Week 4: Race and Ethnicity

Can’t we all just get along?

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Introducing the distinction between race and ethnicity

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Disparities between ethnic differences and racial divisions

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Cultural constructions of ethnicity

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Returning to the economy

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The politics of ‘managing’ ethnic diversity

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http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2O7K-8G2nwU

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http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8lt167csds&feature=relmfu

Why?

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Race is a fixed, biological category – the genetic differences that distinguish one category of humans from another

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This concept informs common sense notions of distinctions based on physical characteristics

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Yet, there are bigger differences within ‘racial’ categories than between them

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Nonetheless, because of its social use, the category of race remains important e.g. race relations

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Ethnicity refers to the shared cultural characteristics that distinguish one group from another

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But to what degree are these; ◦ Based on physical characteristics? ◦ Based on national origin? ◦ Flexible?

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‘Race’ is often considered the most immediately identifiable human characteristic

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The definition of ethnicity is of a social difference

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Yet these differences have become some of the most distinct social divisions

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Why has this occurred and how do states and communities seek to manage these divisions?

Source: http://www.justice.gov.uk/statistics/criminal-justice/race X

Source: http://filipspagnoli.wordpress.com/stats-on-human-rights/statistics-onfreedom/statistics-on-prisoner-population-rates/

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Brunel: http://www.brunel.ac.uk/__data/assets/pdf_file/0006/ 155463/Total-student-population.pdf

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Cambridge: http://www.admin.cam.ac.uk/offices/hr/equality/repor ts/information_201011.pdf

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Why the difference?

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Biological explanations

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Cultural constructions

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Economic and historical disparities

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Political responses

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The concept of race emerged through increased contact between previously isolated peoples

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This contact revealed substantive cultural and material differences

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European explorers considered these differences to be evidence of evolutionary development

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On the basis of these biological considerations, a racial ‘science’ developed

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Whilst the idea of racial hierarchies pre-dated much of evolutionary theory, the two were often combined

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It was argued that cultural differences and material and political divides between peoples were biologically driven according to our ‘stage of evolution’

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This was a particularly effective way of ignoring political injustices

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Biological classifications remain a dominant ‘common-sense’ idea

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Race continues to be discussed politically

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‘Racial’ characteristics are often easily identified

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Physical differences are often the basis for social groupings

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Sociologists use the term ‘ethnicity’ to define persistent cultural identities that distinguish between groupings

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Cultural constructions suggest that differences are relative and divisions political

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Nonetheless, it is unclear how relative these cultural differences can be

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Ethnicities are based on shared cultural traits, whether it is a common heritage, language or location

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Ethnicity can be ‘situational’ and ‘relational’ in that it is not fixed and can alter depending on cultural circumstances ◦ Ethnicity is self-defined

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In this sense an individual can hold multiple ethnic identities, or not be defined by an ethnicity at all

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This approach can assume a strong capacity for agency: The power to change one’s ethnicity

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Indeed, one’s ethnic origin may be distinct from their ethnic identity

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Nonetheless, belong to any group requires recognition from group members and outsiders

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‘Escaping’ negative ethnic classifications is difficult

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This concept of ethnicity provides difficulties for governments

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Is it possible, or desirable, to create objective ethnic categories?

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If ethnicity is self-defined, does that make measurements worthless?

How would (do) you define your own ethnicity?

United States

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We’ve returned to the distinction between differences and divisions

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If ethnicity is culturally constructed rather than being biologically determined, why do divisions appear to be so persistent?

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Inter-group relations theorists argue that divisions between ethnic groups are established through social identities and group relations

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These groupings can view non-members in a stereotyped and prejudiced way

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People discriminate on the basis of their prejudices towards these ethnic stereotypes, racism is produced

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On the basis of this racism, disparities between groups remain

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Stereotypes - exaggerated descriptions applied to every person in some category

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Discrimination - an action that involves treating various categories of people unequally

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Prejudice - a rigid and irrational generalisation about an entire category of people. Prejudices are prejudgments and they may be positive or negative

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Ethnicities are identifiable groups, distinguished by shared language, norms (and physical characteristics?)

