X=x by CRABTREE.biz

X=X

Contents 1

Conspiracy theory

1.1

Usage of the term . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.1.1

History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.1.2

Acquired derogatory meaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.1.3

As popular culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.1.4

Scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.1.5

Distinguishing from institutional analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.2

Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.3

Characteristics of a conspiracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.4

Psychology

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

To explain evil forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.5.1

Walker’s ﬁve kinds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.5.2

Barkun’s three types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.5.3

Rothbard: shallow vs. deep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Conspiracism as a world view . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.6.1

United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.6.2

Middle East . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.7

Prevalence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.8

Psychological origins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.8.1

Projection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.8.2

Epistemic bias . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.8.3

Clinical psychology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Socio-political origins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.9.1

Inﬂuence of critical theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.9.2

Media tropes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.9.3

Fusion paranoia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.10 Political use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.11 Conspiracy theories on the Web . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.12 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.13 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.14 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.4.1 1.5

1.6

1.9

CONTENTS 1.15 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

New World Order (conspiracy theory)

2.1

History of the term . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.2

Conspiracy theories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.2.1

End Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.2.2

Freemasonry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.2.3

Illuminati . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.2.4

The Protocols of the Elders of Zion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.2.5

Round Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.2.6

The Open Conspiracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.2.7

New Age . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.2.8

Fourth Reich . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.2.9

Alien invasion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.2.10 Brave New World . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Postulated implementations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.3.1

Gradualism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.3.2

Coup d'ĂŠtat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.3.3

Mass surveillance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.3.4

Occultism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.3.5

Population control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.3.6

Mind control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.4

Alleged conspirators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.5

Criticisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.6

See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.7

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.8

Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.9

External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.3

Illuminati

3.1

History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.1.1

Origins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.1.2

Transition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.1.3

Reform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.1.4

Attempts at expansion

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.1.5

Zenith

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.1.6

ConďŹ&#x201A;ict with Rosicrucians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.1.7

Internal dissent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.1.8

Decline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.2

Barruel and Robison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.3

Modern Illuminati . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.4

Popular culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

CONTENTS

iii

3.4.1

Modern conspiracy theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.4.2

Novels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.5

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.6

Other reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.7

External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Age of Enlightenment

4.1

Philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.2

Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.3

Economics and law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.4

Politics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.4.1

Theories of government . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.4.2

Enlightened absolutism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.4.3

The French Revolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Religion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.5.1

Separation of church and state . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.6

National variations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.7

Historiography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.7.1

Deﬁnition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.7.2

Time span . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.7.3

Modern study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Society and culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.8.1

Social and cultural implications in the arts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Dissemination of ideas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.9.1

The Republic of Letters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.9.2

The book industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.9.3

Natural history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.9.4

Scientiﬁc and literary journals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.9.5

Encyclopedias and dictionaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.9.6

Popularization of science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.9.7

Schools and universities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.9.8

Learned academies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.9.9

Salons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.9.10 Coﬀeehouses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.9.11 Debating societies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.9.12 Masonic lodges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.10 Important intellectuals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.11 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.12 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.13 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.13.1 Reference and surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.13.2 Specialty studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.5

4.8 4.9

CONTENTS 4.13.3 Primary sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.14 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Masonic conspiracy theories

5.1

List of conspiracy theories associated with Freemasonry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

5.1.1

Political . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

5.1.2

Religious . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

5.1.3

Alleged occult inﬂuences on popular culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

5.1.4

Other . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

5.2

See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

5.3

Notes and references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

5.4

External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Ashkali and Balkan Egyptians

6.1

History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

6.2

Demographics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

6.3

Culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

6.4

See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

6.5

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

6.5.1

Footnotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

6.5.2

Cited works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

6.6 7

Judeo-Masonic conspiracy theory

7.1

Elders of Zion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

7.2

“Conceptual inﬂuence” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

7.3

Barry Domvile, and The Link . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

7.4

Post-Soviet Russia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

7.5

Link to the Bilderberg group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

7.6

See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

7.7

Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

7.8

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

7.8.1

Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

7.9 8

Catholic Church

8.1

Name . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

8.2

Organisation

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

8.2.1

Papacy and Roman Curia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

8.2.2

Canon law

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

8.2.3

Autonomous particular churches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

8.2.4

Dioceses, parishes, and religious institutes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

8.2.5

Membership statistics

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

CONTENTS 8.3

v . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

8.3.1

Nature of God . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

8.3.2

Nature of the Church . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

8.3.3

Judgement after death

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

8.3.4

Virgin Mary and devotions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Liturgical worship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

8.4.1

Western rites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

8.4.2

Eastern rites

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

8.4.3

Sacraments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Social and cultural issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

8.5.1

Sexual morality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

8.5.2

Social services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

8.5.3

State and religion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

8.5.4

Women and ordination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

8.5.5

Sex abuse cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

8.5.6

Climate change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

8.6.1

Apostolic era and papacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

8.6.2

Antiquity and Roman Empire

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

8.6.3

Medieval and Renaissance periods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

8.6.4

Age of discovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

8.6.5

Reformation

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

8.6.6

Enlightenment and modern period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

8.6.7

Twentieth century

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

8.6.8

Twenty-ďŹ rst century

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

8.7

See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

8.8

Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

8.9

References

8.4

8.5

8.6

Doctrine

History

8.10 Bibliography

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

8.11 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 9

The Protocols of the Elders of Zion 9.1

110

Creation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 9.1.1

Sources employed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110

9.1.2

Literary forgery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111

9.1.3

Maurice Joly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111

9.1.4

Hermann Goedsche . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111

9.2

Structure and content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111

9.3

History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 9.3.1

Publication history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112

9.3.2

First Russian language editions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112

9.3.3

Emergence in Russia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112

CONTENTS 9.3.4

The Protocols in the West . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113

9.3.5

Middle East . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

9.3.6

Switzerland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

9.3.7

Germany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116

9.3.8

Italy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117

9.3.9

Modern era . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117

9.4

See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117

9.5

Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117

9.6

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118

9.7

Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120

9.8

Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120

9.9

External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121

10 Judaism

123

10.1 Deﬁning characteristics and principles of faith . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 10.1.1 Deﬁning characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 10.1.2 Core tenets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 10.2 Jewish religious texts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 10.2.1 Jewish legal literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 10.2.2 Jewish philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 10.2.3 Rabbinic hermeneutics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 10.3 Jewish identity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 10.3.1 Origin of the term “Judaism” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 10.3.2 Distinction between Jews as a people and Judaism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 10.3.3 Who is a Jew? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 10.3.4 Jewish demographics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 10.4 Jewish religious movements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 10.4.1 Rabbinic Judaism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 10.4.2 Alternative Judaism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 10.5 Jewish observances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 10.5.1 Jewish ethics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 10.5.2 Prayers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 10.5.3 Religious clothing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 10.5.4 Jewish holidays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 10.5.5 Torah readings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 10.5.6 Synagogues and religious buildings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 10.5.7 Dietary laws: kashrut . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 10.5.8 Laws of ritual purity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 10.5.9 Life-cycle events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 10.6 Community leadership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 10.6.1 Classical priesthood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 10.6.2 Prayer leaders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138

CONTENTS

vii

10.6.3 Specialized religious roles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 10.7 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 10.7.1 Origins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 10.7.2 Antiquity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 10.7.3 Historical Jewish groupings (to 1700) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 10.7.4 Persecutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 10.7.5 Hasidism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 10.7.6 The Enlightenment and new religious movements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142 10.7.7 Spectrum of observance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142 10.8 Judaism and other religions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142 10.8.1 Christianity and Judaism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 10.8.2 Islam and Judaism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 10.8.3 Syncretic movements incorporating Judaism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 10.9 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 10.10References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 10.11Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 10.12External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 11 Freemasonry

152

11.1 Organisation, structure and beliefs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 11.1.1 Masonic Lodge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 11.1.2 Ritual and symbolism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 11.1.3 Organisations of lodges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 11.1.4 Other degrees, orders and bodies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 11.1.5 Joining a lodge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 11.2 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156 11.2.1 Origins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156 11.2.2 North America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156 11.2.3 Emergence of Continental Freemasonry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 11.2.4 Freemasonry and women . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 11.3 Anti-Masonry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 11.3.1 Religious opposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 11.3.2 Political opposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160 11.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162 11.5 Footnotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162 11.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 12 Great Gypsy Round-up 12.1 Organisation

166

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166

12.2 Reversal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 12.3 Epilogue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 12.4 Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167

viii

CONTENTS 12.5 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167

13 Gypsy Lore Society

168

13.1 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 13.2 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 14 Zionism

169

14.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 14.2 Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170 14.3 Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170 14.3.1 Labor Zionism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 14.3.2 Liberal Zionism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172 14.3.3 Nationalist Zionism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172 14.3.4 Religious Zionism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173 14.3.5 Green Zionism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173 14.3.6 Neo-Zionism and Post-Zionism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173 14.3.7 Zionism and Haredi Judaism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173 14.4 Zionist beliefs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174 14.5 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 14.5.1 Balfour Declaration and the Palestine Mandate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176 14.5.2 Rise of Hitler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 14.5.3 Post-WWII . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178 14.6 Non-Jewish support for Zionism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179 14.6.1 Christians supporting Zionism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179 14.6.2 Muslims supporting Zionism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180 14.6.3 Hindu support for Zionism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180 14.7 Marcus Garvey and Black Zionism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 14.8 Opposition to Zionism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 14.8.1 Catholic Church and Zionism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 14.8.2 Characterization as colonialism or ethnic cleansing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182 14.8.3 Characterization as racist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182 14.8.4 Anti-Zionism or Antisemitism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 14.9 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 14.9.1 History of Zionism and Israel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 14.9.2 Miscellanea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 14.10Footnotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 14.11Primary sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 14.12Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 14.13External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 15 International Romani Union

193

15.1 Mission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193

CONTENTS

15.2 Membership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193 15.3 Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194 15.3.1 Roma Virtual Network (RVN) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194 15.4 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194 15.5 Funding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194 15.6 Institutional links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194 15.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 16 Nazism

196

16.1 Etymology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196 16.2 Position in the political spectrum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197 16.3 Origins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198 16.3.1 VĂślkisch nationalism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198 16.3.2 Racial theories and antisemitism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200 16.3.3 Response to World War I and fascism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202 16.4 Ideology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204 16.4.1 Nationalism and racialism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204 16.4.2 Social class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207 16.4.3 Sex and gender . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207 16.4.4 Religion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208 16.4.5 Economics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209 16.4.6 Counter-revolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211 16.4.7 Totalitarianism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212 16.5 Post-war Nazism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212 16.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212 16.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212 16.7.1 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212 16.7.2 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 16.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 17 King of the Gypsies

220

17.1 Scotland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220 17.1.1 John (Johnnie) Faa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220 17.1.2 Johnne Wanne . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220 17.1.3 William Faa II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220 17.1.4 Billy Marshall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221 17.2 England . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221 17.2.1 Leaders identiďŹ ed in Martin Markall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221 17.2.2 Boswells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222 17.2.3 Harry Burton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223 17.2.4 Matty Cooper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223 17.2.5 Xavier Petulengro/ Smith . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223

CONTENTS 17.2.6 Gilderoy Scamp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223 17.2.7 Louis Welch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223 17.3 Wales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223 17.3.1 Abram Wood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224 17.4 Norway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224 17.4.1 Karoli family . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224 17.5 Italy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224 17.5.1 Scaramuccia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224 17.6 Romania . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224 17.6.1 Iulian Rădulescu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224 17.6.2 Florin Cioabă . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224 17.6.3 John Kyle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224 17.7 Hungary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224 17.7.1 Tamás Bolgár . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224 17.8 Poland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224 17.8.1 Matiasz Korolewicz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224 17.8.2 Janusz Kwiek . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224 17.9 Bulgaria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225 17.9.1 Shibilis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225 17.10United States of America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225 17.10.1 M. H. Frank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225 17.10.2 Elijah George . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225 17.10.3 Unidentiﬁed Romany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225 17.11Venezuela . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225 17.11.1 Angelo Vallerugo III . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225 17.12Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225 17.13References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225

18 Lyuli

227

18.1 Names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227 18.2 Lyuli in Kyrgyzstan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227 18.3 Lyuli in Russia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227 18.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228 18.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228 18.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228 19 Adolf Hitler

229

19.1 Early years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229 19.1.1 Ancestry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229 19.1.2 Childhood and education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230 19.1.3 Early adulthood in Vienna and Munich . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231 19.1.4 World War I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231

CONTENTS

19.2 Entry into politics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232 19.2.1 Beer Hall Putsch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234 19.2.2 Rebuilding the NSDAP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234 19.3 Rise to power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 19.3.1 Brüning administration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 19.3.2 Appointment as chancellor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 19.3.3 Reichstag fire and March elections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236 19.3.4 Day of Potsdam and the Enabling Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236 19.3.5 Removal of remaining limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237 19.4 Nazi Germany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238 19.4.1 Economy and culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238 19.4.2 Rearmament and new alliances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238 19.5 World War II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239 19.5.1 Early diplomatic successes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239 19.5.2 Start of World War II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241 19.5.3 Path to defeat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 19.5.4 Defeat and death . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244 19.5.5 The Holocaust . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245 19.6 Leadership style . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246 19.7 Legacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247 19.8 Views on religion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247 19.9 Health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248 19.10Family . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248 19.11In propaganda films . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249 19.11.1 List of propaganda and film appearances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249 19.12See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249 19.13Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249 19.14References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249 19.14.1 Citations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249 19.14.2 Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255 19.15External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260 20 Nuremberg Laws

261

20.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262 20.1.1 Nazi eugenics and racial belief . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262 20.2 Nazi Germany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262 20.2.1 “The Jewish problem” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263 20.2.2 Events at Nuremberg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263 20.3 Text of the laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264 20.3.1 Law for the Protection of German Blood and German Honour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264 20.3.2 Reich Citizenship Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265 20.4 Classiﬁcations under the laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265

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CONTENTS 20.5 Impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265 20.6 Legislation in other countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267 20.7 Existing copies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267 20.8 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267 20.9 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267 20.10Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269 20.11Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270 20.12External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270

21 Sinti

271

21.1 Name . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271 21.2 History

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271

21.2.1 The Holocaust 21.3 Notable Sinti

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272

21.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273 21.5 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273 21.6 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273 21.7 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273 21.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273 22 World Romani Congress

274

22.1 First World Romani Congress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274 22.2 Second World Romani Congress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274 22.3 Third World Romani Congress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274 22.4 Fourth World Romani Congress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274 22.5 Fifth World Romani Congress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274 22.6 Sixth World Romani Congress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275 22.7 Seventh World Romani Congress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275 22.8 Eighth World Romani Congress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275 22.9 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275 23 Numerology

276

23.1 History

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276

23.2 Skepticism

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276

23.3 Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277 23.3.1 Alphabetic systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277 23.3.2 Abjad system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277 23.4 Chinese numerology

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277

23.4.1 Chinese number deďŹ nitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277 23.5 Indian numerology

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278

23.6 Other uses of the term

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278

23.6.1 To describe questionable concepts based on possibly coincidental numerical patterns . . . . 278

CONTENTS

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23.6.2 Attempts by gamblers to see patterns in random chance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279 23.7 In popular culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279 23.8 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279 23.9 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279 23.10References

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280

23.11External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280 24 Zott

281

24.1 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281 24.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281 24.3 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282 24.3.1 Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282 24.3.2 Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308 24.3.3 Content license . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321

Chapter 1

Conspiracy theory For other uses, see Conspiracy theory (disambiguation) in social groups and the perceived existence of evil For actual conspiracies, see Conspiracy (civil), forces.[2][3][4][5] It has been suggested by some thinkers Conspiracy (criminal), and List of conspiracies (political) that conspiracy theories have chieﬂy psychological or socio-political origins. Proposed psychological origins A conspiracy theory is an explanatory hypothesis that include projection; the personal need to explain “a significant event [with] a signiﬁcant cause;" and the product of accuses two or more persons, a group, or an organization of having caused or covered up, through secret planning various kinds and stages of thought disorder, such as paranoid disposition, ranging in severity to diagnosable menand deliberate action, an event or situation which is typically taken to be illegal or harmful. Although the term tal illnesses. Some people prefer socio-political explanaunpre“conspiracy theory” has acquired a derogatory meaning tions over the insecurity of encountering random, [6][7][8][9][10][11] dictable, or otherwise inexplicable events. over time and is often used to dismiss or ridicule beliefs in conspiracies,[1] it has also continued to be used to refer However, some thinkers, particularly philosophers, have to actual, proven conspiracies, such as United States Pres- argued that belief in conspiracy theories can be rational ident Richard Nixon and his aides conspiring to cover up and that the skepticism of conspiracy theorising (the generation of conspiracy theories) is akin to a modern-day the Watergate scandal in the 1970s. superstition.[12][13][14]

1.1.1 History The Oxford English Dictionary deﬁnes conspiracy theory as “the theory that an event or phenomenon occurs as a result of a conspiracy between interested parties; spec. a belief that some covert but inﬂuential agency (typically political in motivation and oppressive in intent) is responsible for an unexplained event”, and cites a 1909 article in The American Historical Review as the earliest usage example.[15][16] Currently, conspiracy theories are widely present on the Web, in the forms of blogs and YouTube videos.

1.1.2 Acquired derogatory meaning Originally a neutral term, since the mid-1960s in the aftermath of the assassination of US President John F. Kennedy, it has acquired a derogatory meaning, implying a paranoid tendency to see the inﬂuence of some malign covert agency in events.[17] The term is often used to dismiss claims that the critic deems ridiculous, misconceived, paranoid, unfounded, outlandish, or irrational.[18] 1.1 Usage of the term A conspiracy theory that is proven to be correct, such as the notion that United States President Richard Nixon and Some scholars suggest that people formulate conspir- his aides conspired to cover up Watergate, is usually reacy theories to explain, for example, power relations ferred to as something else, such as investigative journalThe Eye of Providence, or the all-seeing eye of God, seen here on the US $1 bill, has been taken by some to be evidence of a conspiracy involving the founders of the United States.

CHAPTER 1. CONSPIRACY THEORY

ism or historical analysis.[19] Despite conspiracy theorists often being dismissed as a “fringe group,” evidence suggests that people from “a broad cross-section of Americans today—traversing ethnic, gender, education, occupation, and other divides” believe in a wide variety of conspiracy theories.[20] The term often implies that the proposed explanation of events is perceived as violating Occam’s razor or the principle of falsiﬁability.

1.1.5 Distinguishing from institutional analysis

Noam Chomsky contrasts conspiracy theory as more or less the opposite of institutional analysis, which focuses mostly on the public, long-term behavior of publicly known institutions, as recorded in, for example, scholarly documents or mainstream media reports. ConspirRebecca Moore said, “The word 'conspiracy' works much acy theory examines the actions of secretive coalitions of [30][31] the same way the word 'cult' does to discredit advocates individuals. of a certain view or persuasion. Historians do not use the word 'conspiracy' to describe accurate historical reports. On the contrary, they use it to indicate a lack of veracity 1.2 Examples and objectivity.”[21] Main article: List of conspiracy theories

1.1.3

As popular culture

Clare Birchall at King’s College London describes conspiracy theory as a “form of popular knowledge or interpretation.”[22] By acquiring the title 'knowledge', conspiracy theory is considered alongside more 'legitimate' modes of knowing.[23] The relationship between legitimate and illegitimate knowledge, Birchall claims, is far closer than common dismissals of conspiracy theory would have us believe.[24] Other popular knowledge might include alien abduction narratives, gossip, some new age philosophies, religious beliefs, and astrology. Harry G. West writes, “Conspiracy theorists on the internet are often dismissed as a “fringe” group, but evidence suggests that a broad cross section of Americans today—traversing ethnic, gender, education, occupation, and other divides—gives credence to certain conspiracy theories.” West discusses conspiracy theories as a part of American popular culture, comparing them to hypernationalism and religious fundamentalism.[25]

1.1.4

Scale

1.3 Characteristics of a conspiracy Katherine K. Young writes that “every real conspiracy has had at least four characteristic features: groups, not isolated individuals; illegal or sinister aims, not ones that would beneﬁt society as a whole; orchestrated acts, not a series of spontaneous and haphazard ones; and secret planning, not public discussion”.[32]

1.4 Psychology The widespread belief in conspiracy theories has become a topic of interest for sociologists, psychologists, and experts in folklore since at least the 1960s, when a number of conspiracy theories arose regarding the assassination of U.S. President John F. Kennedy. Sociologist Türkay Salim Nefes underlines the political nature of conspiracy theories. He suggests that one of the most important characteristics of these accounts is their attempt to unveil the “real but hidden” power relations in social groups.[4][5]

1.4.1 To explain evil forces

The political scientist Michael Barkun, discussing the usage of “conspiracy theory” in contemporary American culture, holds that this term is used for a belief that explains an event as the result of a secret plot by exceptionally powerful and cunning conspirators to achieve a malevolent end.[2][3] According to Barkun, the appeal of But, conspiracy has an integral role in many or most large- conspiracism is threefold: scale criminal enterprises, including those prosecuted under the Racketeer Inﬂuenced and Corrupt Organizations • “First, conspiracy theories claim to explain what Act (RICO) statute. A civil action for damages by victims institutional analysis cannot. They appear to make of criminal enterprise, based on conspiracy, is prescribed sense out of a world that is otherwise confusing. in RICO.[27][28] As one basic American police academy • Second, they do so in an appealingly simple way, text deﬁnes it, “When a crime requires a large number of by dividing the world sharply between the forces of people, a conspiracy is formed.”[29] Professor of political science and sociology John George notes that unlike conspiracy theories propagated by extremists, conspiracies prosecuted within the criminal justice system require a high standard of evidence, are usually small in scale, and involve “a single event or issue”.[26]

1.6. CONSPIRACISM AS A WORLD VIEW light, and the forces of darkness. They trace all evil back to a single source, the conspirators and their agents. • Third, conspiracy theories are often presented as special, secret knowledge unknown or unappreciated by others. For conspiracy theorists, the masses are a brainwashed herd, while the conspiracy theorists in the know can congratulate themselves on penetrating the plotters’ deceptions.”[3]

1.5 Types 1.5.1

Walker’s ﬁve kinds

Jesse Walker (2013) has developed a historical typology of ﬁve basic kinds of conspiracy theories: • The “Enemy Outside” is based on devilish ﬁgures mobilizing outside the community and scheming against it.

3 • Systemic conspiracy theories. The conspiracy is believed to have broad goals, usually conceived as securing control of a country, a region, or even the entire world. While the goals are sweeping, the conspiratorial machinery is generally simple: a single, evil organization implements a plan to inﬁltrate and subvert existing institutions. This is a common scenario in conspiracy theories that focus on the alleged machinations of Jews, Freemasons, or the Catholic Church, as well as theories centered on Communism or international capitalists.[2] • Superconspiracy theories. Conspiratorial constructs in which multiple conspiracies are believed to be linked together hierarchically. Event and systemic are joined in complex ways, so that conspiracies come to be nested together. At the summit of the conspiratorial hierarchy is a distant but powerful force manipulating lesser conspiratorial factors. Superconspiracy theories have enjoyed particular growth since the 1980s, as reﬂected in the work of authors such as David Icke and Milton William Cooper.[2]

• The “Enemy Within” finds the conspirators lurking 1.5.3 Rothbard: shallow vs. deep inside the nation, indistinguishable from ordinary Characterized by Robert W. Welch, Jr. as “one of the citizens. few major scholars who openly endorses conspiracy the• The “Enemy Above” involves powerful people ma- ory”, the economist Murray Rothbard has argued in favor of “deep” conspiracy theories versus “shallow” ones. nipulating the system for their own gain. According to Rothbard, a “shallow” theorist observes • The “Enemy Below” features the lower classes ready a questionable or potentially shady event and asks Cui to break through their constraints and overturn the bono? (“who benefits?"), jumping to the conclusion that a posited beneficiary is in fact responsible for covertly insocial order. fluencing events. In contrast, the “deep” conspiracy the• The “Benevolent Conspiracies” are angelic forces orist begins with a suspicious hunch, but goes further by that work behind the scenes to improve the world seeking out reputable and verifiable evidence. Rothbard described the scholarship of a deep conspiracy theorist and help people.[33] as “essentially confirming your early paranoia through a deeper factual analysis”.[34][35]

1.5.2

Barkun’s three types

Barkun (discussed above) has categorized, in ascending 1.6 Conspiracism as a world view order of breadth, the types of conspiracy theories as follows: Academic work in conspiracy theories and conspiracism (a world view that places conspiracy theories centrally in • Event conspiracy theories. The conspiracy is held to the unfolding of history) presents a range of hypothebe responsible for a limited, discrete event or set of ses as a basis of studying the genre. According to Berlet events. The conspiratorial forces are alleged to have and Lyons, “Conspiracism is a particular narrative form focused their energies on a limited, well-deﬁned ob- of scapegoating that frames demonized enemies as part jective. The best-known example in the recent past of a vast insidious plot against the common good, while the scapegoater as a hero for sounding the are theories about a conspiracy causing the Kennedy it valorizes [36] alarm”. assassination, as reﬂected in its literature. Similar materials have been developed discussing conspiracies as the cause for the September 11 attacks, the crash of TWA Flight 800, and the spread of AIDS in the black community.[2]

The historian Richard Hofstadter addressed the role of paranoia and conspiracism throughout American history in his essay The Paranoid Style in American Politics, published in 1964. Bernard Bailyn’s classic The Ideologi-

CHAPTER 1. CONSPIRACY THEORY

cal Origins of the American Revolution (1967) notes that 1960s”.[44] The existence of such real conspiracies helps a similar phenomenon could be found in America dur- feed the belief in conspiracy theories.[45][46][47] ing the time preceding the American Revolution. Conspiracism labels people’s attitudes as well as the type of conspiracy theories that are more global and historical in 1.6.2 Middle East proportion.[37] Main article: Conspiracy theories in the Arab world The term “conspiracism” was further popularized by academic Frank P. Mintz in the 1980s. According to Mintz, conspiracism denotes “belief in the primacy of conspira- Conspiracy theories are a prevalent feature of Arab culture and politics. Prof. Matthew Gray writes they “are cies in the unfolding of history":[38] a common and popular phenomenon.” “Conspiracism is an important phenomenon in understanding Arab Middle “Conspiracism serves the needs of diverse Eastern politics ...”[48] Variants include conspiracies inpolitical and social groups in America and elsevolving colonialism, Zionism, superpowers, oil, and the where. It identifies elites, blames them for war on terrorism, which may be referred to as a War economic and social catastrophes, and assumes against Islam.[48] Roger Cohen theorizes that the poputhat things will be better once popular action larity of conspiracy theories in the Arab world is “the ulcan remove them from positions of power. As timate refuge of the powerless”,[11] and Al-Mumin Said such, conspiracy theories do not typify a parnoted the danger of such theories in that they “keep us not ticular epoch or ideology”.[39] only from the truth but also from confronting our faults Throughout human history, political and economic lead- and problems...”[49] ers genuinely have been the cause of enormous amounts of death and misery, and they sometimes have engaged in conspiracies while at the same time promoting con- 1.7 Prevalence spiracy theories about their targets. Hitler and Stalin are the 20th century’s most prominent examples of claiming Some scholars argue that conspiracy theories once limtheir victims were conspiring against the state; there have ited to fringe audiences have become commonplace in [40] been numerous others. In some cases there have been mass media, contributing to conspiracism emerging as a claims dismissed as conspiracy theories that later proved cultural phenomenon in the United States of the late 20th [41][42] to be true. The idea that history itself is controlled and early 21st centuries.[2][50][51][52] According to anthroby large long-standing conspiracies is rejected by histopologists Todd Sanders and Harry G. West, evidence sugrian Bruce Cumings: gests that a broad cross-section of Americans today gives credence to at least some conspiracy theories.[53] Belief in “But if conspiracies exist, they rarely move conspiracy theories has therefore become a topic of interhistory; they make a difference at the marest for sociologists, psychologists and experts in folklore. gins from time to time, but with the unforeseen consequences of a logic outside the control of their authors: and this is what is wrong with 'conspiracy theory.' History is moved by the broad forces and large structures of human collectivities.”[43] Justin Fox of Time Magazine gives a pragmatic justification of conspiracism. He says that Wall Street traders are among the most conspiracy-minded group of people, and ascribes this to the reality of some financial market conspiracies, and to the ability of conspiracy theories to provide necessary orientation in the market’s day-to-day movements. Most good investigative reporters are also conspiracy theorists, according to Fox; and some of their theories turn out to be at least partly true.[6]

1.6.1

United States

“Some historians have put forward the idea that more recently the United States has become the home of conspiracy theories because so many high-level prominent conspiracies have been undertaken and uncovered since the

1.8 Psychological origins According to some psychologists, a person who believes in one conspiracy theory tends to believe in others.[7] Some psychologists believe that the search for meaning is common in conspiracism and the development of conspiracy theories, and may be powerful enough alone to lead to the first formulation of the idea. Once cognized, confirmation bias and avoidance of cognitive dissonance may reinforce the belief. In a context where a conspiracy theory has become popular within a social group, communal reinforcement may equally play a part. Some research carried out at the University of Kent, UK suggests people may be influenced by conspiracy theories without being aware that their attitudes have changed. After reading popular conspiracy theories about the death of Diana, Princess of Wales, participants in this study correctly estimated how much their peers’ attitudes had changed, but significantly underestimated how much their own attitudes had changed to become

1.8. PSYCHOLOGICAL ORIGINS more in favor of the conspiracy theories. The authors conclude that conspiracy theories may therefore have a 'hidden power' to influence people’s beliefs.[8] A study published in 2012 also found that conspiracy theorists frequently believe in multiple conspiracies, even when one conspiracy contradicts the other.[54] For example, the study found that people who believe Osama Bin Laden was captured alive by Americans are also likely to believe that Bin Laden was actually killed prior to the 2011 raid on his home in Abottabad, Pakistan. In a 2013 article in Scientific American Mind, psychologist Sander van der Linden argues there is converging scientific evidence that (1) people who believe in one conspiracy are likely to espouse others (even when contradictory); (2) in some cases, conspiracy ideation has been associated with paranoia and schizotypy; (3) conspiracist worldviews tend to breed mistrust of well-established scientific principles, such as the association between smoking and cancer or global warming and CO2 emissions; and (4) conspiracy ideation often leads people to see patterns where none exist.[55] Van der Linden also coined the term The Conspiracy-Effect.

5 of scholarship... the Ku Klux Klan imitated Catholicism to the point of donning priestly vestments, developing an elaborate ritual and an equally elaborate hierarchy. The John Birch Society emulates Communist cells and quasisecret operation through “front” groups, and preaches a ruthless prosecution of the ideological war along lines very similar to those it ﬁnds in the Communist enemy. Spokesmen of the various fundamentalist anti-Communist “crusades” openly express their admiration for the dedication and discipline the Communist cause calls forth.[9] Hofstadter also noted that “sexual freedom” is a vice frequently attributed to the conspiracist’s target group, noting that “very often the fantasies of true believers reveal strong sadomasochistic outlets, vividly expressed, for example, in the delight of anti-Masons with the cruelty of Masonic punishments.”[9]

A 2011 study found that highly Machiavellian people are more likely to believe in conspiracy theories, since they Humanistic psychologists argue that even if the cabal be- themselves would be more willing to engage in a conplaced in the same situation as the alleged hind the conspiracy is almost always perceived as hos- spiracy when[57] conspirators. tile, there is often still an element of reassurance in it for conspiracy theorists. This is in part because it is more consoling to think that complications and upheavals in human affairs are created by human beings rather than 1.8.2 Epistemic bias factors beyond human control. Belief in such a cabal is a device for reassuring oneself that certain occurrences are According to the British Psychological Society, it is posnot random, but ordered by a human intelligence. This sible that certain basic human epistemic biases are prorenders such occurrences comprehensible and potentially jected onto the material under scrutiny. One study cited controllable. If a cabal can be implicated in a sequence by the group found that humans apply a rule of thumb of events, there is always the hope, however tenuous, of by which we expect a significant event to have a signif[58] The study offered subjects four versions being able to break the cabal’s power – or joining it and icant cause. exercising some of that power oneself. Finally, belief in of events, in which a foreign president (a) was successthe power of such a cabal is an implicit assertion of human fully assassinated, (b) was wounded but survived, (c) surdignity – an often unconscious but necessary affirmation vived with wounds but died of a heart attack at a later that man is not totally helpless, but is responsible, at least date, and (d) was unharmed. Subjects were significantly more likely to suspect conspiracy in the case of the major in some measure, for his own destiny.[56] events—in which the president died—than in the other cases, despite all other evidence available to them being equal. Connected with apophenia, the genetic tendency 1.8.1 Projection of human beings to find patterns in coincidence, this alSome historians have argued that there is an element of lows the discovery of conspiracy in any significant event. psychological projection in conspiracism. This projec- Another epistemic “rule of thumb” that can be applied tion, according to the argument, is manifested in the form to a mystery involving other humans is cui bono? (who of attribution of undesirable characteristics of the self stands to gain?). This sensitivity to the hidden motives of to the conspirators. Historian Richard Hofstadter stated other people may be an evolved and universal feature of that: human consciousness. ...it is hard to resist the conclusion that this enemy is on many counts the projection of the self; both the ideal and the unacceptable aspects of the self are attributed to him. The enemy may be the cosmopolitan intellectual, but the paranoid will outdo him in the apparatus

1.8.3 Clinical psychology For some individuals, an obsessive compulsion to believe, prove, or re-tell a conspiracy theory may indicate one or a combination of well-understood psychological con-

CHAPTER 1. CONSPIRACY THEORY

ditions, and other hypothetical ones: paranoia, denial, of Marxist-inspired critical theory and similar ideas in schizophrenia, mean world syndrome.[59] academia since the 1970s.[61]

1.9 Socio-political origins Christopher Hitchens presents conspiracy theories as the “exhaust fumes of democracy”,[10] the unavoidable result of a large amount of information circulating among a large number of people.

