LJ Müller (they/them) studied musicology and cultural studies at Humboldt Universität zu Berlin and works on their Phd. Their first book »Sound und Sexismus« published in 2018 by Marta Press was awarded the 2019 book prize of the International Association for the Study of Popular Music (IASPM). Müller works on topics of voices, gender, sound, popular music and affect. For further www.transcript-verlag.de/en/978-3-8376-5851-4information:
If pictures can be sexist, can analyzing sound reveal sexism, too? Where is the language to discuss sexism in music? LJ Müller tackles these important questions in their 2018 German book titled Sound und Sexismus, which was awarded the IASPM 2019 book prize. Analyzing the voices of Kurt Cobain, Kate Bush, Björk and others, Müller demonstrates how gender is performed vocally and interacts with gendered aspects of embodiment and affect. The book is written from a strongly positioned and personal feminist perspective and is appealing to readers from various backgrounds – singers, producers, music lovers, as well as academics and anyone with an interest in feminist takes on pop culture.
From: LJ Müller Hearing Sexism Gender in the Sound of Popular Music. A Feminist Approach August 2022, 208 p., pb., Dispersionsbindung 25,00 € (DE), 978-3-8376-5851-4 PDF:E-Book:21,99 € (DE), ISBN 978-3-8394-5851-8
© 2022 transcript Verlag, Bielefeld
Contents Preface....................................................................... 7 Introduction:WhatDoesSexismActuallySoundLike?....................... 13 Approach 16 Limitations 18 Feminist(Popular)MusicStudies 22 IntroductionofBasicConcepts 29 MethodandStructure ....................................................... 43 Chapter1:ToolsofAnalysis ................................................ 45 IntroducingmyToolboxforAnalysis ......................................... 45 MusicasaSign:Associations................................................ 47 Homology ................................................................... 53 SongLyricsasGenotext ..................................................... 59 AuditoryPleasures .......................................................... 65 TheSonicalBody............................................................ 75 TheVocalicBody ............................................................ 83 Chapter2:‘Authenticity’asanImplicitlyMasculineNorm 95 The(White)MaleRockVoiceastheNorm 96 Authenticityand‘Real’Voice 104 Nirvana: “SmellsLikeTeenSpirit” ............................................ 109 Howthe‘Real’VoiceWorks .................................................. 113 Identificationwiththe‘Real’Voice ........................................... 116 RobbieWilliams:“Feel”....................................................... 117
The‘Real’VoiceasaHegemonicMalePerformativity ......................... 121 TheGender-DifferentiatedAudience 123 Chapter3:AlternativeAestheticStrategiesof FemaleSingers 127 KateBush: “FeelIt” 128 TimbreasaMask ...........................................................132 TheProductionofDesire ................................................... 133 IntentionalityandSeduction.................................................135 TheSubjectBehindtheVoice ................................................ 137 KylieMinogue: “Can’tGetYouOutofMyHead” ................................139 TheElusiveVocalicBody ....................................................143 TheVocalSoundasaFetishizedObject ...................................... 145 DanceasAppropriationofOne’sOwnBody ................................... 147 Björk: “AllIsFullofLove” .................................................... 151 TheSonicEmbraceoftheDisembodiedVoice ................................ 156 TheMaterialityoftheWord 158 Birdy: “PeopleHelpthePeople” 160 AFemale‘Real’Voice? 165 CastrationStaging 166 Self-DissolutionasaConsolingWayOut...................................... 170 Conclusion:HearingSexism? ............................................... 173 TheVoicesoftheOthers .................................................... 173 TheGender-CodedSonicalBody ............................................. 177 HearSexism! ...............................................................180 References ................................................................. 187 Literature ................................................................... 187 Music ...................................................................... 205
Preface Dearreader, Thisbookhasitsownpeculiarhistory.MostofthisisbasedonanM.A. thesiswritteninthesummerof2013.Iwasabletopublishitinarevised formin2018withafeministpublisherfromHamburg,MartaPress. ThebookreceivedthebookprizeoftheInternationalAssociationfor theStudyofPopularMusicin2019.ItalsostirredsomedebateinGermanpopularmusicstudies,andIgotmuchencouragingfeedbackand interestedquestionsfromnon-Germanscholars.Ithereforedecidedto tryandpublishanEnglishtranslation.Which,Ihavetosay,wasmuch harder,thanIthought … ButinsteadofmoaningaboutdifficultiesIwouldmuchratherlike toacknowledgetheexperiencesImadeinthisprocessandthecontacts andsupportIgottoenjoy.Itwasagreatadventure! Bestofall,therewasthecollaborativeworkwith ManuReyes as translator.Ienjoyedourregulardigitalmeetingsanddiscussionson style,wording,theoreticalandassociativesubtexts,feminism,politics andacademiathroughoutthelastyears.Overall,Iunderstandthis translationasourcollaborativework.Iamverygratefulfortheir thoughtfulandprecisereading,thatgavemethewonderfulexperience ofhavingtoanswerquestionsasaboutwhyIusedthiswordinsteadof that(whichmostofthetimeIdidnotreflectonbefore).Ilearnedalot aboutmyown(unconsciouschoiceswhile)writing,especiallybecause Reyestookallmywordsveryseriouslyanddiscussedwithmepossible subtextsofdifferenttranslationoptions.Thiswasparticularlyhelpful,
Iamalsoverygratefulfortherepeatedencouragementandcritical finalreadingof JohnMullen,whowasoneofthefirst(andmostpersistent)peopleaskingforatranslation,andforthesupportof JulioMendívil and SusanMcClary insearchforpotentialpublishersandfunding.
Allthishelpisgreatlyappreciatedasdoingatranslationisquitea curioustask.Firstofall,therearemanyhurdlesandquestions,especiallyformeasaratherinexperiencedauthor.Forinstance:Whatdo Idofirst?WheredoIgetfunding?HowshouldIapproachadifferent bookmarket?HowdoIaskmyformerpublisherforpermission?And soon,andsoon.Ihadtolearnalotwhiledoing,simplytryingandasking.Ofcourse,attimesIwasclosetogivingup,suchasinthemoment Irealizedthefollowingconundrum:Nopublisherpaysfortranslationcosts,mostfundingopportunitiesfortranslations(andtherearevery
Furtherthe MariannSteegmannFoundation enabledthisprojectwith theirgenerousfinancialsupport.Thankyouall SoMuch!
Severalpeoplefromthe female:pressure listvolunteeredforreading andgivingfeedbackandIamgladIcouldincludethethoughtsand remarksof MargaretheMaierhofer-Lischka, Meloncholyland/OctaviaBeazley (artistandtherapist),and MegWilhoite (M.M.inmusictheory),who gavethisbookaverythoroughreading,andwhoseveryvaluablefeedback(oncontentaswellasonstyle)madesurewewereabletoreduce notonlytypos,butalsopotentialmisunderstandingsandclearthetextflowinmanyplaces.
8HearingSexism aswedevelopedasharedvisionandvoiceofthisbookasacademic aswellaspolitical.Also,Ifeel,wefoundagoodroutebetweenpragmatismandperfectionism,thatallowedustowriteagoodbookina reasonablespanoftimeaswellasenoughtimeforourselvesandour respectivecareworkresponsibilities.AndespeciallyIam sohappyabout theirenthusiasmforthisproject!Itkeptmegoing,whenattimesIfeltlike givingup.
Iamalsoverygladtohavehad JanaReich and MartaPress atmyside, whoalwaysreactedverysupportivelyandquicklytoallmyquestions andrequestsforconfirmationlettersandthelike.AsIamawarethat theyareaverysmallpublisherthataimsmoreforidealsoffairnessand feminism,thanforprofitIappreciatedthisverymuch.
1
Actually,Iwouldsay,thereisevenaseparategenreofpublished “Abschlussarbeiten”(MagisterandDiplom)particularlyinthehumanitiesandsocialsciencesinGermany,thatIassumetheEnglishreader willbecompletelyunfamiliarwith.Itisagreatgenre!Notonlybecauseitenabledmetoreadgreatbooksinthepast,butalsobecauseit alwaysfeltveryencouragingandempoweringtoknowthatastudent’s workmightbepublished,quotedfrom,andusedforfurtherstudy.Such worksmoreoftenthannotfocusonpoliticalquestionsinaveryengaged manner.Theyaimtobringaboutchangeortoemphasizeneglectedtopicsandalsooftentakeupquestionsthatmightnotbeallthatwelcome tothemajorityofestablisheddisciplines.
Stylisticallythereisacertain‘DIY-character’(asthereisnormallynobudgetandauthorshave littleexperience)andwhilethisgenredefinitelyconsistsofreallygood studentworks(ofcourseyoucanonlyaimforpublishingwithatop 1IsitreallythatrareinUS-AmericanorEnglishacademia?Iamstillwondering.–PleasetellmethatthereareactuallyanabundanceofworksthatIjustcouldn’t findformmyoutsiderperspective.
Preface9 few)haveapublishing-contractasaprecondition,butmostpublishers wanttohaveatleastapartial(ratherthewhole)translationdonebefore theyeventhinkaboutit …
Duringthisprocess,Ialsolearnedalotaboutdifferencesinbook marketsandpublishingproceduresinGermanandEnglishacademic orsemi-academicpublishing.Forexample,Igottheastonishedfeedbackfromnon-Germanscholarsseveraltimes,thatitiscompletelyuncommonforanM.A.-thesistobepublished.InGermanythisisnota commonpracticeeither,butitisalsonotentirelyuncommon.Ienjoyed readingseveralbooksthatoriginallywereM.A.-papersor“Diplomarbeiten”duringmystudiesandpublishingmyownM.A.-paperwasin mymindalwaysapossible(althoughnotprobable)option.
2EspeciallytheimportantissueofracismandtheadaptionofcriticalWhiteness
StudiesinGermany,wasafieldinwhichIencounteredmanybooksofstudent authors,suchasthe“Diplomarbeiten”ofKienNgihHa(1999)andAnetteDietrich(2001)andthe“Magisterarbeit”ofMoritzEge(2007)(nexttothefrequent student-organizingofautonomousreadingcirclesandstudent-ledclassesin the2000s.)
2
Intheprocessoftranslation,we,thatisManuReyes,astranslator, andme,stilladaptedpartsofthisbook,sothattheymightfitbetter 3ThereisalsotheGermanlegalconstructof“Wissenschaftsfreiheit”(=freedom ofsciences)whichextendstotheacademicworkofstudents.Thisfreedom ofsciencesgrantsstudents(albeitcontested)spacesofandresourcesforautonomousacademicwork.Further,thereisastrongtraditionofstudentteachingandstudentparticipationinandproductionofeditedpublicationsindependentofsupervision.Thisistiedquitedirectlytostudent’sprotestmovements goingbackinWesternGermanytothe1960s.Theexistenceofsuchspacesand resourceshavealwaysbeensubjectofpoliticalfightsanddiscussions.Forme, thisparticipationofstudentsinacademicdiscourseisanimportantpartofan ongoingacademicaswellaspoliticalhistorywhichisoftenforgottenandwhich Ialsointendtohonorbyemphasizingthiscontextoftheformationofthisbook.
