Can’t we all just get along?
Introducing the distinction between race and ethnicity
Disparities between ethnic differences and racial divisions
Cultural constructions of ethnicity
Returning to the economy
The politics of ‘managing’ ethnic diversity
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2O7K-8G2nwU
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8lt167csds&feature=relmfu
Why?
Race is a fixed, biological category – the genetic differences that distinguish one category of humans from another
This concept informs common sense notions of distinctions based on physical characteristics
Yet, there are bigger differences within ‘racial’ categories than between them
Nonetheless, because of its social use, the category of race remains important e.g. race relations
Ethnicity refers to the shared cultural characteristics that distinguish one group from another
But to what degree are these; ◦ Based on physical characteristics? ◦ Based on national origin? ◦ Flexible?
‘Race’ is often considered the most immediately identifiable human characteristic
The definition of ethnicity is of a social difference
Yet these differences have become some of the most distinct social divisions
Why has this occurred and how do states and communities seek to manage these divisions?
Source: http://www.justice.gov.uk/statistics/criminal-justice/race X
Source: http://filipspagnoli.wordpress.com/stats-on-human-rights/statistics-onfreedom/statistics-on-prisoner-population-rates/
Brunel: http://www.brunel.ac.uk/__data/assets/pdf_file/0006/ 155463/Total-student-population.pdf
Cambridge: http://www.admin.cam.ac.uk/offices/hr/equality/repor ts/information_201011.pdf
Why the difference?
Biological explanations
Cultural constructions
Economic and historical disparities
Political responses
The concept of race emerged through increased contact between previously isolated peoples
This contact revealed substantive cultural and material differences
European explorers considered these differences to be evidence of evolutionary development
On the basis of these biological considerations, a racial ‘science’ developed
Whilst the idea of racial hierarchies pre-dated much of evolutionary theory, the two were often combined
It was argued that cultural differences and material and political divides between peoples were biologically driven according to our ‘stage of evolution’
This was a particularly effective way of ignoring political injustices
Biological classifications remain a dominant ‘common-sense’ idea
Race continues to be discussed politically
‘Racial’ characteristics are often easily identified
Physical differences are often the basis for social groupings
Sociologists use the term ‘ethnicity’ to define persistent cultural identities that distinguish between groupings
Cultural constructions suggest that differences are relative and divisions political
Nonetheless, it is unclear how relative these cultural differences can be
Ethnicities are based on shared cultural traits, whether it is a common heritage, language or location
Ethnicity can be ‘situational’ and ‘relational’ in that it is not fixed and can alter depending on cultural circumstances ◦ Ethnicity is self-defined
In this sense an individual can hold multiple ethnic identities, or not be defined by an ethnicity at all
This approach can assume a strong capacity for agency: The power to change one’s ethnicity
Indeed, one’s ethnic origin may be distinct from their ethnic identity
Nonetheless, belong to any group requires recognition from group members and outsiders
‘Escaping’ negative ethnic classifications is difficult
This concept of ethnicity provides difficulties for governments
Is it possible, or desirable, to create objective ethnic categories?
If ethnicity is self-defined, does that make measurements worthless?
How would (do) you define your own ethnicity?
United States
We’ve returned to the distinction between differences and divisions
If ethnicity is culturally constructed rather than being biologically determined, why do divisions appear to be so persistent?
Inter-group relations theorists argue that divisions between ethnic groups are established through social identities and group relations
These groupings can view non-members in a stereotyped and prejudiced way
People discriminate on the basis of their prejudices towards these ethnic stereotypes, racism is produced
On the basis of this racism, disparities between groups remain
Stereotypes - exaggerated descriptions applied to every person in some category
Discrimination - an action that involves treating various categories of people unequally
Prejudice - a rigid and irrational generalisation about an entire category of people. Prejudices are prejudgments and they may be positive or negative
Ethnicities are identifiable groups, distinguished by shared language, norms (and physical characteristics?)