Latour notes that about 90% of contemporary social criticism in academia displays one of two approaches which he terms “the fact position and the fairy position.”[61]:237 The fact position is anti-fetishist, arguing that “objects of belief” (e.g., religion, arts) are merely concepts onto which power is projected; Latour contends that those who use this approach show biases towards confirming their own dogmatic suspicions as most “scientifically supported.” While the complete facts of the situation and correct methodology are ostensibly important to them, Latour proposes that the scientific process is instead laid on as a patina to one’s pet theories to lend a sort of reputation high ground. The “fairy position” argues that individuals are dominated, often covertly and without their awareness, by external forces (e.g., economics, gender).[61] Latour concludes that each of these two approaches in Academia has led to a polarized, inefficient atmosphere highlighted (in both approaches) by its causticness. “Do you see now why it feels so good to be a critical mind?" asks Latour: no matter which position you take, “You’re always right!"[61]

Conspiratorial accounts can be emotionally satisfying when they place events in a readily understandable moral context. The subscriber to the theory is able to assign moral responsibility for an emotionally troubling event or situation to a clearly conceived group of individuals. Crucially, that group does not include the believer. The believer may then feel excused of any moral or political responsibility for remedying whatever institutional or societal flaw might be the actual source of the dissonance.[60] Likewise, Roger Cohen, in an op-ed for the New York Times propounded that, “captive minds... resort to conspiracy theory because it is the ultimate refuge of the powerless. If you cannot change your own life, it must Latour notes that such social criticism has been appropribe that some greater force controls the world.”[11] ated by those he describes as conspiracy theorists, includWhere responsible behavior is prevented by social condi- ing global warming denialists and the 9/11 Truth movetions, or is simply beyond the ability of an individual, the ment: “Maybe I am taking conspiracy theories too sericonspiracy theory facilitates the emotional discharge or ously, but I am worried to detect, in those mad mixtures closure that such emotional challenges (after Erving Goff- of knee-jerk disbelief, punctilious demands for proofs, man) require. Like moral panics, conspiracy theories thus and free use of powerful explanation from the social nevoccur more frequently within communities that are expe- erland, many of the weapons of social critique.”[61] riencing social isolation or political dis-empowerment. Sociological historian Holger Herwig found in studying German explanations for the origins of World War I, 1.9.2 Media tropes “Those events that are most important are hardest to understand, because they attract the greatest attention from Media commentators regularly note a tendency in news myth makers and charlatans.” media and wider culture to understand events through This normal process could be diverted by a number of in- the prism of individual agents, as opposed to more com[62] If this is a fluences. At the level of the individual, pressing psycho- plex structural or institutional accounts. true observation, it may be expected that the audience logical needs may influence the process, and certain of which both demands and consumes this emphasis itself our universal mental tools may impose epistemic 'blind is more receptive to personalized, dramatic accounts of spots’. At the group or sociological level, historic factors social phenomena. may make the process of assigning satisfactory meanings more or less problematic. Alternatively, conspiracy theories may arise when evidence available in the public record does not correspond with the common or official version of events. In this regard, conspiracy theories may sometimes serve to highlight 'blind spots’ in the common or official interpretations of events.[41]

A second, perhaps related, media trope is the effort to allocate individual responsibility for negative events. The media have a tendency to start to seek culprits if an event occurs that is of such significance that it does not drop off the news agenda within a few days. Of this trend, it has been said that the concept of a pure accident is no longer permitted in a news item.[63]

1.9.1

1.9.3 Fusion paranoia

Inﬂuence of critical theory

French sociologist Bruno Latour suggests that the Michael Kelly, a Washington Post journalist and critic of widespread popularity of conspiracy theories in mass anti-war movements on both the left and right, coined the culture may be due, in part, to the pervasive presence term “fusion paranoia” to refer to a political convergence

1.11. CONSPIRACY THEORIES ON THE WEB of left-wing and right-wing activists around anti-war issues and civil liberties, which he said were motivated by a shared belief in conspiracism or shared anti-government views. Barkun has adopted this term to refer to how the synthesis of paranoid conspiracy theories, which were once limited to American fringe audiences, has given them mass appeal and enabled them to become commonplace in mass media,[64] thereby inaugurating an unrivaled period of people actively preparing for apocalyptic or millenarian scenarios in the United States of the late 20th and early 21st centuries.[65] Barkun notes the occurrence of lone wolf conﬂicts with law enforcement threatening the established political powers.[66]

1.10 Political use

7 (3) Government might itself engage in counterspeech, marshaling arguments to discredit conspiracy theories. (4) Government might formally hire credible private parties to engage in counterspeech. (5) Government might engage in informal communication with such parties, encouraging them to help. Each instrument has a distinctive set of potential effects, or costs and benefits, and each will have a place under imaginable conditions. However, our main policy idea is that government should engage in cognitive infiltration of the groups that produce conspiracy theories, which involves a mix of (3), (4) and (5).[70]

1.11 Conspiracy theories on the Web

Conspiracy theories exist in the realm of myth, where imaginations run wild, fears trump facts, and evidence is Currently, conspiracy theories are widely present on the ignored. As a superpower, the United States is often cast Web in the form of blogs and YouTube videos, as well as on social media. Whether the Web has increased the as a villain in these dramas. prevalence of conspiracy theories or not is an open reAmerica.gov[67] search question.[71] The presence and representation of conspiracy theories in search engine results has been studIn his book The Open Society and Its Enemies, Karl ied, showing significant variation across different topics, Popper used the term “conspiracy theory” to criticize and a general absence of reputable, high-quality links in [72] the ideologies driving historicism.[68] Popper argued that the results. totalitarianism was founded on “conspiracy theories” which drew on imaginary plots driven by paranoid scenarios predicated on tribalism, chauvinism, or racism. Pop- 1.12 See also per did not argue against the existence of everyday conspiracies (as incorrectly suggested in much of the later • Conspiracy fiction literature). Popper even uses the term “conspiracy” to • Fringe theory describe ordinary political activity in the classical Athens of Plato (who was the principal target of his attack in The • Furtive fallacy Open Society and Its Enemies). In his critique of the twentieth century totalitarians, Popper wrote, “I do not wish to imply that conspiracies never happen. On the contrary, they are typical social phenomena.”[69] He reiterated his point, “Conspiracies occur, it must be admitted. But the striking fact which, in spite of their occurrence, disproved the conspiracy theory is that few of these conspiracies are ultimately successful. Conspirators rarely consummate their conspiracy.”[69] In a 2009 article, legal scholars Cass Sunstein and Adrian Vermeule considered appropriate government responses to conspiracy theories: What can government do about conspiracy theories? Among the things it can do, what should it do? We can readily imagine a series of possible responses. (1) Government might ban conspiracy theorizing. (2) Government might impose some kind of tax, financial or otherwise, on those who disseminate such theories.

• Inﬂuencing machine • List of conspiracy theories • List of topics characterized as pseudoscience • Pseudohistory • Pseudoscience

1.13 References [1] “20th Century Words” (1999) John Ayto, Oxford University Press, p. 15. [2] Barkun, Michael (2003). A Culture of Conspiracy: Apocalyptic Visions in Contemporary America. University of California Press; 1 edition. p. 3. ISBN 0-520-23805-2. a conspiracy belief is the belief that an organization made up of individuals or groups was or is acting covertly to achieve a malevolent end.

CHAPTER 1. CONSPIRACY THEORY

[3] Berlet, Chip (September 2004). “Interview: Michael Barkun”. Retrieved 1 October 2009. The issue of conspiracism versus rational criticism is a tough one, and some people (Jodi Dean, for example) argue that the former is simply a variety of the latter. I don't accept this, although I certainly acknowledge that there have been conspiracies. They simply don't have the attributes of almost superhuman power and cunning that conspiracists attribute to them.

[17] 20th Century Words (1999) John Ayto, Oxford University Press, p. 15.

[4] Link text, Türkay Salim Nefes (2013) The Sociological Review Volume 61, Issue 2, pages 247–264.

[20] Harry G. West; Todd Sanders (17 April 2003). Transparency and Conspiracy: Ethnographies of Suspicion in the New World Order. Duke University Press. pp. 4–. ISBN 0-8223-3024-5.

[5] Link text, Türkay Salim Nefes (2012), Journal of Historical Sociology, Volume 25, Issue 3, pages 413–439, September 2012. [6] Justin Fox: “Wall Streeters like conspiracy theories. Always have”, Time Magazine, 1 October 2009. [7] Goertzel (1994). “Belief in Conspiracy Theories”. Political Psychology 15 (4): 1, 12, 13. doi:10.2307/3791630. JSTOR 3791630. Retrieved 7 August 2006. [8] Douglas, Karen; Sutton, Robbie (2008). “The hidden impact of conspiracy theories: Perceived and actual inﬂuence of theories surrounding the death of Princess Diana”. Journal of Social Psychology 148 (2): 210–222. doi:10.3200/SOCP.148.2.210-222. [9] Hofstadter, Richard (November 1964). “The Paranoid Style in American Politics”. Harper’s Magazine. pp. 77– 86. Retrieved 4 December 2013. [10] Hodapp, Christopher; Alice Von Kannon (2008). Conspiracy Theories & Secret Societies For Dummies. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 9780470184080.

[18] Birchall, Clare (2006). Knowledge Goes Pop: From Conspiracy Theory to Gossip. Oxford: Berg. ISBN 1-84520143-4. [19] Knight, Peter (2003). Conspiracy Theories in American History: An Encyclopedia 1. ABC-CLIO. p. 16. ISBN 978-1-57607-812-9.

[21] Moore, Rebecca (2002). “Reconstructing Reality: Conspiracy Theories About Jonestown, Conspiracy Theories section, paragraph 2”. Journal of Popular Culture 36, no. 2 (Fall 2002): 200–20. [22] Birchall, Clare (2006). “Cultural studies on/as conspiracy theory”. In Birchall, Clare. Knowledge goes pop from conspiracy theory to gossip. Oxford New York: Berg. p. 66. ISBN 9781845201432. ...we can appreciate conspiracy theory as a unique form of popular knowledge or interpretation, and address what this might mean for any knowledge we produce about it or how we interpret it Preview. [23] Birchall, Clare (2006). “Cultural studies on/as conspiracy theory”. In Birchall, Clare. Knowledge goes pop from conspiracy theory to gossip. Oxford New York: Berg. p. 72. ISBN 9781845201432. What we quickly discover ... is that it becomes impossible to map conspiracy theory and academic discourse onto a clear illegitimate/legitimate divide Preview.

[11] Cohen, Roger (20 December 2010). “The Captive Arab Mind”. The New York Times.

[24] Birchall, Clare (2004). “Just because you're paranoid, doesn't mean they're not out to get you”. Culture Machine, Deconstruction is/in Cultural Studies (Open Humanities Press) 6.

[12] Pigden, Charles (1995). “Popper Revisited, or What Is Wrong With Conspiracy Theories?". Philosophy of the Social Sciences 25 (1): 3–34.

[25] Harry G. West; et al. Transparency and Conspiracy: Ethnographies of Suspicion in the New World Order. Duke University Press Books. p. 4,207–8.

[13] Coady, David (2012). “Chapter 5: Conspiracy Theories and Conspiracy Theorists”. What to believe now : applying epistemology to contemporary issues. Chichester, West Sussex: Wiley-Blackwell.

[26] George, John; Laird M. Wilcox (1996) American Extremists: Militias, Supremacists, Klansmen, Communists & Others, Prometheus Books p. 267.

[14] Basham, Lee (2011). “Conspiracy Theory and Rationality”. In Jensen, Carl; Harré, Rome. Beyond Rationality. Newcastle on Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. [15] Oxford English Dictionary Second Edition on CD-ROM (v. 4.0), Oxford University Press, 2009, s.v. conspiracy 4. [16] Johnson, Allen (July 1909). “Reviewed Work: The Repeal of the Missouri Compromise: Its Origin and Authorship by P. Orman Ray”. The American Historical Review (Oxford Journals for the American Historical Association via JSTOR) 14 (4): 836. doi:10.2307/1837085. JSTOR 1837085. The claim that [David R.] Atchison was the originator of the [Missouri Compromise] repeal may be termed a recrudescence of the conspiracy theory ﬁrst asserted by Colonel John A. Parker of Virginia in 1880 Full text.

[27] “Former Shipping Executive Indicted for Role in PriceFixing Conspiracy Involving Coastal Freight Services Between the Continental United States and Puerto Rico”. U.S. Department of Justice FBI Oﬃce of Public Aﬀairs Jacksonville Division. 21 March 2013. Retrieved 11 July 2013. [28] “Former Executive Convicted for Role in Price-Fixing Conspiracy Involving Coastal Freight Services Between the Continental United States and Puerto Rico”. Retrieved 4 December 2013. [29] Flax, Mike. (2005) Conspiracy Investigations, Law Tech Publishing, p. 24, ISBN 1-889315-57-5. [30] Jack Z. Bratich. Conspiracy Panics: Political Rationality and Popular Culture. State University of New York Press, Albany. pp. 98–100.

1.13. REFERENCES

[31] Jovan Byford. Conspiracy Theories: A Critical Introduction. Palgrave MacMillan. pp. 25–27. [32] Katherine K. Young; Paul Nathanson (2010), Sanctifying Misandry: Goddess Ideology and the Fall of Man, McGillQueen’s Press - MQUP, pp. 275–, ISBN 978-0-77353615-9 [33] Jesse Walker, The United States of Paranoia: A Conspiracy Theory (2013) excerpt and text search [34] As quoted by B.K. Marcus in "Radio Free Rothbard,” Journal of Libertarian Studies, Vol 20, No 2. (SPRING 2006): pp 17–51. Retrieved 16 May 2013. [35] American Opinion. Robert Welch, Incorporated. 1983. [36] Berlet, Chip; Lyons, Matthew N. (2000). Right-Wing Populism in America: Too Close for Comfort. New York: Guilford Press. ISBN 1-57230-562-2. [37] Bailyn, Bernard (1992) [1967]. 'The Ideological Origins of the American Revolution. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-44302-0. ASIN: B000NUF6FQ. [38] Mintz, Frank P. (1985). The Liberty Lobby and the American Right: Race, Conspiracy, and Culture. Westport, CT: Greenwood. p. 4. ISBN 0-313-24393-X. [39] Mintz, Frank P. (1985) [1985]. The Liberty Lobby and the American Right: Race, Conspiracy, and Culture. Westport, CT: Greenwood. p. 199. ISBN 0-313-24393-X. [40] Arendt, Hannah (1973) [1953]. The Origins of Totalitarianism. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. ISBN 0-15-607810-4. [41] Fenster, Mark (1999). Conspiracy Theories: Secrecy and Power in American Culture. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. ISBN 0-8166-3243-X. [42] Dean, Jodi (1998). Aliens in America: Conspiracy Cultures from Outerspace to Cyberspace. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. ISBN 0-8014-8468-5. [43] Cumings, Bruce (1999). The Origins of the Korean War, Vol. II, The Roaring of the Cataract, 1947–1950. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. [44] Knight, Peter (2003) Conspiracy theories in American history: an encyclopedia, Volume 1; ABC-CLIO; ISBN 9781-57607-812-9 p. 18. [45] Jewett, Robert; John Shelton Lawrence (2004) Captain America and the crusade against evil: the dilemma of zealous nationalism Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing p. 206. [46] Olmsted, Kathryn S. (2011) Real Enemies: Conspiracy Theories and American Democracy, World War I to 9/11 Oxford University Press p. 8. [47] Whitﬁeld, Stephen J. (2004) A companion to 20th-century America Wiley-Blackwell ISBN 978-0-631-21100-6 p. 136. [48] Matthew Gray (2010). Conspiracy Theories in the Arab World. ISBN 978-0415575188.

[49] Steven Stalinsky (6 May 2004). “A Vast Conspiracy”. National Review. Archived from the original on 4 October 2013. [50] Camp, Gregory S. (1997). Selling Fear: Conspiracy Theories and End-Times Paranoia. Commish Walsh. ASIN B000J0N8NC. [51] Goldberg, Robert Alan (2001). Enemies Within: The Culture of Conspiracy in Modern America. Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-09000-5. [52] Fenster, Mark (2008). Conspiracy Theories: Secrecy and Power in American Culture. University of Minnesota Press; 2nd edition. ISBN 0-8166-5494-8. [53] West, Harry G.; Sanders, Todd (2003).Transparency and conspiracy: ethnographies of suspicion in the new world order. Duke University Press. p. 4. [54] Wood, Michael J.; Karen M. Douglas; Robbie M. Sutton (2012-01-25). “Dead and Alive: Beliefs in Contradictory Conspiracy Theories” (PDF). Social Psychological and Personality Science. Retrieved 8 February 2012. [55] van der Linden, S. (2013). “What a Hoax”. Scientific American Mind 24 (4): 41–43. doi:10.1038/scientificamericanmind0913-40. [56] Baigent, Michael; Leigh, Richard; Lincoln, Henry (1987). The Messianic Legacy. Henry Holt & Co. ISBN 0-80500568-4. [57] Douglas, Karen; Sutton, Robbie (2011). “Does it take one to know one? Endorsement of conspiracy theories is influenced by personal willingness to conspire”. British Journal of Social Psychology 50 (3): 544–552. doi:10.1111/j.2044-8309.2010.02018.x. [58] "Who shot the president?,” The British Psychological Society, 18 March 2003. Retrieved 7 June 2005. [59] “Top 5 New Diseases: Media Induced Post-traumatic Stress Disorder (MIPTSD)" at the Wayback Machine (archived 26 April 2005), The New Disease: A Journal of Narrative Pathology 2 (2004). Retrieved 7 June 2005. Quote: “for relatively rare individuals, an obsessive compulsion to believe, prove or re-tell a conspiracy theory may indicate one or more of several well-understood psychological conditions, and other hypothetical ones: paranoia, denial, schizophrenia, and mean world syndrome.” apud Lance Boyle Truthers: the Mental Health Headache, The Westminster Journal, 27 December 2007. [60] Vedantam, Shankar (2006-06-05). “Born With the Desire to Know the Unknown”. The Washington Post (The Washington Post). p. A02. Retrieved 7 June 2006. “Conspiracy theories explain disturbing events or social phenomena in terms of the actions of specific, powerful individuals,” said sociologist Theodore Sasson at Middlebury College in Vermont. By providing simple explanations of distressing events—the conspiracy theory in the Arab world, for example, that the September 11 attacks were planned by the Israeli Mossad—they deflect responsibility or keep people from acknowledging that tragic events sometimes happen inexplicably.”

[61] Latour, Bruno (Winter 2004), “Why Has Critique Run out of Steam? From Matters of Fact to Matters of Concern.” (PDF), Critical Inquiry 30 (2): 225–248, retrieved 9 September 2015

CHAPTER 1. CONSPIRACY THEORY • Chase, Alston (2003). Harvard and the Unabomber: The Education of an American Terrorist. New York: W. W. Norton. ISBN 0-393-02002-9.

[62] Emke, Ivan (2000). “Agents and Structures: Journalists and the Constraints on AIDS Coverage”. Canadian Journal of Communication 25 (3). Retrieved 7 June 2005.

• Coady, David (2012). “Chapter 5: Conspiracy Theories and Conspiracy Theorists”. What to believe now : applying epistemology to contemporary issues. Chichester, West Sussex: Wiley-Blackwell.

[63] “The Blame Game”. BBC News. 6 September 2005. Retrieved 23 August 2007.

• deHaven-Smith, Lance (2013). Conspiracy Theory in America, University of Texas Press.

[64] Barkun, Michael (2003). A Culture of Conspiracy: Apocalyptic Visions in Contemporary America. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press. p. 230. ISBN 0-520-23805-2.

• Fenster, Mark (1999). Conspiracy Theories: Secrecy and Power in American Culture. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. ISBN 0-8166-3243-X.

[65] Barkun, Michael (2003). A Culture of Conspiracy: Apocalyptic Visions in Contemporary America. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press. pp. 207, 210, 211. ISBN 0-52023805-2.

• Goldberg, Robert Alan (2001). Enemies Within: The Culture of Conspiracy in Modern America. New Haven & London: Yale University Press. ISBN 0300-09000-5.

[66] Barkun, Michael (2003). A Culture of Conspiracy: Apocalyptic Visions in Contemporary America. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press. pp. 193, 197. ISBN 0-520-23805-2.

• Hofstadter, Richard (1965). The Paranoid Style in American Politics and Other Essays. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 0-674-65461-7.

[67] “Conspiracy Theories and Misinformation - America.gov”. U.S. Department of State’s Bureau of International Information Programs. Archived from the original on 4 June 2010. Retrieved 5 June 2010.

• Johnson, George (1983). Architects of Fear: Conspiracy Theories and Paranoia in American Politics. Los Angeles: Jeremy P. Tarcher. ISBN 0-87477275-3.

[68] Popper, Karl (1945). “14”. Open Society and Its Enemies, Book II. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.

• McConnachie, James; Tudge, Robin (2005). The rough guide to conspiracy theories. ISBN 1-84353445-2.

[69] “Extracts from “The Open Society and Its Enemies Volume 2: The High Tide of Prophecy: Hegel, Marx and the Aftermath” by Karl Raimund Popper (Originally published 1945)". Lachlan Cranswick, quoting Karl Raimund Popper.

• Melley, Timothy (1999). Empire of Conspiracy: The Culture of Paranoia in Postwar America. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press. ISBN 0-80148606-8.

[70] Sunstein, C. R.; Vermeule, A. (2009). “Conspiracy Theories: Causes and Cures”. Journal of Political Philosophy 17 (2): 202. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9760.2008.00325.x.

• Mintz, Frank P. (1985). The Liberty Lobby and the American Right: Race, Conspiracy, and Culture. Westport, CT: Greenwood. ISBN 0-313-24393-X.

[71] Wood, M. (2015). “Has the Internet been good for conspiracy theorising?" (PDF). Psychology Postgraduate Affairs Group (PsyPAG) Quarterly (88): 31–33.

• Pigden, Charles (1995). “Popper Revisited, or What Is Wrong With Conspiracy Theories?". Philosophy of the Social Sciences 25 (1): 3–34.

[72] Ballatore, A. (2015). “Google chemtrails: A methodology to analyze topic representation in search engine results”. First Monday 20 (7).

• Johannes Rogalla von Bieberstein, '"Juedischer Bolschewismus”. Mythos und Realität'. Graz;Ares 2010 ISBN 978-3-902475-75-6

1.14 Further reading

• Johannes Rogalla von Bieberstein, 'Der Mythos von der Verschwoerung'. Wiesbaden: Marix 2008 ISBN 978-3-86539-162-9

• Barkun, Michael (2003). A Culture of Conspiracy: Apocalyptic Visions in Contemporary America. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0520-23805-2. • Basham, Lee (2011). “Conspiracy Theory and Rationality”. In Jensen, Carl; Harré, Rome. Beyond Rationality. Newcastle on Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing.

• Nefes, Türkay Salim (2012) 'The history of the social constructions of Dönmes’ Journal of Historical Sociology, Volume 25, Issue 3, pages 413–439, DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-6443.2012.01434.x. • Nefes, Türkay Salim (2013) 'Political parties’ perceptions and uses of anti-Semitic conspiracy theories in Turkey', The Sociological Review Volume 61, Issue 2, pages 247–264, DOI: 10.1111/1467954X.12016.

1.15. EXTERNAL LINKS

• Pipes, Daniel (1997). Conspiracy: How the Paranoid Style Flourishes and Where It Comes from. New York: The Free Press. ISBN 0-684-87111-4.

• Parsons, Charlotte (2001-09-24). “Why we need conspiracy theories”. BBC News – Americas (BBC). Retrieved 26 June 2006.

• Pipes, Daniel (1998). The Hidden Hand: Middle East Fears of Conspiracy. New York: St. Martin’s Press. ISBN 0-312-17688-0.

• Meigs, James B. (2006). “The Conspiracy Industry”. Popular Mechanics. Hearst Communications, Inc. Retrieved 13 October 2006.

• Popper, Karl R. (1945). The Open Society and Its Enemies. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-01968-1.

• McConnachie, James; Tudge, Robin (2005). The Rough Guide to Conspiracy Theories. Rough Guides. ISBN 978-1-84353-445-7.

• Sagan, Carl (1996). The Demon-Haunted World: Science as a Candle in the Dark. New York: The Random House. ISBN 0-394-53512-X.

• Swann, Julian (2004). Coward, Barry, ed. Conspiracies and Conspiracy Theory in Early Modern Europe: From the Waldensians to the French Revolution. Ashgate Publishing. ISBN 0-7546-3564-3.

• Vankin, Jonathan; John Whalen (2004). The 80 Greatest Conspiracies of All Time. New York: Citadel Press. ISBN 0-8065-2531-2. • Johannes Rogalla von Bieberstein: Der Mythos von der Verschwoerung. Philosophen, Freimaurer, Juden, Liberale und Sozialisten als Verschwoerer gegen die Sozialordnung. Wiesbaden: Marix 2008 ISBN 978-3-86539-162-9 • Walker, Jesse. The United States of Paranoia: A Conspiracy Theory (2013) excerpt and text search • Cornel Zwierlein / Beatrice de Graaf (eds.), Security and Conspiracy in History, 16th to 21st Century. Historical Social Research 38, Special Issue, 2013 • Slosson, W. “The 'Conspiracy' Superstition,” The Unpopular Review, Vol. VII, N°. 14, 1917. • van der Linden, S. (2013). “Moon Landing Faked!!! – Why People Believe in Conspiracy Theories”. Scientiﬁc American – Mind Matters (Nature). Retrieved 14 November 2013. • Harris, Lee. “The Trouble with Conspiracy Theories,” The American, 12 January 2013. • “Conspiracy Theories” (PDF). CQ Researcher 19 (37): 885–908. 23 October 2009. ISSN 10562036. • Aaronovitch, David (2010). Voodoo Histories: The Role of the Conspiracy Theory in Shaping Modern History. Riverhead. ISBN 978-1-59448-895-5.

• Christopher L. Hodapp and Alice Von Kannon (2008). Conspiracy Theories and Secret Societies For Dummies. Wiley. ISBN 0-470-18408-6. • Knight, Peter, ed. (2003). Conspiracy Theories in American History: An Encyclopedia. ABC-Clio. ISBN 1-57607-812-4. • Arnold, Gordon B., ed. (2008). Conspiracy Theory in Film, Television, and Politics. Praeger Publishers. p. 200. ISBN 0-275-99462-7. • West, Harry G.; Sanders, Todd (eds.). Transparency and Conspiracy: Ethnographies of Suspicion in the New World Order. Durham, North Carolina: Duke University Press. ISBN 978-0-8223-3024-0. • Rudmin, Floyd (2003). “Conspiracy Theory As Naive Deconstructive History”. newdemocracy.org. Archived from the original on 2008-05-17. Retrieved 18 April 2008. • Cassam, Quassim (2015). “Bad Thinkers”. Aeon.

1.15 External links • State Department’s Todd Leventhal Discusses Conspiracy Theories, 2009, U.S. Department of State’s Bureau of International Information Programs usembassy.gov • 11 September Conspiracy Theories: Confused stories continue, 2006, usembassy.gov

• Conspiracism, Political Research Associates

• Why Rational People Buy Into Conspiracy Theories, Maggie Koerth-Baker, 21 May 2013, NYT.

• Cziesche, Dominik; Jürgen Dahlkamp, Ulrich Fichtner, Ulrich Jaeger, Gunther Latsch, Gisela Leske, Max F. Ruppert (2003). “Panoply of the Absurd”. Der Spiegel. Retrieved 6 June 2006.

• Naomi Wolf. “Analysis of the appeal of conspiracy theories with suggestions for more accurate ad hoc internet reporting of them”.

• Gray, Matthew (2010). Conspiracy Theories in the Arab World: Sources and Politics. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-57519-5.

• Stuart J. Murray (2009). “Editorial Introduction: 'Media Tropes’". MediaTropes eJournal 2 (1): i–x.

Chapter 2

New World Order (conspiracy theory) This article is about the use of the term New World Order as steps in an ongoing plot to achieve world domination in conspiracy theory. For other uses, see New World through secret political gatherings and decision-making Order. processes.[3][4][5][6][7] Before the early 1990s, New World Order conspiracism was limited to two American countercultures, primarily the militantly anti-government right and secondarily that part of fundamentalist Christianity concerned with the end-time emergence of the Antichrist.[8] Skeptics such as Michael Barkun and Chip Berlet observed that rightwing populist conspiracy theories about a New World Order had not only been embraced by many seekers of stigmatized knowledge but had seeped into popular culture, thereby inaugurating a period during the late 20th and early 21st centuries in the United States where people were actively preparing for apocalyptic millenarian scenarios.[4][6] Those political scientists were concerned that mass hysteria could have what they judged to be devastating eﬀects on American political life, ranging from widespread political alienation to escalating lonewolf terrorism.[4][6][9]

2.1 History of the term

The reverse side of the Great Seal of the United States (1776). The Latin phrase "novus ordo seclorum", appearing on the reverse side of the Great Seal since 1782 and on the back of the U.S. one-dollar bill since 1935, translates to “New Order of the Ages”[1] and alludes to the beginning of an era where the United States of America is an independent nation-state; conspiracy theorists claim this is an allusion to the “New World Order”.[2]

As a conspiracy theory, the term New World Order or NWO refers to the emergence of a totalitarian world government.[3][4][5][6][7] The common theme in conspiracy theories about a New World Order is that a secretive power elite with a globalist agenda is conspiring to eventually rule the world through an authoritarian world government— which will replace sovereign nation-states—and an allencompassing propaganda whose ideology hails the establishment of the New World Order as the culmination of history’s progress. Significant occurrences in politics and finance are speculated to be orchestrated by an unduly influential cabal that operates through many front organizations. Numerous historical and current events are seen

During the 20th century, many politicians, such as Woodrow Wilson and Winston Churchill, used the term "new world order" to refer to a new period of history characterised by a dramatic change in world political thought and the balance of power after World War I and World War II. They all saw the period as an opportunity to implement idealistic proposals for global governance in the sense of new collective eﬀorts to address worldwide problems that go beyond the capacity of individual nationstates to solve, while always respecting the right of nations to self-determination. These proposals led to the creation of international organizations (such as the UN and NATO), and international regimes (such as the Bretton Woods system and the General Agreement on Tariﬀs and Trade (GATT)), which were calculated both to maintain a balance of power in favor of the United States and to regularize cooperation between nations, in order to achieve a peaceful phase of capitalism. These creations in particular and liberal internationalism in general, however, were regularly criticized and opposed by American ultracon-

2.1. HISTORY OF THE TERM

servative business nationalists from the 1930s on.[10]

a reference to a postulated “international Jewish banking [14] Progressives welcomed these new international organiza- conspiracy” masterminded by the Rothschilds. tions and regimes in the aftermath of the two World Wars, Claiming that the term “New World Order” is used by but argued that they suffered from a democratic deficit a secretive elite dedicated to the destruction of all naand were therefore inadequate not only to prevent another tional sovereignties, American writer Gary Allen—in his global war but to foster global justice. The United Na- books None Dare Call It Conspiracy (1971), Rockefeller: tions was designed in 1945 by US bankers and State De- Campaigning for the New World Order (1974), and Say partment planners, and was always intended to remain a “No!" to the New World Order (1987)—articulated the free association of sovereign nation-states, not a transition anti-globalist theme of much current right-wing populist to democratic world government. Thus, activists around conspiracism in the US. Thus, after the fall of commuthe globe formed a world federalist movement, hoping in nism in the early 1990s, the main demonized scapegoat vain to create a “real” new world order.[11] of the American far right shifted seamlessly from cryptoBritish writer and futurist H. G. Wells went further than communists, who plotted on behalf of the Red Menace, progressives in the 1940s, by appropriating and redefining to globalists, who plot on behalf of the New World Order. the term “new world order” as a synonym for the estab- The relatively painless nature of the shift was due to growlishment of a technocratic world state and planned econ- ing right-wing populist opposition to corporate internaomy.[12] Despite the popularity of his ideas in some state tionalism, but also in part to the basic underlying apocaCold War and socialist circles, Wells failed to exert a deeper and more lyptic millenarian paradigm, which fed the [14] the witch-hunts of the McCarthy period. lasting influence because he was unable to concentrate his energies on a direct appeal to the intelligentsias who In his speech, Toward a New World Order, delivered on would ultimately have to coordinate a Wellsian new world September 11, 1990 during a joint session of the US order.[13] Congress, President George H. W. Bush described his objectives for post-Cold War global governance in coopDuring the Red Scare of 1947–1957, agitators of the eration with post-Soviet states. He stated: American secular and Christian right, influenced by the work of Canadian conspiracy theorist William Guy Carr, (NWO Speech) increasingly embraced and spread unfounded fears of Freemasons, Illuminati and Jews being the driving force behind an "international communist conspiracy”. The threat of “Godless communism”, in the form of a state atheistic and bureaucratic collectivist world government, demonized as the “Red Menace”, therefore became the focus of apocalyptic millenarian conspiracism. The Red Scare came to shape one of the core ideas of the political right in the United States, which is that liberals and progressives, with their welfare-state policies and international cooperation programs such as foreign aid, supposedly contribute to a gradual process of collectivism that will inevitably lead to nations being replaced with a communist one-world government.[14] Right-wing populist advocacy groups with a producerist world-view, such as the John Birch Society, disseminated a multitude of conspiracy theories in the 1960s claiming that the governments of both the United States and the Soviet Union were controlled by a cabal of corporate internationalists, greedy bankers and corrupt politicians who were intent on using the U.N. as the vehicle to create a “One World Government”. This right-wing antiglobalist conspiracism fuelled the Bircher campaign for US withdrawal from the UN. American writer Mary M. Davison, in her 1966 booklet The Profound Revolution, traced the alleged New World Order conspiracy to the creation of the US Federal Reserve in 1913 by international bankers, who she claimed later formed the Council on Foreign Relations in 1921 as a shadow government. At the time the booklet was published, “international bankers” would have been interpreted by many readers as

Until now, the world we've known has been a world divided—a world of barbed wire and concrete block, conflict and cold war. Now, we can see a new world coming into view. A world in which there is the very real prospect of a new world order. In the words of Winston Churchill, a “world order” in which “the principles of justice and fair play ... protect the weak against the strong ...” A world where the United Nations, freed from cold war stalemate, is poised to fulfill the historic vision of its founders. A world in which freedom and respect for human rights find a home among all nations.