Isupposethisbookisaquitetypicalexampleofthisgenre,whichI asabyproductliketointroduceyouto.
10HearingSexism grade),theyareofcoursenotexpectedtobeperfectorshowthedepth andscopeofdissertations.Still,suchbooksaretakenseriouslyinthe Germanacademiccontext,astheyinvitetotakeonnewperspectives, askseriousquestions,andoftentakeimportantrisk.3
ButthisisnottheonlydifferenceinbookmarketstructuresthatI gottoobserve.Formeacademicbooksarenotsomuchpolishedversionsofpastworkwrittenfromapositionofachievedknowledgeto teachtheunknowingreader;theyaremuchratherpersonaljourneystowardsthatknowledge,thatreadersareinvitedtoshare.Isupposethat isbecauseinGermanyalldissertationsaregenerallypublishedwithout mayorchanges.Inmymindtherefore,thetheoreticalpreconditionsas wellastheworkandthestruggleofacademicwritingarenottobehidden,andamapofthetraversedareaismuchmoretheresult,andnot thepreconditionofthisadventure.This,forme,isnotonlyastylistic differencebuthasanethicaldimensiontoit:Anacademicbookforme issharingthestruggleaswellastheknowledge.Thissharingcarriesa commitmenttoequalitybetweenreaderandwriterandtotheoriginal sourcesandprocessesofthought.EspeciallyasIhavethoughtmostof thisbookinthepositionofanenthusiasticstudent,itwouldfeelwrong formetogiveitnowthevoiceofadistinguishedscholar.
Thewholeideaofthistranslation,asmymotivationfortheoriginalpublication,formeisaboutsharing:Iseethecontentofthisbook asatoolbox,thathopefullywillhelpotherswhostrugglewithsimilar questions.Iwanttomakethosetoolsavailable,becauseIsearchedfor themthroughoutmyownstudiesofmusicologyandIfelttheneedto inventthem,toaddresstopicsthatseemedtofalloutsidetherealm ofmusicologyandculturalstudiesagainandagain.Ihopethesetools proveusefulforothersandnotonlyinvitetotheiruse,butalsototheir improvementandadaptation.
Preface11
intoEnglishreader’sprobableexpectations.Forexample,theoriginal firstchapterwasreducedtofiveintroductoryparagraphs,mostofthe introductionwasrewrittenandweaddedseveralfootnotes,toreflect onthechangesthathappenedinthefieldovertheyears,andtoincludemoreEnglishresources.Attimes,wealsodecidedtoaddsome moresentencesforbetterorientationwithinthetext.Butoverall,this isatranslationandnotabookwrittenspecificallyfortheEnglishbook market.AndIlikethatitbearsthetracesofitsownhistoryandkeeps itsoriginalvoice.
JustliketheGermanoriginal,thisbookthusisdedicatedtoall,whofought,fight andwillfightagainstsexism.Iamdeeplygratefulforyourthoughts,yourpower andyourcourage.
Thislackoflanguage,thatItrytotackle,seemstoenlargetheproblemofunaddressedsexisminsound.WhenImentionatpartiesor othersmalltalksituationsthatIamworkingonengravingsofgenderorsexisminthesoundofpopularmusic,Ioftenencountertwo typesofresponses:Thefirstonebypassesthesoundtopicalltogether andfocussesonthelyrics,images,andvisualsof(fartoooftenBlack orPoC)maleartists,oftenassumingassoonasImentionsexismand music,thatImustbeaHipHopexpert(whichIamnot,andthisbook isnotaboutHipHop!).Thesecondresponseisthatsexisminmusic mustbeinstantlyrecognizableandisalwaysanattributeof‘badmusic’.Especiallymusicbyorwithfemalesingersisoftenjudgedonthese groundsandtheirvoicesaresaidtosound“sexy”,“suggestive”,“available”,“bitchy”,“weak”or“cheap”.
Thisbookstemsfromasenseofdissatisfactionwiththelackofavocabularytodescribesexismandgenderinsound.Languageisnotmerely adevicethatdescribesreality.Rather,itisaninstrumentthathelps usmakesenseoftheworldandthatfundamentallyalsostructuresour perceptionofthatworld.Thislackofvocabularycreatesahurdlefora feministanalysisofsoundbecauseitlimitsourcapacitytogiveexpressiontoexperiencesofsexisminsound.Listenersarethenconfronted withpotentiallyviolatingsonicexperienceswithoutthecapacitytoput thatexperienceinverbalform.Toforgealanguagethatallowstoraise awarenessandeffectivelycriticizesubliminallymediatedsexismsinthe soundofpopularmusicisthusacrucialgoalofthisbook.
Introduction:WhatDoesSexismActually SoundLike?
AsIwillexplaininchapterone,musichas torelatetoothermusictobecomeunderstandable.Therefore,eventhe mostfeministandempoweringmusicwillnotsimplybefreeofthose implicitpatterns,thatitaimstodeconstruct.Rather,itmayevendrawa lotofitspowerfromdeconstructiverelationstosexisminsound:Itstill willbedependentonsexismtocreateitsaffectiveimpact,andthusalso takespartinits(albeittransformed)reproduction.Understandingthis alsomakesmuchmorevisibletheaestheticworkdonebymanyfemale (andothernon-cismale)singersandmusicians.Theydealwithpopularmusicfromacompletelydifferentposition,whichdiffersnotonly intermsofprivilegesinresourcesandrelations,butalsointermsof implicitlygenderedaestheticparadigms,assumptionsaboutsonicpersonae,andpossiblevocalimages.
Iwanttoquestionsuchviews:ThepositionIwillargueforthroughoutthisbookisthatpopularmusic,asaninterwovenculturalandsocialcomplex,isstructuredandorganizedaroundsexistassumptions andgenderedparadigms.
14HearingSexism
1Thesameisofcoursetrueforracismandclassisminpopularmusic.Sexismis nottheonlybasalbackgroundstructurehere,butmyfocusissexisminthis book. 2ThisproblemofgendereddifferencesinaestheticparadigmsImentionhere willbepresentthroughoutthebook.Awell-researchedparadigmforthisprob-
2
Therewillprobablyneverbesome-
1
Aslongasthereisnovocabularytodiscusssexisminsound,it seemstobeeasytoexcludeparticularlyWhitemalemusiciansandtheir musicfromscrutiny.Somehowitalwaysseemstobethe‘others’(thatis, those,whoarealreadyalwaysOthered),whoproducesexisminsound, and‘othermusic’,whichinthosediscussionsnormallyisthemusiconeselfwouldneverenjoylisteningto.Butissuchanassumptionplausible? Canweassumethatmostofpopularmusic–andparticularlyWhite malerockandmainstreampopularmusic–doesnotcontainimplicit messagesofmaleprivilegeandnormativity,whichiswhatIwouldcall ‘sexism’?Whydofemalevoicesseemtocomeintofocusfirstformany people,whentheythinkaboutsexismandsound?Anddoesitnotsound abitsimpletoneatlyseparate‘goodmusic’from‘sexistmusic’,asifsexisminmusicwouldmeanthesameas‘badsound’?
3Ortoputitmoreexactly:Aslongasthereissexism,allarticulationsofgenderwillrelatetosexism.Whilesomearticulationsoffemininityormasculinity canbeempoweringwithintheoverallstructuresofsexism,theystillcannot bewithoutrelationtothesexistunderpinningsthatgivefemininityandmasculinitytheirmeaninginthefirstplace.SeealsoMishaKavka’sdiscussionof thephrase“I’llbeapostfeministinapostpatriarchy”(Kavka,2002,p. 29f.).
Instead,thereismusic,thatdealswithsexismin onewayoranother,andsomeofthesewaysmightbemoreempowering ordamagingthanothers.
Introduction:WhatDoesSexismActuallySoundLike?15
thinglikesexism-freepopularmusicforaslongaswedonotliveina sexism-freeworld.
3
Thus,thisbookisnotaboutparticularlysexistexamplesofmusic, butaboutexamples,thatcouldbereplacedwithmanyothers.Idonot wanttosaythatthesongsofNirvana,RobbieWilliams,KateBush,Kylie Minogue,BjörkorBirdydiscussedinthisbookareparticularlyproblematicexamples,andevenless,thatanyofthisis‘badmusic’.Instead, Iwillcarveoutthattheaestheticpresentationineachexampleisbased onimplicitlysexistgenderimageswhichhavedamagingeffects(but whichdoesnotnecessarilyexcludethemformhavingempoweringpotentialsaswell,asthereproductionanddeconstructionofsexismmight takeplaceondifferentlevelswithinthesamesong).Myexampleshave beenchosentoshowthatsexisminpopularmusicisnormalizedand pervasive.Thus,itdoesnotmakesensetocalloutindividualsingers
lem,whichcangivesomeunderstandingatthispoint,istheexampleofwomen playingtheelectricguitar:Thereisparticularlyrichresearchonthistopic,which laysbarehowmuchtheveryactivityofelectricguitarplayingisenmeshedwith masculinityandmalesexuality.“Theskillinvolvedinplayingtheinstrument [=electricguitar]areperceivedas‘male’skills,inappropriateforwomen.[…] Theelectricguitar,assituatedwithinmasculinistdiscourseofrock,isvirtually seenasanextensionofthemalebody”asMavisBaytonputsit(Bayton,1997, p. 43).Thisgivesfemaleguitarplayerstheadditionaltaskofnotonlymasteringtheirinstrument,butfurthertofindperformancepracticesthatmaketheir playingculturallyintelligible.Theabsenceofaculturalframeforcomprehensionoftheirperformancesconfrontswomenplayingtheelectricguitarrepeatedlywithextrawork,exclusionormisrepresentation.Cf.alsoLewis(2016)and Whiteley(2015,p. 374),moredetailonthebackgroundcanbefoundin:Björk (2009).
Approach Adiscussionofsexisminsoundhastofaceanotherproblemthatisimplicitintheproblemsdescribedabove:Thewaythatmeaninginsound ofpopularmusic(oranymusic)iscontainedandproducedisanongoingacademicdebate.Therearetwoextremepositions,thateithersee musicaspureartwithoutrelationtothe‘realworld’orasbeingcompletelydeterminedbycontext,sothatthesoundsthemselvesseemto becompletelyinterchangeable.
16HearingSexism orartists.Rather,inthisbookIquestionandexposethewidespread, underlyingaestheticparadigmsandlisteninghabitsthattakepartin theconstructionofsexisminsound.
Ofcourse,Iwillnotsolvethisriddleinthisbookandofferapronouncedtheoryofhowmusicproducessocio-culturalmeaningasaside product.Atthesametime,IdonotintendtostayquietaboutsomethingpossiblybeingwrongwithmusicandgenderwhileIwaitforsuch atheorytocomealong.Mywaytodealwiththisproblemistosuggest tools formusicanalysis,thatIbelievearehelpfultodetectsexismin 4Ofcourse,thisisareduceddescriptionofanongoingdiscussion.Apolemic summaryofthisproblemcanbefoundinthestatementofthenetworkforthe inclusionofmusicintomusicstudies(NIMiMS).Butofcourse,manyscholars alsoaimtotranscendthisdualismandworkonnewwaystoanalyzeanddiscussparticularlypopularmusic.AboutthisdiscussionseeHelms/Pfleps(2012), McClary/Walser(2007),Papenburg(2008)andBrackett(1995).
