs enlisting the student’s family’s support as a means of supporting the TCU student, and (c) the TCU engaging the family in the life of the college community (HeavyRunner & DeCelles, 2002). When the entire family is engaged and feels a sense of belonging to the college community, they are more likely to engage in activities and ultimately support the efforts of their loved ones. As a result of engaging family members in the livelihood of the TCU, this transfers over to the support of the TCU student and the likelihood of increased persistence and ultimately successful completion of their education. Guillory (2009) also suggests that maintaining strong family and community connections between the American Indian student provides for a “major source of kinship leading to increased persistence” (p. 18), which is beneficial for student success and completion.

Personal Connections/Belongingness and Social Celebrations

Belongingness, or the sense of belonging, is a vital facet of students’ success in college. Strayhorn (2018) states that belonging “can affect a student’s degree of academic adjustment, achievement, and aspirations” (p. 3) and believes that belonging varies based on a student’s identity (i.e., race, gender, sexual orientation, etc.). Entering postsecondary education can be a scary proposition and requires students to form a connection and a feeling of belonging to their chosen institution to want to persist and continue. An understanding of belonging varies from student to student and across 2- and 4-year institutions; however, for minority and first-generation students, there is a lower sense of belonging than their peers at 4-year institutions, whereas the opposite is true at 2-year schools (Gopalan & Brady, 2019). In addition, at 4-year schools, “belonging predicts better persistence, engagement, and mental health” (Gopalan & Brady, 2019, p. 2), demonstrating a solid need to better understand and measure the factors related to college students’ success and implement a plan for engaging students more.

Guillory and Wolverton (2008) found social and personal connections, social support, and social events essential for schools’ retention of American Indian students attending predominantly White institutions. Furthermore, Guillory and Wolverton state that “a supportive institutional environment and constructive interactions with faculty, staff, and students” impact student success (p. 61). A study by Thompson et al. (2013) on American Indian undergraduate students found that community connections related positively to intentions toward persisting and completing academic goals in higher education. Additionally, their research found that student self-efficacy or belief in self, social support, positive perceptions of the university, and campus support predicted American Indian academic persistence decisions.

Our experience and research working with American Indian students at a tribal college has led us to believe there are several student supports critical to students’ academic success, leading to higher persistence and retention rates. As a result, we propose a culturally responsive student support model specific to the teacher education program at CMN, a small tribal college in Northern Wisconsin.

Introduction to CMN’s Proposed Model

The CMN education program’s culturally responsive student support model is a multifaceted approach to supporting education students. Many of our students are first-generation college students with limited knowledge and navigational skills required to succeed and navigate the complexities of higher education. We believe tutoring, mentoring, and personal connections provide a strong support network that builds on student motivation, confidence, and self-efficacy, leading to academic and student success. Although research might suggest a formalized approach to tutoring and mentoring to measure student confidence and efficacy changes, we believe it occurs organically within our coursework and program.

FIGURE 1

College of Menominee Nation’s Teacher Education Program’s Culturally Responsive Student Support Model

Group & Individual Tutoring

Peer Faculty Mentoring

Education

Program Culturally Responsive Student Support Program

Personal Connections, Belongingness & Celebrations

Cultural Respect

Student Resources & Support

Group and Individual Tutoring

Although the teacher education department does not have a designated tutor to work with our students, CMN does have tutors available via student services to work with students on an as-needed basis. However, we have found that our students do not typically take advantage of these tutoring opportunities. We have observed that individuals within our program often emerge and provide invaluable tutoring services to students in specific education courses and all content areas. These informal tutoring groups occur throughout a semester and are usually initiated by students out of necessity for academic support. We believe that the natural emergence of tutors is due to leadership skills being taught and developed as a part of students’ teacher education coursework. Often, instructors will ask upper-level students to take struggling students under their wing, show them the ropes, and provide support throughout the semester. In addition, our department is typically provided with one student worker through the Federal Work-Study (FWS) program. We have been fortunate to hire an upper-level (bachelor) student in good academic standing, who has begun to develop strong teaching skills. Our FWS student typically has the leadership and organization skills to orchestrate study groups among the classes.

As a result of this informal approach, students have taken the initiative to develop small study groups and often meet at different times throughout the week, either virtually or face-to-face. Social media has also been helpful as students establish Facebook groups to communicate and work through challenging classwork and homework. Using social media has also allowed instant communication and feedback, allowing for informal tutoring at all times of the day and night, which is central to our student’s success as students juggle the many demands of work and family.

In addition, this informal approach to tutoring aligns closely with our tribal college culture, as in Menominee and Native culture, there is a strong group orientation. Gilbert (2000) identified that American Indian children from group-oriented cultures oftentimes “develop a preference for working in groups over individual assignments” (p. 7), which is an important element to take into consideration when providing tutoring assistance. This is evident as most of our students are generous with their time and knowledge and willingly work and informally provide assistance to their peers. Philips (1972, 1983) and Reyes (1998), in their studies, found that peer tutoring and cooperative learning were beneficial to Native American students in their learning as it adds to their comfort level. Additionally, many American Indian students prefer cooperative learning strategies (Cajete, 1999), and as a result, we do not encourage competition as most of our classes take a mastery approach to learning.

Another consideration is language used in the tutoring groups. Many Menominee people speak American Indian English or Menominee Indian English (MIE) instead of standard English as noted by Malott et al. (2009). Students in a tutoring group are able to interpret the assignment and lecture from Standard English into MIE. Asking questions is sometimes a difficult skill for Menominee students (Malott et al., 2009). Students need lively discussions and to feel free to interact in the classroom. Tutoring groups give CMN students the opportunity to do this. Tutors can provide the scaffolding to deal with the lack of academic preparation for their tutees without judgment and in a safe environment. Tutoring allows students to get to know each other and can affect the motivation and interest of tutees in a particular class. Peer tutoring provides the academic and social support our students need to find success in each class. As students learn new skills and study strategies and make new friends, they build on their motivation to continue pursuing their degree while building on their self-efficacy as students.

Peer, Faculty, and Elder Mentoring

Faculty and peer-to-peer mentoring has provided extra support to students as they navigate the challenges of higher education. Faculty mentoring has been available for students and consists of meeting with a faculty member every other week. This opportunity intends to allow for conversations around challenges and barriers impacting students’ educational experiences. In addition, weekly goalsetting is established, and discussions are around homework completion, time management, schedule setting, and other topics related to student success.

Peer-to-peer mentoring has occurred naturally as a result of our small class sizes and heavy emphasis on relationships and supporting one another. Students often communicate and mentor each other before and after class and encourage each other to succeed. Sometimes peer-to-peer mentoring leads to tutoring; however, anecdotally, students have noted the importance of having a classmate who understands and someone they can reach out to for encouragement or to vent.