The New York Times observed that progressives were denouncing this new world order as a rationalization of American imperial ambitions in the Middle East, while conservatives rejected any new security arrangements altogether and fulminated about any possibility of a UN revival.[15] However, Chip Berlet, an American investigative reporter, specializing in the study of right-wing movements in the US, writes: When President Bush announced his new foreign policy would help build a New World Order, his phrasing surged through the Christian and secular hard right like an electric shock, since the phrase had been used to represent the dreaded collectivist One World

CHAPTER 2. NEW WORLD ORDER (CONSPIRACY THEORY) Government for decades. Some Christians saw Bush as signaling the End Times betrayal by a world leader. Secular anticommunists saw a bold attempt to smash US sovereignty and impose a tyrannical collectivist system run by the United Nations.[14]

American televangelist Pat Robertson, with his 1991 best-selling book The New World Order, became the most prominent Christian popularizer of conspiracy theories about recent American history. He describes a scenario where Wall Street, the Federal Reserve System, the Council on Foreign Relations, the Bilderberg Group and the Trilateral Commission control the flow of events from behind the scenes, nudging people constantly and covertly in the direction of world government for the Antichrist.[6] Observers note that the galvanizing of right-wing populist conspiracy theorists such as Linda Thompson, Mark Koernke and Robert K. Spear into militancy led to the rise of the militia movement, which spread its anti-government ideology through speeches at rallies and meetings, books and videotapes sold at gun shows, shortwave and satellite radio, fax networks and computer bulletin boards.[14] However, it is overnight AM radio shows and viral propaganda on the Internet that have most effectively contributed to their extremist political ideas about the New World Order finding their way into the previously apolitical literature of numerous Kennedy assassinologists, ufologists, lost land theorists and, most recently, occultists. From the mid–1990s on, the worldwide appeal of those subcultures transmitted New World Order conspiracism like a "mind virus" to a large new audience of seekers of stigmatized knowledge.[6] Hollywood conspiracy-thriller television shows and films also played a role in introducing a vast popular audience to various fringe theories related to New World Order conspiracism—black helicopter, FEMA “concentration camps”, etc.—which for decades were previously confined to radical right-wing subcultures. The 1993–2002 television series The X-Files, the 1997 film Conspiracy Theory and the 1998 film The X-Files: Fight the Future are often cited as notable examples.[6]

media watchdog groups, for not only mainstreaming the New World Order conspiracy theories of the radical right, but possibly agitating its lone wolves into action.[19][20] In 2009, American film directors Luke Meyer and Andrew Neel released New World Order, a critically acclaimed documentary film which explores the world of conspiracy theorists, such as American radio host Alex Jones, who are committed to exposing and vigorously opposing what they perceive to be an emerging New World Order.[21] The growing dissemination and popularity of conspiracy theories has also created an alliance between right-wing populist agitators, such as Alex Jones, and hip hop music's left-wing populist rappers, such as KRS-One, Professor Griff of Public Enemy and Immortal Technique, thus illustrating how anti-elitist conspiracism can create unlikely political allies in efforts to oppose the political system.[22]

2.2 Conspiracy theories There are numerous systemic conspiracy theories through which the concept of a New World Order is viewed. The following is a list of the major ones in roughly chronological order:[23]

2.2.1 End Time Since the 19th century, many apocalyptic millennial Christian eschatologists, starting with John Nelson Darby, have predicted a globalist conspiracy to impose a tyrannical New World Order governing structure as the fulﬁllment of prophecies about the "end time" in the Bible, speciﬁcally in the Book of Ezekiel, the Book of Daniel, the Olivet discourse found in the Synoptic Gospels and the Book of Revelation.[24] They claim that people who have made a deal with the Devil to gain wealth and power have become pawns in a supernatural chess game to move humanity into accepting a utopian world government that rests on the spiritual foundations of a syncretic-messianic world religion, which will later reveal itself to be a dystopian world empire that imposes the imperial cult of an “Unholy Trinity” of Satan, the Antichrist and the False Prophet. In many contemporary Christian conspiracy theories, the False Prophet will be either the last pope of the Catholic Church, groomed and installed by an Alta Vendita or Jesuit conspiracy, a guru from the New Age movement, or even the leader of an elite fundamentalist Christian organization like the Fellowship, while the Antichrist will be either the President of the European Union, the Secretary-General of the United Nations, or even the Caliph of a pan-Islamic state.[6][24]

Following the start of the 21st century, and specifically during the late-2000s financial crisis, many politicians and pundits, such as Gordon Brown[16] and Henry Kissinger,[17] used the term "new world order" in their advocacy for a comprehensive reform of the global financial system and their calls for a “New Bretton Woods” that takes into account emerging markets such as China and India. These declarations had the unintended consequence of providing fresh fodder for New World Order conspiracism, which culminated in talk show host Sean Hannity stating on his Fox News Channel program Hannity that the “conspiracy theorists were right”.[18] Fox Some of the most vocal critics of end-time conspiracy News in general, and its opinion show Glenn Beck in theories come from within Christianity.[14] In 1993, hisparticular, has been repeatedly criticized by progressive torian Bruce Barron wrote a stern rebuke of apocalyptic

2.2. CONSPIRACY THEORIES Christian conspiracism in the Christian Research Journal, when reviewing Robertson's 1991 book The New World Order.[25] Another critique can be found in historian Gregory S. Camp’s 1997 book Selling Fear: Conspiracy Theories and End-Times Paranoia.[3] Religious studies scholar Richard T. Hughes argues that “New World Order” rhetoric libels the Christian faith, since the “New World Order” as deﬁned by Christian conspiracy theorists has no basis in the Bible whatsoever. Furthermore, he argues that not only is this idea unbiblical, it is positively anti-biblical and fundamentally anti-Christian, because by misinterpreting key passages in the Book of Revelation, it turns a comforting message about the coming kingdom of God into one of fear, panic and despair in the face of an allegedly approaching one-world government.[24] Progressive Christians, such as preachertheologian Peter J. Gomes, caution Christian fundamentalists that a "spirit of fear" can distort scripture and history through dangerously combining biblical literalism, apocalyptic timetables, demonization and oppressive prejudices,[26][27] while Camp warns of the “very real danger that Christians could pick up some extra spiritual baggage” by credulously embracing conspiracy theories.[3] They therefore call on Christians who indulge in conspiracism to repent.[28][29]

15 Some conspiracy theorists eventually speculated that some Founding Fathers of the United States, such as George Washington and Benjamin Franklin, were having Masonic sacred geometric designs interwoven into American society, particularly in the Great Seal of the United States, the United States one-dollar bill, the architecture of National Mall landmarks and the streets and highways of Washington, D.C., as part of a master plan to create the ﬁrst “Masonic government” as a model for the coming New World Order.[6]

A Masonic Lodge room

2.2.2

Freemasonry

Main article: Masonic conspiracy theories Freemasonry is one of the world’s oldest secular fraternal organizations and arose during late 16th–early 17th century Britain. Over the years a number of allegations and conspiracy theories have been directed towards Freemasonry, including the allegation that Freemasons have a hidden political agenda and are conspiring to bring about a New World Order, a world government organized according to Masonic principles and/or governed only by Freemasons.[14] The esoteric nature of Masonic symbolism and rites led to Freemasons first being accused of secretly practising Satanism in the late 18th century.[14] The original allegation of a conspiracy within Freemasonry to subvert religions and governments in order to take over the world traces back to Scottish author John Robison, whose reactionary conspiracy theories crossed the Atlantic and influenced outbreaks of Protestant anti-Masonry in the United States during the 19th century.[14] In the 1890s, French writer Léo Taxil wrote a series of pamphlets and books denouncing Freemasonry and charging their lodges with worshiping Lucifer as the Supreme Being and Great Architect of the Universe. Despite the fact that Taxil admitted that his claims were all a hoax, they were and still are believed and repeated by numerous conspiracy theorists and had a huge influence on subsequent anti-Masonic claims about Freemasonry.[30]

Freemasons rebut these claims of a Masonic conspiracy. Freemasonry, which promotes rationalism, places no power in occult symbols themselves, and it is not a part of its principles to view the drawing of symbols, no matter how large, as an act of consolidating or controlling power.[31] Furthermore, there is no published information establishing the Masonic membership of the men responsible for the design of the Great Seal.[31][32] While conspiracy theorists assert that there are elements of Masonic influence on the Great Seal of the United States, and that these elements were intentionally or unintentionally used because the creators were familiar with the symbols,[33] in fact, the all-seeing Eye of Providence and the unfinished pyramid were symbols used as much outside Masonic lodges as within them in the late 18th century, therefore the designers were drawing from common esoteric symbols.[34] The Latin phrase "novus ordo seclorum", appearing on the reverse side of the Great Seal since 1782 and on the back of the one-dollar bill since 1935, translates to “New Order of the Ages”,[1] and alludes to the beginning of an era where the United States of America is an independent nation-state; it is often mistranslated by conspiracy theorists as “New World Order”.[2] Although the European continental branch of Freemasonry has organizations that allow political discussion within their Masonic Lodges and a few operate as active political lobbies for secularist causes, as exemplified by the Grand Orient of France, Masonic researcher Trevor W. McKeown argues: The accusation that Freemasonry has a

CHAPTER 2. NEW WORLD ORDER (CONSPIRACY THEORY) hidden agenda to establish a Masonic government ignores several facts. While agreeing on certain Masonic Landmarks, the many independent and sovereign Grand Lodges act as such, and do not agree on many other points of belief and practice. Also, as can be seen from a survey of famous Freemasons, individual Freemasons hold beliefs that span the spectrum of politics. The term “Masonic government” has no meaning since individual Freemasons hold many diﬀerent opinions on what constitutes a good government.[35]

2.2.3

Illuminati

The Order of the Illuminati was an Enlightenment-age secret society founded by university professor Adam Weishaupt on 1 May 1776, in Upper Bavaria, Germany. The movement consisted of advocates of freethought, secularism, liberalism, republicanism, and gender equality, recruited from the German Masonic Lodges, who sought to teach rationalism through mystery schools. In 1785, the order was inﬁltrated, broken up and suppressed by the government agents of Charles Theodore, Elector of Bavaria, in his preemptive campaign to neutralize the threat of secret societies ever becoming hotbeds of conspiracies to overthrow the Bavarian monarchy and its state religion, Roman Catholicism.[36] In the late 18th century, reactionary conspiracy theorists, such as Scottish physicist John Robison and French Jesuit priest Augustin Barruel, began speculating that the Illuminati had survived their suppression and become the masterminds behind the French Revolution and the Reign of Terror. The Illuminati were accused of being subversives who were attempting to secretly orchestrate a revolutionary wave in Europe and the rest of the world in order to spread the most radical ideas and movements of the Enlightenment—anti-clericalism, anti-monarchism, and anti-patriarchalism—and to create a world noocracy and cult of reason. During the 19th century, fear of an Illuminati conspiracy was a real concern of the European ruling classes, and their oppressive reactions to this unfounded fear provoked in 1848 the very revolutions they sought to prevent.[37]

manism, modernism, and liberalism—became the main channel of dissemination of Illuminati conspiracy theories in the U.S. Right-wing populists, such as members of the John Birch Society, subsequently began speculating that some collegiate fraternities (Skull and Bones), gentlemen’s clubs (Bohemian Club), and think tanks (Council on Foreign Relations, Trilateral Commission) of the American upper class are front organizations of the Illuminati, which they accuse of plotting to create a New World Order through a one-world government.[6] There is no evidence that the Bavarian Illuminati survived its suppression in 1785.[37]

2.2.4 The Protocols of the Elders of Zion The Protocols of the Elders of Zion is an antisemitic canard, originally published in Russian in 1903, alleging a Judeo-Masonic conspiracy to achieve world domination. The text purports to be the minutes of the secret meetings of a cabal of Jewish masterminds, which has co-opted Freemasonry and is plotting to rule the world on behalf of all Jews because they believe themselves to be the chosen people of God.[38] The Protocols incorporate many of the core conspiracist themes outlined in the Robison and Barruel attacks on the Freemasons, and overlay them with antisemitic allegations about anti-Tsarist movements in Russia. The Protocols reﬂect themes similar to more general critiques of Enlightenment liberalism by conservative aristocrats who support monarchies and state religions. The interpretation intended by the publication of The Protocols is that if one peels away the layers of the Masonic conspiracy, past the Illuminati, one ﬁnds the rotten Jewish core.[14]

Numerous polemicists, such as Irish journalist Philip Graves in a 1921 article in The Times, and British academic Norman Cohn in his 1967 book Warrant for Genocide, have proven The Protocols to be both a hoax and a clear case of plagiarism. There is general agreement that Russian-French writer and political activist Matvei Golovinski fabricated the text for Okhrana, the secret police of the Russian Empire, as a work of counterrevolutionary propaganda prior to the 1905 Russian Revolution, by plagiarizing, almost word for word in some passages, from The Dialogue in Hell Between Machiavelli During the interwar period of the 20th century, fascist and Montesquieu, a 19th-century satire against Napoleon political satirist and propagandists, such as British revisionist historian Nesta III of France written by French [39] Legitimist militant Maurice Joly. Helen Webster and American socialite Edith Starr Miller, not only popularized the myth of an Illuminati conspir- Responsible for feeding many antisemitic and antiacy but claimed that it was a subversive secret society Masonic mass hysterias of the 20th century, The Protowhich served the Jewish elites that supposedly propped cols has been inﬂuential in the development of some conup both ﬁnance capitalism and Soviet communism in spiracy theories, including some New World Order theoorder to divide and rule the world. American evange- ries, and appears repeatedly in certain contemporary conlist Gerald Burton Winrod and other conspiracy theo- spiracy literature.[6] For example, the authors of the 1982 rists within the fundamentalist Christian movement in the controversial book The Holy Blood and the Holy Grail United States—which emerged in the 1910s as a back- concluded that The Protocols was the most persuasive lash against the principles of Enlightenment secular hu- piece of evidence for the existence and activities of the

2.2. CONSPIRACY THEORIES

2.2.5 Round Table During the second half of Britain’s “imperial century” between 1815 and 1914, English-born South African businessman, mining magnate and politician Cecil Rhodes advocated the British Empire reannexing the United States of America and reforming itself into an "Imperial Federation" to bring about a hyperpower and lasting world peace. In his ﬁrst will, written in 1877 at the age of 23, he expressed his wish to fund a secret society (known as the Society of the Elect) that would advance this goal:

Cover of a 1920 copy of The Jewish Peril

Priory of Sion. They speculated that this secret society was working behind the scenes to establish a theocratic "United States of Europe". Politically and religiously uniﬁed through the imperial cult of a Merovingian Great Monarch—supposedly descended from a Jesus bloodline—who occupies both the throne of Europe and the Holy See, this “Holy European Empire” would become the hyperpower of the 21st century.[40] Although the Priory of Sion itself has been exhaustively debunked by journalists and scholars as a hoax,[41] some apocalyptic millenarian Christian eschatologists who believe The Protocols is authentic became convinced that the Priory of Sion was a fulﬁllment of prophecies found in the Book of Revelation and further proof of an anti-Christian conspiracy of epic proportions signaling the imminence of a New World Order.[42]

To and for the establishment, promotion and development of a Secret Society, the true aim and object whereof shall be for the extension of British rule throughout the world, the perfecting of a system of emigration from the United Kingdom, and of colonisation by British subjects of all lands where the means of livelihood are attainable by energy, labour and enterprise, and especially the occupation by British settlers of the entire Continent of Africa, the Holy Land, the Valley of the Euphrates, the Islands of Cyprus and Candia, the whole of South America, the Islands of the Paciﬁc not heretofore possessed by Great Britain, the whole of the Malay Archipelago, the seaboard of China and Japan, the ultimate recovery of the United States of America as an integral part of the British Empire, the inauguration of a system of Colonial representation in the Imperial Parliament which may tend to weld together the disjointed members of the Empire and, ﬁnally, the foundation of so great a Power as to render wars impossible, and promote the best interests of humanity.[43] In 1902, “The New York Times noted that following his 1877 will, Rhodes in 1890 put forth the same ideas, and set forth the goal that his secret society should work towards “gradually absorbing the wealth of the world”.[44]

Rhodes also concentrated on the Rhodes Scholarship, which had British statesman Alfred Milner as one of its trustees. Established in 1902, the original goal of the trust fund was to foster peace among the great powers by creating a sense of fraternity and a shared world view among future British, American, and German leaders by having them to study for free at the University of OxSkeptics argue that the current gambit of contemporary enabled [43] ford. conspiracy theorists who use The Protocols is to claim that they “really” come from some group other than the Milner and British official Lionel George Curtis were Jews, such as fallen angels or alien invaders. Although it the architects of the Round Table movement, a netis hard to determine whether the conspiracy-minded ac- work of organizations promoting closer union between tually believe this or are simply trying to sanitize a dis- Britain and its self-governing colonies. To this end, Curcredited text, skeptics argue that it does not make much tis founded the Royal Institute of International Affairs in difference, since they leave the actual, antisemitic text un- June 1919 and, with his 1938 book The Commonwealth changed. The result is to give The Protocols credibility of God, began advocating for the creation of an imperial federation that eventually reannexes the U.S., which and circulation.[8]

CHAPTER 2. NEW WORLD ORDER (CONSPIRACY THEORY)

would be presented to Protestant churches as being the work of the Christian God to elicit their support.[45] The Commonwealth of Nations was created in 1949 but it would only be a free association of independent states rather than the powerful imperial federation imagined by Rhodes, Milner and Curtis. The Council on Foreign Relations began in 1917 with a group of New York academics who were asked by President Woodrow Wilson to offer options for the foreign policy of the United States in the interwar period. Originally envisioned as a group of American and British scholars and diplomats, some of whom belonging to the Round Table movement, it was a subsequent group of 108 New York financiers, manufacturers and international lawyers organized in June 1918 by Nobel Peace Prize recipient and U.S. secretary of state, Elihu Root, that became the Council on Foreign Relations on 29 July 1921. The first of the council’s projects was a quarterly journal launched in September 1922, called Foreign Affairs.[46] The Trilateral Commission was founded in July 1973, at the initiative of American banker David Rockefeller, who was chairman of the Council on Foreign Relations at that time. It is a private organization established to foster closer cooperation among the United States, Europe and Japan. The Trilateral Commission is widely seen as a counterpart to the Council on Foreign Relations.

gradually inﬂuence the policies of the Commonwealth of Nations, but faces strong opposition. Furthermore, in American society after 1965, the problem, according to Quigley, was that no elite was in charge and acting responsibly.[47] Larry McDonald, the 2nd president of the John Birch Society and a conservative Democratic member of the United States House of Representatives who represented the 7th congressional district of Georgia, wrote a foreword for Allen's 1976 book The Rockefeller File, wherein he stated: The drive of the Rockefellers and their allies is to create a one-world government, combining super-capitalism and Communism under the same tent, all under their control ... Do I mean conspiracy? Yes I do. I am convinced there is such a plot, international in scope, generations old in planning, and incredibly evil in intent.[48]

In his 2002 autobiography Memoirs, Rockefeller wrote: For more than a century ideological extremists at either end of the political spectrum have seized upon well-publicized incidents ... to attack the Rockefeller family for the inordinate inﬂuence they claim we wield over American political and economic institutions. Some even believe we are part of a secret cabal working against the best interests of the United States, characterizing my family and me as 'internationalists’ and of conspiring with others around the world to build a more integrated global political and economic structure—one world, if you will. If that’s the charge, I stand guilty, and I am proud of it.[49]

In the 1960s, right-wing populist individuals and groups with a producerist worldview, such as members of the John Birch Society, were the first to combine and spread an ultraconservative business nationalist critique of corporate internationalists networked through think tanks such as the Council on Foreign Relations with a grand conspiracy theory casting them as front organizations for the Round Table of the “Anglo-American Establishment", which are financed by an “international banking cabal” that has supposedly been plotting from the late 19th century on to impose an oligarchic new world order through a global financial system. Anti-globalist conspiracy theorists therefore fear that international bankers are planning to eventually subvert the independence Barkun argues that this statement is partly facetious (the of the U.S. by subordinating national sovereignty to a claim of “conspiracy” and "treason") and partly serious— strengthened Bank for International Settlements.[47] the desire to encourage trilateral cooperation among the The research findings of historian Carroll Quigley, au- U.S., Europe, and Japan, for example—an ideal that thor of the 1966 book Tragedy and Hope, are taken used to be a hallmark of the internationalist wing of the by both conspiracy theorists of the American Old Right Republican Party—known as "Rockefeller Republicans" (W. Cleon Skousen) and New Left (Carl Oglesby) to in honor of Nelson Rockefeller—when there was an insubstantiate this view, even though he argued that the ternationalist wing. The statement, however, is taken at Establishment is not involved in a plot to implement a face value and widely cited by conspiracy theorists as one-world government but rather British and American proof that the Council on Foreign Relations uses its role benevolent imperialism driven by the mutual interests of as the brain trust of American presidents, senators and economic elites in the United Kingdom and the United representatives to manipulate them into supporting a New States. Quigley also argued that, although the Round Ta- World Order in the form of a one-world government. ble still exists today, its position in influencing the policies In a 13 November 2007 interview with Canadian journalof world leaders has been much reduced from its heyday ist Benjamin Fulford, Rockefeller countered: during World War I and slowly waned after the end of World War II and the Suez Crisis. Today the Round TaI don't think that I really feel that we need ble is largely a ginger group, designed to consider and a world government. We need governments of

2.2. CONSPIRACY THEORIES the world that work together and collaborate. But, I can't imagine that there would be any likelihood or even that it would be desirable to have a single government elected by the people of the world ... There have been people, ever since I've had any kind of position in the world, who have accused me of being ruler of the world. I have to say that I think for the large part, I would have to decide to describe them as crackpots. It makes no sense whatsoever, and isn't true, and won't be true, and to raise it as a serious issue seems to me to be irresponsible.[50]

19 Wells’s books were inﬂuential in giving a second meaning to the term "new world order", which would only be used by state socialist supporters and anti-communist opponents for generations to come. However, despite the popularity and notoriety of his ideas, Wells failed to exert a deeper and more lasting inﬂuence because he was unable to concentrate his energies on a direct appeal to intelligentsias who would, ultimately, have to coordinate the Wellsian new world order.[54]

2.2.7 New Age British neo-Theosophical occultist Alice Bailey, one of the founders of the so-called New Age movement, prophesied in 1940 the eventual victory of the Allies of World War II over the Axis powers (which occurred in 1945) and the establishment by the Allies of a political and religious New World Order. She saw a federal world government as the culmination of Wells’ Open Conspiracy but favorably argued that it would be synarchist because it was guided by the Masters of the Ancient Wisdom, intent on preparing humanity for the mystical second coming of Christ, and the dawning of the Age of Aquarius. According to Bailey, a group of ascended masters called the Great White Brotherhood works on the "inner planes" to oversee the transition to the New World Order but, for now, the members of this Spiritual Hierarchy are only known to a few occult scientists, with whom they communicate telepathically, but as the need for their personal involvement in the plan increases, there will be an “Externalization of the Hierarchy” and everyone will know of their presence on Earth.[55]

Some American social critics, such as Laurence H. Shoup, argue that the Council on Foreign Relations is an "imperial brain trust”, which has, for decades, played a central behind-the-scenes role in shaping U.S. foreign policy choices for the post-World War II international order and the Cold War, by determining what options show up on the agenda and what options do not even make it to the table;[51] while others, such as G. William Domhoff, argue that it is in fact a mere policy discussion forum,[52] which provides the business input to U.S. foreign policy planning. The latter argue that it has nearly 3,000 members, far too many for secret plans to be kept within the group; all the council does is sponsor discussion groups, debates and speakers; and as far as being secretive, it issues annual reports and allows access to its historical archives. However, all these critics agree that historical studies of the council show that it has a very different role in the overall power structure than what is claimed by conspiracy theorists.[52] Bailey’s writings, along with American writer Marilyn Ferguson's 1980 book The Aquarian Conspiracy, contributed to conspiracy theorists of the Christian right 2.2.6 The Open Conspiracy viewing the New Age movement as the "false religion" that would supersede Christianity in a New World In his 1928 book The Open Conspiracy British writer and Order.[56] Skeptics argue that the term “New Age movefuturist H. G. Wells promoted cosmopolitanism and ofment” is a misnomer, generally used by conspiracy theofered blueprints for a world revolution and world brain rists as a catch-all rubric for any new religious movement to establish a technocratic world state and planned econthat is not fundamentalist Christian. By this logic, anyomy.[53] Wells warned, however, in his 1940 book The thing that is not Christian is by definition actively and New World Order that: willfully anti-Christian.[57] ... when the struggle seems to be drifting definitely towards a world social democracy, there may still be very great delays and disappointments before it becomes an efficient and beneficent world system. Countless people ... will hate the new world order, be rendered unhappy by the frustration of their passions and ambitions through its advent and will die protesting against it. When we attempt to evaluate its promise, we have to bear in mind the distress of a generation or so of malcontents, many of them quite gallant and graceful-looking people.[12]

Paradoxically, since the 2000s (decade), New World Order conspiracism is increasingly being embraced and propagandized by New Age occultists, who are people bored by rationalism and drawn to stigmatized knowledge— such as alternative medicine, astrology, quantum mysticism, spiritualism, and theosophy.[6] Thus, New Age conspiracy theorists, such as the makers of documentary ﬁlms like Esoteric Agenda, claim that globalists who plot on behalf of the New World Order are simply misusing occultism for Machiavellian ends, such as adopting 21 December 2012 as the exact date for the establishment of the New World Order for the purpose of taking advantage of the growing 2012 phenomenon, which has its origins in the fringe Mayanist theories of New Age writers José

CHAPTER 2. NEW WORLD ORDER (CONSPIRACY THEORY)

Argüelles, Terence McKenna, and Daniel Pinchbeck.

status have paved the way in the U.S. for the emergence of which contradicts many prinSkeptics argue that the connection of conspiracy the- an inverted totalitarianism [60] ciples of Nazism. orists and occultists follows from their common fallacious premises. First, any widely accepted belief must necessarily be false. Second, stigmatized knowledge— 2.2.9 Alien invasion what the Establishment spurns—must be true. The result is a large, self-referential network in which, for examSince the late 1970s, extraterrestrials from other habitable ple, some UFO religionists promote anti-Jewish phobias planets or parallel dimensions (such as "Greys") and inwhile some antisemites practice Peruvian shamanism.[6] traterrestrials from Hollow Earth (such as "Reptilians") have been included in the New World Order conspiracy, in more or less dominant roles, as in the theories put for2.2.8 Fourth Reich ward by American writers Stan Deyo and Milton William Cooper, and British writer David Icke.[6][61][62] Conspiracy theorists often use the term "Fourth Reich" simply as a pejorative synonym for the “New World Or- The common theme in these conspiracy theories is that der” to imply that its state ideology and government will aliens have been among us for decades, centuries or milbe similar to Germany’s Third Reich. However, some lennia, but a government cover-up enforced by "Men in conspiracy theorists use the research findings of Ameri- Black" has shielded the public from knowledge of a secret can journalist Edwin Black, author of the 2009 book Nazi alien invasion. Motivated by speciesism and imperialism, Nexus, to claim that some American corporations and these aliens have been and are secretly manipulating dephilanthropic foundations—whose complicity was piv- velopments and changes in human society in order to otal to the Third Reich’s war effort, Nazi eugenics and more efficiently control and exploit human beings. In the Holocaust—are now conspiring to build a Fourth Re- some theories, alien infiltrators have shapeshifted into human form and move freely throughout human society, ich. even to the point of taking control of command positions Conspiracy theorists, such as American writer Jim Marrs, in governmental, corporate, and religious institutions, and claim that some ex-Nazis, who survived the fall of the are now in the final stages of their plan to take over the Greater German Reich, along with sympathizers in the world.[62] A mythical covert government agency of the United States and elsewhere, given haven by organizaUnited States code-named Majestic 12 is often imagtions like ODESSA and Die Spinne, have been working ined being the shadow government which collaborates behind the scenes since the end of World War II to enwith the alien occupation and permits alien abductions, act at least some principles of Nazism (e.g., militarism, in exchange for assistance in the development and testimperialism, widespread spying on citizens, corporatism, ing of military “flying saucers” at Area 51, in order for the use of propaganda to manufacture a national consenUnited States armed forces to achieve full-spectrum domsus) into culture, government, and business worldwide, inance.[6] but primarily in the U.S. They cite the influence of exNazi scientists brought in under Operation Paperclip to Skeptics, who adhere to the psychosocial hypothesis help advance aerospace manufacturing in the U.S. with for unidentified flying objects, argue that the convertechnological principles from Nazi UFOs, and the ac- gence of New World Order conspiracy theory and UFO quisition and creation of conglomerates by ex-Nazis and conspiracy theory is a product of not only the era’s their sympathizers after the war, in both Europe and the widespread mistrust of governments and the popularity of the extraterrestrial hypothesis for UFOs but of the U.S.[58] far right and ufologists actually joining forces. Barkun This neo-Nazi conspiracy is said to be animated by notes that the only positive side to this development is an “Iron Dream” in which the American Empire, havthat, if conspirators plotting to rule the world are believed ing thwarted the Judeo-Masonic conspiracy and overto be aliens, traditional human scapegoats (Freemasons, thrown its Zionist Occupation Government, gradually esIlluminati, Jews, etc.) are downgraded or exonerated.[6] tablishes a Fourth Reich formerly known as the “Western Imperium”—a pan-Aryan world empire modeled after Adolf Hitler's New Order—which reverses the 2.2.10 Brave New World "decline of the West" and ushers a golden age of white supremacy.[59] Antiscience and neo-Luddite conspiracy theorists emphaSkeptics argue that conspiracy theorists grossly overestimate the influence of ex-Nazis and neo-Nazis on American society, and point out that political repression at home and imperialism abroad have a long history in the United States that predates the 20th century. Some political scientists, such as Sheldon Wolin, have expressed concern that the twin forces of democratic deficit and superpower

size technology forecasting in their New World Order conspiracy theories. They speculate that the global power elite are reactionary modernists pursuing a transhumanist agenda to develop and use human enhancement technologies in order to become a "posthuman ruling caste", while change accelerates toward a technological singularity—a theorized future point of discontinuity when events will

2.3. POSTULATED IMPLEMENTATIONS

accelerate at such a pace that normal unenhanced humans will be unable to predict or even understand the rapid changes occurring in the world around them. Conspiracy theorists fear the outcome will either be the emergence of a Brave New World-like dystopia—a “Brave New World Order”—or the extinction of the human species.[63]

to social, economic and political problems. Most of these are passed around in their own circles and eventually filed away and forgotten by junior staffers in congressional offices. Some of these papers, however, become touchstones for the conspiracy-minded and form the basis of all kinds of unfounded xenophobic fears especially dur[65] Democratic transhumanists, such as American soci- ing times of economic anxiety. ologist James Hughes, counter that many influen- For example, in March 2009, as a result of the latetial members of the United States Establishment are 2000s financial crisis, the People’s Republic of China bioconservatives strongly opposed to human enhance- and the Russian Federation pressed for urgent considment, as demonstrated by President Bush’s Council eration of a new international reserve currency and the on Bioethics's proposed international treaty prohibiting United Nations Conference on Trade and Development human cloning and germline engineering. Furthermore, proposed greatly expanding the I.M.F.'s special drawing he argues that conspiracy theorists underestimate how rights. Conspiracy theorists fear these proposals are a call fringe the transhumanist movement really is.[64] for the U.S. to adopt a single global currency for a New World Order.[66][67]

2.3 Postulated implementations Just as there are several overlapping or conﬂicting theories among conspiracists about the nature of the New World Order, so are there several beliefs about how its architects and planners will implement it:

2.3.1

Gradualism

Judging that both national governments and global institutions have proven ineﬀective in addressing worldwide problems that go beyond the capacity of individual nation-states to solve, some political scientists critical of New World Order conspiracism, such as Mark C. Partridge, argue that regionalism will be the major force in the coming decades, pockets of power around regional centers: Western Europe around Brussels, the Western Hemisphere around Washington, D.C., East Asia around Beijing, and Eastern Europe around Moscow. As such, the E.U., the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation, and the G-20 will likely become more inﬂuential as time progresses. The question then is not whether global governance is gradually emerging, but rather how will these regional powers interact with one another.[68]

Conspiracy theorists generally speculate that the New World Order is being implemented gradually, citing the formation of the U.S. Federal Reserve System in 1913; the League of Nations in 1919; the International Monetary Fund in 1944; the United Nations in 1945; the World Bank in 1945; the World Health Organization in 1948; the European Union and the euro currency in 1993; the 2.3.2 Coup d'état World Trade Organization in 1998; the African Union in 2002; and the Union of South American Nations in 2008 American right-wing populist conspiracy theorists, esas major milestones.[6] pecially those who joined the militia movement in the An increasingly popular conspiracy theory among Amer- United States, speculate that the New World Order will be ican right-wing populists is that the hypothetical North implemented through a dramatic coup d'état by a "secret American Union and the amero currency, proposed by team", using black helicopters, in the U.S. and other the Council on Foreign Relations and its counterparts in nation-states to bring about a totalitarian world governMexico and Canada, will be the next milestone in the imment controlled by the United Nations and enforced by plementation of the New World Order. The theory holds troops of foreign U.N. peacekeepers. Following the Rex that a group of shadowy and mostly nameless interna- 84 and Operation Garden Plot plans, this military coup tional elites are planning to replace the federal govern- would involve the suspension of the Constitution, the imment of the United States with a transnational govern- position of martial law, and the appointment of military ment. Therefore, conspiracy theorists believe the bor- commanders to head state and local governments and to ders between Mexico, Canada and the United States are detain dissidents.[69] in the process of being erased, covertly, by a group of These conspiracy theorists, who are all strong believers globalists whose ultimate goal is to replace national gov- in a right to keep and bear arms, are extremely fearful ernments in Washington, D.C., Ottawa and Mexico City that the passing of any gun control legislation will be with a European-style political union and a bloated E.U.- later followed by the abolishment of personal gun ownstyle bureaucracy.[65] ership and a campaign of gun conﬁscation, and that the Skeptics argue that the North American Union exists only as a proposal contained in one of a thousand academic and/or policy papers published each year that advocate all manner of idealistic but ultimately unrealistic approaches

refugee camps of emergency management agencies such as F.E.M.A. will be used for the internment of suspected subversives, making little eﬀort to distinguish true threats to the New World Order from paciﬁst dissidents.[20]

CHAPTER 2. NEW WORLD ORDER (CONSPIRACY THEORY)

Before year 2000 some survivalists wrongly believed this process would be set in motion by the predicted Y2K problem causing societal collapse.[70] Since many leftwing and right-wing conspiracy theorists believe that the September 11 attacks were a false ﬂag operation carried out by the United States intelligence community, as part of a strategy of tension to justify political repression at home and preemptive war abroad, they have become convinced that a more catastrophic terrorist incident will be responsible for triggering Executive Directive 51 in order to complete the transition to a police state.[71]

logo, which depicted the “all-seeing” Eye of Providence atop of a pyramid looking down over the globe, accompanied by the Latin phrase scientia est potentia (knowledge is power). Although DARPA eventually removed the logo from its website, it left a lasting impression on privacy advocates.[74] It also inﬂamed conspiracy theorists,[75] who misinterpret the “eye and pyramid” as the Masonic symbol of the Illuminati,[32][76] an 18th-century secret society they speculate continues to exist and is plotting on behalf of a New World Order.[36][37]

American historian Richard Landes, who specializes in the history of apocalypticism and was co-founder and director of the Center for Millennial Studies at Boston University, argues that new and emerging technologies often trigger alarmism among millenarians and even the introduction of Gutenberg’s printing press in 1436 caused waves of apocalyptic thinking. The Year 2000 problem, bar codes and Social Security numbers all triggered endtime warnings which either proved to be false or simply were no longer taken seriously once the public became accustomed to these technological changes.[77] Civil libertarians argue that the privatization of surveillance and the rise of the surveillance-industrial complex in the United States does raise legitimate concerns about the erosion of privacy.[78] However, skeptics of mass surveillance con2.3.3 Mass surveillance spiracism caution that such concerns should be disentanBig Brother or religious Conspiracy theorists concerned with surveillance abuse gled from secular paranoia about [6] hysteria about the Antichrist. believe that the New World Order is being implemented by the cult of intelligence at the core of the surveillanceindustrial complex through mass surveillance and the use 2.3.4 Occultism of Social Security numbers, the bar-coding of retail goods with Universal Product Code markings, and, most re- Conspiracy theorists of the Christian right, starting with cently, RFID tagging by microchip implants.[6] British revisionist historian Nesta Helen Webster, beSkeptics argue that unfounded fears about an imminent or eventual gun ban, military coup, internment, or U.N. invasion and occupation are rooted in the siege mentality of the American militia movement but also an apocalyptic millenarianism which provides a basic narrative within the political right in the U.S., claiming that the idealized society (i.e., constitutional republic, Jeﬀersonian democracy, "Christian nation", "white nation") is thwarted by subversive conspiracies of liberal secular humanists who want "Big Government" and globalists who plot on behalf of the New World Order.[14]

Claiming that corporations and government are planning to track every move of consumers and citizens with RFID as the latest step toward a 1984-like surveillance state, consumer privacy advocates, such as Katherine Albrecht and Liz McIntyre,[72] have become Christian conspiracy theorists who believe spychips must be resisted because they argue that modern database and communications technologies, coupled with point of sale data-capture equipment and sophisticated ID and authentication systems, now make it possible to require a biometrically associated number or mark to make purchases. They fear that the ability to implement such a system closely resembles the Number of the Beast prophesied in the Book of Revelation.[6] In January 2002, the Information Awareness Oﬃce (IAO) was established by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) to bring together several DARPA projects focused on applying information technology to counter asymmetric threats to national security. Following public criticism that the development and deployment of these technologies could potentially lead to a mass surveillance system, the IAO was defunded by the United States Congress in 2003.[73] The second source of controversy involved IAO’s original

lieve there is an ancient occult conspiracy—started by the ﬁrst mystagogues of Gnosticism and perpetuated by their alleged esoteric successors, such as the Kabbalists, Cathars, Knights Templar, Hermeticists, Rosicrucians, Freemasons, and, ultimately, the Illuminati—which seeks to subvert the Judeo-Christian foundations of the Western world and implement the New World Order through a one-world religion that prepares the masses to embrace the imperial cult of the Antichrist.[6] More broadly, they speculate that globalists who plot on behalf of a New World Order are directed by occult agencies of some sort: unknown superiors, spiritual hierarchies, demons, fallen angels and/or Lucifer. They believe that these conspirators use the power of occult sciences (numerology), symbols (Eye of Providence), rituals (Masonic degrees), monuments (National Mall landmarks), buildings (Manitoba Legislative Building[79] ) and facilities (Denver International Airport) to advance their plot to rule the world.[6] For example, in June 1979, an unknown benefactor under the pseudonym "R. C. Christian" had a huge granite megalith built in the U.S. state of Georgia, which acts like a compass, calendar, and clock. A message comprising ten guides is inscribed on the occult structure in

2.4. ALLEGED CONSPIRATORS many languages to serve as instructions for survivors of a doomsday event to establish a more enlightened and sustainable civilization than the one which was destroyed. The "Georgia Guidestones" have subsequently become a spiritual and political Rorschach test onto which any number of ideas can be imposed. Some New Agers and neo-pagans revere it as a ley-line power nexus while a few conspiracy theorists are convinced that they are engraved with the New World Order’s anti-Christian "Ten Commandments.” Should the Guidestones survive for centuries as their creators intended, many more meanings could arise, equally unrelated to the designer’s original intention.[80] Skeptics argue that the demonization of Western esotericism by conspiracy theorists is rooted in religious intolerance but also in the same moral panics that have fueled witch trials in the Early Modern period, and satanic ritual abuse allegations in the United States.[6]

2.3.5

Population control

Conspiracy theorists believe that the New World Order will also be implemented through the use of human population control in order to more easily monitor and control the movement of individuals.[6] The means range from stopping the growth of human societies through reproductive health and family planning programs, which promote abstinence, contraception and abortion, or intentionally reducing the bulk of the world population through genocides by mongering unnecessary wars, through plagues by engineering emergent viruses and tainting vaccines, and through environmental disasters by controlling the weather (HAARP, chemtrails), etc. Conspiracy theorists argue that globalists plotting on behalf of a New World Order are neo-Malthusians who engage in overpopulation and climate change alarmism in order to create public support for coercive population control and ultimately world government. Agenda 21 is condemned as “reconcentrating” people into urban areas and depopulating rural ones, even generating a dystopian novel by Glenn Beck where single-family homes are a distant memory.