4
Bothpositionsmakeitimpossibleto evenimaginesexisminsoundasiteithercannotbethereatallorwill onlybeamirroringeffectofsexisminotherplaces.WhileIagreethat thereisno‘puremusic’,Ialsobelievethattherewouldnotbeareason formusictoexistatall,ifithadnotitsownshareinthereproduction ofcultureandsociety,thatcannotbereducedtothemirror-effectsof languageorsocialinteraction.Thus,Iseeaneedtodeveloptheoriesof howmusic(asmusic!)isinvolvedandplaysitsownpartinculturaland socialreproduction.
5
Animportantfocusofmymusicanalysiswillbeonthesoundof voices.Butthisdoesnotmean,thatIwilldiscusssingingtechniques oranalyzevoicesasisolatedphenomena.Instead,Iunderstandvoices astransportinginformationaboutbodiesandsubjects.Thus,inthis bookthevoiceisencounteredonlyasthefinalproductpresentedina recording.Iwillthusnotdiscusswhatpre-editedor‘originalsinging’, sotosay,wouldbe.Instead,Iwillarguethatthe(mostprobablyheavily edited)voiceaspresentedonrecordingswillcontaininformationabout asingingbody,thatmightnotbeatalltherealsingingbodyofthereal singer,butsomesonicconstruct,thatisonlycreatedinthecontextof othersurroundingsoundsandasaresultofediting.
thesoundofpopularmusic.Thesewillenablemetoarguethatpopular musictransportsgenderedembodiments.
Iwillpresentmytoolsinchapterone.There,Ialsodiscusstheacademiccontextfromwhichthosetoolsemerge.Thischapterwillinvolve alreadyestablishedmethods,likesemioticorhomologicalanalysis,but willfurtherestablishmethodsthatenabletodiscussgendereddimensionsofaffectandembodimentbyapplyingtheoriesthatarenotyet establishedformusicalanalysis.Theseincludetheadaptionofpsychoanalytictheory(whichinthepastwasveryfruitfulforfeministanalysis offilmtheory,whichiswhyIexploreitspotentialinmusic),genotextuallyricalanalysis,andespeciallysonicandvocalicembodiment–the structuringofthelisteningandtheimageofthelistened-tobody.
Introduction:WhatDoesSexismActuallySoundLike?17
5E.g.,StevenConnor(2000),whocallsthisphenomenon“vocalicbody”which hedevelopsinhisbookonventriloquism.Iwilldiscussthisindetailinthesubchapteronthe“vocalicbody”inchapter1.
Theseembodimentsare,asIwillshowinthetwofollowingchapters,abletoconstructnormativepositions,whicharelinkedto(White) masculinity(chaptertwo)andpositiontheanalyzedfemalesingersas Others(chapterthree).Overall,Iwillargue that anddemonstrate how sexistOtheringtakesplaceinsound.
7Somegroundbreakingtexts,suchasRose(1994),orWeheliye(2005),have pavedthewayforananalysisofrelationsbetweenpowerstructuresandsound. Particularlyinrecentyears,theoriesofracializedOtheringinsoundhavebeen publishedbyJenniferStoever(2016),NinaSunEidsheim(2018)andDylan Robinson(2021).RelatedtogenderIwouldliketohighlighttheworksofSusanMcClary(2002[1992]),SuzanneCusick(1994a,1994b1999,2009)andBarbaraBradby(1993,2001,2002,2005,2007,2016)whosuggestedanddeveloped feministapproachesfortheanalysisof(popular)music.Thefield,asitseems,is developingnowandIhopetocontributewithmywritingtotheongoingdevelopmentoftheoriesoflisteningandmusic,thatcounterimplicitnaturalization ofhegemonicpowerstructures.
18HearingSexism Limitations Whatthisbookisnotabout:Iassume,thatmanyreaderswillalready havepickeduponthefactthatIamonlydiscussingWhitesingersin thisbook.Thisisaconsciouschoice,anditisnottheonlyexclusion, whichIneedtoexplain:Idecidedtotakeexamplesonlyfromable-bodiedWhitecishetero6 singers.ThisisofcoursenotbecauseIwouldnot acknowledgethatBlackpeopleandPoC,queerpeople,andpeoplewith disabilitiesarenotimportanttopopularmusicinthepastandpresent. NordoIwanttocontributetoaviewthatagainprivileges(ablebodied, heterosexual,cis …)Whitenessasanorm,whileexcludingeverything elsewithoutanyacknowledgement.Myexclusionisparticularlydueto mystructuralapproachtoOtheringinsoundandbasedonseveralconsiderations: •First,asthereislittletheoryonstructuresofOtheringinthesound of(popular)musicuntilnow,7 limitingthereflectionononlyone typeofmarginalizationreducescomplexity.Indifferencetoother media(forexamplefilmorliterature)thereisnoestablishedmethod 6Ofcourse,Icannotknowforsureaboutthesingers’privatelivesorfeelings.Particularlyheterosexualityandable-bodied-nessareassumptions,thatIcannot checkforsure.Butatleastnoneofthemparticularlyforegroundmarginalized identitiesintheirpublicimage.Ithereforebelieveitisvalidtoassumethat theirvoicesareallconsumedasexpressionsofnormative,White,heterosexual,able-bodied,cismasculinityorfemininity.
Introduction:WhatDoesSexismActuallySoundLike?19
8
foranalyzingpositionsofnormedperspectivesinmusic.Therefore, inthisbookIdevelopmyownstrategiestotacklethisproblem.For thisreason,itseemednecessaryformetoreducethecomplexityof thetaskandfocusforthemomentononlyonemostlyhomogenous groupandonlydiscussonepatternofdiscrimination.
•Thisfocuswasalsonecessarytodiscussallmyexamplesatlength.I amonlyabletopresentaverylimitedsampleofsongsinthisbook. Fortheinclusionofanyotherformofdiscrimination,aconsiderable extensionwouldhavebeennecessary.Andagain,atonepointor another,alinewouldhavebeennecessary,thatwouldhaveexcluded 8As,forexample,KimberlyCrenshaw(1989)arguesinherfamousintersection metaphor,itisnotalwayspossibletodecideonwhichoftwo(oronboth)discriminationpatternsaviolationisbased,whenwethinkaboutintersectional positions.Moreover,researchonthismattersuggests,thatBlackgenderimages aremuchmorecomplexintheirrelationstohegemonic(=White,cis)gender images(cf.Averyetal.,2017,Collins,2006,p. 97ff.andhooks,1981,p. 65ff.).For example,whenBlackwomenareexcludedfromWhite-hegemonicfemininity, theymightbecauseofthissharesomeattributesofWhitehegemonicmasculinity,whichisnotasignofprivilege,butonlybecomesunderstandableas aparticularformofdiscriminationinrelationtohegemonicgenderrepresentationsofWhitemen and women.Ontheotherside,itistobeassumedthat presentationsofBlackmasculinityinsoundwouldalsoincludesignsofOthering,whichmayormaynotdifferfromthesonicOtheringofsexismandmay ormaynotrelatetoracializedimagesofBlackmasculinityaseitherfeminized orhypermasculine(cf.Averyetal.,2017,Djupvik,2014).Thisistoshowhow theanalysisof(sexist)discriminationinsoundbecomesfarmorecomplexby includingmorepatternsofdiscrimination.WhileIdonotwanttosuggestthat thereispureorneutralsexismorracism(ofcourse,allsexismisimplicitlyor explicitlyracialized),discussingonlyexamplesofotherwiseprivilegedwomen allowstheattributionofthefoundformsofOtheringtosexism,asthesingers (intheirpublicimage)arenotfacingotherformsofdiscrimination.Butthissexismmustnotbeunderstoodas‘universalsexism’.Itisoneformofsexism,and itisanopenquestionwhetherWomenofColor,lesbians,transand/ordisabled womenfacethesame,similar,orcompletelyotherformsofsexisminmusic. Fornow,Ionlyintendtoprovethatsexism(andmoregenerallydiscrimination) insoundexists.Furtherresearchisneededtodetermineexactlytheattributes ofthisorthatparticularsexism.
implicitprocessofnorming.Becauseofthis,understandingOtheringformeiscloselyrelatedtounderstandinghowanimplicitnorm comesintobeing,naturalizedandendowedwithsomeseemingly ‘natural’and‘invisible’power.Therefore,oneofmymainarguments willbeabouthowWhitemasculinityinpopularmusicgainssuch apowerfulposition.Iwillarguehowthisisrelatednotonlytodifferentpresentationsofvocals,butasalsotoadifferentlisteningrelationtowardsvoices.
•Ithusdecidedformysampletofocusonthemostprivilegedgroup.
As(heterosexual,cis,able-bodied, …)Whitenessisveryoftenanimplicitnormativeideal,whichalsoextendsitshegemonicpowerto thosethatareexcludedfromitatthesametime,Ithoughtitwould bethemostfruitfulstartingpointtolookattheproductionof hegemonic gendernotions.Aslongasthesenormsstayinpower,allperformancesofmasculinityandfemininity,thatareexcludedfrom thisnorm,willstillhavetodealwiththeimplicitlynormativepositionofWhiteable-bodiedcis-genderedheterosexualityinoneway oranother.Knowingmoreaboutthiswillhopefullyalsoenablefurthercritiqueofnormativepositionsaswellasanacknowledgement ofthealternativestrategiesdevelopedandusedbyPoCand/orqueer and/ordisabledsingers.
20HearingSexism someformsofdiscrimination.Itwasthusnecessarytosetanarrow focusanddecideforasample.
9
•Finally,asthisisabookthatmainlyaimstocriticizethereproductionofsexism(andnottocelebrateempowermentstrategies),it simplydidnotfeelright,asaWhiteGermanable-bodiedscholarto scrutinizee.g.,Black/PoCsingersforreproducingsexisminsound. IseethataccusationsliketheseareveryoftenplacedonPeopleof 9Evenwhenoneattemptstobuildandsecureone’sownautonomousspace,extraworkisdonebyallthosethathavetoundertakeitinhegemoniccontexts thatprivilegenormativeWhite,able-bodiedheterosexuality.Theextentofthis worktendstobeinvisible,unlessweknowabouttheextentofhegemonicpositions.
•SinceIunderstandOtheringinastructuralway,Iseeitrelatedtoan
Color,wheretheytendtofeedintoracistnarrativesanddeflectdebateaboutchangesinthemostdominantdomainofWhitehegemony,assexism,thenagainfromaWhiteperspective,tendstobecometheproblemof‘others’.Iinsteadaimtoargueagainstthis narrativeandtopointoutthatsexismismostlynaturalizedbythe normativepositionofWhitemasculinity,whichthusinmyopinion needstobefurtherscrutinizedtofindsuitabletoolsforitsdeconstruction.
