IMAGINED COMMUNITIES
Citizenship and Nationhood
Today
Seen examination discussion (and reassurance?)
Modular movements: from division to cohesion
National identity and nationalism
Managing belonging
Exam review format
Select two questions from seven options
Two hours
Under standard exam conditions
One A4 page of notes allowed (both sides)
Purpose
This is not a memory test!
The basis of your discussion should be a demonstration of your understanding of the core themes of the course
Try to integrate knowledge from different lectures
Link this understanding to the world around you
Expectations
Demonstrate your understanding of the link between social differences and social divisions
Evaluate the causes of social divisions and the possibilities for political resistance
Consider how social cohesion is achieved
Use evidence to support your ideas
http://www.hefce.ac.uk/ http://www.ucas.co.uk/ http://www.offa.org.uk/
Question One
Critically discuss the future impacts of increases in university fees upon class stratification and social exclusion in Britain. (Lectures 2,3 and 4)
What are the likely future impacts of fee increases? What evidence is there for this? What is the importance of university education?
How do you define class and social exclusion?
Marx, Weber and social mobility
How will the impact of fee increases influence upon this structure?
Question Two
Why might some ethnicities in Britain be less likely to study science at university? (Lectures 2, 3 and 4) Are
some ethnicities less likely to study science?
Why Biology?
(explain the distinction between race and ethnicity) Culture? (what factors are relevant – family, class?)
Question Three
To what extent would it be justifiable to promote ‘affirmation action’ policies to encourage more men to participate in British higher education? (Lectures 4, 9 & 10) What is the difference in participation rates between genders and what is the context for this difference? Why might this have occurred? Introduce distinction between sex and gender What is affirmative action (positive action/discrimination) and why would it be justified? Are there other factors to be considered?
Question Four
Discuss the factors that influence the proportional over-representation of former ‘public school’ pupils at Oxbridge universities (Lectures 2,3 and 4) Is
there an over-representation of public school pupils at Oxbridge? Why are these inequalities reproduced? (class, ethnicity) Is it a matter of (generational) meritocracy, or discrimination?
Question Five
Critically discuss what it would mean for universities to treat disabled students ‘less favourably’ (Lectures 6, 9 and 10) What
does ‘less favourably’ and equality mean in regards to disability?
When
is positive action justifiable?
Question Six
Why would governments seek to promote wider participation in higher education? (Lectures 9, 10 and 11) What
is widening participation? Are there inequalities in access to universities? What is the importance of education for mobility? Why would governments seek to achieve social cohesion and minimise inequalities?
Question Seven
Critically discuss the impact of digital exclusion upon higher education in the 21st century (Lecture 11) What
is ‘digital exclusion’? Why is it importance in regards to higher education? Inequality or social Is class relevant?
mobility?
Modular movements Social Differences
Social Divisions
Solidarity and Cohesion 
Identities and societies are distinguished by social differences, but these differences often produce divisions

These divisions are political rather than natural

Why, and how, are they reproduced so consistently?
Our Question
What are the mechanisms through which social cohesion is achieved? National
State
identity (Week 8)
control (Week 9)
Community
identification (Week 10)
Initial Responses What are the primary mechanisms through which social cohesion is reproduced in Britain?
Turning to the nation
Social divisions are flattened when members identify with a (limited) larger cause
These identifications are often passionate and provide a sense of belonging
But they also define who belongs and who is excluded
Defining the nation
‘Nations’ are a people with a shared identity
Nations differs from ethnic groups because they seek political autonomy as well as cultural unity
Nations produce social solidarity through belonging and identification
A sense of belonging
The question of nationhood is one of belonging
Who is part of the nation and why? ‘Blood
links’ and shared history?
Geographical
proximity?
Commitment
to shared values?
Not belonging
Any understanding of belonging is also one of exclusion Who
is excluded from the nation (or the state)?
How
is this exclusion managed politically (by the state) and justified culturally?