23 particularly the various programs established by the New Deal; and government eﬀorts to reduce inequalities in the social structure of the U.S..[82]

2.3.6 Mind control Social critics accuse governments, corporations, and the mass media of being involved in the manufacturing of a national consensus and, paradoxically, a culture of fear due to the potential for increased social control that a mistrustful and mutually fearing population might offer to those in power. The worst fear of some conspiracy theorists, however, is that the New World Order will be implemented through the use of mind control— a broad range of tactics able to subvert an individual’s control of his or her own thinking, behavior, emotions, or decisions. These tactics are said to include everything from Manchurian candidate-style brainwashing of sleeper agents (Project MKULTRA, "Project Monarch") to engineering psychological operations (water ﬂuoridation, subliminal advertising, "Silent Sound Spread Spectrum", MEDUSA) and parapsychological operations (Stargate Project) to inﬂuence the masses.[83] The concept of wearing a tin foil hat for protection from such threats has become a popular stereotype and term of derision; the phrase serves as a byword for paranoia and is associated with conspiracy theorists.

Skeptics argue that the paranoia behind a conspiracy theorist’s obsession with mind control, population control, occultism, surveillance abuse, Big Business, Big Government, and globalization arises from a combination of two factors, when he or she: 1) holds strong individualist values and 2) lacks power. The first attribute refers to people who care deeply about an individual’s right to make their own choices and direct their own lives without interference or obligations to a larger system (like the government), but combine this with a sense of powerlessness in one’s own life, and one gets what some psychologists call "agency panic,” intense anxiety about an apparent loss of autonomy to outside forces or regulators. When fervent individualists feel that they cannot exercise their independence, they experience a crisis and assume that larger Skeptics argue that fears of population control can be forces are to blame for usurping this freedom.[84][85] traced back to the traumatic legacy of the eugenics movement’s “war against the weak” in the United States during the first decades of the 20th century but also the Second Red Scare in the U.S. during the late 1940s and 2.4 Alleged conspirators 1950s, and to a lesser extent in the 1960s, when activists on the far right of American politics routinely opposed According to Domhoff, many people seem to believe that public health programs, notably water fluoridation, mass the United States is ruled from behind the scenes by a vaccination and mental health services, by asserting they conspiratorial elite with secret desires, i.e., by a small sewere all part of a far-reaching plot to impose a social- cretive group that wants to change the government sysist or communist regime.[81] Their views were influenced tem or put the country under the control of a world govby opposition to a number of major social and political ernment. In the past the conspirators were usually said changes that had happened in recent years: the growth of to be crypto-communists who were intent upon bringinternationalism, particularly the United Nations and its ing the United States under a common world government programs; the introduction of social welfare provisions, with the Soviet Union, but the dissolution of the U.S.S.R.

CHAPTER 2. NEW WORLD ORDER (CONSPIRACY THEORY)

in 1991 undercut that theory. Domhoff notes that most conspiracy theorists changed their focus to the United Nations as the likely controlling force in a New World Order, an idea which is undermined by the powerlessness of the U.N. and the unwillingness of even moderates within the American Establishment to give it anything but a limited role.[52] Although skeptical of New World Order conspiracism, political scientist David Rothkopf argues, in the 2008 book Superclass: The Global Power Elite and the World They Are Making, that the world population of 6 billion people is governed by an elite of 6,000 individuals. Until the late 20th century, governments of the great powers provided most of the superclass, accompanied by a few heads of international movements (i.e., the Pope of the Catholic Church) and entrepreneurs (Rothschilds, Rockefellers). According to Rothkopf, in the early 21st century, economic clout—fueled by the explosive expansion of international trade, travel and communication— rules; the nation-state's power has diminished shrinking politicians to minority power broker status; leaders in international business, finance and the defense industry not only dominate the superclass, they move freely into high positions in their nations’ governments and back to private life largely beyond the notice of elected legislatures (including the U.S. Congress), which remain abysmally ignorant of affairs beyond their borders. He asserts that the superclass’ disproportionate influence over national policy is constructive but always self-interested, and that across the world, few object to corruption and oppressive governments provided they can do business in these countries.[86] Viewing the history of the world as the history of warfare between secret societies, conspiracy theorists go further than Rothkopf, and other scholars who have studied the global power elite, by claiming that established upperclass families with "old money" who founded and finance the Bilderberg Group, Bohemian Club, Club of Rome, Council on Foreign Relations, Rhodes Trust, Skull and Bones, Trilateral Commission, and similar think tanks and private clubs, are illuminated conspirators plotting to impose a totalitarian New World Order—the implementation of an authoritarian world government controlled by the United Nations and a global central bank, which maintains political power through the financialization of the economy, regulation and restriction of speech through the concentration of media ownership, mass surveillance, widespread use of state terrorism, and an allencompassing propaganda that creates a cult of personality around a puppet world leader and ideologizes world government as the culmination of history’s progress.[6]

neoliberal or neoconservative new world order—the implementation of global capitalism through economic and military coercion to protect the interests of transnational corporations—which systematically undermines the possibility of a socialist one-world government.[87] Arguing that the world is in the middle of a transition from the American Empire to the rule of a global ruling class that has emerged from within the American Empire, they point out that right-wing populist conspiracy theorists, blinded by their anti-communism, fail to see is that what they demonize as the “New World Order” is, ironically, the highest stage of the very capitalist economic system they defend.[87]

2.5 Criticisms Skeptics of New World Order conspiracy theories accuse its proponents of indulging in the furtive fallacy, a belief that significant facts of history are necessarily sinister; conspiracism, a world view that centrally places conspiracy theories in the unfolding of history, rather than social and economic forces; and fusion paranoia, a promiscuous absorption of fears from any source whatsoever.[6] Domhoff, a research professor in psychology and sociology who studies theories of power, writes in a March 2005 essay entitled There Are No Conspiracies: There are several problems with a conspiratorial view that don't fit with what we know about power structures. First, it assumes that a small handful of wealthy and highly educated people somehow develop an extreme psychological desire for power that leads them to do things that don't fit with the roles they seem to have. For example, that rich capitalists are no longer out to make a profit, but to create a one-world government. Or that elected officials are trying to get the constitution suspended so they can assume dictatorial powers. These kinds of claims go back many decades now, and it is always said that it is really going to happen this time, but it never does. Since these claims have proved wrong dozens of times by now, it makes more sense to assume that leaders act for their usual reasons, such as profit-seeking motives and institutionalized roles as elected officials. Of course they want to make as much money as they can, and be elected by huge margins every time, and that can lead them to do many unsavory things, but nothing in the ballpark of creating a one-world government or suspending the constitution.[52]

Marxists, who are skeptical of right-wing populist conspiracy theories, also accuse the global power elite of not having the best interests of all at heart, and many intergovernmental organizations of suffering from a democratic deficit, but they argue that the superclass Partridge, a contributing editor to the global affairs magare plutocrats only interested in brazenly imposing a azine Diplomatic Courier, writes in a December 2008 ar-

2.5. CRITICISMS

ticle entitled One World Government: Conspiracy Theory Alexander Zaitchik from the Southern Poverty Law Cenor Inevitable Future?: ter wrote a report titled "'Patriot' Paranoia: A Look at the Top Ten Conspiracy Theories” condemning such conspiracies are an effort of the radical right to undermine sociI am skeptical that “global governance” ety. could “come much sooner than that [200 years],” as [journalist Gideon Rachman] Scholars continue to debate the psychoposits. For one thing, nationalism—the natural logical and sociological origins of conspiracy counterpoint to global government—is rising. theories, but there is no arguing that these Some leaders and peoples around the world theories have seen a revival on the extreme have resented Washington’s chiding and right in recent years. Over the last two hubris over the past two decade of American decades, a far-right conspiracy culture of unipolarity. Russia has been re-establishing self-proclaimed “Patriots” has emerged in itself as a “great power"; few could miss the which the United States government itself is national pride on display when China hosted viewed as a mortal threat to everything from the Beijing Olympics this summer; while Hugo constitutional democracy to the survival of Chavez and his ilk have stoked the national the human race. This conspiracy revival — flames with their anti-American rhetoric. which has been accompanied by the explosive The departing of the Bush Administration growth of Patriot groups over the last year and could cause this nationalism to abate, but a half — kicked into overdrive with the 2008 economic uncertainty usually has the opposite election of President Barack Obama, who is effect. [...] Another point is that attempts seen by Patriots as a foreign-born Manchurian at global government and global agreements candidate sent by forces of the so-called “New have been categorical failures. The WTO’s World Order” to destroy American sovereignty Doha Round is dead in the water, Kyoto and institute one-world socialist government. excluded many of the leading polluters and a conference to establish a deal was a failure, and there is a race to the bottom in terms of corporate taxes—rather than an existing Concerned that the improvisational millennialism of most global framework. And, where supranational conspiracy theories about a New World Order might mogovernance structures exist, they are noted tivate lone wolves to engage in leaderless resistance leadfor their bureaucracy and inefficiency: The ing to domestic terrorist incidents like the Oklahoma City UN has been unable to stop an American-led bombing,[90] Barkun writes: invasion of Iraq, genocide in Darfur, the slow collapse of Zimbabwe, or Iran’s conThe danger lies less in such beliefs themtinued uranium enrichment. That is not to selves ... than in the behavior they might belittle the structure, as I deem it essential, stimulate or justify. As long as the New but the system’s flaws are there for all to see.[68] World Order appeared to be almost but not quite a reality, devotees of conspiracy theories could be expected to confine their activities to propagandizing. On the other hand, should they believe that the prophesied evil day had in fact arrived, their behavior would become far more difficult to predict.[6]

Although some cultural critics see superconspiracy theories about a New World Order as "postmodern metanarratives" that may be politically empowering, a way of giving ordinary people a narrative structure with which to question what they see around them,[88] skeptics argue that conspiracism leads people into cynicism, convoluted thinking, and a tendency to feel it is hopeless Warning of the threat to American democracy posed by even as they denounce the alleged conspirators.[89] right-wing populist movements led by demagogues who The activities of conspiracy theorists (talk radio shows, mobilize support for mob rule or even a fascist revolution books, websites, documentary videos, conferences, etc.) by exploiting the fear of conspiracies, Berlet writes: unwittingly draw enormous amounts of energy and effort away from serious criticism and activism directed to real and ongoing crimes of state, and their institutional background. That is why conspiracy-focused movements (JFK, UFO, 9/11 Truth) are treated far more tolerantly by centers of power than is the norm for serious critical and activist work of truly left-wing progressives who are marginalized from mainstream public discourse.[14]

Right-wing populist movements can cause serious damage to a society because they often popularize xenophobia, authoritarianism, scapegoating, and conspiracism. This can lure mainstream politicians to adopt these themes to attract voters, legitimize acts of discrimination (or even violence), and open

CHAPTER 2. NEW WORLD ORDER (CONSPIRACY THEORY) the door for revolutionary right-wing populist movements, such as fascism, to recruit from the reformist populist movements.[14]

such as dominionism, white supremacism, and even eliminationism.[14][91] This paradox has led Icke, who argues that Christian Patriots are the only Americans who understand the truth about the New World Order (which he believes is controlled by a race of reptilians known as Hughes, a professor of religion, warns that no religious the “Babylonian Brotherhood”), to reportedly tell a Chrisidea has greater potential for shaping global politics in tian Patriot group: profoundly negative ways than “the new world order”. He writes in a February 2011 article entitled Revelation, RevI don't know which I dislike more, the olutions, and the Tyrannical New World Order: world controlled by the Brotherhood, or the one you want to replace it with.[6] The crucial piece of this puzzle is the identity of the Antichrist, the tyrannical figure who both leads and inspires the new world order. [...] for many years, rapture theologians 2.6 See also identified the Soviet Union as the Antichrist. But after Sept. 11, they became quite certain • Globalization that the Antichrist was closely connected • Anti-globalization movement with the Arab world and the Muslim religion. This means, quite simply, that for rapture • Criticisms of globalization theologians, Islam stands at the heart of the tyrannical “new world order.” Precisely here we discover why the idea of a “new world or2.7 References der” has such potential to move global politics in profoundly negative directions, for rapture [1] Lewis and Short, A Latin Dictionary theologians typically welcome war with the Islamic world. As Bill Moyers wrote of the [2] “Novus Ordo Seclorum - Origin and Meaning of the rapture theologians, “A war with Islam in the Motto Beneath the American Pyramid”. GreatSeal.com. Middle East is not something to be feared but welcomed—an essential conflagration on the [3] Camp, Gregory S. (1997). Selling Fear: Conspiracy Theories and End-Times Paranoia. Commish Walsh. ASIN road to redemption.” Further, rapture theoloB000J0N8NC. gians co-opt the United States as a tool in their cosmic vision—a tool God will use to smite the [4] Berlet, Chip; Lyons, Matthew N. (2000). Right-Wing PopAntichrist and the enemies of righteousness. ulism in America: Too Close for Comfort. Guilford Press. This is why Tim LaHaye, co-author of the ISBN 1-57230-562-2. best-selling series of end-times books, could [5] Goldberg, Robert Alan (2001). Enemies Within: The Cullend such strong support to the American ture of Conspiracy in Modern America. Yale University invasion and occupation of Iraq. By virtue of Press. ISBN 0-300-09000-5. that war, LaHaye believed, Iraq would become “a focal point of end-times events.” Even more [6] Barkun, Michael (2003). A Culture of Conspiracy: Apocdisturbing is the fact that rapture theologians alyptic Visions in Contemporary America. University of blissfully open the door to nuclear holocaust. California Press; 1 edition. ISBN 0-520-23805-2. Rapture theologians have always held that God [7] Fenster, Mark (2008). Conspiracy Theories: Secrecy and will destroy his enemies at the end of time in Power in American Culture (2nd ed.). University of Minthe Great Battle of Armageddon. But since nesota Press. ISBN 0-8166-5494-8. World War II, they have increasingly identified Armageddon with nuclear weaponry, thereby [8] Berlet, Chip (September 2004). “Interview: Michael Barkun”. Retrieved 2009-10-01. lending biblical inevitability to the prospects of nuclear annihilation. As one prophecy [9] Pete Williams, Andrew Blankstein (1 November 2014). writer put it, “The holocaust of atomic war “Sources: Alleged LAX gunman had 'new world order' would fulfill the prophecies.”[24] conspiracy tract”. NBC News. Retrieved 10 July 2014. [10] Buchanan, Patrick J. (1999). A Republic, Not an Empire: Reclaiming America’s Destiny. Regnery Publishing, Inc. ASIN B001NHW8GI.

Criticisms of New World Order conspiracy theorists also come from within their own community. Despite believing themselves to be "freedom ﬁghters", many [11] Hughes, J. “Better Living Through World Government: right-wing populist conspiracy theorists hold views that Transnationalism as 21st Socialism”. Institute for Ethics & Emerging Technologies. Retrieved 10 July 2014. are incompatible with their professed libertarianism,

2.7. REFERENCES

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[29] Coughlin, Paul T. (1999). Secrets, Plots & Hidden Agendas: What You Don't Know About Conspiracy Theories. InterVarsity Press. ISBN 0-8308-1624-0. [30] De Hoyos, Arturo (2011). As it True What They Say About Freemasonry?. M. Evans and Company, revided edition. ISBN 1-59077-153-2. [31] McKeown, Trevor W. (5 May 2004). “Doesn't the satanic design of Washington, DC’s street plan prove that there’s a masonic conspiracy?". Anti-masonry Frequently Asked Questions. Grand Lodge of British Columbia and Yukon A.F. & A. M. Retrieved 2009-07-23. [32] McKeown, Trevor W. (5 May 2004). “Is the eye and pyramid a masonic symbol?". Anti-masonry Frequently Asked Questions. Grand Lodge of British Columbia and Yukon A.F. & A. M. Retrieved 2009-07-23. [33] Knight, Peter (1 Jan 2003). Conspiracy Theories in American History: An Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. p. 227. ISBN 978-1576078129. [34] McConachie, James; Tudge, Robin. Rough Guide to Conspiracy Theories, The (3rd). Rough Guides UK. ISBN 9781409362456. [35] McKeown, Trevor W. (5 May 2004). “Does Freemasonry have a secret political agenda?". Anti-masonry Frequently Asked Questions. Grand Lodge of British Columbia and Yukon A.F. & A. M. Retrieved 2009-07-23. [36] Stauﬀer, Vernon L. (1918). “The European Illuminati”. New England and the Bavarian Illuminati (Grand Lodge of British Columbia and Yukon A.F. & A. M.). Retrieved 2009-07-23. [37] McKeown, Trevor W. (2004). “A Bavarian Illuminati primer”. Retrieved 2009-07-23. [38] Soviet Jewry: Hearing before the Subcommittee on Human Rights and International Organizations, United States Congress. House. Committee on Foreign Aﬀairs. Commission on Security and Cooperation in Europe. 1984. p. 56 [39] Spargo, John (1921). The Jew and American Ideals. Harper & Brothers. [40] Henry Lincoln, Michael Baigent, Richard Leigh, The Holy Blood and the Holy Grail, Corgi, 1982. ISBN 0-55212138-X. [41] The Secret of the Priory of Sion, '60 Minutes’, 30 April 2006, presented by Ed Bradley, produced by Jeanne Langley, CBS News [42] Aho, Barbara (1997). “The Merovingian Dynasty: Satanic Bloodline of the AntiChrist & False Prophet”. Retrieved 2009-11-11. [43] Flint, John E. (1976). Cecil Rhodes (1st ed.). Little Brown & Company. ISBN 0-316-28630-3. [44] “MR. RHODES'S IDEAL OF ANGLO-SAXON GREATNESS; Statement of His Aims, Written for W.T. Stead In 1890. He Believed a Wealthy Secret Society Should Work to Secure the World’s Peace and a British-American Federation”. The New York Times. 1902-04-09.

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[45] Curtis, Lionel. Civitas Dei: The Commonwealth of God London (1938). MacMillan & Sons

[64] Hughes, James (2004). Citizen Cyborg: Why Democratic Societies Must Respond to the Redesigned Human of the Future. Westview Press. ISBN 0-8133-4198-1.

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[48] McDonald, Lawrence P. Introduction. The Rockefeller File. By Gary Allen. Seal Beach, CA: '76 Press, 1976. ISBN 0-89245-001-0.

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[49] Rockefeller, David (2002). Memoirs. Random House. ISBN 0-679-40588-7. [50] Fulford, Benjamin (2007). Benjamin Fulford interviews David Rockefeller. External link in |title= (help) [51] Shoup, Laurence H.; Minter, William (2004). Imperial Brain Trust: The Council on Foreign Relations and United States Foreign Policy. Authors Choice Press. ISBN 0-59532426-6.

[67] The Right-Wing Echo Chamber In Action: How A Conspiracy Travels From Drudge To Obama, Via Fox News [68] Partridge, Mark C (December 14, 2008). “One World Government: Conspiracy Theory or Inevitable Future?". Archived from the original on August 17, 2009. Retrieved May 4, 2014. [69] Levitas, Daniel (January 20, 2004). The Terrorist Next Door: The Militia Movement and the Radical Right. St. Martin’s Griﬃn. ISBN 0-312-32041-8.

[52] Domhoﬀ, G. William (2005). “There Are No Conspiracies”. Retrieved 2009-01-30.

[70] BBC News Special Report (1998-10-05). “Death to the New World Order”. Retrieved 2006-06-24.

[53] Wells, H. G. (2006). The Open Conspiracy. Book Tree. ISBN 1-58509-275-4.

[71] Ron Rosenbaum (2007-10-19). “Who Will Rule Us After the Next 9/11?". Retrieved 2009-04-04.

[54] H. G. Wells, British Patriot in Search of a World State

[72] Albrecht, Katherine; McIntyre, Liz (2006). The Spychips Threat: Why Christians Should Resist RFID and Electronic Surveillance. Nelson Current. ISBN 1-59555-021-6.

[55] Bailey, Alice A. (1957). “The Externalization of the Hierarchy”. USNISA. Retrieved 2009-07-23. [56] Cumbey, Constance (1985). The Hidden Dangers of the Rainbow: The New Age Movement and our Coming Age of Barbarism. Huntington House Publishers; Revised edition. ISBN 0-910311-03-X. [57] McKeown, Trevor W. (5 May 2004). “Has Freemasonry become part of the New Age movement?". Antimasonry Frequently Asked Questions. Grand Lodge of British Columbia and Yukon A.F. & A. M. Retrieved 2009-11-02. [58] Marrs, Jim (2008). The Rise of the Fourth Reich: The Secret Societies That Threaten to Take Over America. William Morrow. ISBN 978-0-06-124558-9. [59] Zeskind, Leonard (2009). Blood and Politics: The History of the White Nationalist Movement from the Margins to the Mainstream. Farrar, Straus and Giroux. ISBN 0374-10903-6. [60] Pipes, Daniel (1 May 2003). “Inverted Totalitarianism”. Retrieved 2009-12-21. [61] The Ten Most Popular Conspiracy Theories [62] Frel, January (1 September 2010). “Inside the Great Reptilian Conspiracy: From Queen Elizabeth to Barack Obama – They Live!". Retrieved 2010-09-01. [63] Collins, Phillip D. (2006). The Ascendancy of the Scientiﬁc Dictatorship: An Examination of Epistemic Autocracy, From the 19th to the 21st Century. BookSurge Publishing. ISBN 1-4196-3932-3.

[73] “Total/Terrorism Information Awareness (TIA): Is It Truly Dead?". Electronic Frontier Foundation (official website). 2003. Retrieved 2009-03-15. [74] Seifert, Jeffrey W. (16 December 2004). “Data Mining: An Overview” (PDF). Retrieved 2009-10-11. [75] Terry Melanson (22 July 2002). “Information Awareness Office (IAO): How’s This for Paranoid?". Illuminati Conspiracy Archive. Retrieved 11 October 2009. [76] Morris, S. Brent (1 January 2009). “The Eye in the Pyramid”. Short Talk Bulletin. Masonic Service Association. Retrieved 2009-10-27. [77] Baard, Mark (6 June 2006). “RFID: Sign of the (End) Times?". wired.com. Retrieved 18 December 2006. [78] Stanley, Jay (August 2004). “The Surveillance-Industrial Complex: How the American Government Is Conscripting Businesses and Individuals in the Construction of a Surveillance Society” (PDF). American Civil Liberties Union. Retrieved 14 July 2014. [79] Albo, Frank (2007). The Hermetic Code. Winnipeg Free Press. ISBN 0-9682575-3-4. [80] Laycock, Joseph (6 July 2009). “10 Commandments of the Anti-Christ: Mysterious “Guidestones” Madden Conspiracy Theorists and Christian Fundamentalists”. AlterNet. Retrieved 14 July 2014. [81] Henig, Robin Marantz (1997). The People’s Health. Joseph Henry Press. p. 85. ISBN 0-309-05492-3.

2.9. EXTERNAL LINKS

[82] Rovere, Richard H. (1959). Senator Joe McCarthy. University of California Press. pp. 21–22. ISBN 0-52020472-7.

• Cooper, Milton William (1991). Behold a Pale Horse. Light Technology Publications. ISBN 0929385-22-5.

[83] Harrington, Evan (1996). “Conspiracy Theories and Paranoia: Notes from a Mind-Control Conference”. Archived from the original on 2008-03-17. Retrieved 2009-07-23.

• Kah, Gary H. (1991). En Route to Global Occupation. Huntington House Publishers. ISBN 0910311-97-8.

[84] Ilan, Shrira (11 September 2008). “Paranoia and the roots of conspiracy theories - September 11 and the psychological roots of conspiracy theories”. Psychology Today. Retrieved 14 July 2014.

• Martin, Malachi (1991). Keys of This Blood: Pope John Paul II Versus Russia and the West for Control of the New World Order. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-671-74723-1.

[85] Melley, Timothy (December 1999). Empire of Conspiracy: The Culture of Paranoia in Postwar America. Cornell University Press. ISBN 0-8014-8606-8.

• Robertson, Pat (1992). The New World Order. W Publishing Group. ISBN 0-8499-3394-3.

[86] Rothkopf, David J. (2008). Superclass: The Global Power Elite and the World They Are Making. Farrar, Straus and Giroux. ISBN 0-374-27210-7.

• Wardner, James (1994) [1993]. The Planned Destruction of America. Longwood Communications. ISBN 0-9632190-5-7.

[87] Party for Socialism and Liberation (1 September 2010). “Daniel Estulin and the phony 'Bilderberg conspiracy'". Retrieved 7 October 2010.

• Keith, Jim (1995). Black Helicopters over America: Strikeforce for the New World Order. Illuminet Press. ISBN 1-881532-05-4.

[88] Lewis, Tyson; Kahn, Richard (2005). “The Reptoid Hypothesis: Utopian and Dystopian Representational Motifs in David Icke’s Alien Conspiracy Theory” (PDF). Retrieved 4 June 2010.

• Jones, Alan B. (2001) [1997]. Secrecy or Freedom?. ABJ Press. ISBN 0-9640848-2-1.

[89] Berlet, Chip (September 2004). “Interview: G. William Domhoﬀ”. Retrieved 1 October 2009. [90] Boyer, Paul S. (July 27, 2004). “The Strange World of Conspiracy Theories”. Retrieved 1 October 2009. [91] Holland, Joshua (12 June 2009). “The Terrorist Threat: Right-Wing Radicals and the Eliminationist Mindset”. Retrieved 23 July 2009.

2.8 Further reading The following is a list of non-self-published non-ﬁction books that discuss New World Order conspiracy theories. • Carr, William Guy (1954). Pawns in the Game. Legion for the Survival of Freedom, an aﬃliate of the Institute for Historical Review. ISBN 0-911038-299. • Allen, Gary (1971). None Dare Call It Conspiracy. Buccaneer Books. ISBN 0-89966-661-2. • Allen, Gary (1974). Rockefeller: Campaigning for the New World Order. American Opinion. • Allen, Gary (1987). Say “No!" to the New World Order. Concord Press. • Still, William T. (1990). New World Order: The Ancient Plan of Secret Societies. Huntington House Publishers. ISBN 0-910311-64-1.

• Cuddy, Dennis Laurence (1999) [1994]. Secret Records Revealed: The Men, The Money and The Methods Behind the New World Order. Hearthstone Publishing, Ltd. ISBN 1-57558-031-4. • Marrs, Jim (2001) [2001]. Rule by Secrecy: The Hidden History That Connects the Trilateral Commission, the Freemasons, and the Great Pyramids. HarperCollins. ISBN 0-06-093184-1. • Lina, Jüri (2004). Architects of Deception. Referent Publishing. ASIN B0017YZELI. • Tedford, Cody (2008). Powerful Secrets. Hannover. ISBN 1-4241-9263-3.

2.9 External links • Quotations related to New World Order at Wikiquote

Chapter 3

Illuminati This article is about the secret society. For the ﬁlm, see Illuminata (ﬁlm). For the Muslim esoteric school, see Illuminationism. For other uses, see Illuminati (disambiguation). The Illuminati (plural of Latin illuminatus, “enlight-

In subsequent use, “Illuminati” refers to various organisations which claim or are purported to have links to the original Bavarian Illuminati or similar secret societies, though these links are unsubstantiated. They are often alleged to conspire to control world aﬀairs, by masterminding events and planting agents in government and corporations, in order to gain political power and inﬂuence and to establish a New World Order. Central to some of the most widely known and elaborate conspiracy theories, the Illuminati have been depicted as lurking in the shadows and pulling the strings and levers of power in dozens of novels, movies, television shows, comics, video games, and music videos.

3.1 History 3.1.1 Origins

Adam Weishaupt (1748–1830), founder of the Bavarian Illuminati

ened”) is a name given to several groups, both real and fictitious. Historically, the name usually refers to the Bavarian Illuminati, an Enlightenment-era secret society founded on May 1, 1776. The society’s goals were to oppose superstition, obscurantism, religious influence over public life and abuses of state power. “The order of the day,” they wrote in their general statutes, “is to put an end to the machinations of the purveyors of injustice, to control them without dominating them.”[1] The Illuminati—along with Freemasonry and other secret societies—were outlawed through edict, by the Bavarian ruler, Charles Theodore, with the encouragement of the Roman Catholic Church, in 1784, 1785, 1787 and 1790.[2] In the several years following, the group was vilified by conservative and religious critics who claimed that they continued underground and were responsible for the French Revolution.

Adam Weishaupt (1748-1830) was a professor of Canon Law and practical philosophy at the University of Ingolstadt. He was the only non-clerical professor at an institution run by Jesuits, whose order had been dissolved in 1773. The Jesuits of Ingolstadt, however, still retained the purse strings and some power at the University, which they continued to regard as their own. Constant attempts were made to frustrate and discredit non-clerical staﬀ, especially when course material contained anything they regarded as liberal or Protestant. Weishaupt became deeply anti-clerical, resolving to spread the ideals of the Enlightenment (Aufklärung) through some sort of secret society of like-minded individuals.[3] Finding Freemasonry to be expensive, and not open to his ideas, he founded his own society which was to have a gradal system based on Freemasonry, but his own agenda.[3] His original name for the new order was Bund der Perfektibilisten, or Covenant of Perfectibility (Perfectibilists), later changing it because it sounded too strange.[4] On 1 May 1776 Weishaupt and four students formed the Perfectibilists, taking the Owl of Minerva as their symbol.[5][6] The members were to use aliases within the society. Weishaupt became Spartacus. Law students Massenhausen, Bauhof, Merz and Sutor became respectively Ajax, Agathon, Tiberius and Erasmus Roterodamus.

3.1. HISTORY

31 ther interest in the order. At this time, the order had a nominal membership of twelve.[7] With the departure of Massenhausen, Zwack immediately applied himself to recruiting more mature and important recruits. Most prized by Weishaupt was Hertel, a childhood friend and a canon of the Munich Frauenkirche. By the end of summer 1778 the order had 27 members (still counting Massenhausen) in 5 commands; Munich (Athens), Ingolstadt (Eleusis), Ravensberg (Sparta), Freysingen (Thebes), and Eichstaedt (Erzurum).[7] During this early period, the order had three grades of Novice, Minerval, and Illuminated Minerval, of which only the Minerval grade involved a complicated ceremony. In this the candidate was given secret signs and a password. A system of mutual espionage kept Weishaupt informed of the activities and character of all his members, his favourites becoming members of the ruling council, or Areopagus. Some novices were permitted to recruit, becoming Insinuants. Christians of good character were expected, with Jews and Pagans speciﬁcally excluded, along with women, monks, and members of other secret societies. Favoured candidates were rich, docile, willing to learn, and aged 18–30.[10][11]

3.1.2 Transition

The Owl of Minerva perched on a book was an emblem used by the Bavarian Illuminati in their “Minerval” degree.

Weishaupt later expelled Sutor for indolence.[7][8] It was not until April 1778 that the order became the Illuminatenorden, or Order of Illuminati, after Weishaupt had seriously contemplated the Bee order.[9] Massenhausen was initially the most active in expanding the society. Signiﬁcantly, while studying in Munich shortly after the formation of the order, he recruited Xavier von Zwack, a former pupil of Weishaupt at the beginning of a signiﬁcant administrative career. (At the time, he was in charge of the Bavarian National Lottery). Massenhausen’s enthusiasm soon became a liability in the eyes of Weishaupt, often attempting to recruit unsuitable candidates. Later, his erratic love-life made him neglectful, and as Weishaupt passed control of the Munich group to Zwack, it became clear that Massenhausen had misappropriated subscriptions and intercepted correspondence between Weishaupt and Zwack. In 1778, Massenhausen graduated and took a post outside Bavaria, taking no fur-

Having, with difficulty, dissuaded some of his members from joining the Freemasons, Weishaupt decided to join the older order to acquire material to expand his own ritual. He was admitted to lodge “Prudence” of the Rite of Strict Observance early in February 1777. His progress through the three degrees of “blue lodge” masonry taught him nothing of the higher degrees he sought to exploit, but in the following year a priest called Abbé Marotti informed Zwack that these inner secrets rested on knowledge of the older religion and the primitive church. Zwack persuaded Weishaupt that their own order should enter into friendly relations with Freemasonry, and obtain the dispensation to set up their own lodge. At this stage (December 1778), the addition of the first three degrees of Freemasonry was seen as a secondary project.[12] With little difficulty, a warrant was obtained from the Grand Lodge of Prussia called the Royal York for Friendship, and the new lodge was called Theodore of the Good Council, with the intention of flattering Charles Theodore, Elector of Bavaria. It was founded in Munich on 21 March 1779, and quickly packed with Illuminati. The first master, a man called Radl, was persuaded to return home to Baden, and by July Weishaupt’s order ran the lodge.[12] The next step involved independence from their Grand Lodge. By establishing masonic relations with the Union lodge in Frankfurt, affiliated to the Premier Grand Lodge of England, lodge Theodore became independently recognised, and able to declare its independence.