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Like in sporting or national rivalries, group members create social identities that distinguish them from other groups

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Consequently, the presence of these groups threatens identities, producing negative emotions

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Moreover, members are likely to have an ‘in-group bias’

Do you think that being annoyed by others’ cultural traits is a form of racism?

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Discrimination occurs at a socio-cultural level

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Divisions arise through group processes rather than purposeful discrimination

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Nonetheless, this discrimination is consistent

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Research has consistently revealed biases job application successes

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Inter-group relations theory is a micro-sociological approach that suggests discrimination, prejudice and racism is passed on through cultural practices

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However, some prejudices have more consequences than others because of power differentials ◦ Some ‘in-groups’ have more power than others

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Institutional racism occurs when the structural patterning of society discriminates against certain groups

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This includes racial profiling and stereotyped media representations that reproduce interpersonal discrimination

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Hegemonic norms discriminate against those outside of the mainstream: anomie

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More influentially, class issues such as income, education and housing reproduce divisions between ethnic groups

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Historical discrimination has resulted in substantial class divisions between ethnic groups

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Many minority groups entered society as immigrant workers, taking on jobs unwanted by locals

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Consequently, the structural reproduction of capitalism discriminations against minority groups

Around two-fifths of people from ethnic minorities live in low-income households, twice the rate for White people.

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Much of the uneven relationship between ethnicities was established in the system of colonialism

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Colonialism involves unequal relationships established through the imposition of control over other groupings

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This imposition establishes exploitative controls over labour and resources, as well as creating negative stereotypes through Eurocentric assumptions

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Non-white groups lie predominately in the working class within Western nations

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Consequently, the same processes that reproduce class relations create divisions between ethnicities, and the resentment of the underclasses

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Moreover, racism prevents the development of solidarity between workers

To what extent can economic factors explain divisions between ethnic groups?

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The politics of ethnicity are a significant concern for the stability of society

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These politics are a matter of managing power relations between majority and minority groups

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Ethnic groups are not necessarily minorities, although they tend to be

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Segregation is the physical and social separation of categories of people, usually imposed by the state but reproduced culturally (often outside of the law)

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Segregation, such as in South Africa and the US in the 20th Century, is based on an assumption of biological superiority ◦ Separate but not equal

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This social Darwinism approach relies on a supposed organic functionality

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The official end of segregation led to attempts to assimilate minorities into mainstream culture

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Assimilation is the process by which minorities gradually adopt patterns of the dominant culture.

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This approach values social cohesion and removes direct discrimination

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But assimilation assumes the superiority of the dominant culture, often producing institutional racism

To what extent should immigrants ‘leave their culture at the door’?

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Assimilation does not tend to overcome existing divisions and distinctions

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In order to attempt to reduce these divisions, state and organisations have produced policies that positively discriminate in favour of disadvantaged groups

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This ‘evens the playing field’

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But does it discriminate against majority groups?

Is it justified that a ‘white’ student should require higher marks to enter university than a ‘black’ student?

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Multi-cultural responses to ethnic diversity emphasise the equal expression of cultures

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This often involves direct support from state organisations to promote minority cultures

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Multi-culturalism is the official stance in most Western nations – although there is often resistance amongst the political Right

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Official constructions of national identity are extended to suggest inclusiveness

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These notions are enshrined in law - we are all ‘equally different’

Can officially instituted multiculturalism positively impact upon minorities ?

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Sociologists make a strong distinction between biological conceptions of race and cultural ethnicity

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Whilst ethnicity appears to be a social difference, it operates as a strong and persistent division

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Racial discrimination can be produced through cultural practices or economic structures

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There have been significant attempts to improve the circumstances of ethnic minorities through political management

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The impact of these policies has been mixed

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Week 5: Gender and sexuality

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Read: Abbott, P. (2006) Gender. In G. Payne (Ed.) Social Divisions

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(second edition), Basingstoke: Macmillan.

Scott, S. and Jackson, S. (2006) Sexuality. In G. Payne (Ed.) Social Divisions (second edition), Basingstoke: Macmillan.

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Formative essay question: To what extent is positive discrimination an effective response to creating equal opportunities in higher education?