Finally, we have an elder mentor in our program that is available to meet with teacher education students on an as-needed/monthly basis. Our elder mentor is from the community and uses the Medicine Wheel to support students as they learn to balance their physical, spiritual, mental, and emotional needs throughout the semester. In addition, CMN has an Indigenous wellness director, who has coordinated with a local counselor to provide on-site and virtual sessions that help students navigate the semester and all aspects of work, home life, and college.

Student Resources and Support

The teacher education department is student-centered and seeks to provide a welcoming and inclusive environment. We have a suite of faculty offices and a work area where students are encouraged to come and work on homework, meet in small groups, and ask for assistance from a faculty member. We also have computers, printers, and copiers for students to access. Many of our students come to classes after working a full day, so we offer snacks they can grab to hold them over until they can make it home. A refrigerator and microwave are also available for students to refrigerate and heat their dinners as often students are here over the dinner hour. Understanding the needs of our students demonstrates our commitment to their academic success and provides students with a stronger connection to our program.

In addition to meeting students’ basic needs (i.e., food and comfort), our program aims to meet our students’ institutional and navigational needs. Additionally, program emails and calendar invites seek to inform students of institutional and program updates and provide a constant awareness of the happenings occurring at CMN and within our program. CMN’s teacher education program has a private Facebook group that posts upcoming events, recognizes students for their success, and provides encouragement and tips for completing coursework and, ultimately, the semester. As a result of ongoing student communication, we find students more likely to respond and reach out with questions regarding other programming needs.

Personal Connections, Belonging, and Celebrations

Students need to feel a sense of belonging, and all students, no matter their age or situation, need to feel a connection to their instructors, peers, and the institution. We model these practices as we know that our students learn best when strategies and skills are modeled. As a small program, we seek to know our students and their families. We greet by name every student who enters our classroom. We provide relationship-building opportunities that give students a

place to belong and feel safe, which are very important in helping our students feel connected and cared for.

Students need to have concrete representation and recognition of their educational journeys. We have special end-of-semester celebrations to recognize students’ accomplishments and provide critical navigational skills and directions for planning for future semesters. In addition, we gift graduating associate-level students “Future Teacher” T-shirts (with our logo) to recognize their chosen career path in anticipation that they are empowered to continue to the bachelor-level program. We also gift students graduating with a bachelor’s degree a “Teacher” T-shirt (with our logo) to proudly wear their T-shirts in the workplace as a source of empowerment for the younger generation. We have also found that providing hoodies and sweaters gives students great pride in enrolling in college and pursuing their education. Additionally, when our students wear these college logos around the community and in the workplace, they are also modeling and empowering younger children to envision themselves going to college as well.

The teacher education department also has a faculty advising model that provides direct contact and advising and makes connections with students each semester. We have personal degree completion plans/audit sheets for each student. We update them each semester and provide input on recommended classes and program requirements information. Our faculty adviser communicates with each student and gets to know student preferences and goals, which aids in the successful planning of future semesters and in student connection with our program and faculty members. Ongoing communication and feedback between faculty and students provide students with a pathway for moving forward in attaining their educational goals. Finally, communication through student audit sheets provides a platform for students to share/express concerns in an informal context without setting up a separate meeting time. As a result, small issues and/or questions can be answered promptly and conveniently.

Culture

CMN’s mission is to provide opportunities in higher education to its students. As an institution of higher learning chartered by the Menominee People, the college infuses this education with American Indian culture, preparing students for leadership, careers, and advanced studies in a multicultural world.

The philosophy of the teacher education department is based on a constructivist philosophy. It seeks to prepare teachers as decision makers to care, reflect, respect, take risks, and become collaborative participants in the pursuit of becoming professional teachers. The performance skills necessary for this endeavor are guided by the tribal clan structure that portrays the early social organization of the Menominee People. Centuries ago, clans accepted responsibility for security, construction, hunting and gathering, law (governance), and freedom and justice, so the community could survive and thrive. Those clans (pictured in the CMN logo) are represented by the moose for security, the crane for construction, the wolf for hunting and gathering, the bear for law (governance),

and the eagle for freedom and justice. For educational purposes, CMN’s teacher education program matches those clan functions with performance skills necessary for thriving in an educational community. Clan responsibilities for

• Security means teachers obtaining a strong knowledge base for planning teaching and learning experiences to thrive.

• Construction refers to teachers building a safe environment that honors tribal ways of knowing and learning together.

• Hunting and gathering sees teachers as seeking problem solving for learning situations: teachers guiding learners to seek information and search for reasoned arguments that explain life forces.

• Governance describes teachers as developing a governing or professional voice to communicate and collaborate.

• freedom and justice challenges teachers to monitor their own beliefs that serve as barriers to social justice.

We seek to model and incorporate instructional strategies that meet the needs of our student population. For example, we know the oral tradition is an integral part of American Indian culture and is important to allow opportunities for oral presentations and oral assessments and assignments. Pewewardy (2002) suggests through a literature review that supports the argument that American Indians have a “field-dependence or global processing learning style” (p. 28). Field dependence references how “students learn, rather than what they learn (Pewewardy, 2002, p. 28). Field-dependent learners are global and relational learners and often work well in teams, which helps students distinguish essential details from the information provided. Our education courses at CMN include group projects, hands-on learning, jigsaw text reading, and cooperative learning, providing positive learning opportunities for our students. Furthermore, our students listen and learn from their instructors and peers and then establish their own meaning from what they have heard.

Conclusion

In our experience, the efficacy of this model has helped grow our teacher education program and has given students confidence and motivation to continue their education beyond CMN. The components of our model build on students’ need to belong and feel connected and gives them confidence in successfully focusing on and completing their academic goals. We have also found that the relationships and skills learned from this model transfer over to student graduates’ first year of teaching. As a result, graduates continue to peer mentor and connect as they navigate the challenges of their first year of teaching.

This model is helpful for all programs struggling to connect with, retain, and graduate underrepresented and struggling student populations. Undergraduate students need to feel a sense of belonging and connection and want to know that they are cared for and an essential part of an institution’s programming. Moving forward, CMN’s teacher education department plans to continue to conduct research and collect data to strengthen our culturally responsive student

support model further and make changes and adjustments if needed as a result of our data collection. Due to limited research and literature regarding culturally responsive student support for American Indian higher education students, we aim to strengthen our conceptual model for future use by other TCUs and institutions supporting American Indian students. Further implications for strengthening our model are for CMN and other TCUs collectively to use this model to evaluate their current supports and identify gaps in how they support American Indian students. Specifically, the teacher education department continually strives to model methods for future teachers to use in their classrooms. The culturally responsive student supports modeled for preservice teachers become inherent to their work in their future classrooms and teaching practices to support young American Indian students.