CHAPTER 3. ILLUMINATI

As a new mother lodge, it could now spawn lodges of its own. The recruiting drive amongst the Frankfurt masons also obtained the allegiance of Adolph Freiherr Knigge.[12]

3.1.3

Reform

Adolph Knigge

Adolph Freiherr Knigge, the most eﬀective recruiter for the Illuminati

Knigge was recruited late in 1780 at a convention of the Rite of Strict Observance by Costanzo Marchese di Costanzo, an infantry captain in the Bavarian army and a fellow Freemason. Knigge, still in his twenties, had already reached the highest initiatory grades of his order, and had arrived with his own grand plans for its reform. Disappointed that his scheme found no support, Knigge was immediately intrigued when Costanzo informed him that the order that he sought to create already existed. Knigge and three of his friends expressed a strong interest in learning more of this order, and Costanzo showed them material relating to the Minerval grade. The teaching material for the grade was “liberal” literature which was banned in Bavaria, but common knowledge in the Protestant German states. Knigge’s three companions became disillusioned and had no more to do with Costanza, but Knigge’s persistence was rewarded in November 1780 by a letter from Weishaupt. Knigge’s connections, both within and outside of Freemasonry, made him an ideal recruit. Knigge, for his own part, was ﬂattered by the attention, and drawn towards the order’s stated aims of ed-

ucation and the protection of mankind from despotism. Weishaupt managed to acknowledge, and pledge to support, Knigge’s interest in alchemy and the “higher sciences”. Knigge replied to Weishaupt outlining his plans for the reform of Freemasonry as the Strict Observance began to question its own origins.[13] Weishaupt set Knigge the task of recruiting before he could be admitted to the higher grades of the order. Knigge accepted, on the condition that he was allowed to choose his own recruiting grounds. Many other masons found Knigge’s description of the new masonic order attractive, and were enrolled in the Minerval grade of the Illuminati. Knigge appeared at this time to believe in the “Most Serene Superiors” which Weishaupt claimed to serve. His inability to articulate anything about the higher degrees of the order became increasingly embarrassing, but in delaying any help, Weishaupt gave him an extra task. Provided with material by Weishaupt, Knigge now produced pamphlets outlining the activities of the outlawed Jesuits, purporting to show how they continued to thrive and recruit, especially in Bavaria. Meanwhile, Knigge’s inability to give his recruits any satisfactory response to questions regarding the higher grades was making his position untenable, and he wrote to Weishaupt to this effect. In January 1781, faced with the prospect of losing Knigge and his masonic recruits, Weishaupt finally confessed that his superiors and the supposed antiquity of the order were fictions, and the higher degrees had yet to be written.[13] If Knigge had expected to learn the promised deep secrets of Freemasonry in the higher degrees of the Illuminati, he was surprisingly calm about Weishaupt’s revelation. Weishaupt promised Knigge a free hand in the creation of the higher degrees, and also promised to send him his own notes. For his own part, Knigge welcomed the opportunity to use the order as a vehicle for his own ideas. His new approach would, he claimed, make the Illuminati more attractive to prospective members in the Protestant kingdoms of Germany. In November of 1781 the Areopagus advanced Knigge 50 florins to travel to Bavaria, which he did via Swabia and Franconia, meeting and enjoying the hospitality of other Illuminati on his journey.[14]

Internal problems The order had now developed profound internal divisions. The Eichstaedt command had formed an autonomous province in July 1780, and a rift was growing between Weishaupt and the Areopagus, who found him stubborn, dictatorial, and inconsistent. Knigge fitted readily into the role of peacemaker.[14] In discussions with the Areopagus and Weishaupt, Knigge identified two areas which were problematic. Weishaupt’s emphasis on the recruitment of university students meant that senior positions in the order often had to be filled by

3.1. HISTORY young men with little practical experience. Secondly, the anti-Jesuit ethos of the order at its inception had become a general anti-religious sentiment, which Knigge knew would be a problem in recruiting the senior Freemasons that the order now sought to attract. Knigge felt keenly the stifling grip of conservative Catholicism in Bavaria, and understood the anti-religious feelings that this produced in the liberal Illuminati, but he also saw the negative impression these same feelings would engender in Protestant states, inhibiting the spread of the order in greater Germany. Both the Areopagus and Weishaupt felt powerless to do anything less than give Knigge a free hand. He had the contacts within and outside of Freemasonry that they needed, and he had the skill as a ritualist to build their projected gradal structure, where they had ground to a halt at Illuminatus Minor, with only the Minerval grade below and the merest sketches of higher grades. The only restrictions imposed were the need to discuss the inner secrets of the highest grades, and the necessity of submitting his new grades for approval.[14] Meanwhile, the scheme to propagate Illuminatism as a legitimate branch of Freemasonry had stalled. While Lodge Theodore was now in their control, a chapter of “Elect Masters” attached to it only had one member from the order, and still had a constitutional superiority to the craft lodge controlled by the Illuminati. The chapter would be difficult to persuade to submit to the Areopagus, and formed a very real barrier to Lodge Theodore becoming the first mother-lodge of a new Illuminated Freemasonry. A treaty of alliance was signed between the order and the chapter, and by the end of January 1781 four daughter lodges had been created, but independence was not in the chapter’s agenda.[14] Costanza wrote to the Royal York pointing out the discrepancy between the fees dispatched to their new Grand Lodge and the service they had received in return. The Royal York, unwilling to lose the revenue, offered to confer the “higher” secrets of Freemasonry on a representative that their Munich brethren would dispatch to Berlin. Costanza accordingly set off for Prussia on 4 April 1780, with instructions to negotiate a reduction in Theodore’s fees while he was there. On the way, he managed to have an argument with a Frenchman on the subject of a lady with whom they were sharing a carriage. The Frenchman sent a message ahead to the king, some time before they reached Berlin, denouncing Costanza as a spy. He was only freed from prison with the help of the Grand Master of Royal York, and was expelled from Prussia having accomplished nothing.[14] New system Knigge’s initial plan to obtain a constitution from London would, they realised, have been seen through by the chapter. Until such time as they could take over other masonic lodges that their chapter could not control, they were for the moment content to rewrite the three degrees for the

33 lodges which they administered.[14] On 20 January 1782 Knigge tabulated his new system of grades for the order. These were arranged in three classes: • Class I – The nursery, consisting of the Noviciate, the Minerval, and Illuminatus minor. • Class II – The Masonic grades. The three “blue lodge” grades of Apprentice, Companion, and Master were separated from the higher “Scottish” grades of Scottish Novice and Scottish Knight. • Class III – The Mysteries. The lesser mysteries were the grades of Priest and Prince, followed by the greater mysteries in the grades of Mage and King. It is unlikely that the rituals for the greater mysteries were ever written.[14][15]

3.1.4 Attempts at expansion Knigge’s recruitment from German Freemasonry was far from random. He targeted the masters and wardens, the men who ran the lodges, and were often able to place the entire lodge at the disposal of the Illuminati. In Aachen, Baron de Witte, master of Constancy lodge, caused every member to join the order. In this way, the order expanded rapidly in central and southern Germany, and obtained a foothold in Austria. Moving into the Spring of 1782, the handful of students that had started the order had swelled to about 300 members, only 20 of the new recruits being students.[16] In Munich, the first half of 1782 saw huge changes in the government of Lodge Theodore. In February, Weishaupt had offered to split the lodge, with the Illuminati going their own way and the chapter taking any remaining traditionalists into their own continuation of Theodore. At this point, the chapter unexpectedly capitulated, and the Illuminati had complete control of lodge and chapter. In June, both lodge and chapter sent letters severing relations with Royal York, citing their own faithfulness in paying for their recognition, and Royal York’s failure to provide any instruction into the higher grades. Their neglect of Costanza, failure to defend him from malicious charges or prevent his expulsion from Prussia, were also cited. They had made no effort to provide Costanza with the promised secrets, and the Munich masons now suspected that their brethren in Berlin relied on the mystical French higher grades which they sought to avoid. Lodge Theodore was now independent.[16] The Rite of Strict Observance was now in a critical state. Its nominal leader was Prince Carl of Södermanland (later Charles XIII of Sweden), openly suspected of trying to absorb the rite into the Swedish Rite, which he already controlled. The German lodges looked for leadership to Duke Ferdinand of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel. Suspicion turned to open contempt when it transpired that

34 Carl regarded the Stuart heir as the true Grand Master, and the lodges of the Strict Observance all but ignored their Grand Master. This impasse led to the Convent of Wilhelmsbad.[16] Convent of Wilhelmsbad

CHAPTER 3. ILLUMINATI their enrolling Count Kollowrat with the Illuminati with a view to later aﬃliation. Ditfurth’s own agenda was to replace all of the higher degrees with a single fourth degree, with no pretensions to further masonic revelations. Finding no support for his plan, he left the convent prematurely, writing to the Areopagus that he expected nothing good of the assembly.[16]

In an attempt to satisfy everybody, the Convent of Wilhelmsbad achieved little. They renounced the Templar origins of their ritual, while retaining the Templar titles, trappings and administrative structure. Charles of Hesse and Ferdinand of Brunswick remained at the head of the order, but in practice the lodges were almost independent. The Germans also adopted the name of the French order of Willermoz, les Chevaliers bienfaisants de la Cité sainte (Good Knights of the Holy City), and some Martinist mysticism was imported into the first three degrees, which were now the only essential degrees of Freemasonry. Crucially, individual lodges of the order were now allowed to fraternise with lodges of other systems. The new “Scottish Grade” introduced with the Lyon ritual of “Ruined” castle built by Prince Charles of Hesse-Kassel in the park at Wilhelmsbad, venue for the last convent of the Strict Ob- Willermoz was not compulsory, each province and prefecture was free to decide what, if anything, happened servance after the three craft degrees. Finally, in an effort to show Delayed from 15 October 1781, the last convention of that something had been achieved, the convent regulated etiquette, titles, and a new numbering for the the Strict Observance finally opened on 16 July 1782 in at length on [16] provinces. the spa town of Wilhelmsbad on the outskirts of (now part of) Hanau. Ostensibly a discussion of the future of the order, the 35 delegates knew that the Strict ObserAftermath of Wilhelmsbad vance in its current form was doomed, and that the Convent of Wilhelmsbad would be a struggle over the pieces What the Convent of Wilhelmsbad actually achieved was between the German mystics, under Duke Ferdinand of the demise of the Strict Observance. It renounced its own Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel and their host Prince Charles origin myth, along with the higher degrees which bound of Hesse-Kassel, and the Martinists, under Jean-Baptiste its highest and most influential members. It abolished the Willermoz. The only dissenting voices to mystical higher strict control which had kept the order united, and aliengrades were Johann Joachim Christoph Bode, who was ated many Germans who mistrusted Martinism. Bode, horrified by Martinism, but whose proposed alternatives who was repelled by Martinism, immediately entered newere as yet unformed, and Franz Dietrich von Ditfurth, a gotiations with Knigge, and finally joined the Illuminati judge from Wetzlar and master of the Joseph of the Three in January 1783. Charles of Hesse joined the following Helmets lodge there, who was already a member of the Il- month.[16] luminati. Ditfurth publicly campaigned for a return to the basic three degrees of Freemasonry, which was the least Knigge’s first efforts at an alliance with the intact German likely outcome of the convention. The mystics already Grand Lodges failed, but Weishaupt persisted. He proposed a new federation where all of the German lodges had coherent plans to replace the higher degrees.[16] would practice an agreed, unified system in the essential The lack of a coherent alternative to the two strains of three degrees of Freemasonry, and be left to their own mysticism allowed the Illuminati to present themselves devices as to which, if any, system of higher degrees as a credible option. Ditfurth, prompted and assisted by they wished to pursue. This would be a federation of Knigge, who now had full authority to act for the order, Grand Lodges, and members would be free to visit any of became their spokesman. Knigge’s original plan to pro- the “blue” lodges, in any jurisdiction. All lodge masters pose an alliance between the two orders was rejected by would be elected, and no fees would be paid to any central Weishaupt, who saw no point in an alliance with a dying authority whatsoever. Groups of lodges would be subject order. His new plan was to recruit the masons opposed to to a “Scottish Directorate”, composed of members delthe “Templar” higher degree of the Strict Observance.[16] egated by lodges, to audit finances, settle disputes, and At the convent, Ditfurth blocked the attempts of Willer- authorise new lodges. These in turn would elect Provinmoz and Hesse to introduce their own higher grades by cial Directorates, who would elect inspectors, who would insisting that full details of such degrees be revealed to the elect the national director. This system would correct the delegates. The frustration of the German mystics led to current imbalance in German Freemasonry, where ma-

3.1. HISTORY sonic ideals of equality were preserved only in the lower three “symbolic” degrees. The various systems of higher degrees were dominated by the elite who could afford researches in alchemy and mysticism. To Weishaupt and Knigge, the proposed federation was also a vehicle to propagate Illuminism throughout German Freemasonry. Their intention was to use their new federation, with its emphasis on the fundamental degrees, to remove all allegiance to Strict Observance, allowing the “eclectic” system of the Illuminati to take its place.[16] The circular announcing the new federation outlined the faults of German freemasonry, that unsuitable men with money were often admitted on the basis of their wealth, that the corruption of civil society had infected the lodges. Having advocated the de-regulation of the higher grades of the German lodges, the Illuminati now announced their own, from their “unknown Superiors”. Lodge Theodore, newly independent from Royal York, set themselves up as a provincial Grand Lodge. Knigge, in a letter to all the Royal York lodges, now accused that Grand Lodge of decadence. Their Freemasonry had allegedly been corrupted by the Jesuits. Strict Observance was now attacked as a creation of the Stuarts, devoid of all moral virtue. The Zinnendorf rite of the Grand Landlodge of the Freemasons of Germany was suspect because its author was in league with the Swedes. This direct attack had the opposite effect to that intended by Weishaupt, it offended many of its readers. The Grand Lodge of the Grand Orient of Warsaw, which controlled Freemasonry in Poland and Lithuania, was happy to participate in the federation only as far as the first three degrees. Their insistence on independence had kept them from the Strict Observance, and would now keep them from the Illuminati, whose plan to annex Freemasonry rested on their own higher degrees. By the end of January 1783 the Illuminati’s masonic contingent had seven lodges.[16] It was not only the clumsy appeal of the Illuminati that left the federation short of members. Lodge Theodore was recently formed and did not command respect like the older lodges. Most of all, the Freemasons most likely to be attracted to the federation saw the Illuminati as an ally against the mystics and Martinists, but valued their own freedom too highly to be caught in another restrictive organisation. Even Ditfurth, the supposed representative of the Illuminati at Wilhelmsbad, had pursued his own agenda at the convent.[16]

35 Illuminati after his adherence to the Eclectic Alliance. In reality, the creation of the Eclectic Alliance had undermined all of the subtle plans of the Illuminati to spread their own doctrine through Freemasonry.[16]

3.1.5 Zenith Although their hopes of mass recruitment through Freemasonry had been frustrated, the Illuminati continued to recruit well at an individual level. In Bavaria, the succession of Charles Theodore initially led to a liberalisation of attitudes and laws, but the clergy and courtiers, guarding their own power and privilege, persuaded the weak willed monarch to reverse his reforms, and Bavaria’s repression of liberal thought returned. This reversal led to a general resentment of the monarch and the church among the educated classes, which provided a perfect recruiting ground for the Illuminati. A number of Freemasons from Prudence lodge, disaffected by the Martinist rites of the Chevaliers Bienfaisants, joined lodge Theodore, who set themselves up in a gardened mansion which contained their library of liberal literature.[17] Illuminati circles in the rest of Germany expanded. While some had only modest gains, the circle in Mainz almost doubled from 31 to 61 members. Reaction to state Catholicism led to gains in Austria, and footholds were obtained in Warsaw, Pressburg (Bratislava), Tyrol, Milan and Switzerland.[17] The total number of verifiable members at the end of 1784 is around 650. Weishaupt and Hertel later claimed a figure of 2,500. The higher figure is largely explained by the inclusion of members of masonic lodges that the Illuminati claimed to control, but it is likely that the names of all the Illuminati are not known, and the true figure lies somewhere between 650 and 2,500. The importance of the order lay in its successful recruitment of the professional classes, churchmen, academics, doctors and lawyers, and its more recent acquisition of powerful benefactors. Karl August, Grand Duke of Saxe-WeimarEisenach, Ernest II, Duke of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg with his brother and later successor August, Karl Theodor Anton Maria von Dalberg governor of Erfurt, Duke Ferdinand of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel (already mentioned), his chief assistant in masonic matters, Johann Friedrich von Schwarz, and Count Metternich of Koblenz were all enrolled. In Vienna, Count Brigido, governor of Galicia, Count Leopold Kolowrat, chancellor of Bohemia with his vice-chancellor Baron Kressel, Count Pálffy von Erdöd, chancellor of Hungary, Count Banffy, governor and provincial Grand Master of Transylvania, Count Stadion, ambassador to London, and Baron von Swieten, minister of public education, also joined.[17]

The non-mystical Frankfurt lodges created an “Eclectic Alliance”, which was almost indistinguishable in constitution and aims from the Illuminati’s federation. Far from seeing this as a threat, after some discussion the Illuminati lodges joined the new alliance. Three Illuminati now sat on the committee charged with writing the new masonic statutes. Aside from strengthening relations between their three lodges, the Illuminati seem to have gained no advantage from this manoeuvre. Ditfurth, hav- There were notable failures. Johann Kaspar Lavater, the ing found a masonic organisation that worked towards his Swiss poet and theologian, rebuﬀed Knigge. He did not own ambitions for Freemasonry, took little interest in the believe the order’s humanitarian and rationalist aims were

CHAPTER 3. ILLUMINATI

achievable by secret means. He further believed that a society’s drive for members would ultimately submerge its founding ideals. Christoph Friedrich Nicolai, the Berlin writer and bookseller, became disillusioned after joining. He found its aims chimeric, and thought that the use of Jesuit methods to achieve their aims was dangerous. He remained in the order, but took no part in recruitment.[17]

Shortly after his admission it was made known to his superiors that he was one of the Illuminati, and he was informed that he could not be a member of both organisations. His letter of resignation stated that the Rosicrucians did not possess secret knowledge, and ignored the truly Illuminated, speciﬁcally identifying Lodge Theodore as an Illuminati Lodge.[17]

3.1.6

3.1.7 Internal dissent

Conﬂict with Rosicrucians

At all costs, Weishaupt wished to keep the existence of the order secret from the Rosicrucians, who already had a considerable foothold in German Freemasonry. While clearly Protestant, the Rosicrucians were anything but anticlerical, pro-monarchic, and held views clearly conflicting with the Illuminati vision of a rationalist state run by philosophers and scientists. The Rosicrucians were not above promoting their own brand of mysticism with fraudulent seances. A conflict became inevitable as the existence of the Illuminati became more evident, and as prominent Rosicrucians, and mystics with Rosicrucian sympathies, were actively recruited by Knigge and other over-enthusiastic helpers. Kolowrat was already a high ranking Rosicrucian, and the mystic Prince Charles of Hesse-Kassel had a very low opinion of the rationalist higher grades of the Illuminati.[17] The Prussian Rosicrucians, under Johann Christoph von Wöllner, began a sustained attack on the Illuminati. Wöllner had a specially engineered room in which he convinced potential patrons of the effectiveness of Rosicrucian “magic”, and his order had acquired effective control of the Three Globes and its attached lodges. Through this mouthpiece, the Illuminati were accused of Atheism and revolutionary tendencies. In April 1783 Frederick the Great informed Charles of Hesse that the Berlin lodges had documents belonging to the Minervals or Illuminati which contained appalling material, and asked if he had heard of them. All Berlin masons were now warned against the order, which was now accused of Socinianism, and of using the liberal writings of Voltaire and others, alongside the tolerance of Freemasonry, to undermine all religion. In November 1783 the Three Globes described the Illuminati as a masonic sect which sought to undermine Christianity and turn Freemasonry into a political system. Their final anathema, in November 1784, refused to recognise any Illuminati as Freemasons.[17] In Austria, the Illuminati were blamed for anti-religious pamphlets that had recently appeared. The Rosicrucians spied on Joseph von Sonnenfels and other suspected Illuminati, and their campaign of denunciation within Freemasonry completely shut down Illuminati recruitment in Tyrol.[17] The Bavarian Illuminati, whose existence was already known to the Rosicrucians from an informant, were further betrayed by the reckless actions of Ferdinand Maria Baader, an Areopagite who now joined the Rosicrucians.

As the Illuminati embraced Freemasonry and expanded outside Bavaria, the council of the Areopagites was replaced by an ineffective “Council of Provincials”. The Areopagites, however, remained as powerful voices within the Order, and began again to bicker with Weishaupt as soon as Knigge left Munich. Weishaupt responded by privately slandering his perceived enemies in letters to his perceived friends.[17] More seriously, Weishaupt succeeded in alienating Knigge. Weishaupt had ceded considerable power to Knigge in deputising him to write the ritual, power he now sought to regain. Knigge had elevated the Order from a tiny anti-clerical club to a large organisation, and felt that his work was under-acknowledged. Weishaupt’s continuing anti-clericalism clashed with Knigge’s mysticism, and recruitment of mystically inclined Freemasons was a cause of friction with Weishaupt and other senior Illuminati, such as Ditfurth. Matters came to a head over the grade of Priest. The consensus among many of the Illuminati was that the ritual was florid and ill-conceived, and the regalia puerile and expensive. Some refused to use it, others edited it. Weishaupt demanded that Knigge rewrite the ritual. Knigge pointed out that it was already circulated, with Weishaupt’s blessing, as ancient. This fell on deaf ears. Weishaupt now claimed to other Illuminati that the Priest ritual was flawed because Knigge had invented it. Offended, Knigge now threatened to tell the world how much of the Illuminati ritual he had made up. Knigge’s attempt to create a convention of the Areopagites proved fruitless, as most of them trusted him even less than they trusted Weishaupt. In July 1784 Knigge left the order by agreement, under which he returned all relevant papers, and Weishaupt published a retraction of all slanders against him.[17] In forcing Knigge out, Weishaupt deprived the order of its best theoretician, recruiter, and apologist.[15]

3.1.8 Decline The ﬁnal decline of the Illuminati was brought about by the indiscretions of their own Minervals in Bavaria, and especially in Munich. In spite of eﬀorts by their superiors to curb loose talk, politically dangerous boasts of power and criticism of monarchy caused the “secret” order’s existence to become common knowledge, along with the names of many important members. The presence of

3.3. MODERN ILLUMINATI Illuminati in positions of power now led to some public disquiet. There were Illuminati in many civic and state governing bodies. In spite of their small number, there were claims that success in a legal dispute depended on the litigant’s standing with the order. The Illuminati were blamed for several anti-religious publications then appearing in Bavaria. Much of this criticism sprang from vindictiveness and jealousy, but it is clear that many Illuminati court oﬃcials gave preferential treatment to their brethren. In Bavaria, the energy of their two members of the Ecclesiastical Council had one of them elected treasurer. Their opposition to Jesuits resulted in the banned order losing key academic and church positions. In Ingolstat, the Jesuit heads of department were replaced by Illuminati.[18]

3.3 Modern Illuminati Several recent and present-day fraternal organisations claim to be descended from the original Bavarian Illuminati and openly use the name “Illuminati”. Some of these groups use a variation on the name “The Illuminati Order” in the name of their own organisations,[27][28] while others, such as the Ordo Templi Orientis, have “Illuminati” as a level within their organisation’s hierarchy. However, there is no evidence that these present-day groups have amassed signiﬁcant political power or inﬂuence, and rather than trying to remain secret, they promote unsubstantiated links to the Bavarian Illuminati as a means of attracting membership.[19]

Alarmed, Karl Theodor and his government banned all secret societies including the Illuminati.[19] A govern3.4 Popular culture ment edict dated March 2, 1785 “seems to have been deathblow to the Illuminati in Bavaria”. Weishaupt had ﬂed and documents and internal correspondence, seized Main article: Illuminati in popular culture in 1786 and 1787, were subsequently published by the government in 1787.[20] Von Zwack’s home was searched and much of the group’s literature was disclosed.[21] Many inﬂuential intellectuals and progressive politicians counted themselves as members, including Ferdinand of Brunswick and the diplomat Xavier von Zwack, who was the Order’s second-in-command.[21] It attracted literary men such as Johann Wolfgang von Goethe and Johann Gottfried Herder and the reigning dukes of Gotha and Weimar.[22]

3.2 Barruel and Robison Between 1797 and 1798, Augustin Barruel's Memoirs Illustrating the History of Jacobinism and John Robison's Proofs of a Conspiracy publicised the theory that the Illuminati had survived and represented an ongoing international conspiracy. This included the claim that it was behind the French Revolution. Both books proved to be very popular, spurring reprints and paraphrases by others.[23] A prime example of this is Proofs of the Real Existence, and Dangerous Tendency, Of Illuminism by Reverend Seth Payson, published in 1802.[24] Some of the response to this was critical, for example JeanJoseph Mounier’s On the Inﬂuence Attributed to Philosophers, Free-Masons, and to the Illuminati on the Revolution of France.[25][26] The works of Robison and Barruel made their way to the United States, and across New England, Reverend Jedidiah Morse and others gave sermons against the Illuminati. Their sermons were printed and the matter was followed in newspapers. Concern died down in the ﬁrst decade of the 1800s, although it revived from time to time in the Anti-Masonic movement of the 1820s and 30s.[3]

3.4.1 Modern conspiracy theory Main article: New World Order (conspiracy theory) § Illuminati The Illuminati did not long survive their suppression in Bavaria, and their further mischief and plottings in the work of Barruel and Robison must be considered as the invention of the writers.[3] However, writers such as Mark Dice,[29] David Icke, Texe Marrs, Jüri Lina and Morgan Gricar have argued that the Bavarian Illuminati have survived, possibly to this day. Many modern conspiracy theories propose that world events are being controlled and manipulated by a secret society calling itself the Illuminati.[30][31] Conspiracy theorists have claimed that many notable people were or are members of the Illuminati. Presidents of the United States are a common target for such claims.[32][33] Other theorists contend that a variety of historical events were orchestrated by the Illuminati, from the Battle of Waterloo, the French Revolution and President John F. Kennedy’s assassination to an alleged communist plot to hasten the New World Order by infiltrating the Hollywood film industry.[34][35] Some conspiracy theorists claim that the Illuminati observe Satanic rituals.[36][37] Criticism and satire of this theory has become so common that it is now a internet meme, with users identifying and highlighting supposed “Illuminati” (Other variants include “loominarty”) symbolism in pieces of media (usually in the form of an image macro) and proclaiming that said work is a work of the Illuminati. Often this is exemplified through superimposing the all seeing eye

CHAPTER 3. ILLUMINATI

on triangular ﬁgures, accompanied by the X-Files theme song.

[13] René le Forestier, Les Illuminés de Bavière et la francmaçonnerie allemande, Paris, 1914, Book 3 Chapter 2, pp202-226

3.4.2

[14] René le Forestier, Les Illuminés de Bavière et la francmaçonnerie allemande, Paris, 1914, Book 3 Chapter 3, pp227-250

Novels

The Illuminati, or ﬁctitious modern groups called the Illuminati, play a central role in the plots of many novels, [15] K. M. Hataley, In Search of the Illuminati, Journal of the Western Mystery Tradition, No. 23, Vol. 3. Autumnal for example The Illuminatus! Trilogy by Robert Shea and Equinox 2012 Robert Anton Wilson. They also make an appearance in Foucault’s Pendulum by Umberto Eco and Angels and [16] René le Forestier, Les Illuminés de Bavière et la francDemons by Dan Brown. A mixture of historical fact and maçonnerie allemande, Paris, 1914, Book 4 Chapter 1, established conspiracy theory, or pure ﬁction, is used to pp343-388 portray them.

3.5 References [1] Richard van Dülmen, The Society of Enlightenment (Polity Press 1992) p. 110

[17] René le Forestier, Les Illuminés de Bavière et la francmaçonnerie allemande, Paris, 1914, Book 4 Chapter 2, pp389-429 [18] René le Forestier, Les Illuminés de Bavière et la francmaçonnerie allemande, Paris, 1914, Book 4 Chapter 3, pp430-496

[2] René le Forestier, Les Illuminés de Bavière et la francmaçonnerie allemande, Paris, 1914, pp. 453, 468-9, 5078, 614-5

[19] McKeown, Trevor W. (16 February 2009). “A Bavarian Illuminati Primer”. Grand Lodge of British Columbia and Yukon A.F. & A.M. Archived from the original on 27 January 2011. Retrieved 27 January 2011.

[3] Vernon Stauﬀer, New England and the Bavarian Illuminati, Columbia University Press, 1918, Chapter 3 The European Illuminati, Grand Lodge of British Columbia and Yukon, accessed 14 November 2015

[20] Roberts, J.M. (1974). The Mythology of Secret Societies. NY: Charles Scribner’s Sons. pp. 128–129. ISBN 978-0684-12904-4.

[4] Weishaupt, Adam (1790). Pythagoras oder Betrachtungen über die geheime Welt- und Regierungskunst. Frankfurt and Leipzig. p. 670. [5] René le Forestier, Les Illuminés de Bavière et la francmaçonnerie allemande, Paris, 1914, Book 1, Chapter 1, pp15-29 [6] Manfred Agethen, Geheimbund und Utopie. Illuminaten, Freimaurer und deutsche Spätaufklärung, Oldenbourg, Munich, 1987, p150. [7] René le Forestier, Les Illuminés de Bavière et la francmaçonnerie allemande, Paris, 1914, Book 1, Chapter 2, pp30-45 [8] Terry Melanson, Perfectibilists: The 18th Century Bavarian Order of the Illuminati, Trine Day, 2009, pp. 361, 364, 428

[21] Introvigne, Massimo (2005). “Angels & Demons from the Book to the Movie FAQ - Do the Illuminati Really Exist?". Center for Studies on New Religions. Archived from the original on 27 January 2011. Retrieved 27 January 2011. [22] Schüttler, Hermann (1991). Die Mitglieder des Illuminatenordens, 1776-1787/93. Munich: Ars Una. pp. 48– 9, 62–3, 71, 82. ISBN 3-89391-018-2. [23] Simpson, David (1993). Romanticism, Nationalism, and the Revolt Against Theory. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-75945-8.88. [24] Payson, Seth (1802). Proofs of the Real Existence, and Dangerous Tendency, Of Illuminism. Charlestown: Samuel Etheridge. Retrieved 27 January 2011. [25] Tise, Larry (1998). The American Counterrevolution: A Retreat from Liberty, 1783–1800. Stackpole Books. pp. 351–353. ISBN 978-0811701006.

[9] Ed Josef Wäges and Reinhard Markner, tr Jeva SinghAnand, The Secret School of Wisdom, Lewis Masonic 2015, pp 15-16

[26] Jeﬀerson, Thomas (17 November 1802). "'There has been a book written lately by DuMousnier ...'" (PDF) (Letter to Nicolas Gouin Duﬁef). Retrieved 26 October 2013.

[10] Ellic Howe, Illuminati, Man, Myth and Magic (partwork), Purnell, 1970, vol 4, pp1402-1404

[27] “The Illuminati Order Homepage”. Illuminati-order.com. Retrieved 2011-08-06.

[11] René le Forestier, Les Illuminés de Bavière et la francmaçonnerie allemande, Paris, 1914, Book 1, Chapter 3, pp45-72

[28] “Oﬃcial website of The Illuminati Order”. Illuminatiorder.org. Retrieved 2011-08-06.

[12] René le Forestier, Les Illuminés de Bavière et la francmaçonnerie allemande, Paris, 1914, Book 3 Chapter 1, pp193-201

[29] Sykes, Leslie (17 May 2009). “Angels & Demons Causing Serious Controversy”. KFSN-TV/ABC News. Archived from the original on 27 January 2011. Retrieved 27 January 2011.

3.7. EXTERNAL LINKS

[30] Barkun, Michael (2003). A Culture of Conspiracy: Apocalyptic Visions in Contemporary America. Comparative Studies in Religion and Society. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-23805-3. [31] Penre, Wes (26 September 2009). “The Secret Order of the Illuminati (A Brief History of the Shadow Government)". Illuminati News. Archived from the original on 28 January 2011. Retrieved 28 January 2011. [32] Howard, Robert (28 September 2001). “United States Presidents and The Illuminati / Masonic Power Structure”. Hard Truth/Wake Up America. Archived from the original on 28 January 2011. Retrieved 28 January 2011. [33] “The Barack Obama Illuminati Connection”. The Best of Rush Limbaugh Featured Sites. 1 August 2009. Archived from the original on 28 January 2011. Retrieved 28 January 2011. [34] Mark Dice, The Illuminati: Facts & Fiction, 2009. ISBN 0-9673466-5-7 [35] Myron Fagan, The Council on Foreign Relations. Council On Foreign Relations By Myron Fagan [36] http://www.markdice.com/index.php? option=com_content&view=article&id=118: what-brad-meltzers-decoded-missed&catid=66: articles-by-mark-dice&Itemid=89

39 • Mounier, Jean-Joseph (1801). On the Inﬂuence Attributed to Philosophers, Free-Masons, and to the Illuminati on the Revolution of France. Trans. J. Walker. London: W. and C. Spilsbury. Retrieved 27 January 2011. • Robison, John (1798). Proofs of a Conspiracy Against All the Religions and Governments of Europe, Carried on in the Secret Meetings of Free Masons, Illuminati, and Reading Societies (3 ed.). London: T. Cadell, Jr. and W. Davies. Retrieved 27 January 2011. • Utt, Walter C. (1979). “Illuminating the Illuminati” (PDF). Liberty (Washington, D. C.: Review and Herald Publishing Association) 74 (3, May–June): 16–19, 26–28. Retrieved June 24, 2011. • Burns, James; Utt, Walter C. (1980). “Further Illumination: Burns Challenges Utt and Utt Responds” (PDF). Liberty (Washington, D.C.: Review and Herald Publishing Association) 75 (2, March– April): 21–23. Retrieved June 25, 2011.

3.7 External links

[37] http://gawker.com/5886988/ • Gruber, Hermann (1910). “Illuminati”. The a-comprehensive-guide-to-the-illuminati-the-conspiracy-theory-that-connects-jay-z-and-queen-elizabeth/ Catholic Encyclopedia 7. NY: Robert Appleton all Company. pp. 661–663. Retrieved 2011-01-28.

3.6 Other reading • Hermann Schüttler, Reinhard Markner, Forschungsliteratur zum Illuminatenorden / Research Bibliography at Illuminaten Wiki • Engel, Leopold (1906). Geschichte des Illuminatenordens (in German). Berlin: Hugo Bermühler verlag. OCLC 560422365. (Wikisource) • Gordon, Alexander (1911). “Illuminati”. In Hugh Chisholm. Encyclopædia Britannica 14 (11 ed.). NY: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Retrieved 201101-27. • Le Forestier, René (1914). Les Illuminés de Bavière et la franc-maçonnerie allemande (in French). Paris: Librairie Hachette et Cie. OCLC 493941226. • Markner, Reinhold; Neugebauer-Wölk, Monika; Schüttler, Hermann, eds. (2005). Die Korrespondenz des Illuminatenordens. Bd. 1, 1776–81 (in German). Tübingen: Max Niemeyer. ISBN 3-48410881-9. • Melanson, Terry (2009). Perfectibilists: The 18th Century Bavarian Order of the Illuminati. Walterville, Oregon: Trine Day. ISBN 9780977795383. OCLC 182733051.