Introduction:WhatDoesSexismActuallySoundLike?21
WhileIbelievethatIhavegoodreasonsformyselectionandrestriction offocus,Istilldonotwanttosuggestthatthisrestrictiondoesnothave itsownproblems.First,theexclusivefocusonWhiteable-bodiedheterosingerstendstoreproducethisgroupastheimplicitnorm.Thus, allthose,thatareexcludedfromthisnormalready,aretakenoutof sightagain.Tocounterthedangerofreproducinganimplicitandunnamednorm,Iwillmentiontheprivilegedpositionofthesingersand use“(White)”orotherformsofprivilegeinparenthesesbeforewords like“masculinity”or“femininity”and/orelaborateonoptionsformore intersectionalreadingsinfootnotes.
Second,whilethisbookonlyincludesWhite,able-bodied,heterosexualsingers,itdoesnotaddressanyoftheseprivilegesthemselves. Iamnotabletotell,howorwhetheratall,theseprivilegesplayarole inthesongsIanalyze.Thisalsostaysoutsideofmyfocus(although Iamafraidthatallprivilegesveryprobablydoplayimportantroles!). Thisalsomightgivetheimpression,thatIamarguingforoneformof ‘neutralsexism’inthisbook,whichinfactonlyreflectsontheexperienceofWhiteheterociswomen.Myargumentislimitedtotheconclusion,thatsexism,understoodastheimplicitprivilegingandcentering ofmaleperspectives,canbefoundinthesoundofWhitecisheterosexualable-bodiedsingers.Thedifferences,similarities,andconnections betweenformsofsexismaimedatWhite,PoC,lesbian,heterosexual, dis-/abled,cisortranswomenaswellasquestionsofwhether,andif sohow,PoC,queer,trans,and/ordisabledmencanorcannotsharein thehegemonic(=White,cisable-bodied, …)maleprivileges,arebeyond thescopeofthisbook.
Ageneralknowledgeofpopmusic’scontextasawholeandparticularly themanifoldmarginalizationofwomeninpopularmusicisanimportantbasisandbackgroundforthisbook.InthisparagraphIposition thisbookinthecontextofprecedingfeministandanti-sexistscholarshipinpopularmusicstudies,towhichIamdeeplyindebted.
10
GenderintheMusic Industry howinavarietyofpromotionalpractices(marketing,photos, image-building),indierockisnaturalizedasagenrewithmalecon10AsIreflectonandpartiallyupdatethislistofexistingliteratureforthistranslation,Iamamazedbyhowmuchliteratureonthistopichasbeenpublished since2012,whenIstartedtoresearchexistingliteratureformyM.A.-thesis(on whichthisbookisbased).
11Schmutz/Faupel(2010).Seealso:Davies(2001).
WhileIbelieveitisnecessarytoemphasizethelimitationofthis bookagainandagain,markingtheparticularpatternsofsexismin thisbookasdistinguished“White,cis,hetero,andable-bodied”(withoutparentheses)seemsquestionabletome.Suchanexplicitlabelling wouldsuggestthatIwouldknowwhatseparatesthisasWhite(andso on)sexismfromotherformsofsexism,whichduetomylimitedsampleofsongsIsimplycannotanswer.Thus,theparenthesesareintended tonotonlypointtotheprivilegesofthediscussedsingers,butalsoto pointtothefactthatwhetheraparticularformofsexism,masculinity orfemininityisrestrictedtoWhiteness(able-bodied-ness,heterosexuality …),remainsanopenquestion.
Forexample,intheiressay“GenderandCulturalConsecrationin PopularMusic”,VaughnSchmutzandAlisonFaupeltakestockofthe dynamicsthatexcludewomen’smusicfrombeingwrittenaboutinmusicjournalismandhow,incaseswheretheirmusiciswrittenabout, journalistsoftenassignattributestotheirmusicthatemphasizefemininity.11 MarionLeonardalsodescribesinherbook
22HearingSexism
Feminist(Popular)MusicStudies
Introduction:WhatDoesSexismActuallySoundLike?23 notations. AnnWernerandSofiaJohanssonhavealsodocumented thereproductionofanequallymaleconnotatedmusicexpertiseindiscoursesononlinemusicreception, sothat,unfortunately,fundamentalchangescanhardlybeexpectedatpresent.
18
13Cf.Werner/Johansson(2016).
16Cf.Gavanas/Reitsamer(2016).
17Cf.Female:PressureTroubleMakers(2017).
Itisalsonowwelldocumentedthatwomenarehinderedinbuilding successfulcareersaspopmusicians:Fromlearningtheinstrument,to sharingknowledgeininsidernetworksandarrangingperformanceopportunities,tonormativeexpectationsofgenderedbehavioronstage: womenarehinderedfromenteringthefieldandbecomingprofessionals,andareoftenlimitedtotheroleofasinger.
18Thoseinterestedinthistopicshouldrefertothewomen/gender-centeredmusichistoriesofGaar(2002[1993]),Reynolds/Press(1995),O'Brien(1996),Whiteley(2000),andVolkmann(2011).
15Forexample:female:pressure,PinkNoises,Melodiva,andtheGirlsRockCamp Alliance;seealsoBayton(1993).FLTI*isacommonGermanabbreviation.TheF standsforFrauen=Women.
Theknowledgeofthesecontextsisanecessarybackgroundformywork, whichneverthelesswillfocusonthesonicconsequencesandpreconditionsofthesestillverystableasymmetries.
12Cf.Leonard(2007).
14 Asaresult,thereare nowwomen-centeredorwomen,lesbian,transandintersex*(FLTI*) networks15 thatworktobreakdownsuchbarriers.Nevertheless,Anna GavanasandRosaReitsamer,forexample,havedocumentedtheproblemsoffemaleDJsinapresentcharacterizedbyneoliberalismandpostfeministdiscourses:16 Womenarestilltreatedasaseparategroupand experiencebeingreceivednotasindividualsbutasrepresentativesof femininity.Theyseethemselvesforcedtoaligntheircareerplanswith suchexternalcategorizations.Furthermore,thenetworkfemale:pressureprovesinitsbiannualFACTSsurveythestillstrikingunderrepresentationoffemaleandnonbinaryactsintheelectronicmusicscene.
17
13
12
14Cf.forinstanceBayton(2007[1988]),Björk(2009),Buscatto(2007),Clawson (1999),Cohen(1997),Leonard(2007).
24HearingSexism Whiletherehasthusbeenaconsiderablevolumeofcriticalworkon genderdynamicsinvariouspartsofpopularmusicasacontextofwork andculturalproduction,19 particularattentiontosexisminsoundhas beenratherscarce.20 19Issuesofrace,genderandsexualityhavebeenapartofpopularmusicstudiesfromthestart.Thus,manyPopularMusicStudiesreadersincludeextensivesectionsthatthematizegender,cf.forinstanceFrith/Goodwin(eds.)(1990), Scott(ed.)(2009)andBennett/Waksman(eds.)(2015).Furthermore,somerelevantjournalshavedevotedSpecialIssuestoaspectsofthistopic:Bradby/ Lang(eds.)(2001),Stadler/Tongson(eds.)2013),andDougher/Pecknold(eds.) (2016).Thereisalsoagrowingfieldofcollectedworksvolumesthatarededicatedtothistopic:Whiteley(1997b),Whiteley/Rycenga(eds.)(2006),Jarman (ed.)(2007),Stras(ed.)(2011a),Adrian/Warwick(eds.)(2016),Hawkins(2017), andFosbraeyetal.,(2021).Furthermore,therearestudiesthatfocusonparticularaspectsofpopularmusicandgender.Forexampleonlyrics:Averyetal. (2017),Bradby(2007[1988]),Flynnet.al.(2016),andGreig(1998);onbiographiesandpublicimages:Bruzzi(1997),Funk-Hennings(2011),Mayhew(2006), Negus(1997),Palmer(1997),andWhiteley(1997a);onmusicvideos:Bechdolf (1999),Bloss(2001),Helms/Phleps(2003),Wallis(2011),Schuhen(2012),Unger (2015),andMcGee(2019);ontechnology:Bradby(1993),Dickinson(2001),and Loza(2001);aswellasworksthatfocusonparticulargenresorsubcultures,especiallyonHipHop:Carneyetal.(2016),Jeffries(2011),Mushaben(2008),and Rose(2008);andMetal:Clifford-Napoleone(2015),Heesch/Scott(2016)and Walser(1993).LastbutnotleastIwouldliketopointtothegrowingbranchof popularmusicresearchthatdealswith“queerness”inavarietyofways:cf.Maus (2001),Whiteley/Rycenga(eds.)(2006),Taylor(2008),Leibetseder(2012),Jarman(2011),theSpecialIssueoftheJournalofPopularMusicStudiesbyStadler/ Tongson(2013),aswellasHawkins(2016).
amusicaltrait
20Lackofresearchinthisarea,forexample,isexplicitlynamedbyBloss(2006), p. 314,Binas-Preisendörfer(2015)andJensPapenburg(2018).Further,many texts,thatpromiseamusicalanalysisintheirtitles,likeforexample“RepresentationsofFemininityinPopularMusic”byNikolaDibben,althoughveryinsightful,donotaddresspatriarchalideologyas .Instead,closereading revealsthatinDibben’sanalysis,thesexistcontentistransportedthroughlyrics andvisualsalone,whilethemusic(only)suggeststheaffirmationofthesecontents.Suchanalysisofcourseisstillcorrectandpointstoaproblemthatdeservesaddressinginitself,buttheprevalenceofsuchanalysisofpopularmusic cloudsthelackofmeansforacriticalanalysisofmusiconitsownterms.
23Kassabian’scommentsareincludedinthebookasquotesfromareportofher onthematerialofTaggandClaridain1988.Cf.Tagg/Clarida(2003),p. 670ff.
21 Theyprovideevidenceofmusicalmediation ofandlinkagewithprofoundlyconservativeideasaboutgender.
Introduction:WhatDoesSexismActuallySoundLike?25
Worksthatfocusonthesonicrepresentationandconstructionof genderorsexualityinpopularmusic,mostlydosoatanassociative level.Associationisthereinpredominantlyestablishedwithattributes, suchas‘femininesoftness’or‘masculinehardness’.PhilipTaggandBob Claridaproveintheirsemioticanalysisof“TenLittleTitleTunes”the multifacetedconnotativelinksofmasculinityandfemininitywithparticularsonicattributes.
