Claire Brooks - Ask yourself: “Will all children be challenged by this…?

Cognitive science

Charlie Day - Literature Review of Three Cognitive Science Approaches to Teaching and Learning

Introduction:

Cognitive psychologists study the basic processes involved in the acquisition of knowledge, understanding through thought, and the process of learning (Sumeracki et al., 2019). It is important to note the purpose of education, to ensure students learn knowledge and are able to apply this learned knowledge to exam questions and the work place, this application of knowledge is referred to as knowledge transfer (Barnett & Ceci, 2002). There are many different teaching and learning strategies that can be used based on cognitive science, these strategies include; cognitive load theory, duel coding, and retrieval practice (Sumeracki et al., 2018), these three examples will be discussed in more detail in this literature review.

Cognitive Load Theory:

Cognitive load theory aims to explain how much information a person’s working memory can process at any one time. Students are presented with huge amounts of information in a classroom, this includes the knowledge being taught and other stimuli in the room. This information can be discarded (forgotten) or moved to long term memory (Plass et al., 2010). Working memory failure due to cognitive overload is characterised by incomplete recall of knowledge, failing to follow instructions, place-keeping errors, and task abandonment (Shibli & West, 2018). Cognitive load theory research suggest four main strategies that can be used to ensure students’ working memory is not over loaded: Presentation of information By reducing non-essential information and removing non-essential images students are exposed to less information, thus reducing the cognitive impact. Additionally information on PowerPoint slides should be grouped together so that students are able to make links between different sources of information. Lesson planning Lessons should be planned with student prior knowledge in mind. This means that lessons build on prior knowledge rather than starting from scratch. This means students are able to form links and build on their understanding. Lessons should be ordered in a logical sequence in order to achieve this and large topics should be broken down into smaller topics. Examples Examples of where the knowledge is used is also effective at reducing risk of cognitive failure as students are able to formulate ideas and images to help learn the knowledge. Additionally worked examples are also beneficial compared to be presenting with lots of information as students are able to construct the information slowly and ask for further explanation if required. Independent problem solving Increasing independence over a period of time is also highly effective, this could include reducing the number of examples used. By increasing independence student learn study skills and are able to construct meaning of information at their own pace. Additionally, independence also increases in-depth understanding of knowledge.

By using a range of cognitive load theory approaches student engagement and understanding of topics should increase. Many of these approaches are already used, however, reviewing PowerPoint presentations and providing more worked examples are time effective methods of ensuring working memory is not overloaded. It is important to note that although reducing information is effective, reducing too much information may lead to insufficient knowledge and therefor potentially a deep understanding is lost.

Dual Coding:

Dual coding theory explains that students require different representations of the same knowledge to be able to learn it effectively, this comes in the form of verbal explanation, written explanation and imagery to present knowledge (Clark & Paivio, 1991). The use of images and visual representations within Science is very common, images are able to replace vast amounts of text and allows student to be able to visualise theories, intern this allows students to be able to store knowledge in their long term memory and retrieve it when required (Cuevas & Dawson, 2018). The basic principle of dual coding is to include basic images that present information effectively. It is important to note that text should be used to compliment the image as students are required to be able to verbalise and write explanations. For this reason written explanations are important for students to be able to learn key terminology and include the accuracy of detail necessary for completing examinations. There are many examples of where dual coding can be used in education: Explanations Simple hand drawn diagrams can be effective at removing misconceptions, and with influences from cognitive load theory, removes unnecessary information ensuring cognitive load does not fail. Methods The use of diagrams and written procedures is effective as students are able to visualise what they are required to do and also able to make sense of the written instructions. This is particularly important with the new 9-1 Science GCSE and reformed Science A Level qualifications. Summaries The use of mind maps is an effective dual coding method that allows students to be able to visualise their learning and also allows students to make links between topics. Dual coding is an effective form of education, it is also very time effective and has a high impact on learning (Cuevas & Dawson, 2018). However, it is important to ensure that written instructions are not forgotten and detail is not lost in the simplicity of diagrams. It is also important to ensure students are able to both verbalise and write explanations using tier 3 terminology.

Retrieval Practice:

Retrieval practice has been shown to increase student learning by brining information to the forefront of the mind (Siler & Benjamin, 2019). It does not reduce forgetting but does promote long lasting learning. Research suggests that when students retrieve information they must have a level of success in order for it to work, by simply guessing or writing random answers students are not retrieving information (Kornell et al, 2009), this is important for all age groups. Additionally, in order for retrieval practice to be

effective students are required to think and challenge their ideas as this cements information and knowledge into the long term memory (Lehman et al., 2014). In order to maximise the usefulness of retrieval practice spaced throughout lessons. Retrieval practice can be used in many way in the classroom:

Do now starters Do now starters can be used effectively as students enter the classroom. These starter activities could include a series of questions based on their prior learning. By using starters students recall information from previous lessons frequently therefore improving their memory. Additionally these starters can include a range of questions which challenge students and require students to look back over their notes to find the information. Quizzes The use of quizzes throughout lessons to check learning can also be effective, these quizzes ensure students are learning and are able to promote fact recall. Additionally, by checking learning by this method allows the teacher to be able to address any misconceptions before moving on. Knowledge organisers Knowledge organisers are a useful resource students can use to practice their knowledge retrieval. By using knowledge organisers effectively students should produce revision notes and use rote learning. Students should then quiz their knowledge and recall what they have learned. Retrieval practice is a very important method of teaching and learning, it ensures students learn facts and as some evidence suggests students feel more prepared for public examination (Sumeracki et al., 2019). However, knowledge retrieval works most effectively when students face some level of challenge, this may be difficult to do as most start quizzes or mid lesson quizzes only require students to recall specific facts. Additionally, high attaining students may not benefit greatly from knowledge retrieval as they require a deeper understanding to complete more difficult exam questions.

Conclusion:

In this literature review three different teaching and learning strategies based on cognitive science have been discussed; cognitive load theory, dual coding, and retrieval practice. From the research each of these strategies are highly effective and all of them are able to be used in the classroom. Cognitive load theory suggests removing unnecessary information, this is time effective and promotes good learning. However, this does mean that students who are able to process more information are potentially limited to the basic facts. Additionally, this method promotes example based learning to help students visualise concepts. This allows a teacher to model good the learning effectively, however this may prove difficult when explaining the most abstract concepts. Dual coding promotes the use of images, written and verbal explanations in order for students to be able to visualise concepts. This theory, like cognitive load theory, works very well and does not take a huge amount of time to achieve. However, like cognitive load theory, if used incorrectly this technique may jeopardise deeper understanding and may mean student do not use correct tier three terminology, thus use this theory must be approached with caution in order for all students to make progress.