Interviewing that Works Thesis I Fall, 2012 John Couper, Ph.D.
Why do we interview? To
Gather important facts and ideas Learn another perspective Learn as your readers would like to Collect supporting and alternative details Get additional contacts Add a personal view to the story Add credibility and authority Deepen the story with experiences
1. Principles a) Be as specific as your goals and knowledge allow Know when to give up control Give them some freedom… but don’t lose your way Learn all you can but don’t pretend to know more than you do During the interview, write down one-word reminders
of questions to ask later If the interviewee tends to talk in generalities, ask for specifics, and vice-versa;
get examples to Clarify Add depth to the story
Principles b) Keep questions simple but provocative Put readers’ priorities first, yours second Connect interviewee goals to the first two Know your goals, but be ready to change them Avoid obvious questions (“was that painful?”) Be skeptical not adversarial or completely accepting Ask only for what they really know about For specific information, ask “when” questions: "When did you realize you would need openheart surgery?"
Principles c) Repeat questions Put yourself in your readers’ shoes Get clarification and definition Use the Silent Treatment Be tactful with their emotions Be courteous Be brief Treat the source as a person
Principles d) Focus on what is said, not the next question Try to make it a conversation Use critical listening skills; be curious Talk as little as possible Listen for what they don’t say Never be
embarrassed, defensive or judgmental
An interview as “Social space” A social opening we offer
Ex: questions, silence, inquiring expression, respect
Present the article as social space for them
Will allow them to reach out to readers
Listen very hard, respond well
Respectful but with self-respect
Show how helping you will also help them
2. The angle: your initial focus Why is an angle important for an interview? To narrow the range of questions To make the interviewee more comfortable To help “pre-write” the story To increase your confidence Sources of good angles Start with what readers and subgroups want A variation of what you saw in another paper What another source suggested Find a new perspective on the topic Something you’ve wondered
3. Preparing a) Most interviews are as good as their
preparation Choose the person to talk to
Use a preliminary interview of another source
Doing research will
inform questions, suggest followup questions, save time, and impress interviewees.
Preparing b) Start from what readers want to know and should
know:
topics, length, detail, background; talk to readers to learn what they want on the topic
Include the specialty of the interviewee Remember this is their passion Work from the latest and most authoritative sources mark facts that seem uncertain, to ask tentatively Start from a fact, turn it into a question Ask colleagues for info you don’t have
Preparing c) Get “insurance” or backup questions with more sources and contextual information useful when initial questions don’t work Try to learn what the source likes to be called;
err on the side of respect/formality
Have at least 30-40 questions for each hour of interview Have one sheet with background to refer to, but use numbers to connect each to related questions List three angles that could work, in order of priority Have a list of how the interviewee could benefit; use this if they are reluctant or edgy
Preparing d) Gather background on topic Be ready for quotes, color, anecdotes, background, information Pre-outline the story, to help develop and focus
questions
Plan questions but be ready to change focus
Try to learn their interview style
e.g., formal/informal, antagonistic/collaborative Imagine yourself with them, feeling calm and confident Review and practice questions before the interview so you don’t need to read them during interview
Preparing e) Try to create a “shape” to the
questions/session
Start with a set of related questions, logical progression
Consider the story’s implications: future
impact, side concerns look for what is missing/absent/unknown
this usually impresses interviewees
Always be ready to change/adapt your angle
4. Creating Rapport a) First impressions
Smile when you meet, breathe deeply Plan and practice your first lines Keep up eye contact Wait to be asked to sit,
but know where you will sit if you can choose; don’t sit directly opposite or too close, beside them
An angle of about 90 degrees works well can say “If it's OK with you, I'd prefer to sit…” (and indicate where)
Creating Rapport b) Copy their body language (crossing legs,
leaning, etc.)
even their speaking pace and tone of voice
Try to meet at a place where they can relax But away from their distractions and duties Explain your angle and what you want to know Listen well and respond to what they say Use the word “we” as often as possible Don’t be afraid of showing ignorance But always show curiosity
Creating Rapport c) Be sympathetic but never suggest you are on their side they will feel betrayed Find personal connections: from same area,
similar interests, etc. (but not too personal/presumptuous) Let them feel occasional control
e.g. “what would you like to tell me?”