23 thatwomenaremore
22 This evidencegivesanimpressionofhowbigtheproblemofmusicalreproductionofsexismprobablyis.Still,despitetheseclearresults,Taggand Clarida’sworkshowsthatwiththisapproach,sexismcannotbegrasped asanentrenchingstructure:Insemioticanalyses,musictakesonthe functionofmediatingalreadyestablishedrolesofgender,onlyreiteratingpreviouslyestablishedgenderedconnotations.Ultimately,insuch aninterpretationgenderisonlyunderstoodasa(inprinciplemalleable) conglomerateofcharacteristics.However,thistypeofanalysismakesit nearlyimpossibletoconceptualizesexismasadiscriminatorystructure andmusicasapotentiallyproductiveforceinthe asymmetrical constructionofgender. Nevertheless,theresultsofTaggandClarida’sresearchallowfor interpretationsbeyondthesemioticrealm.AnahidKassabian,who workedwithTaggandClaridaduringtheproductionoftheirbook, concludesinherreadingoftheirresults frequentlyassociatedwiththeirsurroundingswhereasmenappear asactivelyengagedheroes.Inherownbook
22TaggandClaridacometothefollowinglistforprobablemusicalattributesrelatedtomasculinity:Quick,active,upwards,hard,sharp,modern,sudden,dynamic,outwards,jagged,urban,andstrong.Andtothislistforfemininity:slow, passive,downwards,soft,rounded,oldtimes,gradual,static,inwardssmooth, rural,andweak.Cf.Table11:2,ibid.,p. 670.
HearingFilm,Kassabian pointstowardsthedependencyonsoundtoaididentificatoryprocesses 21Cf.Tagg/Clarida(2003),p. 667ff.
Furthermore,apositivereferencetothebodycanleadonetoassociateuncriticallybody-relatedsoundsandperceptionpracticeswith subversion,femininityorqueerness.Whilethemerepresenceofthe bodyinmusictheoreticaldiscoursesonclassicalwesternmusicmight haveindeedastrong,subversivepotential,adirectapplicationofthe sameprincipletopopularmusicwouldhavesevereconsequences:After 24Cf.Kassabian(2001). 25Cf.Rieger(1988),McClary(2002[1991]),Cusick(1994a),Shepherd(1993)and Maus(1993). 26Cf.Cusick(1994a),McClary(2002[1991]),aswellasPeterWicke’sanalysisofthe “GebeteinerJungfrau”(AMaiden’sPrayer)inWicke(2001),p. 26ff. 27Seeforanelaboratecritique:Bloss(1993).The‘fitness’ormayberatherunfitnessofsuchanapproachto‘classical’musicisalsodiscussedbyDanielleSofer (2020).
26 Regard-
27
24 Thissuggeststhatthe(potential)relationsbetweenlisteners andmusicmightalsoberelevantforadeeperunderstandingofthe ideologicalmachinationsofmusic.Thissuggestion,ofhowmusic enablesordisruptsprocessesofidentification,willbeexploredfurther inthisbook.
26HearingSexism infilm.
Tounderstandsuchsonicalworkingsofgenderoutsidesemiotic coding,thereareonlyafewothersketchyconceptionsforastudyof theproductionofgender-basedstructuraldiscriminationinthemusic itself.Manyofthesecanbefoundinworksfrommoretraditionalfields ofmusictheoryandmusicology:Variousauthors,includingSuzanne Cusick,SusanMcClary,EvaRieger,FredMausandJohnShepherdcriticizeparticularlythelackofconsiderationofthebodyinclassicalmusic analysisasanexpressionofapatriarchalworldorder. critique,afewanalyticalapproacheshavebeencrafted,whichconsider morecarefullytherelationshipbetweenbodiesandmusic. less,manyoftheseapproachesareboundtoaclassicalunderstanding ofmusicthatlimitsitselftotonality,composition,notation,andinterpretation.Theseapproachesareratherunfitforananalysisofpopular music,whereinthematerialityofrecordedsoundoughttobeatthe centerofattention.
25 Basedonthis
29
Inspecificrelationtopopularmusic,probablythefirstpapertodiscusssexismwaswrittenbySimonFrithandAngelaMcRobbie.Their influential1978essay“RockandSexuality”developedthehypothesis thatgenderedideasofsexuality(malesexualityasexpressive,femaleas personalyearningforastablepartner)aretransmittedthroughmusic, whichinturnreproducesandnaturalizesgendereddifference: recurrentthemeofthisessayhasbeenthatmusicisameansofsexual expressionandassuchimportantasamodeofsexualcontrol.”
28 “The
all,inamusicwheredanceabilityandemotionalresonanceareofcentralimportance,thebodytakesonanentirelydifferentrole.Instead,as Iintendtoshow,inpopularmusiccontextsthequarrelliesmuchmore inthe specificity ofthebodythatisinvolvedandtheparticularrelationshipithastosound.
BuildingontheworkofFrithandMcRobbie,BarbaraBradbyhas furtheranalyzedgenderinpopularmusicsincethe80s. Hercase studiesofselectedsongs,bandsorgenresarenoteworthy,notonly becauseoftheirhistoricalrelevance,butalsobecauseofherunusual methodology,whichattimesdiscussesindepththematerialityof rhythmsornonverbal‘texts’.Todoso,BradbydrawsfromJuliaKristeva’slanguagetheory,thattiesembodimenttospeech,andthusis usedtotargetthemediationofunconscioussubtexts.Bradby’suseof 28Cf.Frith/McRobbie(1978),p. 373. 29Ibid.,p. 387. 30Cf.Bradby(2007[1988]),(1993),(2002),(2005)and(2016).
30
Introduction:WhatDoesSexismActuallySoundLike?27
WhileFrithandMcRobbie’ssuggestionsarequitefar-reachingand raisethequestionoftheextenttowhichsound(andrhythm)mean somethingsexual,theyunfortunatelyonlysketchoutabroadtheoreticalcontextforapossibleanswer.Iwillneverthelesstaketheirthoughts aspointofdepartureespeciallyinmyanalysisofKateBushinchapterthree,whereIwillfollowupontheclaim,thatlistenersareplaced ina‘voyeuristicposition’vis-à-visthesinger.ThisclaimbyFrithand McRobbieisquitesuggestiveand,asIwillshow,notbasedsufficiently onamusicalanalysis.Iwillthereforestartfromthisomissiontodiscuss possibleunderstandingsof‘sonicvoyeurism’.
Thelistofworksongenderandpopularmusicisnowgrowingata remarkablespeed,makingitimpossibletocreateaconclusivelist.Iam deeplygratefultotheworksofsomanyscholars,whohavetakenand continuetotakethisissueseriouslyandIlookforwardtoahopefully furthergrowingfutureofthisfield.
Inaddition,theessay“OnMusicalPerformancesofGenderandSex” bySuzanneCusickintroducesatheoreticaladaptationofperformativitytheorytosingingintheanalysisoftwopopsongs.Fromthisshe developshypothesesaboutthesonicmediationofgenderinthevoice, whichalsoconsidergenderedcodificationsofthesingingbodiesand theirsocialreception.Thisapproachcanalsobeunderstoodasafeminist-motivatedpopularmusicanalysisthat,withthehelpofButler’s performativitytheory,appliesfeministtheorytomusicandatthesame timeincludesthebodyinawaythatIfoundparticularlyproductivefor popularmusicanalysis.
Alltheseauthorsfurthercontributedtothedevelopmentofvocabulariesandtheoreticalconcepts forthediscussionofvoices,andencouragereflectionontheparticipationoflistenersandtheagencyof(notonlyfemale)singersinthe constructionofvoicesinpopularmusic.
thisforlyricalanalysiscanthusbeunderstoodasadecidedlyfeminist approachtopopularmusicanalysis.WhileIamnotfollowingherinall details,Iamparticularlygrateful,forherexampleofcreativemethoddevelopmentfromafeministperspectiveandbringingintofocus,what mostoftenremainsoutsideanalysis.
31Cf.Muchitsch(2016),Pecknold(2016),Stras(2011b),Warwick(2007),McCracken(2015),Eidsheim(2008)und(2018).
28HearingSexism
Finally,Iwouldalsoliketopointtovoice-centeredmusicanalyses whichhaveslowlybecomemorecommoninthelasttenyears.AreferenceshouldbemadeheretotheworkofauthorssuchasLaurieStras, VeronikaMuchitsch,JaquelineWarwick,DianePecknold,AlisonMcCrackenandofcourseNinaSunEidsheim,whoallcontributetopoliticalreadingsofgenderedvocalsounds.
31
32
Introduction:WhatDoesSexismActuallySoundLike?29
IntroductionofBasicConcepts
BeforeIturnmorecloselytomusicanalysis,Inowbrieflyintroduce fiveconcepts(PopularMusic,Othering,Performativity,theBodyand theSonical),whichserveasthebasisformyargument. PopularMusic Inthecontextofthistext,asalreadydescribed,Idonotconsider popularmusiconlyasaspecificcontemporarymusicformthatmight bereducedtoitssonicappearance.Popmusicrelateddiscoursesand practicesofmusicconsumptionarealreadyinscribedinthemusic.An understandingofmusicwithoutthiscontextisthereforenotpossible. Consequently,thismeansthatpuremusicwithoutcontextdoesnot exist,orcannotexist,sinceanyunderstandingofmusicpresupposesa context(whichisnotthesameasreducingmusictoitscontext).Therefore,Iseepopularmusic,asanedificethatalsoincludesdiscourses, concerts,images,media(CDs,radio,musicstations,YouTube, ...), etc.Criticalvoices(likeAdorno,Shepherdandmanymembersofthe CCCS33)haveattributedtheroleofideologicalmediationtopopular musicearlyon;34 andwhileIamwaryofoversimplifyingimaginations ofthisprocessas‘one-sidedindoctrinationofpassivevictim-listeners’, IamparticularlyinterestedinpopularmusicbecauseIstillassume 32Thisintroductiontobasicconceptssectionisaverycondensedversionofthe originalfirstchapter,whichcanbedownloadedfrommyacademiapage,for thosewhoareinterestedinmoretheory. 33CCCSstandsforCentreforContemporaryCulturalStudies,founded1964in Birmingham;animportantresearchcenterforthedevelopmentofcultural studies.AttheCCCSmanyscholarsworkedwithafocusonpopularculture, mediaandpopularmusic.Therewasalsoasensibilityforissuesofsexismand racismearlyon.Seeonthis:Butcheretal.(1974),Critcheretal.(1975),Green (1979),Hall(1921[1981]),Lawrence(1981),McRobbie(1978),Taylor(1976). 34Cf.Adorno(1941a-c);Shepherd(1991),p. 133ff.;Hall(1977),p. 346;Willis(1981 [1978]),p. 19f.;Hebdige(1991[1979]),p. 5ff.
ForFoucault,powerisnotarepressive-restrictivebutaproductive concept:Forhimpowerreferstotheforcethatmotivatesandenables subjectivation,butalsodirectsitalongcertainpathsandthusrestricts it.