People
can be formally included but still divided
Nationalism
A patriotic identification with the nation over other forms of identity ‘We
are all English’
Nationalism is a powerful tool for achieving social solidarity and mediating against social divisions
Appeals to nationalism and unity are a common political device, particularly when social cohesion is threatened
Types of Nationalism
Nationalism is the desire of a people to assert their autonomy, identity and unity
There is no fixed sense of nationalism – it can be attached to other political ideologies Conservative/primordial
Liberal/constructed
National Instinct
Primordialism suggests that nations are rooted in biological similarities
Primordial nations are based on shared geography, languages and heritage
Often constructed around founding myths and traditions that have bound together the ‘people’
Our shared heritage
The primordial perspective is conservative in the sense that it identifies an ‘essence’ to identity
This essence is fixed and naturally excludes those who do not fit – often violently
In large scale societies, this homogeneity is difficult to achieve and the politics of conservative nationalism are generally retrospective
Politicians often seek to return to this time
British citizenship tests
An imagined community
Benedict Anderson (1991) argued that the nation was an ‘imagined community’
National identities are not based on biological similarity but on a socially constructed image – nations are built, not born
They are ‘imagined’ on the basis of identification with national symbols
Symbols of imagination
Constructing Imagination
Whilst our national imaginations are based on shared symbols and ideas, they cannot be fixed
Instead national identity is always an ideological point of struggle What
defines ‘us’ from ‘them’? What does it mean to belong to this nation? These struggles are often passionately expressed
Why are we so passionate about nationhood, but not other aspects of our identity? Should this be encouraged?
A limited imagination
Our sense of nationhood is defined by its distinction from other nations
We know who ‘we’ are because we are not ‘them’
Whilst nationhood ‘flattens’ differences between members, it sharply defines those who belong
These distinctions are established through the state
Nations and states
Nations might be imagined, but they are also built
Modern nations are generally coupled with states (the nation-state)
Nations are cultural constructions, states are political institutions
We will focus on the state next week, but…
Introducing the State
States are primarily defined by their monopoly over physical force within a given territory based on a centralised authority
Weber: ‘A human community that (successfully) claims the monopoly of the legitimate use of physical force within a given territory’ (Pierson, p.7)
The state of national identity
The role of the state is to manage the political affairs of the nation
In regards to our discussion, this is a matter of managing differences and divisions between groups Those
who seek to move beyond the boundaries of identity Social divisions within the nation.
Managing struggle
Western nation-states have sought to manage these struggles by; Fostering
national identity
Defining the
rights and obligations of those who
belong Encouraging
formal equality of participation
Fostering Identity 
National identification is actively developed through education, a primary mode of socialisation

Nationalism is most prominently displayed during sporting events

But is also encouraged through the arts and media
Do you think that nationstates should actively seek to develop national identity?
Liberal Nationalism
Liberal nationalism suggests that national identity is based on an identification with shared values rather than any fixed essene
These values allow for a more inclusive sense of nationalism
“Britishness is about a mongrel identity"
This is the hegemonic position in the Western world English Defence League Heritage foundation
Inclusive Britishness
The notion of ‘inclusive nation identities has emerged in response to increasing cultural diversity
A broader sense of national identity allows for an increased sense of belonging amongst minority groups
‘Minority shaped’ British identity
Do we see this more in ‘world’ cities rather than states?