Like in sporting or national rivalries, group members create social identities that distinguish them from other groups
Consequently, the presence of these groups threatens identities, producing negative emotions
Moreover, members are likely to have an ‘in-group bias’
Do you think that being annoyed by others’ cultural traits is a form of racism?
Discrimination occurs at a socio-cultural level
Divisions arise through group processes rather than purposeful discrimination
Nonetheless, this discrimination is consistent
Research has consistently revealed biases job application successes
Inter-group relations theory is a micro-sociological approach that suggests discrimination, prejudice and racism is passed on through cultural practices
However, some prejudices have more consequences than others because of power differentials ◦ Some ‘in-groups’ have more power than others
Institutional racism occurs when the structural patterning of society discriminates against certain groups
This includes racial profiling and stereotyped media representations that reproduce interpersonal discrimination
Hegemonic norms discriminate against those outside of the mainstream: anomie
More influentially, class issues such as income, education and housing reproduce divisions between ethnic groups
Historical discrimination has resulted in substantial class divisions between ethnic groups
Many minority groups entered society as immigrant workers, taking on jobs unwanted by locals
Consequently, the structural reproduction of capitalism discriminations against minority groups
Around two-fifths of people from ethnic minorities live in low-income households, twice the rate for White people.
Much of the uneven relationship between ethnicities was established in the system of colonialism
Colonialism involves unequal relationships established through the imposition of control over other groupings
This imposition establishes exploitative controls over labour and resources, as well as creating negative stereotypes through Eurocentric assumptions
Non-white groups lie predominately in the working class within Western nations
Consequently, the same processes that reproduce class relations create divisions between ethnicities, and the resentment of the underclasses
Moreover, racism prevents the development of solidarity between workers
To what extent can economic factors explain divisions between ethnic groups?
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The politics of ethnicity are a significant concern for the stability of society
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These politics are a matter of managing power relations between majority and minority groups
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Ethnic groups are not necessarily minorities, although they tend to be
Segregation is the physical and social separation of categories of people, usually imposed by the state but reproduced culturally (often outside of the law)
Segregation, such as in South Africa and the US in the 20th Century, is based on an assumption of biological superiority ◦ Separate but not equal
This social Darwinism approach relies on a supposed organic functionality
The official end of segregation led to attempts to assimilate minorities into mainstream culture
Assimilation is the process by which minorities gradually adopt patterns of the dominant culture.
This approach values social cohesion and removes direct discrimination
But assimilation assumes the superiority of the dominant culture, often producing institutional racism
To what extent should immigrants ‘leave their culture at the door’?
Assimilation does not tend to overcome existing divisions and distinctions
In order to attempt to reduce these divisions, state and organisations have produced policies that positively discriminate in favour of disadvantaged groups
This ‘evens the playing field’
But does it discriminate against majority groups?
Is it justified that a ‘white’ student should require higher marks to enter university than a ‘black’ student?
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Multi-cultural responses to ethnic diversity emphasise the equal expression of cultures
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This often involves direct support from state organisations to promote minority cultures
Multi-culturalism is the official stance in most Western nations – although there is often resistance amongst the political Right
Official constructions of national identity are extended to suggest inclusiveness
These notions are enshrined in law - we are all ‘equally different’
Can officially instituted multiculturalism positively impact upon minorities ?
Sociologists make a strong distinction between biological conceptions of race and cultural ethnicity
Whilst ethnicity appears to be a social difference, it operates as a strong and persistent division
Racial discrimination can be produced through cultural practices or economic structures
There have been significant attempts to improve the circumstances of ethnic minorities through political management
The impact of these policies has been mixed
Week 5: Gender and sexuality
Read: Abbott, P. (2006) Gender. In G. Payne (Ed.) Social Divisions
(second edition), Basingstoke: Macmillan. Scott, S. and Jackson, S. (2006) Sexuality. In G. Payne (Ed.) Social Divisions (second edition), Basingstoke: Macmillan.
Formative essay question: To what extent is positive discrimination an effective response to creating equal opportunities in higher education?