References

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Sa’ąh Naagháí Bik’eh Hózhóón, The Educational Philosophy of Diné College

Miranda Haskie

Diné College

Introduction

Sa’ąh Naaghái Bik’eh Hózhóón is the Diné philosophy. (Note that the Diné College [DC] spelling of Sa’ąh Naaghái Bik’eh Hózhóón is used throughout for consistency.) The educational philosophy of DC (formerly Navajo Community College) incorporates the principles of Sa’ąh Naaghái Bik’eh Hózhóón. DC faculty are encouraged to apply Sa’ąh Naaghái Bik’eh Hózhóón in their instructional design. The Diné philosophy can be utilized in multiple facets, including curriculum design as an overview for the entire course, incorporation in lesson plan delivery, application specific to student assignment(s), and/or implementation by DC students in their assignments. In this article, I begin with a discourse about the progressive changes at DC with Sa’ąh Naaghái Bik’eh Hózhóón as the underlying philosophy, followed by a presentation of the sacred mountains, the original homeland of the Diné people. Sa’ąh Naaghái Bik’eh Hózhóón, the Diné philosophy, is associated with the four sacred mountains. A discussion about the sacred mountains helps the reader further understanding of each Sa’ąh Naaghái Bik’eh Hózhóón element. A greater discussion of the Diné philosophy of Sa’ąh Naaghái Bik’eh Hózhóón along with the Navajo concepts of Hozhǫ́ and K’e are then presented. Finally, I provide a visual depiction of the four elements in Sa’ąh Naaghái Bik’eh Hózhóón and describe each element, and I provide pedagogical applications by several DC faculty.

Progressive Changes at DC

I have been fortunate to have a front-row seat for more than 30 years in my tenure at DC. I am witnessing unfolding changes as we traverse forward in higher education of the Diné people. In 1968, Navajo Community College was established by the Diné people. The founders of the college saw the challenges experienced by Navajo college students who attended off-reservation colleges and universities in the 1950s and 1960s. At that time, Navajo college students’ retention and completion rates were low. In response to those challenges, the founders desired to open a Navajo college for Navajo students to aid in their postsecondary success, integrating a Navajo studies curriculum (Haskie & Shreve, 2013). Included as a part of this curriculum was the development and implementation of the Diné philosophy of Sa’ąh Naaghái Bik’eh Hózhóón at Navajo Community College, including an office established solely for the development of the educational philosophy. When I arrived in 1991, Dr. David Begay led the advancement of this significant work in the Diné philosophy of learning office. Dr. David Begay collaborated with traditional Navajo hataałii and

elders as they formulated and developed the Diné philosophy of Sa’ąh Naaghái Bik’eh Hózhóón and solidified its application at DC. The Navajo hataałii and elders included Edward Bahe Harvey from Lukachukai, AZ; Nevy Jensen from Gray Mountain, AZ; and Mike Mitchell from Tsaile, AZ. Initially this office was solely dedicated to that end; it was later renamed the Diné educational philosophy (DEP) office. There were many directors of the DEP office who continued this important work; they include Anthony Lee, Sr.; Dr. Johnson Dennison; Arizona State Senator Dr. Jack Jackson, Sr.; and Chief Justice Emeritus Robert Yazzie. In 2005, DEP would become one initiative in the newly established Diné Policy Institute. Sa’ąh Naaghái Bik’eh Hózhóón was firmly embedded in the curriculum and organizational principles of DC.

In 1997, Navajo Community College President Dr. Tommy H. Lewis, Jr., with the support of the college’s board of regents, renamed Navajo Community College as DC (Tribal College Journal, 1997), and DC began a new phase in the educational program offerings for the Diné people. The journey toward bachelor’s degree offerings commenced. To commemorate the 40th anniversary of DC, President Dr. Ferlin Clark led a celebration honoring the founders of Navajo Community College. He invited the college community to participate in a Navajo prayer offering as the Diné people returned to their cultural and ceremonial roots in prayer for the Higher Learning Commission’s approval to offer bachelor’s degrees. In that same year, the Higher Learning Commission did approve DC’s request to offer the first bachelor’s degree in elementary education (Clark, 2009). Dr. Clark (2009) stated, “This act paves the way for the college to become a four-year institution while it is guided by its unique philosophy with underlying guiding principles of ‘Hozhooji’ or Beauty Way principles guiding and ‘Naaghaiji’ or Protection Way principles shielding it” (pp. 11–12). DC has been the genesis of progressive ideas that advance the initiatives of the Diné people. Bachelor’s degrees in elementary education were awarded during the spring 2011 commencement of DC (Yurth, 2011). The first recipients of the degree were “Duane Hanley, Evelyn Riggs, Estelle Benally, Kim Etsitty, and Jeniel Jean George,” and they “will go down in history as the first students to earn a bachelor of arts in elementary education entirely from the Navajo institution” (Yurth, 2011, p. 1). The educational journey of the Diné people’s flagship college would continue.

Aspiring to university status in pursuit of more bachelor’s degree offerings, DC continued onward. Dr. Clark (2009) wrote, “Toward planning for the future is the significance of Indigenous cultural philosophy that will continue to guide the College as it makes the transition to a four-year college” (p. 11). In preparation to become a four-year institution, DC established four schools. The school of Diné studies and education; the school of arts and humanities; the school of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics; and the school of business and social science were established in 2018, the 50th anniversary of DC. The following year, on April 19, 2019, the higher learning commission granted DC approval as a four-year institution. In 2022, DC offered 15 bachelor’s degree programs and one master of science degree in biology. President Dr. Charles Monty Roessel led these

progressive changes around the 50th anniversary of DC. Dr. Roessel is also the son of two founders of Navajo Community College, Ruth and Bob Roessel. Ruth Roessel was a celebrated founder during the 40th anniversary celebration (Haskie & Shreve, 2018); see Figure 1. To commemorate their significant contribution, the DC archival facility was named the Ruth and Bob Roessel Archival Center in 2013.

FIGURE 1

Dr. Ferlin Clark honoring Ruth Roessel during the Diné College 40th anniversary celebration, Kinyaa’aanii Charlie Benally Library, Diné College, Tsaile, AZ

Note. The college founders were honored April 13, 2008. Left to right: Tina James Tafoya, executive assistant to President Clark; Dr. Guy Gorman, Sr.; Dr. Jack C. Jackson, Sr.; Dr. Ferlin Clark, president of Diné College;

As a four-year institution, DC began the promotion and ranking of faculty for the positions of assistant professor, associate professor, and professor in 2019. The first professors were named during the spring 2019 commencement. Twelve professors were named among the four colleges. Dr. Wilson Aronilth, Roger Benally, Dr. Avery Denny, and Blackhorse Mitchell were ranked professors in the school of Diné studies and education; Dr. Karla Britton, Irvin Morris, Karen Willeto, and Dr. Paul Willeto were ranked professors in the school of arts and humanities; Dr. Shazia Tabassum Hakim and Anne Semrau were ranked professors in the school of science, technology, engineering and mathematics; and Dr. Miranda Haskie and Dr. Sara Kien were ranked professors in the school of business and

social science. To recognize this momentous occasion, the following was printed in the DC 2019 spring commencement program:

To celebrate the initiation of the new Faculty Ranking system here at Diné College, the Grand Marshals leading the processional for this year’s commencement ceremony are those faculty members who successfully completed the new Diné College Faculty system through their excellence in teaching, scholarship, and service. Each Faculty submitted an application for the appropriate rank that was reviewed by a faculty peer committee, approved by his or her school Dean in concurrence with the Provost, was highly recommended by an external reviewer, and was officially approved by the College President. Among the Grand Marshals are those who achieved ranking through Diné College’s special section under Faculty Ranking system for Navajo Traditional Knowledge Holders, a ranking unique among tribal colleges.