Citizenship
Citizenship binds together the shared values of the imagined community into a legal framework
A citizen is a full member of a political community
Citizens have both rights and formal equality
Citizens are obligated to the state
Formal inclusion, social exclusion
Whilst citizenship allows for formal equality, this status ignores social inequalities
We may have the same rights, but not the same opportunities
Those who reside within the nation but do not have citizenship rights are excluded
We’re all in this together
National identification can become strained when groups reject national unity Vertical
inequality Horizon divisions
To avoid open struggle or division, governments make economic and cultural concession
Relief of the poor
‘Poor relief’ emerged in the earliest stages of the industrial revolution, although often beyond the formal grip of the state
This mediated against the strongest demands of the poor and maintained order
But also involved struggle over who deserved the support of the state
This struggle continues today within the ‘Welfare state’
Welfare
The formal welfare state emerged in response to unrest caused by the cycles of the industrial revolution and the growing prominence of the labour movement
The ‘nanny state’ had a responsibility to its citizens’ different needs, which required different responses from the state
Citizenship welfare has focused on the obligations of the citizen to the state ‘workfare’
Affirmative Action
‘Positive Discrimination’ is to select someone on the basis of their social characteristic and is illegal in the UK
‘Positive action’, or targeted encouragement to special groups, became legal in April 2011
These measures focus on equality of outcome rather than equality of opportunity
But the ultimate aim to is to produce equality of opportunity for social mobility
Active Discrimination “Positive discrimination is the process of giving preferential treatment, especially in employment, to minority groups of society that have been prejudiced against in the past. It should be noted that ‘preferential treatment’ does not mean that these individuals will automatically be preferred to another candidate, but rather should two candidates be deemed a similar level, the individual from the minority group will be preferred” http://www.findlaw.co.uk/law/employment/discrimination/500553.html
Brunel and Disability
Brunel University will: “Interview all applicants with a disability who meet the essential (minimum) criterion for a job vacancy and consider them on their abilities.”
Law Society example: “A family law department has a NQ vacancy. The entire department is female. Two trainees interview for the role. Both have spent 6 months working in the family team and have had excellent appraisals throughout their traineeship. They both completed their LPCs at the College of Law and hold the same class of degree. The department decides to recruit the male trainee as men are under-represented in the family law team.”
For and against
Generally produces ‘positive’ results, but…
Discrimination is discrimination
Doesn’t change the causes of under representation
Encourage prejudices against supported groupings and reinforces power dynamics
Will result in resentment and political backlash from the ‘discriminated’ against majority
Under what conditions could ‘positive’ action or discrimination be justified ?
Positive Discrimination at University
Widening participation: Targeted activities and programmes to encourage participation in higher education
Universities are able to charge maximum fees if they target underrepresented groups on the basis of social mobility
“Access without support is not opportunity” (Engstorm and Tinto)
The Office for Fair Access (OFFA) is an independent, nondepartmental public body. Our role is to promote and safeguard fair access to higher education for lower income and other underrepresented groups following the introduction of higher tuition fees in 2006-07.
Why are governments concerned with widening participation?
Multi-culturalism
Multi-culturalism is the (un) official recognition of the equal right to express differences
Citizens have equal rights, but within a united framework that allows for cultural and political expression of difference
There are significantly differences between nations
Nonetheless, this framework is itself culturally weighted
If so, do we need to encourage the ‘celebration’ of difference?
State multi-culturalism
Multi-culturalism focuses on difference rather than the sameness that defines national identity
Consequently, the patriotic binds that hold together divided societies are likely to become weakness
Indeed, some of those divisions begin to be ‘celebrated’
The fear is that difference will get out of hand and the state will lose its powers of coercion (sharia law being the prime example of this law)
Does multi-culturalism make it harder to maintain a coherent national identity?
Wither, national identity?
Does it matter if minority cultures do not identify with the normative majority? At
what point does multi-culturalism become segregation?
To what extent does multi-culturalism require the integration of cultures, or can national culture itself be multi-cultural? ‘clear
sense of identity open to everyone’.
But, is there a limit?
Yes. The illegal immigrant
Present, but excluded
Illegal immigrants, asylum seekers and refugees
Excluded from the political community, yet they still hold a part within it – a ‘part with no part’
Often held within detention centres without formal rights
Produce an anxiety within the national community
‘Flood of asylum seekers’
Important Points
Nation identity is a strong source of social cohesion and belonging
Yet, belonging is defined by exclusion
Nationalism can take a number of modes
These modes have different ways of managing the boundaries between inclusion and exclusion
Next Week
Turning to the state – and the control of violence
The reading (Pierson – The Modern State) is on Blackboard in the ‘Reading List’ section