Relax but be professional Put yourself in their place, seeing you
Creating Rapport d) Be ready with an opener to make a connection,
related to what you learned about their success
Allow your own personality to come through Wear clothes similar to theirs to show respect
if in doubt, dress slightly up
Learn the names of their family if appropriate Develop and show genuine interest in the topic
if you aren’t, why should they or readers be?
Make sure you have a place to put your things
Creating Rapport e) Understand and address their priorities Don’t respond defensively to complaints or
worries
be neutral but open to their points
Putting the onus on yourself
"I'm sorry, but I don't understand"; "That's not quite clear to me. Do you have an example?“
Mildly humorous self-deprecation is powerful
5. Organizing questions Why organize? Helps confidence, makes sure to remember, keep you on track, reassures the interviewee, shows authority, respect and preparation, gives you a reason to look away Group questions by topic Write a 1-word index on the left to find quickly Start with easy questions but quickly shift to substantive
6. Kinds of question a) Funnels and tunnel questions
Narrowing funnel: generalities to specifics
Broadening funnel: specifics to generalities
use when you know less, to relax interviewee Gives more control to interviewee use when know more, to engage interviewee Gives more control to you
Tunnel: one informative level (use when know exactly what you need to know on topic)
Kinds of question b) Logical: inner process of the story
What affects what, and why
Chronological
Historical, sequential
Action/impact
The consequences of one thing on another
Experiential: recount what it was like
A personal account is vivid and relaxes them
7. Asking questions a) Four ways to make questions work: listen and encourage; use silence; make statements requiring confirmation/denial; summarize and move on. Start with easy questions: general or specific
“I'd like to start by checking how you spell your name...”
Opening questions: Typical day/meeting, etc.; unusual combination, question that is specific but links the main issues, Get key facts early, in case the interview ends early
Asking questions b) Remind them of the topic before the first
questions,
gently and diplomatically and never abruptly; make them feel confident
Have both social and journalistic questions Choose your time to move to the main topic usually in the first 3 minutes
But less if they are very busy or important
Rehearse how to bring back to main topic Practice smooth delivery of the first and last
questions
Asking questions c) Ask an unusual question, topic or combination Ask for the contrary view, then ask them to respond Re-ask the same question in a slightly different way Questions that help get the whole story “When did this start? And then? What of the future?” “How would you explain that to a layman?” “Why did it happen that way?” If in doubt, ask the best “W” question Be as specific as possible Work out one question for each subject Practice making your questions brief and clear
Asking questions d) Have both general and specific questions Use the one that relaxes the interviewee Always ask questions that lead to elaboration,
not “if” or yes/no
Save tough questions for near the end open-door questions at the end Ask for documentation and further leads
to show you are curious and engaged
Avoid leading questions as much as possible Note the setting and their style if appropriate Pick an angle, then be neutral and unpredictive
Asking questions e) Plan the wording of key questions carefully consider the implications of words Leading questions are useful when rapport is good 2-part questions: If they are relaxed, they answer the part they want “Echoing”: repeat their statement to get more detail Make your questions suit your interviewee People resist hypothetical questions when they like facts and figures are defensive/pompous/tentative/afraid, Creative people welcome a “what would you do if…?” approach and will freewheel away into fantasy, which can make for good copy
Asking questions f) Open vs. closed questions Open: encourage elaboration and explanation Closed: get clear, declarative information Show that it matters to you, and make sure it is
sincere
find a way to care
Be ready to ask important questions when a related
topic comes up so it isn’t artificial Try specific questions
then move on to summary or category issues
End with “anything else?” questions
8. Followup questions a) Get details with process related questions (“how”) Pose an explanation and have them correct it Sympathetic Noise… "You feel very strongly about that, don't you?" Questions that ask for their approval or interest can
be better than direct Ask not only about that topic, but if know of other story that might be good Followups that work:
“…don’t you think?” “what evidence do you have for that?' “I take it that means ‘yes’”
Followup questions b) Amplification: 'What exactly did the job
involve?' 'Could you tell me more, for instance…” Clarification: “That was the same year?”, or checking on their sense of a key word Leading: useful as long as they don’t force a particular answer or reflect a strong assumption
Followup questions c) Use a four-second pause to make a good
answer a much better one Look for and note a word or phrase that would lead to a good followup Summarise what they have said, restate it and then you can move on. "Did I make myself clear?" is less confrontational by putting the focus on the reporter “So what you're saying is…” Now I'd like to turn to…” “Let's see if I've got this right…
9. Probing Flattery: “Someone who's gone as far as you
in such a short time is a real inspiration.” pose a similar but hypothetical situation suggest dissatisfaction with nonverbals tell a story float a rumor: “some people say that…” Suggest/guess:
“Is a cost of $1 to $2 million a safe estimate?'