As of fall 2021, 48 full-time faculty and two librarians had been ranked for the positions of assistant professor, associate professor, and professor. During the winter commencement 2021, DC conferred four honorary doctorate degrees to Don Denetdeal, Avery Denny, Johnson Dennison, and Harry Walters as noted in the DC 2021 winter commencement program. In the president’s welcome address, Dr. Roessel (2021, 32:50) states,

This morning, we did something that the college has not done. We bestowed the Honorary Doctorate of Humane Letters upon Dr. Avery Denny, Dr. Johnson Dennison, Dr. Harry Walters, and Dr. Don Denetdeal. I do want to share why we did it because it is important. Those gentlemen, those scholars, those historians took what was created back in the first time this college was built. They legitimized the idea of Navajo philosophy in a college curriculum for the first time; it had never been done before. People laughed at it, “Oh you can’t do it; that’s not a college degree,” but they did something new. That’s our creation story here at Diné College. But once you create something, you have to operate it. And that’s what those four gentlemen epitomize, they professionalized, if you will the Diné teachings, to put it into higher learning commission, to put it into textbooks, to put it into curriculum, to put it into dissertations, that’s what they did. And we, all of us, are the smarter for it. We are proud of those four because they are a symbol of so much more.

These progressive changes were a monumental feat for the historic institution established April 13, 1968, as the first tribally controlled college in the nation. Today, there are 37 other tribally controlled colleges, and the Diné people were the first to open their doors. DC led the initiative and development of the Diné philosophy of Sa’ąh Naaghái Bik’eh Hózhóón and its application in higher education. DC is the cornerstone of this enterprising incorporation of Sa’ąh Naaghái Bik’eh Hózhóón. Toward the continued fulfillment of those original aims,

DC resumes the advancement of Sa’ąh Naaghái Bik’eh Hózhóón. A discussion of Sa’ąh Naaghái Bik’eh Hózhóón as situated in the sacred mountains, the centuries old homeland of the Diné people, ensues.

Sacred Mountains

The Diné people live amid the sacred mountains of Diné bikéyah, the original homeland of the Diné. “The mountains are placed there for the Diné; they are to live within these mountains” (Iverson, 2002, p. 7). The Diné coexist among the mountains of Sisnaajini (Mount Blanca), Tsoodził (Mount Taylor), Dook’o’oosłííd (San Francisco Peaks), Dibé Ntsaa (Mount Hesperus), Dził Ná’oodiłii (Huerfano Mesa), and Dził Ch’óol’į́’í (Gobernador Knob Mesa). Place is significant to the Navajo people, and their homeland is located within these sacred mountains. “The first four ... sacred mountains mark the traditional boundaries of Diné Bikéyah” (Iverson, 2002, p. 11). Each of the four sacred mountains is found in the four cardinal directions. Each mountain is adorned with a stone symbolizing its blessings. Sisnaajini (Mount Blanca) is the sacred mountain located in the east and is adorned with a white shell. Sisnaajini is geographically located near Alamosa, CO. Tsoodził (Mount Taylor) is the sacred mountain located in the south and is adorned with turquoise. Tsoodził is located near Grants, NM. Dook’o’oosłííd (San Francisco Peaks) is the sacred mountain located in the west and is adorned with abalone shell. Dook’o’oosłííd is located near Flagstaff, AZ. Dibé Ntsaa (Mount Hesperus) is the sacred mountain located in the north and is adorned with black jet. Dził Ná’oodiłii (Huerfano Mesa) and Dził Ch’óol’į́’í (Gobernador Knob Mesa) are located near Bloomfield, NM, and are considered the doorway to the sacred mountains. Dził Ná’oodiłii (Huerfano Mesa) is referenced as the hard goods mountain, whereas Dził Ch’óol’į́’í (Gobernador Knob Mesa) is referenced as the soft goods mountain. These sacred mountains are continually mentioned in ancient Navajo songs and Navajo prayers. They pervade the Diné philosophy of Sa’ąh Naaghái Bik’eh Hózhóón.

Diné Philosophy of Sa’ąh Naaghái Bik’eh Hózhóón

Since time immemorial, Sa’ąh Naaghái Bik’eh Hózhóón has been the guiding philosophy of the Diné people. The terms “Diné” and “Navajo” are used interchangeably. Drs. D. H. Begay and Maryboy (1998) describe the Diné educational philosophy as a holistic system applying Navajo traditional principles in education. The Diné people have employed its application throughout their lives. In fact, Drs. D. H. Begay and Maryboy (1998) write, “The conceptionalization [sic] and foundation of this paradigm model comes from ancient ceremonial songs and practices” (p. 354). Navajo ceremonial songs refer to the sacred mountains. The Blessingway ceremony involves singing these ceremonial songs. Dr. D. Begay (1992) undertook research with renowned traditional elders and practitioners of healing arts in the 1970s and 1980s. This research aided Dr. D. Begay (1992) in the development of Sa’ąh Naaghái Bik’eh Hózhóón as the educational philosophy at Navajo Community College (now DC).

Traditional Navajo elders recognize the cosmic nature and interrelatedness of their lives in the universe. Traditional Navajo elders acknowledge this relationship to the universe as found in their Navajo prayers. In prayer, Navajos acknowledge Nihima Nahasdzáán, Mother Earth, and Yádiłhił Nihitaa’, the sky their father, exemplifying one’s relationship as a child of the universe. This speaks to the interrelated connection with the universe they recognize. Drs. D. H. Begay and Maryboy (1998) reference a renowned practitioner of traditional healing in their discussion about the way nature communicates with us and, in return, Navajos communicate with nature through song. This further exemplifies that interrelated bond Navajos honor in their relationship with nature.