• Melanson, Terry (5 August 2005). “Illuminati Conspiracy Part One: A Precise Exegesis on the Available Evidence”. Conspiracy Archive. Archived from the original on 28 January 2010. Retrieved 28 January 2010. • Original writings of the Bavarian Illuminati compiled by Terry Melanson

Chapter 4

Age of Enlightenment “Age of Reason” redirects here. For other uses, see Age tively to the scientific and political debate, and the ideals of Reason (disambiguation). of the Enlightenment were incorporated into the United States Declaration of Independence and the Constitution [7] The Enlightenment, known in French as the Siècle des of the United States. Lumières (Century of Enlightenment), and in German as the Aufklärung, was a philosophical movement which dominated the world of ideas in Europe in the 18th century. The principal goals of Enlightenment thinkers were liberty, progress, reason, tolerance, and ending the abuses of the church and state.[1][2] In France, the central doctrines of the Lumières were individual liberty and religious tolerance, in opposition to the principle of absolute monarchy and the fixed dogmas of the Roman Catholic Church.[3] The Enlightenment was marked by increasing empiricism, scientific rigor, and reductionism, along with increased questioning of religious orthodoxy.[4]

The most influential publication of the Enlightenment was the Encyclopédie, compiled by Denis Diderot and (until 1759) by Jean le Rond d'Alembert and a team of 150 scientists and philosophers. It was published between 1751 and 1772 in thirty-five volumes, and spread the ideas of the Enlightenment across Europe and beyond.[3] Other landmark publications were the Dictionnaire philosophique (Philosophical Dictionary, 1764) and Letters on the English (1733) written by Voltaire; Rousseau’s Discourse on Inequality (1754) and The Social Contract (1762); and Montesquieu’s Spirit of the Laws (1748). The ideas of the Enlightenment played French historians traditionally place the Enlightenment a major role in inspiring the French Revolution, which between 1715, the year that Louis XIV died, and 1789, began in 1789. After the Revolution, the Enlightenthe beginning of the French Revolution. Some recent ment was followed by an opposing intellectual movement historians begin the period in the 1620s, with the start known as Romanticism. of the scientific revolution. The Philosophes, the French term for the philosophers of the period, widely circulated their ideas through meetings at scientific academies, 4.1 Philosophy Masonic lodges, literary salons and coffee houses, and through printed books and pamphlets. The ideas of the Enlightenment undermined the authority of the monar- In the mid-18th century, Paris became the center of chy and the church, and prepared the way for the rev- an explosion of philosophic and scientific activity chalolutions of the 18th and 19th centuries.[3] A variety of lenging traditional doctrines and dogmas. The philo19th-century movements, including liberalism and neo- sophic movement was led by Voltaire and Jean-Jacques classicism, trace their intellectual heritage back to the Rousseau, who argued for a society based upon reason Enlightenment.[5] rather than faith and Catholic doctrine, for a new civil The Age of Enlightenment was preceded by and closely order based on natural law, and for science based on associated with the scientific revolution. Earlier philoso- experiments and observation. The political philosopher phers whose work influenced the Enlightenment included Montesquieu introduced the idea of a separation of powFrancis Bacon, Descartes, Locke, and Spinoza.[6] The ers in a government, a concept which was enthusiastically major figures of the Enlightenment included Cesare Bec- adopted by the authors of the United States Constitution. caria, Voltaire, Denis Diderot, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, While the Philosophes of the French Enlightenment were David Hume, Adam Smith, and Immanuel Kant. Some not revolutionaries, and many were members of the noEuropean rulers, including Catherine II of Russia, Joseph bility, their ideas played an important part in undermining of the Old Regime and shaping the French II of Austria and Frederick I of Prussia, tried to apply the legitimacy [8] Revolution. Enlightenment thought on religious and political tolerance, which became known as enlightened absolutism. There were two distinct lines of Enlightenment thought: The Americans Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Jeffer- the radical enlightenment, inspired by the philosophy of son came to Europe during the period and contributed ac- Spinoza, advocating democracy, individual liberty, free40

4.2. SCIENCE

dom of expression, and eradication of religious author- (1791).[17] ity; and a second, more moderate variety, supported by René Descartes, John Locke, Christian Wolff, Isaac Newton and others, which sought accommodation between reform and the traditional systems of power and 4.2 Science faith.[9][10][11][12] Both lines of thought were opposed by the conservative Counter-Enlightenment.[9] Main article: Science in the Age of Enlightenment Science came to play a leading role in Enlightenment discourse and thought. Many Enlightenment writers and thinkers had backgrounds in the sciences and associated scientific advancement with the overthrow of religion and traditional authority in favour of the development of free speech and thought. Scientific progress during the Enlightenment included the discovery of carbon dioxide (fixed air) by the chemist Joseph Black, the argument for deep time by the geologist James Hutton, and the invention of the steam engine by James Watt.[18] The experiments of Lavoisier were used to create the first modern chemical plants in Paris, and the experiments of the Montgolfier Brothers enabled them to launch the first manned flight in a hot-air balloon on 21 November 1783, from the Château de la Muette, near the Bois de Boulogne.[19]

German philosopher Immanuel Kant

Francis Hutcheson, a moral philosopher, described the utilitarian and consequentialist principle that virtue is that which provides, in his words, “the greatest happiness for the greatest numbers”. Much of what is incorporated in the scientiﬁc method (the nature of knowledge, evidence, experience, and causation) and some modern attitudes towards the relationship between science and religion were developed by his protégés David Hume and Adam Smith.[13] Hume became a major ﬁgure in the skeptical philosophical and empiricist traditions of philosophy. Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) tried to reconcile rationalism and religious belief, individual freedom and political authority, as well as map out a view of the public sphere through private and public reason.[14] Kant’s work continued to shape German thought, and indeed all of European philosophy, well into the 20th century.[15] Mary Wollstonecraft was one of England’s earliest feminist philosophers.[16] She argued for a society based on reason, and that women, as well as men, should be treated as rational beings. She is best known for her work A Vindication of the Rights of Woman

Broadly speaking, Enlightenment science greatly valued empiricism and rational thought, and was embedded with the Enlightenment ideal of advancement and progress. The study of science, under the heading of natural philosophy, was divided into physics and a conglomerate grouping of chemistry and natural history, which included anatomy, biology, geology, mineralogy, and zoology.[20] As with most Enlightenment views, the benefits of science were not seen universally; Rousseau criticized the sciences for distancing man from nature and not operating to make people happier.[21] Science during the Enlightenment was dominated by scientific societies and academies, which had largely replaced universities as centres of scientific research and development. Societies and academies were also the backbone of the maturation of the scientific profession. Another important development was the popularization of science among an increasingly literate population. Philosophes introduced the public to many scientific theories, most notably through the Encyclopédie and the popularization of Newtonianism by Voltaire and Émilie du Châtelet. Some historians have marked the 18th century as a drab period in the history of science;[22] however, the century saw significant advancements in the practice of medicine, mathematics, and physics; the development of biological taxonomy; a new understanding of magnetism and electricity; and the maturation of chemistry as a discipline, which established the foundations of modern chemistry. Scientific academies and societies grew out of the Scientific Revolution as the creators of scientific knowledge in contrast to the scholasticism of the university.[23] During the Enlightenment, some societies created or retained links to universities. However, contemporary

CHAPTER 4. AGE OF ENLIGHTENMENT

sources distinguished universities from scientific societies by claiming that the university’s utility was in the transmission of knowledge, while societies functioned to create knowledge.[24] As the role of universities in institutionalized science began to diminish, learned societies became the cornerstone of organized science. Official scientific societies were chartered by the state in order to provide technical expertise.[25] Most societies were granted permission to oversee their own publications, control the election of new members, and the administration of the society.[26] After 1700, a tremendous number of official academies and societies were founded in Europe, and by 1789 there were over seventy official scientific societies. In reference to this growth, Bernard de Fontenelle coined the term “the Age of Academies” to describe the 18th century.[27]

Hume and other Scottish Enlightenment thinkers developed a 'science of man',[30] which was expressed historically in works by authors including James Burnett, Adam Ferguson, John Millar, and William Robertson, all of whom merged a scientific study of how humans behaved in ancient and primitive cultures with a strong awareness of the determining forces of modernity. Modern sociology largely originated from this movement,[31] and Hume’s philosophical concepts that directly influenced James Madison (and thus the U.S. Constitution) and as popularised by Dugald Stewart, would be the basis of classical liberalism.[32] Adam Smith published The Wealth of Nations, often considered the first work on modern economics. It had an immediate impact on British economic policy that continues into the 21st century.[33]

The influence of science also began appearing more commonly in poetry and literature during the Enlightenment. Some poetry became infused with scientific metaphor and imagery, while other poems were written directly about scientific topics. Sir Richard Blackmore committed the Newtonian system to verse in Creation, a Philosophical Poem in Seven Books (1712). After Newton’s death in 1727, poems were composed in his honour for decades.[28] James Thomson (1700–1748) penned his “Poem to the Memory of Newton,” which mourned the loss of Newton, but also praised his science and legacy.[29]

Cesare Beccaria, a jurist and one of the great Enlightenment writers, became famous for his masterpiece Of Crimes and Punishments (1764), which was later translated into 22 languages.[34] Another prominent intellectual was Francesco Mario Pagano, who wrote important studies such as Saggi Politici (Political Essays, 1783), one of the major works of the Enlightenment in Naples, and Considerazioni sul processo criminale (Considerations on the criminal trial, 1787), which established him as an international authority on criminal law.[35]

4.4 Politics 4.3 Economics and law

Like other Enlightenment philosophers, Rousseau was critical of the Atlantic slave trade.[36] Cesare Beccaria, father of classical criminal theory (1738– 1794)

The Enlightenment has long been hailed as the foundation

4.4. POLITICS of modern Western political and intellectual culture.[37] The Enlightenment brought political modernization to the West, in terms of introducing democratic values and institutions and the creation of modern, liberal democracies. This thesis has been widely accepted by Anglophone scholars and has been reinforced by the large-scale studies by Robert Darnton, Roy Porter and most recently by Jonathan Israel.[38][39]

4.4.1

Theories of government

43 dition in which humans are rational and follow natural law; in which all men are born equal and with the right to life, liberty and property. However, when one citizen breaks the Law of Nature, both the transgressor and the victim enter into a state of war, from which it is virtually impossible to break free. Therefore, Locke said that individuals enter into civil society to protect their natural rights via an “unbiased judge” or common authority, such as courts, to appeal to. Contrastingly, Rousseau’s conception relies on the supposition that “civil man” is corrupted, while “natural man” has no want he cannot fulfill himself. Natural man is only taken out of the state of nature when the inequality associated with private property is established.[43] Rousseau said that people join into civil society via the social contract to achieve unity while preserving individual freedom. This is embodied in the sovereignty of the general will, the moral and collective legislative body constituted by citizens. Locke is known for his statement that individuals have a right to “Life, Liberty and Property”, and his belief that the natural right to property is derived from labor. Tutored by Locke, Anthony Ashley-Cooper, 3rd Earl of Shaftesbury wrote in 1706: “There is a mighty Light which spreads its self over the world especially in those two free Nations of England and Holland; on whom the Affairs of Europe now turn”.[44] Locke’s theory of natural rights has influenced many political documents, including the French National Constituent Assembly’s Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen and the United States Declaration of Independence.

The philosophes argued that the establishment of a contractual basis of rights would lead to the market mechanism and capitalism, the scientific method, religious tolerance, and the organization of states into selfDenmark’s minister Johann Struensee, a social reformer ahead governing republics through democratic means. In this of his time, was publicly executed in 1772 view, the tendency of the philosophes in particular to apply rationality to every problem is considered the essential John Locke, one of the most influential Enlighten[45] [40] change. ment thinkers, based his governance philosophy in social contract theory, a subject that permeated En- Though much of Enlightenment political thought was lightenment political thought. The English philosopher dominated by social contract theorists, both David Hume Thomas Hobbes ushered in this new debate with his work and Adam Ferguson criticized this camp. Hume’s esLeviathan in 1651. Hobbes also developed some of the say Of the Original Contract argues that governments defundamentals of European liberal thought: the right of rived from consent are rarely seen, and civil government the individual; the natural equality of all men; the artifi- is grounded in a ruler’s habitual authority and force. It is cial character of the political order (which led to the later precisely because of the ruler’s authority over-and-against distinction between civil society and the state); the view the subject, that the subject tacitly consents; Hume says that all legitimate political power must be “representa- that the subjects would “never imagine that their consent tive” and based on the consent of the people; and a lib- made him sovereign”, rather the authority did so.[46] Simeral interpretation of law which leaves people free to do ilarly, Ferguson did not believe citizens built the state, whatever the law does not explicitly forbid.[41] rather polities grew out of social development. In his Both Locke and Rousseau developed social contract the- 1767 An Essay on the History of Civil Society, Ferguson ories in Two Treatises of Government and Discourse on uses the four stages of progress, a theory that was very Inequality, respectively. While quite different works, popular in Scotland at the time, to explain how humans Locke, Hobbes, and Rousseau agreed that a social con- advance from a hunting and gathering society to a comtract, in which the government’s authority lies in the con- mercial and civil society without “signing” a social consent of the governed,[42] is necessary for man to live in tract. civil society. Locke defines the state of nature as a con-

44 Both Rousseau and Locke’s social contract theories rest on the presupposition of natural rights, which are not a result of law or custom, but are things that all men have in pre-political societies, and are therefore universal and inalienable. The most famous natural right formulation comes from John Locke in his Second Treatise, when he introduces the state of nature. For Locke the law of nature is grounded on mutual security, or the idea that one cannot infringe on another’s natural rights, as every man is equal and has the same inalienable rights. These natural rights include perfect equality and freedom, and the right to preserve life and property. Locke also argued against slavery on the basis that enslaving yourself goes against the law of nature; you cannot surrender your own rights, your freedom is absolute and no one can take it from you. Additionally, Locke argues that one person cannot enslave another because it is morally reprehensible, although he introduces a caveat by saying that enslavement of a lawful captive in time of war would not go against one’s natural rights.

CHAPTER 4. AGE OF ENLIGHTENMENT

4.4.3 The French Revolution The Enlightenment has been frequently linked to the French Revolution of 1789. One view of the political changes that occurred during the Enlightenment is that the "consent of the governed" philosophy as delineated by Locke in Two Treatises of Government (1689) represented a paradigm shift from the old governance paradigm under feudalism known as the "divine right of kings". In this view, the revolutions of the late 1700s and early 1800s were caused by the fact that this governance paradigm shift often could not be resolved peacefully, and therefore violent revolution was the result. Clearly a governance philosophy where the king was never wrong was in direct conﬂict with one whereby citizens by natural law had to consent to the acts and rulings of their government.

Alexis de Tocqueville described the French Revolution as the inevitable result of the radical opposition created in the 18th century between the monarchy and the men of letters of the Enlightenment. These men of letters constituted a sort of “substitute aristocracy that was both allpowerful and without real power”. This illusory power came from the rise of “public opinion”, born when absolutist centralization removed the nobility and the bourgeoisie from the political sphere. The “literary politics” that resulted promoted a discourse of equality and 4.4.2 Enlightened absolutism was hence in fundamental opposition to the monarchical regime.[51] De Tocqueville “clearly designates ... the cultural effects of transformation in the forms of the exerMain article: Enlightened absolutism cise of power”.[52] Nevertheless, it took another century before cultural approach became central to the historiIn several nations, rulers welcomed leaders of the En- ography, as typified by Robert Darnton, The Business of lightenment at court and asked them to help design laws Enlightenment: A Publishing History of the Encyclopédie, and programs to reform the system, typically to build 1775–1800 (1979). stronger national states. These rulers are called “enlightened despots” by historians.[47] They included Frederick the Great of Prussia, Catherine the Great of Russia, Leopold II of Tuscany, and Joseph II of Austria. Joseph 4.5 Religion was over-enthusiastic, announcing so many reforms that had so little support that revolts broke out and his regime Enlightenment era religious commentary was a response became a comedy of errors and nearly all his programs to the preceding century of religious conflict in Europe, were reversed.[48] Senior ministers Pombal in Portugal especially the Thirty Years’ War.[53] Theologians of the and Struensee in Denmark also governed according to Enlightenment wanted to reform their faith to its generEnlightenment ideals. In Poland, the model constitution ally non-confrontational roots and to limit the capacity for of 1791 expressed Enlightenment ideals, but was in ef- religious controversy to spill over into politics and warfare fect for only one year as the nation was partitioned among while still maintaining a true faith in God. For moderate its neighbors. More enduring were the cultural achieve- Christians, this meant a return to simple Scripture. John Locke abandoned the corpus of theological commentary ments, which created a nationalist spirit in Poland.[49] Frederick the Great, the king of Prussia from 1740 to in favor of an “unprejudiced examination” of the Word 1786, saw himself as a leader of the Enlightenment and of God alone. He determined the essence of Christianity and recommended patronized philosophers and scientists at his court in to be a belief in Christ the redeemer [54] avoiding more detailed debate. Thomas Jefferson in Berlin. Voltaire, who had been imprisoned and malthe Jefferson Bible went further; he dropped any passages treated by the French government, was eager to accept dealing with miracles, visitations of angels, and the resFrederick’s invitation to live at his palace. Frederick exurrection of Jesus after his death. He tried to extract the plained, “My principal occupation is to combat ignorance [55] New Testament. practical Christian moral code of the and prejudice ... to enlighten minds, cultivate morality, and to make people as happy as it suits human nature, Enlightenment scholars sought to curtail the political power of organized religion and thereby prevent anand as the means at my disposal permit.”[50]

4.6. NATIONAL VARIATIONS

other age of intolerant religious war.[56] Spinoza determined to remove politics from contemporary and historical theology (e.g. disregarding Judaic law).[57] Moses Mendelssohn advised aﬀording no political weight to any organized religion, but instead recommended that each person follow what s/he found most convincing.[58] A good religion based in instinctive morals and a belief in God should not theoretically need force to maintain order in its believers, and both Mendelssohn and Spinoza judged religion on its moral fruits, not the logic of its theology.[59]

These views on religious tolerance and the importance of individual conscience, along with the social contract, became particularly influential in the American colonies and the drafting of the United States Constitution.[68] Thomas Jefferson called for a “wall of separation between church and state” at the federal level. He previously had supported successful efforts to disestablish the Church of England in Virginia,[69] and authored the Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom.[70] Jefferson’s political ideals were greatly influenced by the writings of John Locke, Francis Bacon, and Isaac Newton[71] whom [72] A number of novel ideas about religion developed with he considered the three greatest men that ever lived. the Enlightenment, including Deism and talk of atheism. Deism, according to Thomas Paine, is the simple belief in God the Creator, with no reference to the Bible or any 4.6 National variations other miraculous source. Instead, the Deist relies solely on personal reason to guide his creed,[60] which was em- See also: Scottish Enlightenment and American Enlightinently agreeable to many thinkers of the time.[61] Athe- enment ism was much discussed, but there were few proponents. The Enlightenment took hold in most European counWilson and Reill note that, “In fact, very few enlightened intellectuals, even when they were vocal critics of Christianity, were true atheists. Rather, they were critics of orthodox belief, wedded rather to skepticism, deism, vitalism, or perhaps pantheism.”[62] Some followed Pierre Bayle and argued that atheists could indeed be moral men.[63] Many others like Voltaire held that without belief in a God who punishes evil, the moral order of society was undermined. That is, since atheists gave themselves to no Supreme Authority and no law, and had no fear of eternal consequences, they were far more likely to disrupt society.[64] Bayle (1647–1706) observed that in his day, “prudent persons will always maintain an appearance of [religion].”. He believed that even atheists could hold concepts of honor and go beyond their own self-interest to Europe at the beginning of the War of the Spanish Succession, create and interact in society.[65] Locke said that if there 1700 were no God and no divine law, the result would be moral anarchy: every individual “could have no law but his own tries, often with a specific local emphasis. For example, will, no end but himself. He would be a god to himself, in France it became associated with anti-government and and the satisfaction of his own will the sole measure and anti-Church radicalism while in Germany it reached deep into the middle classes and where it expressed a spirituend of all his actions”.[66] alistic and nationalistic tone without threatening governments or established churches.[73] Government responses varied widely. In France, the government was hostile, and 4.5.1 Separation of church and state the philosophes fought against its censorship, sometimes being imprisoned or hounded into exile. The British govMain articles: Separation of church and state and ernment for the most part ignored the Enlightenment’s Separation of church and state in the United States leaders in England and Scotland, although it did give Isaac Newton a knighthood and a very lucrative government of[9][10] The “Radical Enlightenment” promoted the concept fice. of separating church and state,[11] an idea that often credited to English philosopher John Locke (1632–1704).[67] According to his principle of the social contract, Locke said that the government lacked authority in the realm of individual conscience, as this was something rational people could not cede to the government for it or others to control. For Locke, this created a natural right in the liberty of conscience, which he said must therefore remain protected from any government authority.

In the Scottish Enlightenment, Scotland’s major cities created an intellectual infrastructure of mutually supporting institutions such as universities, reading societies, libraries, periodicals, museums and masonic lodges.[74] The Scottish network was “predominantly liberal Calvinist, Newtonian, and 'design' oriented in character which played a major role in the further development of the transatlantic Enlightenment”.[75] In France, Voltaire said “we look to Scotland for all our ideas of civilization.”[76]

CHAPTER 4. AGE OF ENLIGHTENMENT lightenment centered on the individual instead of societal enlightenment and encouraged the living of an enlightened life.[78][79]

John Trumbull's Declaration of Independence shows the drafting committee presenting its work to the Congress

One leader of the Scottish Enlightenment was Adam Smith, the father of modern economic science.

The focus of the Scottish Enlightenment ranged from intellectual and economic matters to the specifically scientific as in the work of William Cullen, physician and chemist; James Anderson, an agronomist; Joseph Black, physicist and chemist; and James Hutton, the first modern geologist.[13][77] In Italy, parts of society also dramatically changed during the Enlightenment, with rulers such as Leopold II of Tuscany abolishing the death penalty in Tuscany. The significant reduction in the Church’s power led to a period of great thought and invention, with scientists such as Alessandro Volta and Luigi Galvani making new discoveries and greatly contributing to science.[34] In Russia, the government began to actively encourage the proliferation of arts and sciences in the mid-18th century. This era produced the first Russian university, library, theatre, public museum, and independent press. Like other enlightened despots, Catherine the Great played a key role in fostering the arts, sciences, and education. She used her own interpretation of Enlightenment ideals, assisted by notable international experts such as Voltaire (by correspondence) and, in residence, world class scientists such as Leonhard Euler and Peter Simon Pallas. The national Enlightenment differed from its Western European counterpart in that it promoted further modernization of all aspects of Russian life and was concerned with attacking the institution of serfdom in Russia. The Russian en-

Several Americans, especially Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Jefferson, played a major role in bringing Enlightenment ideas to the New World and in influencing British and French thinkers.[80] Franklin was influential for his political activism and for his advances in physics.[81][82] The cultural exchange during the Age of Enlightenment ran in both directions across the Atlantic. Thinkers such as Paine, Locke, and Rousseau all take Native American cultural practices as examples of natural freedom.[83] The Americans closely followed English and Scottish political ideas, as well as some French thinkers such as Montesquieu.[84] As deists, they were influenced by ideas of John Toland (1670–1722) and Matthew Tindal (1656–1733).[85] During the Enlightenment there was a great emphasis upon liberty, democracy, republicanism and religious tolerance. Attempts to reconcile science and religion resulted in a widespread rejection of prophecy, miracle and revealed religion in preference for Deism – especially by Thomas Paine in The Age of Reason and by Thomas Jefferson in his short Jefferson Bible – from which all supernatural aspects were removed.

4.7 Historiography The Enlightenment has always been contested territory. Its supporters “hail it as the source of everything that is progressive about the modern world. For them, it stands for freedom of thought, rational inquiry, critical thinking, religious tolerance, political liberty, scientiﬁc achievement, the pursuit of happiness, and hope for the future.”[86] However, its detractors accuse it of 'shallow' rationalism, naïve optimism, unrealistic universalism, and moral darkness. From the start there was a Counter-Enlightenment in which conservative and clerical defenders of traditional religion attacked materialism and skepticism as evil forces that encouraged immorality. By 1794, they pointed to the Terror during the French

4.7. HISTORIOGRAPHY

Revolution as conﬁrmation of their predictions. As the Enlightenment was ending, Romantic philosophers argued that excessive dependence on reason was a mistake perpetuated by the Enlightenment, because it disregarded the bonds of history, myth, faith and tradition that were necessary to hold society together.[87]

4.7.1

Deﬁnition

The term “Enlightenment” emerged in English in the later part of the 19th century,[88] with particular reference to French philosophy, as the equivalent of the French term 'Lumières’ (used first by Dubos in 1733 and already well established by 1751). From Immanuel Kant's 1784 essay “Beantwortung der Frage: Was ist Aufklärung?" ("Answering the Question: What is Enlightenment?") the German term became 'Aufklärung' (aufklären = to illuminate; sich aufklären = to clear up). However, scholars have never agreed on a definition of the Enlightenment, or on its chronological or geographical extent. Terms like “les Lumières” (French), “illuminismo” (Italian), “ilustración” (Spanish) and “Aufklärung” (German) referred to partly overlapping movements. Not until the late nineteenth century did English scholars agree they were talking about “the Enlightenment.”[87][89] Enlightenment historiography began in the period itself, from what Enlightenment figures said about their work. A dominant element was the intellectual angle they took. D'Alembert’s Preliminary Discourse of l'Encyclopédie provides a history of the Enlightenment which comprises a chronological list of developments in the realm of knowledge – of which the Encyclopédie forms the pinnacle.[90] In 1783, Jewish philosopher Moses Mendelssohn referred to Enlightenment as a process by which man was educated in the use of reason.[91] Immanuel Kant called Enlightenment “man’s release from his self-incurred tutelage”, tutelage being “man’s inability to make use of his understanding without direction from another”.[92] “For Kant, Enlightenment was mankind’s final coming of age, the emancipation of the human consciousness from an immature state of ignorance.”[93] The German scholar Ernst Cassirer called the Enlightenment “a part and a special phase of that whole intellectual development through which modern philosophic thought gained its characteristic selfconfidence and self-consciousness”.[94] According to historian Roy Porter, the liberation of the human mind from a dogmatic state of ignorance is the epitome of what the Age of Enlightenment was trying to capture. Bertrand Russell saw the Enlightenment as a phase in a progressive development, which began in antiquity, and that reason and challenges to the established order were constant ideals throughout that time.[95] Russell said that the Enlightenment was ultimately born out of the Protestant reaction against the Catholic counter-reformation, and that philosophical views such as affinity for democracy against monarchy originated among 16th-century

If there is something you know, communicate it. If there is something you don't know, search for it. — An engraving from the 1772 edition of the Encyclopédie; Truth, in the top center, is surrounded by light and unveiled by the ﬁgures to the right, Philosophy and Reason.

Protestants to justify their desire to break away from the Catholic Church. Though many of these philosophical ideals were picked up by Catholics, Russell argues, by the 18th century the Enlightenment was the principal manifestation of the schism that began with Martin Luther.[95] Jonathan Israel rejects the attempts of postmodern and Marxian historians to understand the revolutionary ideas of the period purely as by-products of social and economic transformations.[96] He instead focuses on the history of ideas in the period from 1650 to the end of the 18th century, and claims that it was the ideas themselves that caused the change that eventually led to the revolutions of the latter half of the 18th century and the early 19th century.[97] Israel argues that until the 1650s Western civilization “was based on a largely shared core of faith, tradition and authority”.[98]

4.7.2 Time span There is little consensus on the precise beginning of the Age of Enlightenment; the beginning of the 18th century (1701) or the middle of the 17th century (1650) are often

CHAPTER 4. AGE OF ENLIGHTENMENT

used as epochs. French historians usually place the period, called the Siècle des Lumières (Century of Enlightenments), between 1715 and 1789, from the beginning of the reign of Louis XV until the French Revolution. If taken back to the mid-17th century, the Enlightenment would trace its origins to Descartes' Discourse on Method, published in 1637. In France, many cited the publication of Isaac Newton's Principia Mathematica in 1687.[99] It is argued by several historians and philosophers that the beginning of the Enlightenment is when Descartes shifted the epistemological basis from external authority to internal certainty by his cogito ergo sum published in 1637.[100][101][102] As to its end, most scholars use the last years of the century, often choosing the French Revolution of 1789 or the beginning of the Napoleonic Wars (1804–15) as a convenient point in time with which to date the end of the Enlightenment.[103]

4.7.3

Modern study

In the 1970s, study of the Enlightenment expanded to include the ways Enlightenment ideas spread to European colonies and how they interacted with indigenous cultures, and how the Enlightenment took place in formerly unstudied areas such as Italy, Greece, the Balkans, Poland, Hungary, and Russia.[104]

4.8 Society and culture In contrast to the intellectual historiographical approach of the Enlightenment, which examines the various currents or discourses of intellectual thought within the European context during the 17th and 18th centuries, the cultural (or social) approach examines the changes that occurred in European society and culture. This approach studies the process of changing sociabilities and cultural practices during the Enlightenment. One of the primary elements of the culture of the Enlightenment was the rise of the public sphere, a “realm of communication marked by new arenas of debate, more open and accessible forms of urban public space and sociability, and an explosion of print culture,” in the late 17th century and 18th century.[106] Elements of the public sphere included: it was egalitarian, it discussed the domain of “common concern,” and argument was founded on reason.[107] Habermas uses the term “common concern” to describe those areas of political/social knowledge and discussion that were previously the exclusive territory of the state and religious authorities, now open to critical examination by the public sphere. The values of this bourgeois public sphere included holding reason to be supreme, considering everything to be open to criticism (the public sphere is critical), and the opposition of secrecy of all sorts.[108]

Intellectuals such as Robert Darnton and Jürgen Habermas have focused on the social conditions of the Enlightenment. Habermas described the creation of the “bourgeois public sphere” in 18th-century Europe, containing the new venues and modes of communication allowing for rational exchange. Habermas said that the public sphere was bourgeois, egalitarian, rational, and independent from the state, making it the ideal venue for intellectuals to critically examine contemporary politics and society, away from the interference of established authority. While the public sphere is generally an integral component of the social study of the Enlightenment, other historians have questioned whether the public sphere had these characteristics.[105]

A medal minted during the reign of Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor, commemorating his grant of religious liberty to Jews and Protestants in Hungary. Another important reform of Joseph II was the abolition of serfdom.

German explorer Alexander von Humboldt showed his disgust for slavery and often criticized the colonial policies. He always acted out of a deeply humanistic conviction, borne by the ideas of the Enlightenment.[109]

4.8. SOCIETY AND CULTURE

The creation of the public sphere has been associated tion to the previously more segregated professionals and with two long-term historical trends: the rise of the mod- patrons could relate to.[117] ern nation state and the rise of capitalism. The modern nation state, in its consolidation of public power, created by counterpoint a private realm of society independent of the state, which allowed for the public sphere. Capitalism also increased society’s autonomy and selfawareness, and an increasing need for the exchange of information. As the nascent public sphere expanded, it embraced a large variety of institutions; the most commonly cited were coffee houses and cafés, salons and the literary public sphere, figuratively localized in the Republic of Letters.[110] In France, the creation of the public sphere was helped by the aristocracy’s move from the King’s palace at Versailles to Paris in about 1720, since their rich spending stimulated the trade in luxuries and artistic creations, especially fine paintings.[111] The context for the rise of the public sphere was the economic and social change commonly associated with the Industrial Revolution: “economic expansion, increasing urbanization, rising population and improving communications in comparison to the stagnation of the previous century”."[112] Rising efficiency in production techniques and communication lowered the prices of consumer goods and increased the amount and variety of goods available to consumers (including the literature essential to the public sphere). Meanwhile, the colonial experience (most European states had colonial empires in the 18th century) began to expose European society to extremely heterogeneous cultures, leading to the breaking down of “barriers between cultural systems, religious divides, gender differences and geographical areas”.[113] The word “public” implies the highest level of inclusivity – the public sphere by definition should be open to all. However, this sphere was only public to relative degrees. Enlightenment thinkers frequently contrasted their conception of the “public” with that of the people: Condorcet contrasted “opinion” with populace, Marmontel “the opinion of men of letters” with “the opinion of the multitude,” and d'Alembert the “truly enlightened public” with “the blind and noisy multitude”.[114] Additionally, most institutions of the public sphere excluded both women and the lower classes.[115] Cross-class influences occurred through noble and lower class participation in areas such as the coffeehouses and the freemasonic lodges.

4.8.1

Social and cultural implications in the arts

Because of the focus on reason over superstition, the Enlightenment cultivated the arts.[116] Emphasis on learning, art and music became more widespread, especially with the growing middle class. Areas of study such as literature, philosophy, science, and the ﬁne arts increasingly explored subject matter that the general public in addi-

George Frideric Handel

As musicians depended more and more on public support, public concerts became increasingly popular and helped supplement performers’ and composers’ incomes. The concerts also helped them to reach a wider audience. Handel, for example, epitomized this with his highly public musical activities in London. He gained considerable fame there with performances of his operas and oratorios. The music of Haydn and Mozart, with their Viennese Classical styles, are usually regarded as being the most in line with the Enlightenment ideals.[118] The desire to explore, record and systematize knowledge had a meaningful impact on music publications. JeanJacques Rousseau's Dictionnaire de musique (published 1767 in Geneva and 1768 in Paris) was a leading text in the late 18th century.[118] This widely available dictionary gave short definitions of words like genius and taste, and was clearly influenced by the Enlightenment movement. Another text influenced by Enlightenment values was Charles Burney's A General History of Music: From the Earliest Ages to the Present Period (1776), which was a historical survey and an attempt to rationalize elements in music systematically over time.[119] Recently, musicologists have shown renewed interest in the ideas and consequences of the Enlightenment. For example, Rose Rosengard Subotnik's Deconstructive Variations (subtitled Music and Reason in Western Society) compares Mozart’s Die Zauberflöte (1791) using the Enlightenment and Romantic perspectives, and concludes that the work is “an ideal musical representation of the Enlightenment”.[119]

50 As the economy and the middle class expanded, there was an increasing number of amateur musicians. One manifestation of this involved women, who became more involved with music on a social level. Women were already engaged in professional roles as singers, and increased their presence in the amateur performers’ scene, especially with keyboard music.[120] Music publishers begin to print music that amateurs could understand and play. The majority of the works that were published were for keyboard, voice and keyboard, and chamber ensemble.[120] After these initial genres were popularized, from the midcentury on, amateur groups sang choral music, which then became a new trend for publishers to capitalize on. The increasing study of the ﬁne arts, as well as access to amateur-friendly published works, led to more people becoming interested in reading and discussing music. Music magazines, reviews, and critical works which suited amateurs as well as connoisseurs began to surface.[120]

CHAPTER 4. AGE OF ENLIGHTENMENT des Lettres. Towards the end of the 18th century, the editor of Histoire de la République des Lettres en France, a literary survey, described the Republic of Letters as being: In the midst of all the governments that decide the fate of men; in the bosom of so many states, the majority of them despotic ... there exists a certain realm which holds sway only over the mind ... that we honour with the name Republic, because it preserves a measure of independence, and because it is almost its essence to be free. It is the realm of talent and of thought.[121]

The Republic of Letters was the sum of a number of Enlightenment ideals: an egalitarian realm governed by knowledge that could act across political boundaries and rival state power.[121] It was a forum that supported “free public examination of questions regarding religion 4.9 Dissemination of ideas or legislation”.[122] Immanuel Kant considered written communication essential to his conception of the public The philosophes spent a great deal of energy disseminat- sphere; once everyone was a part of the “reading pub[123] The ing their ideas among educated men and women in cos- lic”, then society could be said to be enlightened. mopolitan cities. They used many venues, some of them people who participated in the Republic of Letters, such as Diderot and Voltaire, are frequently known today as quite new. important Enlightenment figures. Indeed, the men who wrote Diderot’s Encyclopédie arguably formed a micro4.9.1 The Republic of Letters cosm of the larger “republic”.[124] Many women played an essential part in the French EnMain article: Republic of Letters lightenment, due to the role they played as salonnières in The term “Republic of Letters” was coined by Pierre Parisian salons, as the contrast to the male philosophes. The salon was the principal social institution of the republic,[125] and “became the civil working spaces of the project of Enlightenment.” Women, as salonnières, were “the legitimate governors of [the] potentially unruly discourse” that took place within.[126] While women were marginalized in the public culture of the Ancien Régime, the French Revolution destroyed the old cultural and economic restraints of patronage and corporatism (guilds), opening French society to female participation, particularly in the literary sphere.[127] In France, the established men of letters (gens de lettres) had fused with the elites (les grands) of French society by the mid-18th century. This led to the creation of an oppositional literary sphere, Grub Street, the domain of a “multitude of versifiers and would-be authors”.[128] These men came to London to become authors, only to discover that the literary market simply could not support large numbers of writers, who, in any case, were very poorly remunerated by the publishing-bookselling guilds.[129] The writers of Grub Street, the Grub Street Hacks, were left feeling bitter about the relative success of the men of letters,[130] and found an outlet for their literature which was typified by the libelle. Written mostly in the French philosopher Pierre Bayle form of pamphlets, the libelles “slandered the court, the Bayle in 1664, in his journal Nouvelles de la Republique Church, the aristocracy, the academies, the salons, ev-

4.9. DISSEMINATION OF IDEAS

ESTC data 1477–1799 by decade given with a regional diﬀerentiation.

of religion, the number of books about science and art published in Paris doubled from 1720 to 1780, while the number of books about religion dropped to just one-tenth of the total.[8] Reading underwent serious changes in the 18th century. In particular, Rolf Engelsing has argued for the existence of a Reading Revolution. Until 1750, reading was done Front page of The Gentleman’s Magazine, January 1731 “intensively: people tended to own a small number of books and read them repeatedly, often to small audience. After 1750, people began to read “extensively”, finding erything elevated and respectable, including the monaras many books as they could, increasingly reading them [131] chy itself”. Le Gazetier cuirassé by Charles Thévealone.[136] This is supported by increasing literacy rates, neau de Morande was a prototype of the genre. It was particularly among women.[137] Grub Street literature that was most read by the public during the Enlightenment.[132] More importantly, accord- The vast majority of the reading public could not afford ing to Darnton, the Grub Street hacks inherited the “rev- to own a private library, and while most of the state-run olutionary spirit” once displayed by the philosophes, and “universal libraries” set up in the 17th and 18th centuries paved the way for the French Revolution by desacraliz- were open to the public, they were not the only sources ing figures of political, moral and religious authority in of reading material. On one end of the spectrum was the Bibliothèque Bleue, a collection of cheaply produced France.[133] books published in Troyes, France. Intended for a largely rural and semi-literate audience these books included al4.9.2 The book industry manacs, retellings of medieval romances and condensed versions of popular novels, among other things. While The increased consumption of reading materials of all some historians have argued against the Enlightenment’s sorts was one of the key features of the “social” Enlighten- penetration into the lower classes, the Bibliothèque Bleue ment. Developments in the Industrial Revolution allowed represents at least a desire to participate in Enlightenment consumer goods to be produced in greater quantities at sociability.[138] Moving up the classes, a variety of instilower prices, encouraging the spread of books, pam- tutions offered readers access to material without needing phlets, newspapers and journals – “media of the transmis- to buy anything. Libraries that lent out their material for a sion of ideas and attitudes”. Commercial development small price started to appear, and occasionally bookstores likewise increased the demand for information, along would offer a small lending library to their patrons. Cofwith rising populations and increased urbanisation.[134] fee houses commonly offered books, journals and someHowever, demand for reading material extended outside times even popular novels to their customers. The Tatler of the realm of the commercial, and outside the realm and The Spectator, two influential periodicals sold from of the upper and middle classes, as evidenced by the 1709 to 1714, were closely associated with coffee house Bibliothèque Bleue. Literacy rates are difficult to gauge, culture in London, being both read and produced in varbut in France at least, the rates doubled over the course of ious establishments in the city.[139] This is an example of the 18th century.[135] Reflecting the decreasing influence the triple or even quadruple function of the coffee house:

CHAPTER 4. AGE OF ENLIGHTENMENT

reading material was often obtained, read, discussed and ever, these works never became part of literary canon, even produced on the premises.[140] and are largely forgotten today as a result.[143] A healthy, and legal, publishing industry existed throughout Europe, although established publishers and book sellers occasionally ran afoul of the law. The Encyclopédie, for example, condemned not only by the King but also by Clement XII, nevertheless found its way into print with the help of the aforementioned Malesherbes and creative use of French censorship law.[144] But many works were sold without running into any legal trouble at all. Borrowing records from libraries in England, Germany and North America indicate that more than 70 percent of books borrowed were novels. Less than 1 percent of the books were of a religious nature, indicating the general trend of declining religiosity.[121]

4.9.3 Natural history Main article: Natural History A genre that greatly rose in importance was that of sci-

Denis Diderot is best known as the editor of the Encyclopédie.