37 Importantly,thispowerdoesnotemanatefromindividualpeople andcannotbe‘possessed’byanyoneeither.Itisnotbasedonconscious humanintentionsthatmightdirect,planandcontrolitseffects.Nev35OntheactualizationofpostcolonialidentityandWhite-Westernhegemonyin discoursesonpopularmusic,see:Romanow(2005).OnglobalformsofOtheringonmultiplelevelssee:Krüger(2016).FurtherJohannesIsmaiel-Wandt criticizestheWesterntendencytolinkmusicalsoundswith(exotic)places.Cf. Ismaiel-Wendt(2011),p. 45ff. 36Theconnectionofpopularmusicandadvertisementiswellknown.Cf.,forinstance,Buxton(2007[1983]),p. 436f.orthefamousquotebyMartinRichard (=Dick)Asher,formerheadofCBSInternationalandpresidentofPolyGram USA:“ifthepeoplewholikecertainsortsofmusicarenotthepeoplewho wanttobuysoapthentheirmusicwon’tgetplayed.”Qtd.InMalm/Wallis(1992), p. 206.Also,thewidespreaduseofproductplacementinmusicvideosandlyrics (especiallyinhip-hop)isdiscussedbyHampp(2012)andKimpton(2015). 37Cf.Foucault(1978[inFr.1976]),p. 92ff.
30HearingSexism thatitplaysaroleinnaturalizing,butalsoadaptingtoacurrently highlyproblematicworldorder.
35 Allthisisrelatedtothe ruleoftheseeminglynaturallawofdigitalcapitalism,whichdictates thereinforcementofthatwhichsells,orwhichcanbeusedforselling (asinadvertising,productplacementanddatamining).
36
Manypeoplelooktopopularmusictofindoutaboutthemselvesor aboutothers.Popularmusichasastrangepositionsomewherebetween fantasyandreality,whichallowsittoblurthelinebetweenfictionand reallifeandallowsfantasiestospilloverintodailylife.Thus,itcangive somesortof‘sense’toourpositionsintheworldandplaceusandothers indifferenceandinrelationtoeachother.
Tograsptheoreticallypopularmusicasagloballyoperatingsystem ofsocializationandcomplexedifice,IdrawonMichelFoucault’sconceptofpowerandonhisconceptofthedispositif.
Introduction:WhatDoesSexismActuallySoundLike?31 ertheless,powerproduceseffectsthattendtostabilizethemselvesand protectitsresultseveninthefaceofsocialchange.38 Adispositifdenotesastrategicformationofpowerthatconsists ofamultitudeofheterogeneouselementsthatinterlockandmutually supporteachotherinordertoachieveanoverallgoalsoughtbythe dispositif.Thesecanbediscursiveaswellasnon-discursiveelements. Foucaulthimselfnames,forexample:39 athoroughlyheterogeneousensembleconsistingofdiscourses,institutions,architecturalforms,regulatorydecisions,laws,administrativemeasures,scientificstatements,philosophical,moralandphilanthropicpropositions–inshort,thesaidasmuchastheunsaid.40 Inthecontextofpopmusic,thismightinclude,forexample,themusic industry,radio,charts,popularandacademicdiscourses,dance,fan communities,stars,variousmusicplatformsontheinternet,musiccenteredsubculturesandtheirvaluesystems,clubs,popsongs,pop musicgenres,thestructuresofthemusicmarketandoftheso-called ‘mainstream’.Allthesediverseelementsfunctionwithinthepopmusic dispositifastacticalmoments.41 Understandingpopularmusicasastrategicpowercomplex,thus, makesitpossibletorelatethevariousveryheterogeneousaspectsto eachotheraspartsofawholethatmutuallysupporteachotherintheir function.Individualelementscanonlyreallybeunderstoodbytaking 38Cf.ibid.,p. 94f. 39Foucault(1978),p. 194ff. 40Ibid. 41Foucaultdifferentiatesbetweentacticsandstrategies:Astrategypursuesa globalgoalwiththehelpofvarioustemporaryandlocalindividualtactics.A strategyanditsgoalcanbeinferredfromtheeffectofthetacticsfromtheir “calculation”(Cf.Foucault(2014[inFr.1976]),p. 95).Inthe“ruleofdoubleconditioning”Foucault(1978[inFr.1976]),p. 99f),Foucaultfurtherelaborateson howtacticsandstrategyaremutuallyconditional.Therein,astrategyconsists ofindividualtacticsandindividualtacticscanonlydeveloptheirpowerwithin astrategy.Individualtacticsmaywellbetemporaryorseeminglycontraryto thestrategy.Cf.Foucault(1978[inFr.1976]),p. 101f.
42
32HearingSexism
Thisbackgroundisimportantformystudy.Iseetheindividual songsastakingonrelevanceinthisoverallcontext,whichmakesit necessarynotsomuchtocriticizeindividualsongsbuttolaybarethe underlyingstructuresandmechanismswhichreproducesexismand otherdiscriminations. Othering Otheringisanimportanttheoreticaltoolforunderstandingdiscrimination.ItwasmostprominentlydevelopedbySimonedeBeauvoirin herbook TheSecondSex.Alreadythetitlehintsathercorethesisthat sexistdiscriminationcannot(only/primarily)bereducedtounequalaccesstoresources.Instead,sexistdiscriminationdenotesaboveallahierarchybetweenthesexesproducedbyculturalideas,inwhichsome (men)havetheprivilegeofseeingthemselvesasthe norm withregard togender,whilethe others (women)areexcludedfromthispositionand negativelydemarcatedagainstit: themanrepresentsboththepositiveandtheneutertosuchanextent thatinFrenchhommesdesignateshumanbeings[….]Womanisthe negative,tosuchapointthatanydeterminationisimputedtoheras alimitation,withoutreciprocity.
43
Evenifthisdivisionatfirstseemsveryabstractandonlymetaphorical,ithasfar-reachingconsequences.Forone,socialconsiderationof theinterestsoftherespectivegendersareeitherconsideredasself-evidentnormsorseenasspecialinterests.Furthermore,theformation ofagenderedsubjectivitywhichisorientedtothisdifferentevaluation 42Cf.alsoWillis(ca.1973),p.18f. 43DeBeauvoir(2012[inFr.1949]),p. 25.
thewholeintoaccountandasthetheoryofthedispositifassumesa reciprocalrelationshipbetweenpopularmusicandsociety,bothsocietyandpopularmusic,withalltheirvariousinstitutional,discursive, practical,andmusicalaspects,arecontinuouslychanging.
Forexample,DeBeauvoirspeaksofa“
ofone’sownsocialpositionasoneortheotherisencapsulatedinthis division.
45 WhileIbelieveitispossibletogettoamorepositive readingoftheexperienceofbeingOthered,IalsobelievethatBeauvoirmakesanimportantpointhere,thatsubjectivitiesaredeveloped inrelationtotheirexperiencesofOtheringorinternalizednormativity.
malenaiveté”.Bythatshe meanssomesortofpositionedblindnesstowardsone’sownprivileges, asfroman(unquestioned)maleperspective,malesubjectivityappears asnormal,self-evidentandobjective.Thefactthatthereisorcould beanotherworldviewatallisblankedoutfromthisposition:“He[= theman]graspshisbodyasadirectandnormallinkwiththeworld thathebelievesheapprehendsinallobjectivity,.”
Introduction:WhatDoesSexismActuallySoundLike?33
46 Infeministtheoryithasbeen furtherusedtodiscusssexisminmostdiverseareas.Mostimportant forthisbookistheuseinthefeministanalysisofothermedias.Forexample,feministfilmanalysishascriticizedtheprivilegingandnormalizationofthemaleinmanyfilms.
Otheringthusisacoreconceptofdiscriminationtheoryandhas alsobeenusedforandfurtherdevelopedintheanalysisofracism, ableism,heteronormativityandsoon.
47 Accordingtothistheory,depending 44DeBeauvoir(2012[inFr.1949]),p. 25. 45Ibid.,p. 37. 46See,e.g.,Said(2019[1978]),Fanon(2008[inFr.1952]). 47Mulvey(1999[1975]),Mulvey(2009[1981]),andDoane(1982).
TheOtheredposition(inthiscasefemininity)is,onthecontrary, constantlyconfrontedwithitsownotherness,whichmakesitimpossibletotakeonthepositionofsupposedneutrality.Beauvoirseesfemalesubjectivitythusashavingtodealwithaconstantinnerconflict “betweenthefundamentalclaimofeverysubject,whichalwaysposits itselfasessential,andthedemandsofasituationthatconstitutesher asinessential.”
44 Fromsuchaprivilegedmaleperspective,one’sownpositionappearssoself-evidentthat itbecomesdownrightinvisible,justlikethepossiblelegitimacyofother perspectives.
48
Thus,performativityisdefinedasthesuccessfulillusionofnaturalnessaccordingtoculturalnorms,whicharecontainedinaframeworkofintelligibility.Thisframeworkcanbeunderstoodasasetof quotablebehavioralpatternswhicharesociallyintelligibleandwhich encouragetheconstantreproductionofoneselfasmale/femaleineverydayinteractions.Inthiswaytheindividual(quotingtheframework) aswellastheframework(relyingonthosequotations)areconstantly reproducedininteraction.AsButlerargues,thisdynamicworksina repressivemannerasitpunishesidentitiesthatarenotintelligibleaccordingtotheframework,butitalsocontainsapoliticalpotential,as theframeworkmaychangeintheprocessesofreproduction.
Toparticularlyunderstandtherepressivefunctioningofperformativity,Butlerfurtherreferstopsychoanalysisandarguesthatthe seeminglynaturalnessoffemininity,masculinityandheterosexuality 48Butler(1993),p. 10.
Inthefollowing,IwillshowthatsuchanOtheringalsotakesplace inthesoundofpopularmusicandthatthedifferentsubjectivationsand self-relationsthatcanbederivedfromthisarereflectedinthesound ofvoices.Musicthuscontributestothesocialproductionofgender. Performativity Performativityisbynowatheoreticaltoolthatmakestheillusionof naturalnessunderstandableastheconstantadaptationtosociallymediatednorms.AsJudithButlerhasargued,beingmadeawoman(or aman)bysocialrealitiesisnotonlylimitedtothepsycheandidentity (thatis,gender),butgenerateeveryideaofgenderoverall,includingthe genderedbody(thatis,sex).Afterall,languageprecedesandinfluences theperceptionofthecategoriesaccordingtowhichpeopleareseenas maleorfemale.
onone’sgenderoneisaddresseddifferentlyorratherpositionsoneself differentlyinrelationtoafilm.
34HearingSexism
Introduction:WhatDoesSexismActuallySoundLike?35 isbasedonthesuppressionofhomoeroticdesires. Assheargues, thisdesireiserasedorpreventedfromemergingevenbeforeitcanbe repressed.Thispreventsthelossofan(im-)possibledesirefrombeing processedlinguistically,sothatmeaningcannotbeassignedtosuch loss.Throughthisprocess,“theobjectisnotonlylost,butthedesire fullydenied”
52
Thisprocessof“incorporation”
53 doesnottakeplaceonceinearlychildhood,but,accordingtothetheoryofperformativity,happensrepeatedly.Toreproducegender,homoeroticdesireshavetobesuppressed continuously,whichexplainstherepressionandhatred
ReferringtoFreud’sconceptofmelancholia,sheexplainsthatthe processthatdenieshomosexualdesire(thatis,makinghalfofallhumansimpossibleobjectsfordesire,thuscreatingaloss)isthesameas theonewhichcreatesaninvestmentintoone’sowngender,asthelost object(=samesexbodies/subjectsaslostobjectsofdesire).Itcannotbe mournedthroughlanguage,andispreservedinthebodyas“radically unnameable” Somepartsofthebodybecomeconceivablefociofpleasureprecisely becausetheycorrespondtoanormativeidealofagender-specific body.Pleasuresareinsomesensedeterminedbythemelancholic structureofgenderwherebysomeorgansaredeadenedtopleasure, andothersbroughttolife.