More specifically, the “term Nanit’a Są’ąh Naaghái Nanit’a Bik’eh Hózhóón … refers to the dynamic earthly and cosmic order” focusing “on movement” (D. H. Begay & Maryboy, 1998, p. 250). The movement of this cosmic order is encapsulated in the term “sha bik’ehgo, the cyclical direction, is clockwise, in accordance with … the path of the sun” (D. H. Begay & Maryboy, 1998, p. 329). Symbolically this movement or progression can be represented in the cyclical process of Nitsáhákees, Nahat’a, Iiná, and Sihasin (D. H. Begay & Maryboy, 1998).

FIGURE 2

Nitsáhákees, Nahat’á, Iiná, and Sihasin are elements in Sa’ąh Naagháí Bik’eh Hózhóón

Sa’ąh Naaghái Bik’eh Hózhóón comprises four elements, including Nitsáhákees, (thinking), Nahat’a (planning), Iiná (living), and Sihasin (reflection and assurance) (see Appendix A; Haskie, 2002). As are the sacred mountains discussed earlier, each of the Sa’ąh Naaghái Bik’eh Hózhóón elements are associated with the cardinal directions of east, south, west, and north. The sacred mountains were “associated with a particular color and a particular season” (Iverson, 2002, p. 11). Dawn, day, evening, and night are linked with each of the four elements. Specifically, they include dawn represented in Nitsáhákees, day represented in Nahat’a, evening represented in Iiná, and night represented in Sihasin. Furthermore, the life cycle is integral to each element, commencing with birth, adolescence, middle adulthood, and old age. Following the path of a life cycle, there are major life stages that meaningfully mark one’s progression through life. Just as Western human development theorists recognize stages in the life cycle, so too do the Diné people. Nitsáhákees, Nahat’a, Iiná, and Sihasin are the elements of

Nitsáhákees

Nahat’á

Iiná

Sihasin

Sa’ąh Naaghái Bik’eh Hózhóón and denote this recurring process. There are Diné cultural beliefs associated with each of the four elements from a Navajo worldview in Nitsáhákees, Nahat’a, Iiná, and Sihasin (see Appendices B–E; Haskie, 2002). DC faculty apply these elements of Sa’ąh Naaghái Bik’eh Hózhóón that encourage student learning. Each element “provides and expounds on the meaning(s) associated with this four-part … learning process” (Haskie, 2002, p. 32).

Sa’ąh Naaghái Bik’eh Hózhóón is comprehensive, multifaceted, and philosophical. Navajos are mindful of their relationship with nature. Navajo thought is powerful, and one is encouraged to exercise care in what one speaks, shizaad hahóózhǫǫ doo. Navajo teachings consistently remind each of us to guard what we say commencing with our thought. Our thoughts should always be positive in accomplishment of hózho.

Hózhǫ́

Hózhǫ́ is practiced by Navajos. The Diné people strive daily toward hózho, seeking balance in their life. Benally (1994) defined hózho as “the state of much good, leading to a peaceful, beautiful and harmonious life” (p. 23). Haskie (2002) explained that “hózho is striving to achieve that delicate balance, one that is pursued with the person ever mindful about the existence of forces, both positive and negative” (p. 28).

Over the course of a Diné person’s lifetime, the person may participate in a Blessingway ceremony as a patient or in support of another patient. They support the holistic well-being and a life rooted in hózho. These Navajo prayers have been passed down through the generations and embody hózho.

The Blessingway ceremony affirms the relationship that a Diné has with the universe, that connection spoken of earlier by which Nihima Nahasdzáán, Mother Earth, and Yádiłhił Nihitaa’, the sky their father, exemplify the bond between parent and child. Today, the Blessingway ceremony remains a strong tradition among the Diné people. Furthermore, the Diné honor the importance of relationship, and it is found in the Navajo concept of k’e

K’é

The Navajo term, hak’éi, provides a greater understanding of the concept of k’e (Haskie, 2002). The Diné relatives include those to which one is related by blood and all their clan relatives. Navajos are taught from the moment of birth that one is a grandfather or grandmother by clan to a Navajo relative. The Diné people will always have family and are members of a family through k’e. In going about our daily lives, the Diné people operate mindful of their relationship to others. In that relationship, hózho is pursued.

In the 21st century, Sa’ąh Naaghái Bik’eh Hózhóón remains a viable practice integral to the lives of Diné people. This, therefore, explains why traditional Navajo people have continuously lived their lives applying these inherent Navajo principles.

Sa’ąh Naaghái Bik’eh Hózhóón is “the foundational belief of the Navajo people

that embodies the philosophy by which they live their lives” (Haskie, 2002, p. 30). Additionally, Aronilth (1994) describes Sa’ąh Naaghái Bik’eh Hózhóón as the journey of one’s life. Given the holistic nature of the Navajo philosophy, it is all encompassing. Griffin-Pierce (1992) recognizes this holistic nature in her description of Navajo holistic thinking as “a concept of interrelated totality that is fundamental to Navajo thought” (p. 188). Moreover, Haskie (2002) states, “Sa’ąh Naaghái Bik’eh Hózhóón is a system from which the Navajo people gain teachings and learn how to achieve a healthy well-being throughout life” (p. 32). Sa’ąh Naaghái Bik’eh Hózhóón “is the life force which is the reason for being and becoming; the pathway for continual learning and the renewal of aspiration” (Navajo Community College General Catalog, 1987, p. 7). Because Sa’ąh Naaghái Bik’eh Hózhóón remains a vital practice for the Diné people, DC chose to apply Sa’ąh Naaghái Bik’eh Hózhóón as the educational philosophy taught to its students. DC attaches great importance to Sa’ąh Naaghái Bik’eh Hózhóón and desires for its students to embrace the teachings of this valuable philosophy, similar to blessings imbued by the Blessingway ceremony. DC faculty implement Sa’ąh Naaghái Bik’eh Hózhóón in student learning for their respective academic disciplines.

DEP at DC

To assist DC faculty in this application, they can enroll in two three-credit-hour courses titled NIS 294 (Diné Educational Philosophy I) and NIS 295 (Diné Educational Philosophy II) as they learn about the philosophy. The courses were designed for faculty as they develop curriculum toward fulfilling the college mission.

DC’s mission is “rooted in Diné language and culture, our mission is to advance quality post-secondary student learning and development to ensure the wellbeing of the Diné People” (Diné College catalog, 2019–2020, p. 7). The college mission strives to fulfill DC’s desire for students to attain well-being like that found in the Blessingway ceremony.

The college principles also refer to the negative and positive energy patterns and explicitly describe four principles. Nitsáhákees, Nahat’a, Iiná, and Sihasin found in Sa’ąh Naaghái Bik’eh Hózhóón are the fourfold college principles. These four principles are the bedrock of pedagogy at DC, and faculty are encouraged to apply them.

The Diné philosophy of Sa’ąh Naaghái Bik’eh Hózhóón is elaborate. The Navajo philosophy of learning is explained by Benally (1994) as “knowledge, learning, and life itself are sacred and interwoven parts of a whole. They are holistic principles that determine the quality of each other” (p. 23).