It is extremely difficult to determine what people actually read during the Enlightenment. For example, examining the catalogs of private libraries gives an image skewed in favor of the classes wealthy enough to afford libraries, and also ignores censured works unlikely to be publicly acknowledged. For this reason, a study of publishing would be much more fruitful for discerning reading habits.[141] Across continental Europe, but in France especially, booksellers and publishers had to negotiate censorship laws of varying strictness. The Encyclopédie, for example, narrowly escaped seizure and had to be saved by Malesherbes, the man in charge of the French censure. Indeed, many publishing companies were conveniently located outside of France so as to avoid overzealous French censors. They would smuggle their merchandise across the border, where it would then be transported to clandestine booksellers or small-time peddlers.[142] The records of clandestine booksellers may give a better representation of what literate Frenchmen might have truly read, since their clandestine nature provided a less restrictive product choice.[143] In one case, political books were the most popular category, primarily libels and pamphlets. Readers were more interested in sensationalist stories about criminals and political corruption than they were in political theory itself. The second most popular category, “general works” (those books “that did not have a dominant motif and that contained something to offend almost everyone in authority”) demonstrated a high demand for generally low-brow subversive literature. How-

Georges Buﬀon is best remembered for his Histoire naturelle, a 44 volume encyclopedia describing everything known about the natural world.

entiﬁc literature. Natural history in particular became increasingly popular among the upper classes. Works of natural history include René-Antoine Ferchault de Réaumur's Histoire naturelle des insectes and Jacques Gautier d'Agoty's La Myologie complète, ou description de tous les muscles du corps humain (1746). Outside ancien régime

4.9. DISSEMINATION OF IDEAS

France, natural history was an important part of medicine and industry, encompassing the fields of botany, zoology, meteorology, hydrology and mineralogy. Students in Enlightenment universities and academies were taught these subjects to prepare them for careers as diverse as medicine and theology. As shown by M D Eddy, natural history in this context was a very middle class pursuit and operated as a fertile trading zone for the interdisciplinary exchange of diverse scientific ideas.[145] The target audience of natural history was French polite society, evidenced more by the specific discourse of the genre than by the generally high prices of its works. Naturalists catered to polite society’s desire for erudition – many texts had an explicit instructive purpose. However, natural history was often a political affair. As E. C. Spary writes, the classifications used by naturalists “slipped between the natural world and the social ... to establish not only the expertise of the naturalists over the natural, but also the dominance of the natural over the social”.[146] The idea of taste (le goût) was a social indicator: to truly be able to categorize nature, one had to have the proper taste, an ability of discretion shared by all members of polite society. In this way natural history spread many of the scientific developments of the time, but also provided a new source of legitimacy for the dominant class.[147] From this basis, naturalists could then develop their own social ideals based on their scientific works.[148]

4.9.4

Scientiﬁc and literary journals

The first scientific and literary journals were established during the Enlightenment. The first journal, the Parisian Journal des Sçavans, appeared in 1665. However, it was not until 1682 that periodicals began to be more widely produced. French and Latin were the dominant languages of publication, but there was also a steady demand for material in German and Dutch. There was generally low demand for English publications on the Continent, which was echoed by England’s similar lack of desire for French works. Languages commanding less of an international market – such as Danish, Spanish and Portuguese – found journal success more difficult, and more often than not, a more international language was used instead. French slowly took over Latin’s status as the lingua franca of learned circles. This in turn gave precedence to the publishing industry in Holland, where the vast majority of these French language periodicals were produced.[149]

Journal des sçavans was the earliest academic journal published in Europe

upheld “the legitimacy of God-ordained authority”—the Bible—in which there had to be agreement between the biblical and natural theories.[151]

4.9.5 Encyclopedias and dictionaries

Although the existence of dictionaries and encyclopedias spanned into ancient times, the texts changed from simply defining words in a long running list to far more detailed discussions of those words in 18th-century encyclopedic dictionaries.[152] The works were part of an Enlightenment movement to systematize knowledge and provide education to a wider audience than the elite. As the 18th century progressed, the content of encyclopedias also Jonathan Israel called the journals the most influential changed according to readers’ tastes. Volumes tended to cultural innovation of European intellectual culture.[150] focus more strongly on secular affairs, particularly sciThey shifted the attention of the “cultivated public” away ence and technology, rather than matters of theology. from established authorities to novelty and innovation, Along with secular matters, readers also favoured an aland promoted the “enlightened” ideals of toleration and phabetical ordering scheme over cumbersome works arintellectual objectivity. Being a source of knowledge ranged along thematic lines.[153] The historian Charles derived from science and reason, they were an implicit Porset, commenting on alphabetization, has said that “as critique of existing notions of universal truth monopo- the zero degree of taxonomy, alphabetical order autholized by monarchies, parliaments, and religious author- rizes all reading strategies; in this respect it could be conities. They also advanced Christian enlightenment that sidered an emblem of the Enlightenment.” For Porset,

CHAPTER 4. AGE OF ENLIGHTENMENT The folio edition of the work even included foldout engravings. The Cyclopaedia emphasized Newtonian theories, Lockean philosophy, and contained thorough examinations of technologies, such as engraving, brewing, and dyeing.

First page of the Encyclopedie published between 1751 and 1766 "Figurative system of human knowledge", the structure that the Encyclopédie organised knowledge into. It had three main branches: memory, reason, and imagination

the avoidance of thematic and hierarchical systems thus allows free interpretation of the works and becomes an example of egalitarianism.[154] Encyclopedias and dictionaries also became more popular during the Age of Reason as the number of educated consumers who could afford such texts began to multiply.[152] In the later half of the 18th century, the number of dictionaries and encyclopedias published by decade increased from 63 between 1760 and 1769 to approximately 148 in the decade proceeding the French Revolution (1780–1789).[155] Along with growth in numbers, dictionaries and encyclopedias also grew in length, often having multiple print runs that sometimes included in supplemented editions.[153] The first technical dictionary was drafted by John Harris and entitled Lexicon Technicum: Or, An Universal English Dictionary of Arts and Sciences. Harris’ book avoided theological and biographical entries; instead it concentrated on science and technology. Published in 1704, the Lexicon technicum was the first book to be written in English that took a methodical approach to describing mathematics and commercial arithmetic along with the physical sciences and navigation. Other technical dictionaries followed Harris’ model, including Ephraim Chambers' Cyclopaedia (1728), which included five editions, and was a substantially larger work than Harris’.

In Germany, practical reference works intended for the uneducated majority became popular in the 18th century. The Marperger Curieuses Natur-, Kunst-, Berg-, Gewerkund Handlungs-Lexicon (1712) explained terms that usefully described the trades and scientific and commercial education. Jablonksi Allgemeines Lexicon (1721) was better known than the Handlungs-Lexicon, and underscored technical subjects rather than scientific theory. For example, over five columns of text were dedicated to wine, while geometry and logic were allocated only twenty-two and seventeen lines, respectively. The first edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica (1771) was modelled along the same lines as the German lexicons.[156] However, the prime example of reference works that systematized scientific knowledge in the age of Enlightenment were universal encyclopedias rather than technical dictionaries. It was the goal of universal encyclopedias to record all human knowledge in a comprehensive reference work.[157] The most well-known of these works is Denis Diderot and Jean le Rond d'Alembert's Encyclopédie, ou dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers. The work, which began publication in 1751, was composed of thirty-five volumes and over 71 000 separate entries. A great number of the entries

4.9. DISSEMINATION OF IDEAS

were dedicated to describing the sciences and crafts in detail, and provided intellectuals across Europe with a highquality survey of human knowledge. In d'Alembert’s Preliminary Discourse to the Encyclopedia of Diderot, the work’s goal to record the extent of human knowledge in the arts and sciences is outlined: The massive work was arranged according to a “tree of knowledge.” The tree reflected the marked division between the arts and sciences, which was largely a result of the rise of empiricism. Both areas of knowledge were united by philosophy, or the trunk of the tree of knowledge. The Enlightenment’s desacrilization of religion was pronounced in the tree’s design, particularly where theology accounted for a peripheral branch, with black magic as a close neighbour.[159] As the Encyclopédie gained popularity, it was published in quarto and octavo editions after 1777. The quarto and octavo editions were much less expensive than previous editions, making the Encyclopédie more accessible to the non-elite. Robert Darnton estimates that there were approximately 25 000 copies of the Encyclopédie in circulation throughout France and Europe before the French Revolution.[160] The extensive, yet affordable encyclopedia came to represent the transmission of Enlightenment and scientific education to an expanding audience.[161]

4.9.6

Popularization of science

A portrait of Bernard de Fontenelle.

ically for women with an interest in scientific writing and inspired a variety of similar works.[165] These popular works were written in a discursive style, which was laid out much more clearly for the reader than the complicated articles, treatises, and books published by the academies and scientists. Charles Leadbetter’s Astronomy (1727) was advertised as “a Work entirely New” that would include “short and easie [sic] Rules and Astronomical Tables.”[166] The first French introduction to Newtonianism and the Principia was Eléments de la philosophie de Newton, published by Voltaire in 1738.[167] Émilie du Châtelet's translation of the Principia, published after her death in 1756, also helped to spread Newton’s theories beyond scientific academies and the university.[168] Francesco Algarotti, writing for a growing female audience, published Il Newtonianism per le dame, which was a tremendously popular work and was translated from Italian into English by Elizabeth Carter. A similar introduction to Newtonianism for women was produced by Henry Pembarton. His A View of Sir Isaac Newton’s Philosophy was published by subscription. Extant records of subscribers show that women from a wide range of social standings purchased the book, indicating the growing number of scientifically inclined female readers among the middling class.[169] During the Enlightenment, women also began producing popular scientific works themselves. Sarah Trimmer wrote a successful natural history textbook for children entitled The Easy Introduction to the Knowledge of Nature (1782), which was published for many years after in eleven editions.[170]

One of the most important developments that the Enlightenment era brought to the discipline of science was its popularization. An increasingly literate population seeking knowledge and education in both the arts and the sciences drove the expansion of print culture and the dissemination of scientific learning. The new literate population was due to a high rise in the availability of food. This enabled many people to rise out of poverty, and instead of paying more for food, they had money for education.[162] Popularization was generally part of an overarching Enlightenment ideal that endeavoured “to make information available to the greatest number of people.”[163] As public interest in natural philosophy grew during the 18th century, public lecture courses and the publication of popular texts opened up new roads to money and fame for amateurs and scientists who remained on the periphery of universities and academies.[164] More formal works included explanations of scientific theories for individuals lacking the educational background to comprehend the original scientific text. Sir Isaac Newton’s celebrated Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica was published in Latin 4.9.7 Schools and universities and remained inaccessible to readers without education in the classics until Enlightenment writers began to trans- Main article: Education in the Age of Enlightenment late and analyze the text in the vernacular. The first significant work that expressed scientific theory and knowledge expressly for the laity, in the vernacular, and with the entertainment of readers in mind, was Bernard de Fontenelle's Conversations on the Plurality of Worlds (1686). The book was produced specif-

Most work on the Enlightenment emphasizes the ideals discussed by intellectuals, rather than the actual state of education at the time. Leading educational theorists like England’s John Locke and Switzerland’s Jean Jacques Rousseau both emphasized the importance of shaping

CHAPTER 4. AGE OF ENLIGHTENMENT

young minds early. By the late Enlightenment, there was a rising demand for a more universal approach to education, particularly after the American and French Revolutions. The predominant educational psychology from the 1750s onward, especially in northern European countries was associationism, the notion that the mind associates or dissociates ideas through repeated routines. In addition to being conducive to Enlightenment ideologies of liberty, self-determination and personal responsibility, it offered a practical theory of the mind that allowed teachers to transform longstanding forms of print and manuscript culture into effective graphic tools of learning for the lower and middle orders of society.[171] Children were taught to memorize facts through oral and graphic methods that originated during the Renaissance.[172] Many of the leading universities associated with Enlightenment progressive principles were located in northern Europe, with the most renowned being the universities of Leiden, Göttingen, Halle, Montpellier, Uppsala and Edinburgh. These universities, especially Edinburgh, produced professors whose ideas had a significant impact on Britain’s North American colonies and, later, the American Republic. Within the natural sciences, Edinburgh’s medical also led the way in chemistry, anatomy and pharmacology.[173] In other parts of Europe, the universities and schools of France and most of Europe were bastions of traditionalism and were not hospitable to the Enlightenment. In France, the major exception was the medical university at Montpellier.[174]

4.9.8

Learned academies

The history of Academies in France during the Enlightenment begins with the Academy of Science, founded in 1635 in Paris. It was closely tied to the French state, acting as an extension of a government seriously lacking in scientists. It helped promote and organize new disciplines, and it trained new scientists. It also contributed to the enhancement of scientists’ social status, considering them to be the “most useful of all citizens”. Academies demonstrate the rising interest in science along with its increasing secularization, as evidenced by the small number of clerics who were members (13 percent).[176] The presence of the French academies in the public sphere cannot be attributed to their membership; although the majority of their members were bourgeois, the exclusive institution was only open to elite Parisian scholars. They perceived themselves as “interpreters of the sciences for the people”. For example, it was with this in mind that academicians took it upon themselves to disprove the popular pseudo-science of mesmerism.[177] The strongest contribution of the French Academies to the public sphere comes from the concours académiques (roughly translated as 'academic contests’) they sponsored throughout France. These academic contests were

Louis XIV visiting the Académie des sciences in 1671. “It is widely accepted that 'modern science' arose in the Europe of the 17th century, introducing a new understanding of the natural world.” —Peter Barrett[175]

perhaps the most public of any institution during the Enlightenment.[178] The practice of contests dated back to the Middle Ages, and was revived in the mid-17th century. The subject matter had previously been generally religious and/or monarchical, featuring essays, poetry, and painting. By roughly 1725, however, this subject matter had radically expanded and diversified, including “royal propaganda, philosophical battles, and critical ruminations on the social and political institutions of the Old Regime.” Topics of public controversy were also discussed such as the theories of Newton and Descartes, the slave trade, women’s education, and justice in France.[179] More importantly, the contests were open to all, and the enforced anonymity of each submission guaranteed that neither gender nor social rank would determine the judging. Indeed, although the “vast majority” of participants belonged to the wealthier strata of society (“the liberal arts, the clergy, the judiciary, and the medical profession”), there were some cases of the popular classes submitting essays, and even winning.[180] Similarly, a significant number of women participated – and won – the competitions. Of a total of 2300 prize competitions offered in France, women won 49 – perhaps a small number by modern standards, but very significant in an age in which most women did not have any academic training. Indeed, the majority of the winning entries were for poetry competitions, a genre commonly stressed in women’s

4.9. DISSEMINATION OF IDEAS

57 nying titles and privileges were disregarded. Such an environment was especially intimidating to monarchs who derived much of their power from the disparity between classes of people. If classes were to join together under the influence of Enlightenment thinking, they might recognize the all-encompassing oppression and abuses of their monarchs and, because of their size, might be able to carry out successful revolts. Monarchs also resented the idea of their subjects convening as one to discuss political matters, especially those concerning foreign affairs - rulers thought political affairs to be their business only, a result of their supposed divine right to rule. [186]

Antoine Lavoisier conducting an experiment related to combustion generated by ampliﬁed sun light.

education.[181] In England, the Royal Society of London also played a signiﬁcant role in the public sphere and the spread of Enlightenment ideas. It was founded by a group of independent scientists and given a royal charter in 1662.[182] The Society played a large role in spreading Robert Boyle's experimental philosophy around Europe, and acted as a clearinghouse for intellectual correspondence and exchange.[183] Boyle was “a founder of the experimental world in which scientists now live and operate,” and his method based knowledge on experimentation, which had to be witnessed to provide proper empirical legitimacy. This is where the Royal Society came into play: witnessing had to be a “collective act”, and the Royal Society’s assembly rooms were ideal locations for relatively public demonstrations.[184] However, not just any witness was considered to be credible; “Oxford professors were accounted more reliable witnesses than Oxfordshire peasants.” Two factors were taken into account: a witness’s knowledge in the area; and a witness’s “moral constitution”. In other words, only civil society were considered for Boyle’s public.[185]

Coffeehouses represent a turning point in history during which people discovered that they could have enjoyable social lives within their communities. Coffeeshops became homes away from home for many who sought, for the first time, to engage in discourse with their neighbors and discuss intriguing and thought-provoking matters, especially those regarding philosophy to politics. Coffeehouses were essential to the Enlightenment, for they were centers of free-thinking and self-discovery. Although many coffeehouse patrons were scholars, a great deal were not. Coffeehouses attracted a diverse set of people, including not only the educated wealthy but also members of the bourgeoisie and the lower class. While it may seem positive that patrons, being doctors, lawyers, merchants, etc. represented almost all classes, the coffeeshop environment sparked fear in those who sought to preserve class distinction. One of the most popular critiques of the coffeehouse claimed that it “allowed promiscuous association among people from different rungs of the social ladder, from the artisan to the aristocrat” and was therefore compared to Noah’s Ark, receiving all types of animals, clean or unclean.[187] This unique culture served as a catalyst for journalism when Joseph Addison and Richard Steele recognized its potential as an audience. Together, Steele and Addison published The Spectator (1711), a daily publication which aimed, through fictional narrator Mr. Spectator, both to entertain and to provoke discussion regarding serious philosophical matters.

The first English coffeehouse opened in Oxford in 1650. Brian Cowan said that Oxford coffeehouses developed into "penny universities", offering a locus of learning that Main article: Historiography of the Salon was less formal than structured institutions. These penny universities occupied a significant position in Oxford academic life, as they were frequented by those consequently referred to as the “virtuosi”, who conducted their research 4.9.10 Coffeehouses on some of the resulting premises. According to Cowan, Main articles: coffeehouse and English coffeehouses in “the coffeehouse was a place for like-minded scholars to congregate, to read, as well as learn from and to debate the 17th and 18th centuries with each other, but was emphatically not a university institution, and the discourse there was of a far different Coffeehouses were especially important to the spread of order than any university tutorial.”[188] knowledge during the Enlightenment because they created a unique environment in which people from many The Café Procope was established in Paris in 1686; by the different walks of life gathered and shared ideas. They 1720s there were around 400 cafés in the city. The Café were frequently criticized by nobles who feared the pos- Procope in particular became a center of Enlightenment, sibility of an environment in which class and its accompa- welcoming such celebrities as Voltaire and Rousseau.

4.9.9

Salons

CHAPTER 4. AGE OF ENLIGHTENMENT

The Café Procope was where Diderot and D'Alembert decided to create the Encyclopédie.[189] The cafés were one of the various “nerve centers” for bruits publics, public noise or rumour. These bruits were allegedly a much better source of information than were the actual newspapers available at the time.[190]

4.9.11

Debating societies

Main article: London Debating Societies The debating societies are an example of the public sphere during the Enlightenment.[191] Their origins include: • Clubs of ﬁfty or more men who, at the beginning of the 18th century, met in pubs to discuss religious issues and aﬀairs of state. • Mooting clubs, set up by law students to practice rhetoric. • Spouting clubs, established to help actors train for theatrical roles.

of faith ought to have the “monopoly of truth and a Godgiven title to authority”.[195] After this date everything thus previously rooted in tradition was questioned and often replaced by new concepts in the light of philosophical reason. After the second half of the 17th century and during the 18th century, a “general process of rationalization and secularization set in,” and confessional disputes were reduced to a secondary status in favor of the “escalating contest between faith and incredulity”.[195] In addition to debates on religion, societies discussed issues such as politics and the role of women. It is important to note, however, that the critical subject matter of these debates did not necessarily translate into opposition to the government. In other words, the results of the debate quite frequently upheld the status quo.[196] From a historical standpoint, one of the most important features of the debating society was their openness to the public; women attended and even participated in almost every debating society, which were likewise open to all classes providing they could pay the entrance fee. Once inside, spectators were able to participate in a largely egalitarian form of sociability that helped spread Enlightenment ideas.[197]

• John Henley's Oratory, which mixed outrageous 4.9.12 sermons with even more absurd questions, like “Whether Scotland be anywhere in the world?"[192]

Masonic lodges

Masonic initiation ceremony

An example of a French Salon

In the late 1770s, popular debating societies began to move into more “genteel” rooms, a change which helped establish a new standard of sociability.[193] The backdrop to these developments was “an explosion of interest in the theory and practice of public elocution”. The debating societies were commercial enterprises that responded to this demand, sometimes very successfully. Some societies welcomed from 800 to 1200 spectators a night.[194]

Historians have long debated the extent to which the secret network of Freemasonry was a main factor in the Enlightenment. The leaders of the Enlightenment included Freemasons such as Diderot, Montesquieu, Voltaire, Pope, Horace Walpole, Sir Robert Walpole, Mozart, Goethe, Frederick the Great, Benjamin Franklin,[198] and George Washington.[199] Norman Davies said that Freemasonry was a powerful force on behalf of Liberalism in Europe, from about 1700 to the twentieth century. It expanded rapidly during the Age of Enlightenment, reaching practically every country in Europe. It was especially attractive to powerful aristocrats and politicians as well as intellectuals, artists and political activists.[200]

The debating societies discussed an extremely wide range of topics. Before the Enlightenment, most intellectual debates revolved around “confessional” – that is, Catholic, Lutheran, Reformed (Calvinist), or Anglican issues, and During the Age of Enlightenment, Freemasons comthe main aim of these debates was to establish which bloc prised an international network of like-minded men, of-

4.10. IMPORTANT INTELLECTUALS ten meeting in secret in ritualistic programs at their lodges. they promoted the ideals of the Enlightenment, and helped diffuse these values across Britain and France and other places. Freemasonry as a systematic creed with its own myths, values and set of rituals originated in Scotand around 1600 and spread first to England and then across the Continent in the eighteenth century. They fostered new codes of conduct – including a communal understanding of liberty and equality inherited from guild sociability – “liberty, fraternity, and equality”[201] Scottish soldiers and Jacobite Scots brought to the Continent ideals of fraternity which reflected not the local system of Scottish customs but the institutions and ideals originating in the English Revolution against royal absolutism.[202] Freemasonry was particularly prevalent in France – by 1789, there were perhaps as many as 100,000 French Masons, making Freemasonry the most popular of all Enlightenment associations.[203] The Freemasons displayed a passion for secrecy and created new degrees and ceremonies. Similar societies, partially imitating Freemasonry, emerged in France, Germany, Sweden and Russia. One example was the "Illuminati" founded in Bavaria in 1776, which was copied after the Freemasons but was never part of the movement. The Illuminati was an overtly political group, which most Masonic lodges decidedly were not.[204]

59 in their own right.”[208] Many of the Masons values seemed to greatly appeal to Enlightenment values and thinkers. Diderot discusses the link between Freemason ideals and the enlightenment in D'Alembert’s Dream, exploring masonry as a way of spreading enlightenment beliefs.[209] Historian Margaret Jacob stresses the importance of the Masons in indirectly inspiring enlightened political thought.[210] On the negative side, Daniel Roche contests claims that Masonry promoted egalitarianism. He argues that the lodges only attracted men of similar social backgrounds.[211] The presence of noble women in the French “lodges of adoption” that formed in the 1780s was largely due to the close ties shared between these lodges and aristocratic society.[212]

The major opponent of Freemasonry was the Roman Catholic Church, so that in countries with a large Catholic element, such as France, Italy, Spain, and Mexico, much of the ferocity of the political battles involve the confrontation between what Davies calls the reactionary Church and enlightened Freemasonry.[213][214] Even in France, Masons did not act as a group.[215] American historians, while noting that Benjamin Franklin and George Washington were indeed active Masons, have downplayed the importance of Freemasonry in causing the American Revolution because the Masonic order was non-political and included both Patriots and their enemy Masonic lodges created a private model for public affairs. the Loyalists.[216] They “reconstituted the polity and established a constitutional form of self-government, complete with constitutions and laws, elections and representatives.” In other 4.10 Important intellectuals words, the micro-society set up within the lodges constituted a normative model for society as a whole. This was especially true on the Continent: when the first lodges be- Main article: List of intellectuals of the Enlightenment gan to appear in the 1730s, their embodiment of British values was often seen as threatening by state authorities. For example, the Parisian lodge that met in the mid 1720s was composed of English Jacobite exiles.[205] Fur- 4.11 See also thermore, freemasons all across Europe explicitly linked themselves to the Enlightenment as a whole. In French • Atlantic Revolutions (American Revolution, French lodges, for example, the line “As the means to be enlightRevolution, Latin American Revolutions, etc.) ened I search for the enlightened” was a part of their initiation rites. British lodges assigned themselves the duty • Education in the Age of Enlightenment to “initiate the unenlightened”. This did not necessarily link lodges to the irreligious, but neither did this exclude • European and American voyages of scientific explothem from the occasional heresy. In fact, many lodges ration praised the Grand Architect, the masonic terminology for the deistic divine being who created a scientifically or• Revolutions of 1848 dered universe.[206] • Regional Enlightenments: German historian Reinhart Koselleck claimed that “On the Continent there were two social structures that left a decisive imprint on the Age of Enlightenment: the Republic of Letters and the Masonic lodges.”[207] Scottish professor Thomas Munck argues that “although the Masons did promote international and cross-social contacts which were essentially non-religious and broadly in agreement with enlightened values, they can hardly be described as a major radical or reformist network

• Scottish Enlightenment • American Enlightenment • Polish Enlightenment • Modern Greek Enlightenment • Russian Enlightenment • Spanish Enlightenment

CHAPTER 4. AGE OF ENLIGHTENMENT

4.12 References [1] Outram, Dorinda. Panorama of the Enlightenment. Getty Publications, 2006, p. 29. [2] Milan Zaﬁrovski, The Enlightenment and Its Eﬀects on Modern Society (201) p 144 [3] “Siècle_des_Lumières”. Larousse Encyclopedia on-line. Retrieved 4 October 2015.

[25] Porter, (2003), p. 91. [26] See Gillispie, (1980), “Conclusion.” [27] Porter, (2003), p. 90. [28] Burns, (2003), entry: 158. [29] Thomson, (1786), p. 203.

[4] Gay, Peter (1996), The Enlightenment: An Interpretation, W. W. Norton & Company, ISBN 0-393-00870-3

[30] M. Magnusson (10 November 2003), “Review of James Buchan, Capital of the Mind: how Edinburgh Changed the World", New Statesman, archived from the original on 2011-05-29, retrieved 2014-04-27

[5] Eugen Weber, Movements, Currents, Trends: Aspects of European Thought in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries (1992)

[31] A. Swingewood, “Origins of Sociology: The Case of the Scottish Enlightenment”, The British Journal of Sociology, vol. 21, no. 2 (June 1970), pp. 164–80 in JSTOR.

[6] Sootin, Harry. ner(1955)

“Isaac Newton.” New York, Mess-

[32] D. Daiches, P. Jones and J. Jones, A Hotbed of Genius: The Scottish Enlightenment, 1730–1790 (1986).

[7] “Online catalog of Exposition on the Lumieres at the French National Library”. French National Library. Retrieved 4 October 2015.

[33] M. Fry, Adam Smith’s Legacy: His Place in the Development of Modern Economics (Routledge, 1992).

[8] Petitﬁls 2005, pp. 99–105.

[34] “The Enlightenment throughout Europe”. world.org. Retrieved 2013-03-25.

[9] Israel 2006, p. 11. [10] Israel 2010, p. 19. [11] Israel 2010, p. vii–viii. [12] Israel 2010, pp. 15ﬀ. [13] “The Scottish enlightenment and the challenges for Europe in the 21st century; climate change and energy”, The New Yorker, 11 October 2004, archived from the original on 17 May 2011 [14] “Kant’s essay What is Enlightenment?". mnstate.edu. [15] Manfred Kuehn, Kant: A Biography (2001). [16] Steven Kreis (2012-04-13). “Mary Wollstonecraft, 1759– 1797”. Historyguide.org. Retrieved 2014-01-14. [17] Mary Wollstonecraft, A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (Renascence Editions, 2000) online [18] Bruce P. Lenman, Integration and Enlightenment: Scotland, 1746–1832 (1993) excerpt and text search [19] Sarmant, Thierry, Histoire de Paris, p. 120. [20] Porter (2003), 79–80. [21] Burns (2003), entry: 7,103. [22] see Hall (1954), iii; Mason (1956), 223. [23] Gillispie, (1980), p. xix. [24] James E. McClellan III, “Learned Societies,” in Encyclopedia of the Enlightenment, ed. Alan Charles Kors (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003) http://www.oup.com/us/catalog/general/subject/ HistoryWorld/Modern/?view=usa&ci=9780195104301 (accessed on June 8, 2008).

History-

[35] Roland Sarti, Italy: A Reference Guide from the Renaissance to the Present, Infobase Publishing, 2009, p. 457 [36] "The Abolition of The Slave Trade" [37] Daniel Brewer, The Enlightenment Past: reconstructing eighteenth-century French thought (2008), p. 1 [38] De Dijn, Annelien (2012). “The Politics of Enlightenment: From Peter Gay to Jonathan Israel”. Historical Journal 55 (3): 785–805. doi:10.1017/s0018246x12000301. [39] von Guttner, Darius (2015). The French Revolution. Nelson Cengage. pp. 34–35. [40] “John Locke > The Inﬂuence of John Locke’s Works (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)". Plato.stanford.edu. Retrieved 2014-01-14. [41] Pierre Manent, An Intellectual History of Liberalism (1994) pp 20–38 [42] Lessnoﬀ, Michael H. Social Contract Theory. New York: New York U, 1990. Print. [43] Discourse on the Origin of Inequality [44] Rand, B. (1900), The Life, Unpublished Letters and Philosophical Regimen of Anthony, Earl of Shaftesbury, p. 353 quoted in Porter, Roy (2000), Enlightenment, Britain and the Creation of the Modern World, Allen Lane, The Penguin Press, p. 3 [45] Lorraine Y. Landry, Marx and the postmodernism debates: an agenda for critical theory (2000) p. 7 [46] Of the Original Contract [47] Stephen J. Lee, Aspects of European history, 1494–1789 (1990) pp. 258–66

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[48] Nicholas Henderson, “Joseph II”, History Today (March 1991) 41:21–27 [49] John Stanley, “Towards A New Nation: The Enlightenment and National Revival in Poland”, Canadian Review of Studies in Nationalism, 1983, Vol. 10 Issue 2, pp 83– 110 [50] Giles MacDonogh, Frederick the Great: A Life in Deed and Letters (2001) p 341 [51] Chartier, 8. See also Alexis de Tocqueville, L'Ancien Régime et la Révolution, 1850, Book Three, Chapter One.

[66] ENR // AgencyND // University of Notre Dame. “God, Locke and Equality: Christian Foundations of Locke’s Political Thought”. nd.edu. [67] Feldman, Noah (2005). Divided by God. Farrar, Straus and Giroux, pg. 29 (“It took John Locke to translate the demand for liberty of conscience into a systematic argument for distinguishing the realm of government from the realm of religion.”) [68] Feldman, Noah (2005). Divided by God. Farrar, Straus and Giroux, pg. 29 [69] Ferling, 2000, p. 158

[52] Chartier, 13. [70] Mayer, 1994 p. 76 [53] Margaret C. Jacob, ed. The Enlightenment: Brief History with Documents, Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2001, Introduction, pp. 1–72.

[71] Hayes, 2008, p. 10

[54] Locke, John (1695). “Reasonableness of Christianity”. “Preface” The Reasonableness of Christianity, as delivered in the Scriptures.

[73] David N. Livingstone and Charles W. J. Withers, Geography and Enlightenment (1999)

[55] R. B. Bernstein (2003). Thomas Jeﬀerson. Oxford University Press. p. 179.

[74] Jonathan I. Israel, Democratic Enlightenment: Philosophy, Revolution, and Human Rights, 1750–1790 (2013) pp 248–49

[56] Ole Peter Grell; Roy Porter (2000). Toleration in Enlightenment Europe. Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–68. [57] Baruch Spinoza, Theologico-Political Treatise, “Preface,” 1677, gutenberg.com [58] Mendelssohn, Moses (1783). “Jerusalem: Or on Religious Power and Judaism” (PDF). earlymoderntexts.com. [59] Willi Goetschel (2004). Spinoza’s Modernity: Mendelssohn, Lessing, and Heine. Univ of Wisconsin Press. p. 126. [60] Thomas Paine, Of the Religion of Deism Compared with the Christian Religion, 1804, Internet History Sourcebook [61] Ellen Judy Wilson; Peter Hanns Reill (2004). Encyclopedia Of The Enlightenment. Infobase Publishing. p. 148. [62] Wilson and Reill (2004). Encyclopedia Of The Enlightenment. Infobase Publishing. p. 26. [63] Anthony Pagden (2013). The Enlightenment: And Why it Still Matters. Oxford University Press. p. 100. [64] Stuart Brown (2003). British Philosophy and the Age of Enlightenment: Routledge History of Philosophy. Taylor & Francis. p. 256. [65] Pierre Bayle (1741). A general dictionary: historical and critical: in which a new and accurate translation of that of the celebrated Mr. Bayle, with the corrections and observations printed in the late edition at Paris, is included; and interspersed with several thousand lives never before published. The whole containing the history of the most illustrious persons of all ages and nations particularly those of Great Britain and Ireland, distinguished by their rank, actions, learning and other accomplishments. With reﬂections on such passages of Bayle, as seem to favor scepticism and the Manichee system. p. 778.