10. Noticing Watch carefully their responses (and lack of)
When people talk, they are less aware of their behavior
Look for indications of more information
Their pauses, looking away, make a face, etc.
Notice when they cross their legs or arms, or
start moving their feet
This might show discomfort or tension
11. Listening a) Listening is active hearing, imagining and understanding during an interview, listen intently Pick up nonverbals in voice, pauses, change of tone Listening increases rapport and prepares you to get the answers you want Use “listening’ body language use nods, head tilts, leaning forward, smiling, raise eyebrows for a question Practice nodding to make sure it is “natural” avoid nodding more than twice; notice and use the body language they respond best to
Listening b) Use silence to look thoughtful, attentive, encourage elaboration Listen carefully to exact words the interviewee, e.g. their eagerness or reluctance to answer particular questions, tone or strength of voice, pauses, omissions, what makes them animated, signs of reluctance When their voice drop or slows, the topic may be
significant or the interviewee has reservations Don’t just ask questions, but seek confirmation:
“I understand you have a house in Boise”
12. Be responsive Show you are listening and change
expression to encourage more information Use a variety of nonverbal prompts, like “uhhuh,” “I see”, small looks of surprise and interest Be ready to be honest if it helps them loosen/open up When they talk too much, “punish” them
cut back on the nods, lean back, look away, sigh softly, adopt a posture opposite to theirs
13. Difficult interviewees a) Go in with idea of goals and that you belong there and readers
deserve to know If they put up a barrier Go a different way Say something like “you mean to say that…?” Spark their curiosity with what you have heard Say “you’ve heard” that something happened; this often inspires them to correct the facts Invoke authority of someone they want to please Know and mention how the story would help them Strategic flexibility; offer to do the interview several ways gives them sense of choice when really you are getting what you want, and have choice of changing to your preferred style (make a show of turning off the recorder)
Difficult interviewees b) Make questions simple for defensive, skilled and tricky
interviewees. “People make these allegations so maybe you should put the record straight” “How do you answer what…is saying?” “It looks bad if you don't comment; we'd like to print your side.” “Fascinating, but what I really want to know is…” “Wow, really… but first can we get back to…” “That's a great story. I'd like to know much more-but first I'd like to clear up…” “Will you explain why you are not implementing your planned factory expansion?” Ascribe contradiction to someone else Preface an attack with praise Treat it lightly by implying the question is not that serious Practice mentally by vivdly imagining strong resistance with a strong, cool response from you
Difficult interviewees c) Ask a less-loaded question, then return to the hard one Say “tell me about…” to treat the situation as a story You have to do a story, and want their role clear Ask them to respond to what a previous person had said, or what you already know Make a statement when questions don’t work Be accurate and have/keep documentation,
in case they complain later
Appeal to their mercy: “How will the readers know if we don’t tell them?” Return another time or two, to catch them in a better
mood
Difficult interviewees d) “I'd like to play devil's advocate and look at what you
did from a different angle. Then the question becomes, ‘why did you put your name forward, considering your track record?’” Bring a list or other documentation (e.g. of topics, people, processes) they can see and comment on Keep up light pressure; don’t allow time-wasters Use nonverbals to reward and punish them Ask if there is some aspect they want to talk about
then relate that back to what you want
14. After the interview Be prepared to re-interview if needed “Leave the door open” at the end, in case you need to go back Go over your notes immediately afterwards to
fill in gaps and details Ideally, use a recorder and indexing notes
Listen back to tape of your interview just to learn how to improve your techniques
After the story runs, maybe contact them for
their response If you offer to send a copy, make sure you do
15. Practicalities a) Make sure it is the right person! Confirm all details day, date, time, location, phone for changes Create a relationship with office manager, assistant Before the interview, give yourself an extra minute or
two to collect yourself check what you have and where
But never in the interview area
Make sure to have all materials needed ahead of
time, and check just before the interview
Practicalities b) Have a business card, extra batteries for
recorder Practice talking to and watching people to learn to read interviewees, understand body language, subtleties of voice tone etc. Offer strong, sincere thanks
Enjoy Yourself ď Ž The best interviews are always the most
relaxed, exploratory, fun