In the fall of 2003, I completed the course, DEP 294 Diné Educational Philosophy I, taught by the director of the DEP office. What follows is an interpretation of my learning and application to my instruction.

Diné Educational Philosophy Pedagogical Applications

My approach to life, both personally and professionally, is rooted in the Diné educational philosophy of Sa’ąh Naaghái Bik’eh Hózhóón. The Diné philosophy of Sa’ąh Naaghái Bik’eh Hózhóón is from ancient times and has successfully guided our Diné ancestors for generations. Sa’ąh Naaghái Bik’eh Hózhóón is the foundational belief of the Diné people. Sa’ąh Naaghái Bik’eh Hózhóón as a philosophy exemplifies values and beliefs, symbolizes wholeness, represents the concept of duality, and serves as a tool for learning. Sa’ąh Naaghái Bik’eh Hózhóón is Nitsáhákees (thinking), Nahat’a (planning), Iiná (living), and Sihasin (reflecting/ assurance). I apply this philosophy in teaching.

Sa’ąh Naagháí Bik’eh Hózhóón Applied

to Sociology Course Objectives

In 2008, I began teaching in the school of business and social science where I now teach sociology courses. Typically, my curriculum includes perspectives from the Navajo culture coupled with Western sociological perspectives that help me engage the student learner. In that engagement, I encourage students to employ their sociological imagination (Mills, 1959). One way I accomplish this is in the broader application of Sa’ąh Naaghái Bik’eh Hózhóón to the sociology course goals. The following is an example of the course goals as related to Sa’ąh Naaghái Bik’eh Hózhóón:

COURSE GOALS AS RELATED TO Sa’ąh Naaghái Bik’eh Hózhóón:

This course will integrate the Diné holistic teachings in accordance with the pedagogical paradigm of Nitsáhákees, Nahat’a, Iiná, and Sihasin. Students will understand the self through the teaching of Naayée’eek’ehgo Na’nitin (Protectionway teachings) and Hózhóójik’ehgo Na’nitin (Blessingway teachings).

Nitsáhákees: The course will emphasize critical thinking skills in learning about the sociological perspective.

Nahat’á: Organizational and planning skills will be emphasized in the timely completion of all assignments.

Iiná: The course will provide students the opportunity to apply sociology principles in everyday life.

Sihasin: The course will emphasize students’ competence and confidence in applying sociology principles in their everyday lives.

Students in all my sociology classes conduct scholarly research and write a research paper employing the principles of Sa’ąh Naaghái Bik’eh Hózhóón (see Appendix F; Haskie, 2013). I invite students to select a topic of their choice and relate it to the study of sociology.

In the first stage of Nitsáhákees (thinking), students think about their research topic, formulate a hypothesis, and proceed to brainstorm ideas about their topic (Haskie, 2013). Nitsáhákees involves critical thinking and expending great mental effort. Students invoke curiosity, contemplate sociological topics,

consider the sociological application to Diné society, and evaluate how the Diné people contribute to American society. The ideas generated can be specific to an academic discipline embedded within the Diné philosophy of Sa’ąh Naaghái Bik’eh Hózhóón. Once a research topic is chosen, students deliberate many conceivable ideas surrounding their topic. Students are encouraged to be highly reflective. This practice applies seamlessly to the research and writing processes. Undoubtedly, tremendous thought goes into the writing process and is fulfilled in the initial stage of Nitsáhákees. Following this initial stage, students then embark upon a plan as they develop the first draft of their research paper.

In the stage of Nahat’a (planning), students plan after identifying main points, draft an outline and gather references (Haskie, 2013) to cite in their scholarly research. Creativity is also encouraged as they consider their topic. Students frame their ideas, devise those ideas, and formulate a writing plan for their research papers.

In the stage of Iiná, they write and then finalize a draft of their research paper based on the outline they develop and apply the new knowledge and present the results of their research. In their writing, students’ express ideas, articulate those ideas, and convey the ideas in their final research papers.

Finally, in the stage of Sihasin, students reflect upon the new knowledge gained and evaluate their research findings. So too do DC faculty engage in continual refinement of the collective process of Sa’ąh Naaghái Bik’eh Hózhóón. This refinement accomplishes improvement in both teaching and student learning. The application of all four stages of Sa’ąh Naaghái Bik’eh Hózhóón exemplifies the Navajo principle of T’áa Hó Ájit’éego, which embodies a self-disciplined learner. It is the hope of DC that each student will attain this desired state.

Several faculty from DC were invited to share the application of Sa’ąh Naaghái Bik’eh Hózhóón in their curriculum. Marius Begay, DC faculty in the school of business and social science shared his application in a history course he teaches and how Sa’ąh Naaghái Bik’eh Hózhóón is used to deconstruct historical events (see Appendix G). Dr. Herman Cody, DC faculty in the school of Diné studies and education shared his application in an education course he teaches and Sa’ąh Naaghái Bik’eh Hózhóón’s relevance to positive child development (see Appendix H). Kaitlyn E. Haskie, DC adjunct faculty in the school of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics shared her application in a biology course she teaches and how Sa’ąh Naaghái Bik’eh Hózhóón informs biology students’ interaction with the natural world (see Appendix I). Shaina A. Nez, DC faculty in the school of arts and humanities shared her application in an English course she teaches and how Sa’ąh Naaghái Bik’eh Hózhóón supports the creative writing process (see Appendix J). Dr. Gregory Redhouse, DC faculty in the school of business and social science shared his application in a business course he teaches and how Sa’ąh Naaghái Bik’eh Hózhóón is a framework for writing research papers (see Appendix K). Each graciously agreed to share their curricular application of Sa’ąh Naaghái Bik’eh Hózhóón for which I am grateful. Each of these faculty is a representative from one of the four schools at DC.

References

Aronilth, W. (1994). Introduction to Navajo philosophy. Diné College.

Begay, D. (1992). Guide for the development of curriculum and pedagogy at Navajo Community College: Sa’ąh naagháí bik’eh hózhóón Navajo Community College philosophy of education – Diné bina’nitin bi’óhoo’aah bitsi siléí [Unpublished manuscript]. Diné Educational Philosophy Office, Navajo Community College.

Begay, D. H., & Maryboy, N. C. (1998). Nanit’á są’ąh naagháí nanit’á bik’eh hózhóón nanita living the order: Dynamic cosmic process of Diné cosmology [Unpublished manuscript]. California Institute of Integral Studies.

Begay, M. (2023). Methods for teaching Diné educational philosophy in History. School of Business and Social Science, Diné College.

Benally, H. (1994). Navajo philosophy of learning and pedagogy. Journal of Navajo Education, XIII, 23–31.