54 thatpeople faceiftheyareunwillingorunabletoconformtothereproductionof genderaccordingtotheframeworkofintelligibility.Atthesametime, 49Moreaccurately:Thesedesiresareneitherhomo-norheterosexualbutpredate theseparationofhumansintotwosexes.Thus,itisexactlythisprocessofsuppressionwhichforeclosesonepartofhumansfordesire,thatproducestheseparationoftwosexesandmotivatestheidentificationwithoneofthesesexesat thesametime.
49
50 .
51:
50Butler(1993),p. 69. 51Butler(1993),p. 68. 52Butler(1993),p. 70. 53Butler(1990),p. 68. 54Cf.Butler(1993),p. 8.
57
Body Thebodyisanimportantsiteforthereproductionofgender/sex,andit isalsorelevantin(popular)music.Forexample,feministmusicologist SusanMcClarysuggestsseeingmusicasa“technologyofthebody”. Musicthusteachesus“howtoexperiencesociallymediatedpatterns ofkineticenergy,beingintime,emotions,desire,pleasureandmuch more.”
36HearingSexism
itexplainswhypeoplefeelstronglytiedtothosereproductivestructures,astheframeworkofintelligibilityprovidesthesourcesfortheir genderedidentityaswellastheir(hetero-)sexualdesire.
56
Butknowingthatthebodyisrelevantisnotthesameasknowinghow itisrelevant.Iwillnowgiveashortintroductiontotwoapproaches, 55Cf.Butler(1993),p. 15. 56McClary(2007),p. 205. 57Frith(1996),p. 309.
Thetheoryofperformativitycanbealsousedfortheunderstandingofotherseeminglynaturalcategoriesorexperiences,andIfindit veryproductivetothinkaboutmusicwiththistheoreticaltool.With performativitytheory,Iunderstandmyimpressionsofsingersortheir messagesasperformative,thatis,theyarerecognizedbymeassuch, becausetheycorrespondtoalreadyinternalizedpatterns,buttheirperformativitiesagainmay(re-)shapethosepatterns.Further,inmyown affectiverelationstothosesongs,Imayinvestintocertainself-images andmyexperiencesmightbeenabledthroughpatternsthatalready materializedwithinmybody.Iwillfurtherdevelopthesethoughtsin mychapterontheoreticaltools.
Also,popularmusicscholarSimonFrithseestheculturalproductionofidentitymediatedthroughembodiedexperienceofpopular music: Musicconstructsoursenseofidentitythroughthedirectexperiences itoffersofthebody,timeandsociability,experienceswhichenableus toplaceourselvesinimaginativeculturalnarratives.
55
61 This 58ThisisacommondifferentiationinGermanscholarship. 59Klein(2004),pp. 244-262. 60Gebauer/Wulf(2003),p. 7.“InmimetischenAktenerzeugtdasSubjektdurch seineeigeneFormgebungdievorgefundeneWeltnocheinmal.”
59
Thiscanbeusedasamodelthatestablishesmediationbetween aworldpresentedinpopmusicandtheunderstandingofthisworld byindividualswhorelatetoitfromdifferentperspectives,recreateit withinthemselveswithdeviations,andthuslocatethemselvesinit, alignthemselveswithit,andfitintoit.ForKleinthenthebodyisthe mediumofmusicalexperiencebutatthesametimealsotheresultof thoseexperiencesthatinscribethemselvesthroughrepetition.Atfirst theworldisreshapedsomaticallyintheinnerbody[Leib]whichthen enablessocialagencyoftheouterbody[Körper]inasecondstep.
60
DancescholarGabrieleKleinunderstandsthebodyastwofold:An innersomaticbody(Leib)canbedifferentiatedfromanoutersurface (Körper).
Whilethisprocessmakesreferenceto thegivenworld,itdoesnotpassivelyrepeatit,butgeneratessomethingofitsown.Itmakestheindividualfitintotheworld.Mimesis thusisnotacognitiveconceptbutratheraformofinhabitingone’s ownbodyandsubjectivitythatultimatelyestablishesaninhabitingof theworld.Thereisthereforeamimeticrelationshipbetweenafound externalworld,whichisalreadycodedbytheactionsofothers,andan embodiedworldmodeledafteritinsidethesubject.
58 ShefurtherappliesChristophWulfandGunterGebauer’s understandingoftheconceptofmimesistodancinginpopmusic,providinganapproachtounderstandingthesomaticinscriptionofcultural valuesthroughmusic.
61Ibid.TranslatedfromGermanoriginal:“DaderHabitusleiblichstrukturiertist wirdeszudemmöglich,denVorgangzuverstehen,wieleiblicheErfahrung sichkörperlichdarstelltundnach'außen‘getragenwird.Auchdiesernach 'außen‘gerichteteProzeßisteinmimetischerAkt,einAngleichender'inneren
Introduction:WhatDoesSexismActuallySoundLike?37 whichwillcarveoutamorecomplexunderstandingofthebodyandits possiblerelationstomusic.
GebauerandWulfdescribemimesisasacreativere-formingofthe worldwithintheindividual.
38HearingSexism modelcanalsobelinkedtoperformativity,asinboththeories,anembodiedsubjectivityisproducedandcontinuouslyupdatedthroughthe preconsciousappropriationofsociallygivenpatterns.
63
63Cusick(1999),p. 30.
Inthisprocess,theboundariesofthebodyandthusthebodyitselfare producedperformativelynotonlyasasurface,butasathree-dimensionalspace.Thevoicethusproducesnotonlyasupposedbiological differenceasexternality(thatis,highfemaleandlowmalevoices,etc.), butmoreoverideasaboutthesubjectthatislocatedinthisbody. Indiscussingtwoexamples(PearlJamandtheIndigoGirls),Cusickformulatesthethesisthatperformativityofgenderinthevoice isconstructedprimarilythroughanaudibleadaptation(female)or, Erfahrung‘andie‘äußereRealität‘insozialenHandlungen,diesichkörperlich vollziehen.”
62Ofcoursethereisadifference,asmimesisadaptstoaworldencounteredas anenvironment,whiletheframeworkofintelligibilityinperformativityforces adaptiontointelligiblesocialimages.Also,thereisalsoadifferenceinmotivation:Performativityisdrivenbyfearofbecomingunintelligible,whilemimesis seemstobedrivenmorebyawishforappropriationoftheworld.Butthosedifferencesmightnotbeashugeasitseems,asthesocialworld,andespecially somethingasculturallyengrainedasmusic,alreadycontainssocialimages,and asksustomakesenseofitandfindourownplaceaccordingly.
Thiscanbeparticularlyseeninanotherexample:SuzanneCusick offersanapproachtothe(gendered)bodyinpopularmusicinher1999 article“OnMusicalPerformancesofGenderandSex”,wheresheisparticularlyconcernedwiththequestionofwhatkindofbodyisproduced invocalsound.
62
LikeSpeech,too,it[=singing]isoftentakentoexpressorrepresentan interiortruth:thetruthfromwithinthebody’sbordersismovedby thebreath(whichoriginatesoutsidethebody)beyondthoseborders. OnemightwellarguethatSong,likeSpeech,isalwaysaperformance oftheideaofsubjectivity(inthesenseofinnerlife).Botharecertainly performancesofthebody’sinterior,performancessituatedintheinterior.
65
64
WhileIwouldagreewithCusickthatdemonstratingnon/adaptationor non/sovereigntytocultureplaysaroleintheperformativityofgender,there isobviouslyanotherlevelatplayherethatdictatesthewaysinwhichthis non/adaptationcanormustbeperformed.Culturethusencountersontheone handasanobject(traditionalsingingideal),butneverthelessactsproductively onanothermorehiddenlevelasaframeworkofculturalintelligibilitythatsets therulesforthesuccessfulperformativityofmasculinityorfemininityandescapestheanalysishere.
Introduction:WhatDoesSexismActuallySoundLike?39
indeed,non-adaptation(male)ofthevocallyperformedbody-subject toculturalnormsofbeautifulsinging.
Culturalnormingpenetrates
more(female)orless(male)deeplyintothebody,whichbecomes audiblethroughtheopenorclosedresonancechambers.Maleand femalesingersthusdemonstrateintheirvoicetheirwillingnessto submittoculturalnormstoagreaterorlesserextent.
Thereisthebodyofthelistenerthatemergesperformativelyinthe processoflistening,aswellasthebodyofthesinger,whichalsoonly 64Cf.Cusick(1999),p. 38.
Cusick’spaperparticularlypointstotheperformativeemergence ofinteriorityandsubjectivityinthevoice.Furthermore,herapproach bringsthebordersofthebodyintofocusofmusicanalysis.ThisdifferentiationisreminiscentofKlein’sseparationofasomaticinnerbody (Leib)andanoutersurface(Körper).Inconclusion,itbecomesclear thattherewillbeseveralbodiesthatwewillencounterinthisbookand allofthemIunderstandasresultsofperformativity:
65Cusick’sthesisunderpinstheanalysisofvocaltimbreasaperformativemoment forcorporealityandsubjectivityandshowshowthiscanbringsexistsocialrelationsintoview.Herunderstandingofsinging,however,isbasedonrather traditionalnotions(stablepitches,littlenoise,andthegreatestpossibleuseof bodilyresonancespacesasanideal),whichcannotbepresupposedasnormativeforpopmusicinthisway:Thereare,forexample,numerousfemalesingers whosesingingstyleclearlydeviatesfromthistraditionalideal–suchasBritneySpears'creakyvoice.Theyarenevertheless,andperhapspreciselybecause ofthesedeviations,clearlyrecognizableasfemale.Furthermore,Cusickcapturesmasculinityonlynegatively,asnon-adaptation.Thisdoesnot,however, explaintheexistenceofanalmosttypicalmalerockvoice,whichisalsothebasisofCusick’sanalysis(EddieVedderfromPearlJam).Here,apparently,norms alsohaveaneffect,towhichthissoundsubmits.
Acknowledgingthematerialbackgroundofsoundisnotthesame asseeingsoundassomethingnaturalorneutralinrelationtohuman reception.Thereisnoneutralreceptionofsound,becauseallpastexperienceshaveanimpactonfutureexpectations. ofspecificcharacteristicsandpropertiesofaspecificsoundisshaped bypastexperiences.Intheprocessoflistening,forexample,onemay 66Myunderstandingherestemsfromphenomenology(e.g.,MerleauPonty,2002, p. 178ff.).Also,Iseephenomenologyandperformativitytheoryasinterrelated: PerformativitytheorywasdevelopedbyJudithButlerincloserelationtophenomenologicalthinkingofSimonedeBeauvoirandMauriceMerleau-Ponty. See:Butler(1988).
Finally,thenotionofsoundasculturallyembeddedmaterial(thesonical)needstobeintroduced.AsIhavealreadyelaboratedon,musicis onlyunderstandableinandthroughitsculturalcontextasadispositif. Butthisdoesnotmean,thattheeffectsandmeaningofmusiccanbe reducedtothiscontext.RatherIsuggestunderstandingsoundasenrichedbycontextualuses.Specificsoundsareplacedagainandagain inspecificcontextand/orareusedforcertainpurposes.Furthermore, specificsoundshavespecificpropertiesandcharacteristicsandare,especiallyhistoricallyspeaking,dependentonthematerialpreconditions oftheirproductions(e.g.,beforerecordingtechnology,therewasno bell-soundwithoutabell).Thus,notallsoundsaregoodforallpurposes(e.g.,averysoftshort“ping”willnotmakeagoodemergency alarmtoarouseeveryone’sattentionandapipeorganisnotverymobilesoitssoundwillnotbeuseableforaparade–atleastnotbeforethe adventofrecordingtechnology).Forthisreasonspecificsoundsarenot emptysignifiers,eveniftheunderstandingofsoundisculturallyorganized.Soundsarenotarbitrarilyavailableforanymeaningorfunction ascribedtothem.
66 Thus,thereception
Listening,Sound,andthe‘Sonical’
40HearingSexism existsasaprojectionintheprocessoflistening,andbothbodiescanbe differentiatedintoinner(Leib)andouterbodies(Körper).
Introduction:WhatDoesSexismActuallySoundLike?41
68WhileWickeprobablyhadtheEnglishword‘sonic’inmind,whenheintroducedtheGerman“Sonisch“,wedecidedtotranslateitintoEnglishas‘sonical’, becausethesonichasbecomeadebatedterminthecontextofsoundstudies:EspeciallywordingslikeChristophCox’s“sonicmaterialism”(2011)or“sonic realism”(2018)aswellastheuseoftheterminSteveGoodman’smonograph “SonicWarfare”(2010)havebeencriticizedbyBrianKane(2015)asreproducing anature-culturedualism.Furthermore,MarieThompson(2017)hascriticized inthiscontextthesocalled‘ontologicalturn’asre-naturalizingsomesortofa neutraloruniversalsonicmaterial.Assheargues,therelatedseparationofontologicallyorientatedandculturallyorientatedsoundstudiesisde-politicizing soundintheserviceofWhitesupremacy.Astheconceptofthesonicalinthisargumentreferstosomethingquitedifferentfromthesonicinallthesecontexts, wechoosetousetheratherunusualword‘sonical’,toavoidmisunderstandings. 69Wicke(2006),p3.Germanoriginal:“kulturalisierterSchall” 70Cf.Shepherd/Wicke(1997),p. 108f.
focusoncertainpropertiesofasoundandindoingsonotperceiveothers,dependingonwhichpropertieshavebeenlearnedasmeaningful.
ThiscanbeunderstoodsimilarlytotheperformativityofthebodyaccordingtoButler:Thereisnoreceptionofpuresound(asthereisno purebodyorsubject),butonlyreceptionofsoundasalreadyshapedby experiencesandexpectations.
69.Inthisconcept,musicassounditselfislinked toitsrecipients:Anyunderstandingofmusiccanbeunderstoodasa kindoflinkagebetweensoundandthelisteningsubject.Thelistening subjectisalreadyculturallypre-structuredsuchthatitcanencounter soundinanappropriateway(as‘sonical’),justassoundisadaptedto theexpectationsofthelisteningsubject.
Toaccountfortheculturallyembeddednessofsound,PeterWicke developedtheGermanterm‘DasSonische’,whichwillbetranslatedas ‘thesonical’68 inthisbookandwillbeusedasabasictermformythinkingofsoundinpopularmusic.The‘sonical’describesthesonicmaterial ofpopularmusicasalreadyculturallyshaped:Soundinpopularmusic is“culturalizedsound”
70
67
Bothadaptationsaredy-
67DanielVillegas-Vélezalsorecentlydiscussedasimilarpointin“TheMatter ofTimbre:Listening,Genealogy,Sound“(Villegas-Vélez,2021,p. 13).VillegasVélezfurtherarguesthatthisculturalencodinginWesternmusichistorythat privilegespitchandrhythmovertimbrecanberelatedtocolonialistideologies.
42HearingSexism namic,thatis,itisnotaoncecompletedprocessbutaconstantparallel development.Whilethesoundofarecordingmayremainunchanged, the‘sonical’,astheculturalunderstandingofthissound,mayshiftover time. WickeelaboratesonarelatedtopicwithJohnShepherdintheirjoint book MusicandCulturalTheory.Therein,theydevelopatheoreticalconceptformeaninginmusicinwhichtheygiveupondeSaussure’ssign theoryandhisseparationofsignifier(word/sign)andsignified(what theword/signmeans)formusic,71 andpropose“aperformativesemiologicalmodel”72 instead.Meaninginpopularmusic,forShepherdand Wicke,emergesinandthroughthemomentsofthecouplingofinternal“statesofawareness”73 andmusicassoundexperience.Thepossiblesoundexperiencedependsonthestatesofawarenesspresentinthe subject.Thesestatesarefinallyinvokedandconfirmedbythemusic. Thisisaperformativeprocessbecauseonlythroughthisprocessthe experienceofmusicisproducedandmadepossibleinthefirstplace. Thestatesofawarenessaretherebyalreadypre-presentinthesubject andcanbeunderstoodascitablepatternsinthesenseoftheframeworkofculturalintelligibility.Inthisprocess,statesofawarenessdo nothaveareferentialeffect(ofsomethingabsent),butproducetheir ownpresence.Musicalexperienceassignifierandstatesofawareness assignifiedcantherebyonlybeseparatedtheoretically.Inotherwords, thesignifiedisautomaticallycalledintoconsciousnessbythesignifier andthusbecomespresent,asopposedtobeingonlyreferential,asit happensinlinguisticcommunication.74 Thus,the‘sonical’canbeunderstoodastheplaceofthislinkage:the ‘sonical’couplescertain“satesofawareness”tospecificsoundsinmusic. 71Tobeexact:ShepherdandWickearguethatthesignifierandthesignifiedcan beseparatedintheory,butthereisnoseparationpossibleintheactualreceptionofmusicwheretheexperienceofmusicistheexperienceofarelated‘state ofawareness’atthesametime. 72Shepherd/Wicke(1997),p. 169ff. 73Cf.ibd.,p. 173. 74Nevertheless,asign-basedreferenceispossiblethroughthismaterialbasis.Cf. Shepherd/Wicke(1997),p. 205ff.
Introduction:WhatDoesSexismActuallySoundLike?43
InthefollowingIwillstartwiththedevelopmentofthisbook’s“Toolsof Analysis”(chapter1).InitIwillpresentvariousways(associations,homologies,thegenotext,auditorypleasures,thesonicalbody,andthevocalicbody)ofthinkingaboutandexaminingthecomplexrelationships weallentertainwithmusicandsounds.Inthecontextofthisbook, thesearetoolsformusicanalysisthatwillbeappliedinthecloserexaminationofthesixmusicalexamples.However,theycanalsobeused beyondthatastoolsforreflectingonone’sownmusiclistening.Itis, however,notmyaimtoprovideanoverarchingtheoryof‘howmusic works’.Idonotwanttopin‘music’downinthisform,butratherto openpossibleapproachesthatcanbeexpandedoradaptedasneeded.
75Iseethisideaofcouplingascloselyrelatedtotheconceptoflisteningasit isusedin“thelisteningear”byJenniferStoever(2016),as“listeningtolistening”byNinaSunEidsheim(2018),oras“hungrylistening”byDylanRobinson (2020).Theseauthorsarguethatintheprocessoflistening,pre-shapedculturalizedexpectationsanddesiresofthelistenerslimitandfocusandthuscoproducewhatcanandwillbeheard.Thus,particularlyWhitenessisproduced andnaturalizedinpracticesoflisteningthatfocusonthesoundsofracialized Othersasmaterialsforconsumption.Mostofthisgreatworkwasnotavailable, whenIdevelopedmyowntheoriesasIpresenttheminthisbook,whichiswhy Iwillpointtoitinfootnotes,butnotinthemaintext.
Then,Iwillusemytoolboxtoanalyzetheeffectandproductionof genderinmyexamplesofpopularmusic.Here,Iwillstartwithtwo examplesofmale(White,cis,hetero,able-bodied …)voices.Iwillshow thatsuchprivilegedvoicesarealso(oftenunmarked)atthecenterof manymusicdescriptionsandfurther,thatthiscentralitynotonlyplays aroleindiscoursesaboutmusic,butisalsoproducedinthesounditself.
75
MethodandStructure
Itfurthercannotbeplacedneitheronthesideofthelistener,noronthe sideofthesoundalone.Muchmore,the‘sonical’canbeunderstoodas structuringtheencounterofmusicandlistener,enablingtheprocess ofexperiencingmusicinthefirstplace.
44HearingSexism
Tocontrastthis,thefourexamplesofWhitefemalevoices,thatIwill dealwithinthethirdchapter,cannotbeunderstoodaccordingtothe sameaestheticmodel.AsIwillshow,sexualizationsandapositioning offemalesingersascounterpartstothelistener,insteadofidentificationfigures,canbeanalyzedanddeterminedinsound.These‘other’vocalizationscontainaestheticpotentialsbeyondtheaestheticparadigm ofthe‘real’voice.Whilethismayalsohavepotentialsforempowering listeningstrategiesfor(White,heterosexual,able-bodied)femalelisteners,itisnonethelessproblematicthatoveralldifferentconceptsofthe bodyareconveyedwhichtendtoeithermakethebodyoftheanalyzed femalesingersdisappearorturnintoanobject.
Thisproductionofcentralityinsoundisdependentoncertainaesthetic notions,whichIwillrefertoasthe‘real’voice.Thisisastyleofsinging connectedtoaestheticparadigmsofemotionaltruthfulness,spontaneityandauthenticity.This‘real’voiceasIwillshow,alsocontainsan invitationtoidentification,whichfurtherfosterstheprivilegingofa hegemonicWhitemaleconceptofthebody.
Allinall,Ihopetomakesexismactuallyaudibleinmyexamplesand beyondthem.Intheconclusion,Iwouldlikenotonlytosummarize myresults,butalsotoreflectonpossiblepoliticalconsequencesofmy findings.
Overall,Iwillbeconcernedwithnamingdifferentmusicalexperiences,toachieveamorenuancedunderstanding.Inaffirmativemodes ofmusicconsumption,individualsrelateonanintimateandaffective leveltomusicalpieces,whichthusmovelistenersphysicallyandemotionally.Incurrentdiscourses,suchinnermovementsareusuallyonly discussedingeneralterms,butnotintheirspecificity.However,Iam interestedinexactly whoismovedhowandwhere,andhowthesemovementsinteractwith,orrather,playtheirrolesinoverarchingsocial structuressuchassexism.