Clark, F. (2009). In becoming sa’ah naaghai bik’eh hozhoon: The historical challenges and triumphs of Diné college [Unpublished manuscript]. American Indian Studies Program, University of Arizona.

Cody, H. (2023b). Methods for teaching Diné educational philosophy in EDU 352. School of Diné Studies and Education, Diné College.

Diné College. (2019-2020). Diné College catalog

Griffin-Pierce, T. (1992). Earth is my mother, sky is my father: Space and time, astronomy in Navajo sandpainting. University of New Mexico.

Haskie, K. E. (2023c). Lab 15 Indigenous science, Sa’2h naagh17 bik’eh h0zh00n in BIO 100. School of Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics, Diné College.

Haskie, M. J. (2002). Preserving a culture: Practicing the Navajo principles of hózho dóo k’e [Unpublished manuscript]. School of Educational Leadership and Change, Fielding Graduate University.

Haskie, M. J. (2013). Teaching sociology at a tribal college: Navajo philosophy as a pedagogy. The American Sociologist, 44(4), 378–384.

Haskie, M. J., & Shreve, B. (2013). Hózhó Nahasdlii—Finding harmony in the long shadow of colonialism: Two perspectives on teaching anti-racism at a tribal college. In K. Haltinner (Ed.), Teaching race and anti-racism in contemporary America (pp. 91–98). Springer.

Haskie, M. J., & Shreve, B. (2018). Remembering Diné college: Origin stories of America’s first tribal college Tribal College Journal, 30(1), 20-21.

Iverson, P. (2002). Diné: A history of the Navajos. University of New Mexico Press.

Mills, C. W. (1959). The sociological imagination. Oxford University Press.

Navajo Community College. (1987). Navajo Community College General catalog.

Nez, S. A. (2023d). Diné educational philosophy: Sa’2h naagh17 bik’eh h0zh00n in creative writing and English. School of Arts and Humanities, Diné College.

Redhouse, G. (2023e). Diné educational philosophy: Sa’2h naagh17 bik’eh h0zh00n in BUS 460. School of Business and Social Science, Diné College.

Roessel, C. M. [Diné College President]. (2021). Welcome address: Fall 2021 PM commencement—Diné College [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MgHKhBt7nP0

Tribal College Journal. (1997). Navajos change name to Diné College. Tribal College Journal 9(1), 30.

Yurth, C. (2011, July 9). Diné college issues first bachelor’s degrees. Navajo Times. https://navajotimes.com/ education/2011/0711/070911ba.php

Appendix A. Sa’ąh Naagháí Bik’eh Hózhóón

Nitsáhákees

Appendix B. Nitsáhákees (Haskie, 2002)

Sihasin SNBH

Nitsáhákees

Nahat’á

Nahat’á

Appendix C. Nahat’á

Nitsáhákees

Nahat’á

Iiná

Sihasin SNBH

Iiná

Iiná

Sihasin SNBH

Appendix D. Iiná (Haskie, 2002)

SNBH

Nitsáhákees

Sihasin

Nahat’á

Appendix E. Sihasin (Haskie, 2002)

SNBH

Nitsáhákees

Nahat’á

Iiná

Iiná

Sihasin

Appendix F. Applying Diné Educational Philosophy of Writing a Research Paper (reprinted with permission from Springer Nature Publisher, 2013)

Appendix G. Marius Begay

(2023),

M.A. faculty, Diné College School of Business and Social Science, History

The principles of Sa’ąh Naaghái Bik’eh Hózhóón and T’áa hó ’áji t’éego in the field of history.

Marius Begay

Social and Behavioral Science at Diné College

February 24, 2023

This semester, my history students are required to select a historical topic of their choice and provide a five-minute presentation that includes PowerPoint. The objective of the assignment is to bring awareness and open any possible discussion on how Sa’ąh Naaghái Bik’eh Hózhóón may apply in the study of history. Uniquely, this assignment also examines the ethics of T’áa hó ’áji t’éego in connection to leadership: identifying certain leaders in American history for example and analyzing the different levels of authoritative principles these historical figures are known for. Above all, students are asked to consider where levels of T’áa hó ’áji t’éego are apparent and identify any differences compared to Diné philosophy. Sa’ąh Naaghái Bik’eh Hózhóón, which also encapsulates the ideals of T’áa hó ’áji t’éego, allows students the opportunity to distinguish the capability of Diné bi’nánit’in. All things considered, by critically analyzing events through discussions, my students are introduced to how significant Nitsáhákees, Naha’ta, Iiná, Sihasin is in the study of history.

The levels of knowledge and understanding that adhere to Diné philosophy are significant. My contribution of instilling Sa’ąh Naaghái Bik’eh Hózhóón and T’áa hó ’áji t’éego into my curriculum allows the opportunity for students to deconstruct historical events or figures. This practice allows an analysis that invokes reflecting on the teachings that center from one’s fireplace or home. Moreover, the ethics and principles that are presented in the history of Western civilization outside Indigenous nations may possess contrasting views. Therefore, these different perspectives are important in the learning process; it is part of the path toward Hózhó. For instance, historical events that demonstrate the practice of colonialism and colonization have illustrated the moral principles of Western civilization throughout history. As a result, students are given an opportunity to utilize the study of history as a lens to examine the ethics and principles of Western civilization and its influence on Indigenous nations in all capacities.

Appendix H. Dr. Herman Cody (2023b), faculty, Diné College school of Diné studies and education, EDU 352 (Methods for Teaching Diné Educational Philosophy in B-12 Schools)

Sa’ąh Naaghái Bik’eh Hózhóón is incorporated in the curriculum of EDU 352. Traditional perspectives of child development are covered in the course. Students are taught that a child is born with Sa’ąh Naaghái Bik’eh Hózhóón, and it is available to them throughout their lifetime. Over the course of human development, one may encounter negativity, the negatives, at which point Sa’ąh Naaghái Bik’eh Hózhóón is overshadowed. Still, one can change their life and return to Sa’ąh Naaghái Bik’eh Hózhóón, engaging in T’áá Hó Ájit’eęgo. Positive life experiences also occur; the positives enhance Sa’ąh Naaghái Bik’eh Hózhóón, increasing one’s strength and resilience. Life’s experiences formulate your beliefs, attitudes, and behavior both positive and negative. This becomes your personality. See the following image developed by Dr. Herman Cody.

Sa’ąh Naaghái Bik’eh Hózhóón

Positives

Negatives

Personality

The Sa’ąh Naaghái Bik’eh Hózhóón energy comes out once in a while when you feel an urge to do something different or you surprise yourself by accomplishing something extraordinary. As teachers, I encourage my students to look for that energy in children and help them find it. Don’t ever tell a child he/she “can’t do it.” Right from Ni’halzhin, the goal is for the child’s body, mind, and spirituality to be sound. Help the children continue that journey on the path of balance, harmony, and spirituality.

Appendix I. Kaitlyn E. Haskie (2023c), M.S. adjunct faculty, Diné College, school of science technology engineering and mathematics, BIO 100 (Biology Concepts)

Lab 15: Indigenous Science, 17 points total, but 32 points possible.

Indigenous Science refers to the science knowledge of peoples who, as participants in their culture, have traditional wisdom, values, and decision making (Sa’ąh Naaghái Bik’eh Hoźhóón) that inform how they interact with the world. This project draws on Navajo knowledge of traditional food systems and how effective those foods are in providing nutrition.

Tóshchíín, blue corn mush, is a staple in the diet of the Diné and many other tribes in the Southwest. The blue corn is harvested by many tribes in the Southwest. Our people, the Diné, use the blue corn mush to eat and, in some cases, thicken soups. It also has medicinal uses; when people are in the hospital, blue corn mush is usually served to those needing a plain diet or needing supplemental nutrients.

Lesson 1, Word List (5 points total)

Without researching Tóshchíín or blue corn mush, list different pieces of information about the word Tóshchíín or blue corn mush. What knowledge of Tóshchíín do you have (Nitsáhákees)?

Lesson 2, Oral History and Western Science (12 points total)

In 1985, the study Use and Nutrient Composition of Traditional Navajo Foods was published by the Ecology of Food and Nutrition journal. In this article, Navajo Katherine Dahozy, daughter of renowned Navajo broadcaster and homemaker Louva Dahozy helped shed light on the nutritional value of many Navajo foods, including Tóshchíín

Read the article (Nahat’a), Use and nutrient composition of traditional Navajo foods, and answer the following questions (Iiná).

1. Rank the minerals, from highest to lowest milligrams, found in the blue corn mush + ash mixture. Na, K, Ca, Mg, P, Fe, Zn, Cu.

2. Choose one mineral from the list and research how the mineral helps the body. How does the mineral you researched help your body?

3. Fiber in whole meal corn contain phytate, which is often considered an antinutrient as it impairs the absorption of iron, zinc, calcium, and other minerals. What ingredient do Diné people add to compensate for this?

4. What oral histories or personal narratives do you have about Tóshchíín?

Lesson 3, Making blue corn mush, extra credit 15 points Alana Yazzie is a Diné blogger and social media personality. Her blog, TheFancyNavajo, has been featured in many news and article outlets. We will be using her recipe for blue corn mush. Head to https://thefancynavajo. com/2020/07/14/fancy-navajo-blue-corn-mush-recipe/. You are also welcome to use your own family recipe.

Insert pictures (Iiná) of the following:

1. Your ingredients: roasted blue cornmeal, ash, water, and optional toppings.

2. Cooking the mixture, do you use stirring sticks?

3. Take a “camera eats first” picture. A “camera eats first” picture is when people take a picture of their food before eating it, usually to post to social media later. For example, as the Fancy Navajo does on her blog.

Feedback (Sihasin):

“Thank you for implementing some research that pertained to our Navajo Nation into the course study. I enjoyed the articles that reflected the Navajo Nation. As a lot of us students are going to use our degrees here at home, I believe it is crucial to implement studies and findings on our Nation to inform the students of our surroundings and what kinds of trouble we face here in our homeland so we have more knowledge taking on these demographics.”

“Yes, with the recent assignments intriguing me. Also, the assignments relating to health within our Navajo community. Also, with the recent pandemic coming into the Navajo Nation and affecting it with high numbers have pushed me to want to gain more interest in the subject of science.”

Appendix J. Shaina A. Nez (2023d), M.F.A., senior lecturer, Diné College, school of arts, humanities, English, creative writing & English

Diné educational philosophy, Sa’ąh Naaghái Bik’eh Hózhóón, informs the consciousness of self, relative, ancestor, and community through a fundamental creative writing process. Sa’ąh Naaghái Bik’eh Hózhóón represents the brevity of time from lived experiences. Diné writing theorizes worldview as proprioceptive, meaning the senses emerge through our actions. We understand Sa’ąh Naaghái Bik’eh Hózhóón as part of lived experiences used to exercise rhetorical sovereignty (an inherent right to determine their own communicative needs and desires) establishing community as well as scholarly and literary discourse.

What can Sa’ąh Naaghái Bik’eh Hózhóón entail in an assignment from creative writing courses? First, a student will understand conceptualizing (thinking for oneself), posing these questions, such as who are you as an existing writer? What is your relationship to language, culture, and family? When Diné College students begin to think of their answers, I ask them to ponder over possibilities first before anything else.

Critical thinking involves the connection of evidence—it is not for the sake of knowing, but for continuing practice and embodiment. When students read about the daily life of a Diné individual, it is often a reminder of waking before dawn, praying, and giving abundance to another day on nihimá nahasdzáán (mother earth). This practice is about beginning the day with purpose, courage, and happiness and ending the day with reflection—what have I accomplished and what needs attention the following day? This connection of evidence allows the student to think with their body, emotions, and implications.

Student’s writing becomes subjective, centering their lived experiences with sentences beginning with “I felt,” “I believe,” and “In connection with.” Students deepen the possibilities for their creative work by the existing process of Sa’ąh Naaghái Bik’eh Hózhóón. Multiple intelligences, like linguistic, interpersonal, and naturalistic, evolve in the unit when students are tasked to center their knowledge systems.

Appendix K. Dr. Gregory Redhouse (2023e), faculty, Diné College, school of business and social science, BUS 460 (Tribal and Federal Laws)

I generally insert this general description into my course syllabus, but each course may have a different way of demonstrating Sa’ąh Naaghái Bik’eh Hózhóón.

COURSE GOALS AS RELATED TO Sa’ąh Naaghái Bik’eh Hózhóón: This course will integrate the Diné holistic teaching in accordance with the pedagogical paradigm: Nitsáhákees, Naha’ta, Iiná, and Sihasin, which are processes found in all aspects of nature. Students will understand the self through the teaching of Naayée’eek’ehgo na’nitin (protection-way teachings) and Hózhóónjík’ehgo na’nitin (Blessingway teachings).

Probably the best example comes when we start the research projects for particular courses like BUS 460 (Tribal & Federal Laws); I email and explain to students that their research assignment will follow the Sa’ąh Naaghái Bik’eh Hózhóón paradigm:

1. Nitsáhákees (thinking)…start thinking about a research topic proposal; during weeks 1 & 2

2. Nahat’a (planning)…develop a research outline, briefly explain where the topic/conversation will go) and a research bibliography (identify between 5 and 10 published sources to develop a literature review); weeks 3 & 4

3. Iiná (living/doing)…write & type up your research rough draft; due by midterms

4. Sihasin (reflection/assessment)…provide feedback to students so they can strengthen and improve their research paper for the final draft; due by the end of the semester