[72] Cogliano, 2003, p. 14

[75] A. Herman, How the Scots Invented the Modern World (Crown Publishing Group, 2001). [76] Harrison, Lawrence E. (2012). Jews, Confucians, and Protestants: Cultural Capital and the End of Multiculturalism. Rowman & Littleﬁeld. p. 92. [77] J. Repcheck, The Man Who Found Time: James Hutton and the Discovery of the Earth’s Antiquity (Basic Books, 2003), pp. 117–143. [78] Elise Kimerling Wirtschafter, “Thoughts on the Enlightenment and Enlightenment in Russia”, Modern Russian History & Historiography, 2009, Vol. 2 Issue 2, pp 1–26 [79] Israel, Jonathan I. Democratic Enlightenment: Philosophy, Revolution, and Human Rights 1750–1790. Oxford University Press, 2011, pp. 609–632. [80] Henry F. May, The Enlightenment in America (1978) [81] Michael Atiyah, “Benjamin Franklin and the Edinburgh Enlightenment,” Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society (Dec 2006) 150#4 pp 591–606. [82] Jack Fruchtman, Jr., Atlantic Cousins: Benjamin Franklin and His Visionary Friends (2007) [83] Charles C. Mann, 1491 (2005) [84] Paul M. Spurlin, Montesquieu in America, 1760–1801 (1941) [85] “The Founding Fathers, Deism, and Christianity”. Encyclopedia Britannica. [86] Keith Thomas, “The Great Fight Over the Enlightenment,” The New York Review April 3, 2014 [87] Thomas, 2014 [88] Oxford English Dictionary, 3rd Edn (revised)

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[89] Lough, John (1985). “Reflections on Enlightenment [105] For example, Robert Darnton, Roger Chartier, Brian and Lumieres”. Journal for Eighteenth-Century StudCowan, Donna T. Andrew. ies (Journal for Eighteenth-Century Studies) 8#1: 1–15. [106] James Van Horn Melton, The Rise of the Public in Enlightdoi:10.1111/j.1754-0208.1985.tb00093.x. enment Europe (2001), 4. [90] Jean le Rond d'Alembert, Discours préliminaire de [107] Jürgen Habermas, The Structural Transformation of the l'Encyclopédie Public Sphere, (1989), 36, 37. [91] Outram, 1. The past tense is used deliberately as whether man would educate himself or be educated by certain [108] Melton, 8. exemplary figures was a common issue at the time. [109] Nicolaas A. Rupke (2008). "Alexander Von Humboldt: D'Alembert’s introduction to l'Encyclopédie, for example, A Metabiography". University of Chicago Press. p.138 along with Immanuel Kant’s essay response (the “indepenISBN 0-226-73149-9 dent thinkers”), both support the later model. [110] Melton, 4, 5. Habermas, 14–26. [92] Immanuel Kant, “What is Enlightenment?", 1. [111] Daniel Brewer, ed. (2014). The Cambridge Companion to [93] Porter 2001, p. 1 the French Enlightenment. Cambridge UP. pp. 91ff. [94] Ernst Cassirer, The Philosophy of the Enlightenment, [112] Outram, Dorinda. The Enlightenment (2nd ed.). Cam(1951), p. vi bridge University Press, 2005, p. 12. [95] Russell, Bertrand. A History of Western Philosophy. p [113] Outram 2005, p. 13. 492–494 [96] Israel, Jonathan I. A Revolution of the Mind: Radical En- [114] Chartier, 27. lightenment and the Intellectual Origins of Modern Democ- [115] Mona Ozouf, "'Public Opinion' at the End of the Old racy. Princeton, 2010, pp. 49–50. Regime [97] Israel, Jonathan I. Enlightenment Contested. Oxford Uni- [116] David Beard and Kenneth Gloag, Musicology, The Key versity Press, 2006, pp. v – viii. Concepts (New York: Routledge, 2005), 58. [98] Israel, Jonathan I. Radical Enlightenment; Philosophy and [117] J. Peter Burkholder, Donald J. Grout and Claude V. the Making of Modernity 1650–1750. Oxford University Palisca, A History of Western Music, Seventh Edition, Press, 2002, p. 3. (New York: W.W. Norton & Company, Inc., 2006), 475. [99] J. B. Shank, The Newton Wars and the Beginning of the [118] Beard and Gloag, Musicology, 59. French Enlightenment (2008), “Introduction” [119] Beard and Gloag, Musicology, 60. [100] Martin Heidegger [1938] (2002) The Age of the World Picture quotation: [120] Burkholder, Grout and Palisca, A History of Western Music, 475. For up to Descartes ... a particular subiectum ... lies at the foundation of its own [121] Outram, 21. fixed qualities and changing circumstances. [122] Chartier, 26. The superiority of a sub-iectum ... arises out of the claim of man to a ... self-supported, [123] Chartier, 26, 26. Kant, “What is Enlightenment?" unshakeable foundation of truth, in the sense of certainty. Why and how does this claim [124] Outram, 23. acquire its decisive authority? The claim originates in that emancipation of man in [125] Goodman, 3. which he frees himself from obligation to [126] Dena Goodman, The Republic of Letters: A Cultural HisChristian revelational truth and Church doctory of the French Enlightenment (1994), 53. trine to a legislating for himself that takes its stand upon itself.

[127] Carla Hesse, The Other Enlightenment: How French Women Became Modern (2001), 42. [101] Ingraffia, Brian D. (1995) Postmodern theory and biblical theology: vanquishing God’s shadow p.126 [128] Crébillon fils, quoted from Darnton, The Literary Underground, 17. [102] Norman K. Swazo (2002) Crisis theory and world order: Heideggerian reflections pp.97–9 [129] Darnton, The Literary Underground, 19, 20. [103] Frost, Martin (2008), The age of Enlightenment, retrieved [130] Darnton, “The Literary Underground”, 21, 23. 2008-01-18 [131] Darnton, The Literary Underground, 29 [104] Outram, 6. See also, A. Owen Alridge (ed.), The IberoAmerican Enlightenment (1971)., Franco Venturi, The [132] Outram, 22. End of the Old Regime in Europe 1768–1776: The First [133] Darnton, The Literary Underground, 35–40. Crisis.

4.12. REFERENCES

[134] Outram, 17, 20.

[161] Darnton, (1979), p. 6.

[135] Darnton, “The Literary Underground”, 16.

[162] Jacob, (1988), p. 191; Melton, (2001), pp. 82–83

[136] from Outram, 19. See Rolf Engelsing, “Die Perioden der Lesergeschichte in der Neuzeit. Das statische Ausmass und die soziokulturelle Bedeutung der Lektüre”, Archiv für Geschichte des Buchwesens, 10 (1969), cols. 944–1002 and Der Bürger als Leser: Lesergeschichte in Deutschland, 1500–1800 (Stuttgart, 1974).

[163] Headrick, (2000), p. 15 [164] Headrick, (2000), p. 19. [165] Phillips, (1991), pp. 85, 90 [166] Phillips, (1991), p. 90.

[137] “history of publishing :: Developments in the 18th cen- [167] tury”. Encyclopedia Britannica. [168] [138] Outram, 27–29 [169] [139] Erin Mackie, The Commerce of Everyday Life: Selections from The Tatler and The Spectator (Boston: Bedford/St. [170]

Porter, (2003), p. 300. Porter, (2003), p. 101. Phillips, (1991), p. 92. Phillips, (1991), p. 107.

Martin’s, 1998), 16.

[140] [141] [142] [143] [144]

[145]

[146]

[147] [148]

[171] Eddy, Matthew Daniel (2013). “The Shape of Knowledge: Children and the Visual Culture of Literacy See Mackie, Darnton, An Early Information Society and Numeracy”. Science in Context 26: 215–245. doi:10.1017/s0269889713000045. In particular, see Chapter 6, “Reading, Writing and Publishing” [172] Hotson, Howard (2007). Commonplace Learning: Ramism and Its German Ramiﬁcations 1543–1630. OxSee Darnton, The Literary Underground, 184. ford: Oxford University Press. Darnton, The Literary Underground, 135–147. [173] Eddy, Matthew Daniel (2008). The Language of MineralDarnton, The Business of Enlightenment, 12, 13. For a ogy: John Walker, Chemistry and the Edinburgh Medical more detailed description of French censorship laws, see School, 1750–1800. Aldershot: Ashgate. Darnton, The Literary Underground [174] Elizabeth Williams, A Cultural History of Medical VitalEddy, Matthew Daniel (2008). The Language of Mineralism in Enlightenment Montpellier (2003) p. 50 ogy: John Walker, Chemistry and the Edinburgh Medical [175] Peter Barrett (2004), Science and Theology Since CoperSchool, 1750–1800. Ashgate. nicus: The Search for Understanding, p. 14, Continuum Emma Spary, “The 'Nature' of Enlightenment” in The SciInternational Publishing Group, ISBN 0-567-08969-X ences in Enlightened Europe, William Clark, Jan Golinski, and Steven Schaﬀer, eds. (Chicago: University of [176] Daniel Roche, France in the Enlightenment, (1998), 420. Chicago Press, 1999), 281, 282. [177] Roche, 515, 516. Spary, 289–293. [178] Caradonna JL. Annales, “Prendre part au siècle des Lumières: Le concours académique et la culture intelSee Thomas Laqueur, Making sex: body and gender from lectuelle au XVIIIe siècle” the Greeks to Freud (1990).

[149] Israel, Radical Enlightenment, 143, 144. [150] Israel, Radical Enlightenment, 142. [151] Israel, Radical Enlightenment, 150, 151.

[179] Jeremy L. Caradonna, “Prendre part au siècle des Lumières: Le concours académique et la culture intellectuelle au XVIIIe siècle”, Annales. Histoire, Sciences sociales, vol.64 (mai-juin 2009), n.3, 633–662. [180] Caradonna, 634–636.

[152] Headrick, (2000), p. 144. [181] Caradonna, 653–654. [153] Headrick, (2000), p. 172. [182] “Royal Charters”. royalsociety.org. [154] Porter, (2003), pp. 249–50. [155] Headrick, (2000), p. 168) [156] Headrick, (2000), pp. 150–152. [157] Headrick, (2000), p. 153. [158] d'Alembert, p. 4. [159] Darnton, (1979), p. 7. [160] Darnton, (1979), p. 37.

[183] Steven Shapin, A Social History of Truth: Civility and Science in Seventeenth-Century England, Chicago; London: University of Chicago Press, 1994. [184] Steven Shapin and Simon Schaﬀer, Leviathan and the AirPump: Hobbes, Boyle, and the Experimental Life (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1985), 5, 56, 57. This same desire for multiple witnesses led to attempts at replication in other locations and a complex iconography and literary technology developed to provide visual and written proof of experimentation. See pages 59–65.

CHAPTER 4. AGE OF ENLIGHTENMENT

[185] Shapin and Schaﬀer, 58, 59.

[210] Margaret C. Jacob, Living the Enlightenment: Freemasonry and politics in eighteenth-century Europe (Oxford [186] Klein, Lawrence E. “Coﬀeehouse Civility, 1660–1714: University Press, 1991.) An Aspect of Post-Courtly Culture in England.” Huntington Library Quarterly 59.1 (1996): 30–51. [211] Roche, 437. [187] Klein, 35.

[212] Jacob, 139. See also Janet M. Burke, “Freemasonry, Friendship and Noblewomen: The Role of the Se[188] Cowan, 90, 91. cret Society in Bringing Enlightenment Thought to PreRevolutionary Women Elites”, History of European Ideas [189] Colin Jones, Paris: Biography of a City (New York: 10 no. 3 (1989): 283–94. Viking, 2004), 188, 189. [190] Darnton, Robert (2000). “An Early Information Soci- [213] Davies, Europe: A History (1996) pp 634–635 ety: News and the Media in Eighteenth-Century Paris”. 105#1. American Historical Review. pp. 1–35. JSTOR [214] Richard Weisberger et al., eds., Freemasonry on both sides of the Atlantic: essays concerning the craft in the British 2652433. Isles, Europe, the United States, and Mexico (2002) [191] Donna T. Andrew, “Popular Culture and Public Debate: London 1780”, This Historical Journal, Vol. 39, No. 2. [215] Robert R. Palmer, The Age of the Democratic Revolution: The struggle (1970) p. 53 (June 1996), pp. 405–423. [192] Andrew, 406. Andrew gives the name as “William Hen- [216] Neil L. York, “Freemasons and the American Revoluley”, which must be a lapse of writing. tion”, The Historian Volume: 55. Issue: 2. 1993, pp 315+. [193] Andrew, 408. [194] Andrew, 406–408, 411. [195] Israel 2002, p. 4. [196] Andrew, 412–415. [197] Andrew, 422. [198] J. A. Leo Lemay (2013). The Life of Benjamin Franklin, Volume 2: Printer and Publisher, 1730–1747. University of Pennsylvania Press. pp. 83–92. [199] Bullock, Steven C. (1996). “Initiating the Enlightenment?: Recent Scholarship on European Freemasonry”. Eighteenth-Century Life 20 (1): 81. [200] Norman Davies, Europe: A History (1996) pp 634–635 [201] Margaret C. Jacob’s seminal work on Enlightenment freemasonry, Margaret C. Jacob, Living the Enlightenment: Free masonry and Politics in Eighteenth-Century Europe (Oxford University Press, 1991) p. 49.

4.13 Further reading 4.13.1 Reference and surveys • Becker, Carl L. The Heavenly City of the EighteenthCentury Philosophers. (1932), a famous short classic • Bronner, Stephen. The Great Divide: The Enlightenment and its Critics (1995) • Burns, William. Science in the Enlightenment: An Encyclopædia (2003) 353pp • Chisick, Harvey. Historical Dictionary of the Enlightenment. 2005. 512 pp • Delon, Michel. Encyclopædia of the Enlightenment (2001) 1480pp

[202] Margaret C. Jacob, “Polite worlds of Enlightenment,” in Martin Fitzpatrick and Peter Jones, eds. The Enlightenment World (Routledge, 2004) pp. 272–87.

• Dupre, Louis. The Enlightenment & the Intellectual Foundations of Modern Culture 2004

[203] Roche, 436.

• Gay, Peter. The Enlightenment: The Rise of Modern Paganism (1966, 2nd ed. 1995), 952 pp; excerpt and text search vol 1; The Enlightenment: The Science of Freedom, (1969 2nd ed. 1995), a highly inﬂuential study excerpt and text search vol 2;

[204] Fitzpatrick and Jones, eds. The Enlightenment World p. 281 [205] Jacob, pp 20, 73, 89. [206] Jacob, 145–147. [207] Reinhart Koselleck, Critique and Crisis, p. 62, (The MIT Press, 1988)

• Greensides F, Hyland P, Gomez O (ed.). The Enlightenment (2002)

[208] Thomas Munck, 1994, p. 70.

• Fitzpatrick, Martin et al., eds. The Enlightenment World. (2004). 714pp; 39 essays by scholars

[209] https://www.stmarys-ca.edu/sites/default/files/ attachments/files/Dalemberts_Dream.pdf

• Hazard, Paul. European thought in the 18th century: From Montesquieu to Lessing (1965)

4.13. FURTHER READING

• Himmelfarb, Gertrude. The Roads to Modernity: The British, French, and American Enlightenments (2004) excerpt and text search

• Broadie, Alexander. The Cambridge Companion to the Scottish Enlightenment (2003) excerpt and text search

• Israel, Jonathan. Democratic Enlightenment: Philosophy, Revolution, and Human Rights, 1750–1790 (2011), 1152pp; intellectual history focused on radicalism

• Bronner, Stephen. Reclaiming the Enlightenment: Toward a Politics of Radical Engagement, 2004

• Jacob, Margaret Enlightenment: A Brief History with Documents 2000 • Kors, Alan Charles. Encyclopædia of the Enlightenment (4 vol. 1990; 2nd ed. 2003), 1984pp excerpt and text search • Munck, Thomas. Enlightenment: A Comparative Social History, 1721–1794 England. (1994) • Outram, Dorinda. The Enlightenment(1995) 157pp excerpt and text search • Outram, Dorinda. Panorama of the Enlightenment (2006), emphasis on Germany; heavily illustrated • Porter, Roy (2001), The Enlightenment (2nd ed.), ISBN 978-0-333-94505-6 • Petitﬁls, Jean-Christian (2005). Louis XVI. Perrin. ISBN 2-7441-9130-2. • Sarmant, Thierry (2012). Histoire de Paris: Politique, urbanisme, civilisation. Editions Jean-Paul Gisserot. ISBN 978-2-7558-0330-3. • Reill, Peter Hanns, and Wilson, Ellen Judy. Encyclopædia of the Enlightenment. (2nd ed. 2004). 670 pp. • Schmidt, James. “Inventing the Enlightenment: Anti-Jacobins, British Hegelians, and the 'Oxford English Dictionary'". Journal of the History of Ideas 64 (3): 421–43. JSTOR 3654234. • Yolton, John W. et al. The Blackwell Companion to the Enlightenment. (1992). 581 pp.

4.13.2

Specialty studies

• Aldridge, A. Owen (ed.). The Ibero-American Enlightenment (1971). • Andrew, Donna T. “Popular Culture and Public Debate: London 1780”. The Historical Journal, Vol. 39, No. 2. (June 1996), pp 405–423. in JSTOR • Brewer, Daniel. The Enlightenment Past: reconstructing 18th-century French thought. (2008). • Broadie, Alexander. The Scottish Enlightenment: The Historical Age of the Historical Nation (2007)

• Brown, Stuart, ed. British Philosophy in the Age of Enlightenment (2002) • Buchan, James. Crowded with Genius: The Scottish Enlightenment: Edinburgh’s Moment of the Mind (2004) excerpt and text search • Campbell, R.S. and Skinner, A.S., (eds.) The Origins and Nature of the Scottish Enlightenment, Edinburgh, 1982 • Cassirer, Ernst. The Philosophy of the Enlightenment. 1955. a highly influential study by a neoKantian philosopher excerpt and text search • Chartier, Roger. The Cultural Origins of the French Revolution. Translated by Lydia G. Cochrane. Duke University Press, 1991. • Cowan, Brian, The Social Life of Coffee: The Emergence of the British Coffeehouse. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2005 • Darnton, Robert. The Literary Underground of the Old Regime. (1982). • Europe in the age of enlightenment and revolution. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. 1989. ISBN 0-87099-451-4. • Edelstein, Dan. The Enlightenment: A Genealogy (University of Chicago Press; 2010) 209 pages • Golinski, Jan (2011). “Science in the Enlightenment, Revisited”. History of Science 49 (2): 217– 231. • Goodman, Dena. The Republic of Letters: A Cultural History of the French Enlightenment. (1994). • Hesse, Carla. The Other Enlightenment: How French Women Became Modern. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2001. • Hankins, Thomas L. Science and the Enlightenment (1985). • Israel, Jonathan I. Enlightenment Contested: Philosophy, Modernity, and the Emancipation of Man 1670–1752 (2008) • Israel, Jonathan. Radical Enlightenment: Philosophy and the Making of Modernity, 1650–1750. (2001). • Israel, Jonathan. A Revolution of the Mind – Radical Enlightenment and the Intellectual Origins of Modern Democracy. (2009).

CHAPTER 4. AGE OF ENLIGHTENMENT

• May, Henry F. The Enlightenment in America. 1976. 419 pp.

• Kramnick, Issac, ed. The Portable Enlightenment Reader (1995) excerpt and text search

• Melton, James Van Horn. The Rise of the Public in Enlightenment Europe. (2001).

• Schmidt, James, ed. What is Enlightenment?: Eighteenth-Century Answers and Twentieth-Century Questions (1996) excerpt and text search

• Porter, Roy. The Creation of the Modern World: The Untold Story of the British Enlightenment. 2000. 608 pp. excerpt and text search • Redkop, Benjamin. The Enlightenment and Community, 1999 • Reid-Maroney, Nina. Philadelphia’s Enlightenment, 1740–1800: Kingdom of Christ, Empire of Reason. 2001. 199 pp. • Roche, Daniel. France in the Enlightenment. (1998). • Sorkin, David. The Religious Enlightenment: Protestants, Jews, and Catholics from London to Vienna (2008) • Staloﬀ, Darren. Hamilton, Adams, Jeﬀerson: The Politics of Enlightenment and the American Founding. 2005. 419 pp. excerpt and text search • Till, Nicholas. Mozart and the Enlightenment: Truth, Virtue, and Beauty in Mozart’s Operas. 1993. 384 pp. • Tunstall, Kate E. Blindness and Enlightenment. An Essay. With a new translation of Diderot’s Letter on the Blind (Continuum, 2011) • Venturi, Franco. Utopia and Reform in the Enlightenment. George Macaulay Trevelyan Lecture, (1971)

4.13.3

Primary sources

• Broadie, Alexander, ed. The Scottish Enlightenment: An Anthology (2001) excerpt and text search • Diderot, Denis. Rameau’s Nephew and other Works” (2008) excerpt and text search. • Diderot, Denis. “Letter on the Blind” in Tunstall, Kate E. Blindness and Enlightenment. An Essay. With a new translation of Diderot’s Letter on the Blind (Continuum, 2011) • Diderot, Denis. The Encyclopédie of Diderot and D'Alembert: Selected Articles (1969) excerpt and text search • Gay, Peter, ed. The Enlightenment: A Comprehensive Anthology (1973) • Gomez, Olga, et al. eds. The Enlightenment: A Sourcebook and Reader (2001) excerpt and text search

4.14 External links • Age of Enlightenment entry in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy • Age of Enlightenment at PhilPapers • Age of Enlightenment at the Indiana Philosophy Ontology Project

Chapter 5

Masonic conspiracy theories Masonic conspiracy theories are conspiracy theories introls all Masonic Grand Lodges, and thus, all of volving Freemasonry; hundreds of such conspiracy theoFreemasonry worldwide acts in a unified manner ries have been described since the late 18th century.[1] Generally, these theories fall into three distinct categories: political (usually involving allegations of con- 5.1 List of conspiracy theories astrol of government, particularly in the United States and sociated with Freemasonry the United Kingdom), religious (usually involving allegations of anti-Christian or Satanic beliefs or practices), and cultural (usually involving popular entertainment). Notable conspiracy theories involving Freemasonry inMany conspiracy theory writers have connected Freema- clude: sons (and the Knights Templar) with worship of the devil;[2][3][4][5][6] these ideas are based on different interpretations of the doctrines of those organizations.[7] 5.1.1 Political Of the claims that Freemasonry exerts control over politics, perhaps the best-known example is the New World Order theory, but there are others. These mainly involve aspects and agencies of the United States government, but actual events outside the US (such as the Propaganda Due scandal in Italy) are often used to lend credence to claims. Another set of theories has to do with Freemasonry and religion, particularly that Freemasonry deals with “the occult”.[8] These theories have their beginnings in the Taxil hoax.[9][10] In addition to these, there are various theories that focus on the embedding of symbols in otherwise ordinary items, such as street patterns, national seals, corporate logos, etc. There are Masonic conspiracy theories dealing with every aspect of society. The majority of these theories are based on one or more of the following assumptions: • That Freemasonry is its own religion, requires belief in a unique Masonic “god”, and that belief in this Masonic “god” is contrary to the teachings of various mainstream religions (although usually noted in terms of being specifically contrary to Christian belief)[11] • That the 33rd degree of the Scottish Rite is more than an honorary degree, coupled with the belief that most Freemasons are unaware of hidden or secretive ruling bodies within their organization that govern them, conduct occult ritual, or control various positions of governmental power[12] • That there is a centralized worldwide body that con67

• That the British judiciary is heavily infiltrated with Masons, who give fellow Masons “the benefit of the doubt” in court, subverting the legal system.[13][14] • That Freemasonry overlaps with, or is controlled by, the Illuminati, especially in the higher degrees; Illuminati Freemasons secretly control many major aspects of society and government and are working to establish the New World Order.[15][16][17][18][19][20] Some conspiracy theories involving the Freemasons and the Illuminati also include the Knights Templar and Jews as part of the supposed plan for universal control of society. This type of conspiracy theory was described as early as 1792 by multiple authors, beginning in France and Scotland.[1] • That Freemasonry is a Jewish front for world domination, or is at least controlled by Jews for this goal. An example of this is the notorious (and fraudulent) The Protocols of the Elders of Zion. Adolf Hitler believed that Freemasonry was a tool of Jewish influence,[21] and outlawed Freemasonry and persecuted Freemasons partially for this reason.[22] The covenant of the Palestinian Islamist movement Hamas claims that Freemasonry is a “secret society” founded as part of a Zionist plot to control the world.[23] • That Freemasons are behind income taxes in the US. One convicted tax protester has charged that law enforcement officials who surrounded his property in a standoff over his refusal to surrender after his

CHAPTER 5. MASONIC CONSPIRACY THEORIES conviction were part of a "Zionist, Illuminati, Free Mason movement”.[24] The New Hampshire Union Leader also reported that "the Browns believe the IRS and the federal income tax are part of a deliberate plot perpetrated by Freemasons to control the American people and eventually the world.”[25]

• That humanoid reptiles are behind secret societies like the Freemasons and the Illuminati.[45]

• That Freemasons have strong links with more selective secret and semi-secret societies such as the Bohemian Grove meeting,[26][27] the Skull and Bones society,[20] and Rhodes Scholars.[28]

• That the Masons are either intimately connected to[17][49] or (conversely) in conﬂict with the Illuminati regarding a plot to control several countries.[50]

• That far-right groups such as the Ku Klux Klan[29] and the Orange Order[30] are intimately tied to Freemasonry.

• That the Royal Order of Jesters, an invite-only club of Freemasonry's AAONMS, forced kidnapped Brazilian minors into prostitution with the help of a former Sheriﬀ and a Police detective, according to FBI investigations.[51][52]

5.1.2

Religious

There are a number of claims, predominantly made by Conservative Protestants[31] that Freemasons at higher degrees deceive those at lower degrees, and gradually reveal a separate, occult religion: • That Freemasons worship Lucifer or Satan,[7] often attributed to quotes by Albert Pike.[2][3][4][5] • That Freemasons worship Baal, Baphomet, Dajjal, or Rahu [32] • That Freemasonry is occult in nature and worships their own particular god, such as GAOTU the "Great Architect of the Universe", or Jahbulon, an amalgam of the gods YHWH, Baal, and Osiris.[33][34][35][36][37]

5.1.3

Alleged occult inﬂuences on popular culture

• That Freemasons intertwine various symbols and numerology into modern culture, such as corporate logos.[38] • That the United States was founded by Freemasons who have interwoven Masonic symbols into American society, particularly in national seals, streets in Washington, D.C., architecture, and the dollar bill (indeed several Founding Fathers such as George Washington, Benjamin Franklin and James Monroe were Freemasons).[39][40][41][42]

5.1.4

• That some prominent murders involved Freemasons, including the cases of Jack the Ripper,[46] Roberto Calvi,[47] and John F. Kennedy.[3][48]

Other

• That Freemasons faked the Apollo moon landings.[43] • That the September 11 attacks were astrological in nature, as part of a hidden war between Masonry (as descendants of the Knights Templar) and Islam.[44]

5.2 See also • Anti-Masonry • Judeo-Masonic conspiracy theory

5.3 Notes and references [1] Hodapp, Christopher; Alice Von Kannon (2008). Conspiracy Theories & Secret Societies For Dummies. For Dummies. pp. 174, 178. ISBN 0-470-18408-6. [2] Robinson, John. A Pilgrim’s Path: Freemasonry and the Religious Right. M. Evans, 1993. ISBN 0-87131-732-X [3] Hodapp, Christopher L. and VonKannon, Alice, Conspiracy Theories & Secret Societies For Dummies, Wiley, 2008, ISBN 978-0-470-18408-0 [4] Freemasonry The worship of Lucifer, SATAN Part 1 of 5 [5] The Masonic Fairy Tale Known As The Leo Taxil Confession [6] Freemasonry: Midwife to an Occult Empire [7] Addison, Charles G.; David Hatcher Childress (1997). The History of the Knights Templars: The Temple Church and the Temple. Adventures Unlimited Press. pp. 19–20. ISBN 0-932813-40-2. [8] Here used to denote a particular range of the occult involving Satanic or anti-Christian beliefs. [9] S. Brent Morris, The Complete Idiot’s Guide to Freemasonry (2006), pp. 171-172; ISBN 1-59257-490-4 [10] Christopher Hodapp, Freemasons for Dummies (2005), pp. 160-161; 298-299; ISBN 0-7645-9796-5 [11] See, for example, the claims made by William A. Whalen, in his essay The Masonic Religion, available on the ewtn.com website; or the claims made at evangelicaltruth.com.

5.3. NOTES AND REFERENCES

[12] Freemasonry - Conspiracy Within [13] Trial could force judges to declare that they are Masons [14] Freemasons - moral guardians or centre of corruption? [15] Why the NSA tried to recruit me by James Casbolt in St Ives, UK – October 31, 2006 [16] “The Road to Heart Mountain? Rumors, FEMA and the Future” [17] United States Presidents and The Illuminati / Masonic Power Structure [18] United States Presidents and The Illuminati / Masonic Power Structure Pt.4 [19] Berlet, Chip; Matthew Nemiroff Lyons (2000). Rightwing Populism in America: Too Close for Comfort. Guilford Press. p. 258. ISBN 1-57230-562-2. ...Robertson resuscitated the Freemason conspiracy.... 'In earlier chapters we have traced the infiltration of Continental Freemasonry by the new world philosophy of the order of the Illuminati...' [20] Pugh, Joye Jeffries (2006). Eden: The Knowledge of Good and Evil 666. Tate Publishing. p. 244. ISBN 1-59886253-7. [21] Hitler, Adolf. Mein Kampf: Volume One - A Reckoning. Chapter XI: Nation and Race. 1924 (trans. 1943). - “Finally, the Jewish influence on economic affairs grows with terrifying speed through the stock exchange. He becomes the owner, or at least the controller, of the national labor force. To strengthen his political position he tries to tear down the racial and civil barriers which for a time continue to restrain him at every step. To this end he fights with all the tenacity innate in him for religious tolerance-and in Freemasonry, which has succumbed to him completely, he has an excellent instrument with which to fight for his aims and put them across. The governing circles and the higher strata of the political and economic bourgeoisie are brought into his nets by the strings of Freemasonry, and never need to suspect what is happening.” [22] Hitler, Adolf. Mein Kampf Volume Two - The National Socialist Movement. “Chapter XIII: German Alliance Policy after the War”, 1924, trans. 1943. - “The fight which Fascist Italy waged against Jewry’s three principal weapons, the profound reasons for which may not have been consciously understood (though I do not believe this myself) furnishes the best proof that the poison fangs of that Power which transcends all State boundaries are being drawn, even though in an indirect way. The prohibition of Freemasonry and secret societies, the suppression of the supernational Press and the definite abolition of Marxism, together with the steadily increasing consolidation of the Fascist concept of the State – all this will enable the Italian Government, in the course of some years, to advance more and more the interests of the Italian people without paying any attention to the hissing of the Jewish worldhydra.” [23] 'The Covenant of the Islamic Resistance Movement (HAMAS)-Palestine', articles seventeen, twenty-two and twenty-eight, 18 Aug 1988.

[24] Kristen Senz, “Ed Brown says Feds have no jurisdiction in New Hampshire,” New Hampshire Union Leader, June 8, 2007 [25] Kristen Senz, “Browns say they will either walk free, or die,” New Hampshire Union Leader, June 19, 2007 at . [26] Bohemian Grove Exposed! [27] Freemasons, Illuminati and Associates [28] Trosch - Masonry exposed [29] Freemasonry and the Ku Klux Klan, hosted on www. jesus-is-saviour.com [30] Satanic secrets of the Orange Order, The Observer, Sunday 24 October 1999 [31] Is It True What They Say About Freemasonry? The Methods of Anti-Masons, Arturo de Hoyos and S. Brent Morris, M. Evans & Company pub, 2004 [32] Baal: Kjos Ministries website: - Roots & Links to the Occult; www.religiouscounterfeits.org; Dajjal: freemasonry - Harun Yahya website

Freemasons Baphomet: Atheistic

[33] G.A.O.T.U. [34] Freemasonry is a Non-Christian Occult Religion [35] Islamic Party of Britain: What then is Freemasonry [36] Satanic Voices: UNMASKING JEHOVAH JAH-BULON [37] Name of Deity (MasonicInfo.com) [38] Corporate Logos [39] Aho, Barbara, “George Washington”, Watch Unto Prayer [watch.pair.com] [40] Masonic Symbols in Washington [41] Hodapp, Christopher L., Solomon’s Builders: Freemasons, Founding Fathers and the Secrets of washington D.C., Ulysses Press, 2007, ISBN 1-56975-579-5 [42] United States Presidents and The Illuminati / Masonic Power Structure. [43] “NASA Masonic Conspiracy - Apollo Missions Masonic Symbols” [44] “Who’s the Enemy: -- The End of Days Begun?" “What is not commonly known is that the roots of modern Freemasonry extend far beyond the mid-eighteenth Century, all the way back to ancient Egypt, and more importantly; through a Middle Ages movement commonly known as the “Knight’s[sic] Templar. It is, we now suspect, the remnants of this Templar/Masonic/American axis that were the true target of these attacks -- in other words, September 11th was a direct thrust at the heart of the American Revolutionary Experiment … in the critical year of 2001.” [45] Most notably made by The British conspiracist David Icke, but repeated by others

CHAPTER 5. MASONIC CONSPIRACY THEORIES

[46] A claim first made by Steven Knight in his book The Brotherhood, but repeated by others since. See: Jack the Ripper, Masonic conspiracy page at www.Masonicinfo. com [47] An end to the mystery of God’s Banker?, BBC Magazine, 31 March 2004 [48] James Shelby Downard, and Michael A. Hoffman II. “King-Kill/33°: Masonic Symbolism in the Assassination of John F. Kennedy", 1987. Website excerpt, 1998. Retrieved 16 July 2007. [49] Freemasonry and the Illuminati [50] “A Report From Beneath My Tinfoil Hat: Obama Visit Reveals Illuminati War Against Masons” [51] Frost, Sandy (7 December 2008). “Jester Prostitution Updates, Stebick Sentenced”. Newsvine. Retrieved 7 April 2015. [52] FBI investigations: • “Former Erie County Sheriff’s Deputy Sentenced for Failing to Report Jester Prostitution in Canada”. Federal Bureau of Investigation. 11 April 2011. Retrieved 7 April 2015. • “Former Erie County Sheriff’s Deputy Pleads Guilty in Connection with Jester Prostitution Case”. Federal Bureau of Investigation. 19 November 2011. Retrieved 7 April 2015. • “Retired Lockport Police Detective Sentenced for Transporting a Woman from Western New York to Kentucky for the Purpose of Engaging in Prostitution”. Federal Bureau of Investigation. 7 May 2009. Retrieved 7 April 2015.

5.4 External links • Conspiracy of Hate – A Christian Perspective on the un-Christian Tactics of the anti-Masons, A.W.Harper, 1995.

Chapter 6

Ashkali and Balkan Egyptians “Ashkali” redirects here. For the village in Iran, see A 14th-century reference to a placename (Агѹповы Ashkali, Iran. клѣти, Agupovy klěti) in the Rila Charter of Ivan Alexander of Bulgaria is thought to be related to the Balkan to some authors, such as Konstantin The Ashkali (also Aškalije, Haškalije, Hashkali) and Egyptians according Josef Jireček.[4][5] Balkan Egyptians (Jevgs, Egjiptjant or Gjupci) are Albanian-speaking ethnic cultural minorities (recognized In 1990, an “Egyptian association” was formed in Ohrid, communities) which mainly inhabit Kosovo. They are Macedonia. During the Kosovo War, Albanized Roma sometimes considered to be Albanized Romani, but they were displaced as refugees in Albania and the Repubdo not self-identify as such. Prior to the Kosovo War of lic of Macedonia. Many Ashkali fought in the Kosovo 1999, Ashkali registered themselves as Albanians. Now Liberation Army. Albanized Roma formed the eththey are divided by identifying with two different groups, nic group Ashkali after the end of the war in 1999, to although the people share culture, traditions and language show their pro-Albanian stance and distinguish them(Albanian).[2] selves from the Roma, who had been negatively viewed as During the Kosovo War, they were displaced as refugees pro-Serbian during the war. Many Albanized Roma were in Albania, Serbia and the Republic of Macedonia and also sent to refugee camps with other Roma, with whom [2] whole Western Europe such as Germany and France. they did not share the same language and customs. The “Ashkali” identity was created in 1999, as they tried As the majority of Kosovo (or Albanized) Roma, many to show their pro-Albanian stance and distinguish them- Ashkali refugees settled in Serbia and Montenegro. There they were identified as Romano-Palestinians. The first selves from the Roms (Gypsies). Ashkali party (Democratic Party of the Ashkali Albanians of Kosovo) was formed in 2000 under Sabit Rrahmani, who supported Kosovo independence in the name of all 6.1 History Ashkali.[2] In Kosovo, the Ashkali were aligned with Albanians Further information: Gypsy (term) and Romani in the before, during and after the Kosovo War.[2] However, Balkans Ashkali, along with Romani Gypsies from Kosovo, have reportedly been expelled from the area.[6] The “Ashkali” have been classed as a “new ethnic identity in the Balkans”, formed in the 1990s.[3] The name “Ashkali” comes from the Turkish root-word As (Has). It was earlier applied to sedentary Roma who settled in Albanian areas during Ottoman Empire times. The Ashkalija speak Albanian as their first language. Ashkalija often worked as blacksmiths, or manual laborers on Ottoman estates. Ashkalija are found mainly in eastern and central Kosovo. The Ashkali people claim that they have originated in Persia, now Iran, in 4th century BC (Ashkal, Gilan, Iran); however, there are other theories of the Ashkali coming from Turkey in a village called Aşkale (Erzurum district of Turkey), or possibly have come from Palestine ages ago in the city of Ashkalon (now in Israel). Still, some believe they are travelers from Northern India (Romani) who have used the Albanian language as their mother-tongue.

6.2 Demographics Most Ashkali and Egyptians live in Kosovo and Republic of Macedonia, but the peoples also reside in Albania, Serbia and Montenegro. In the Macedonian census of 2002, 3,713 people self-identified as “Egyptian”. In the Serbian census of 2002 (excluding Kosovo), 814 people self-identified as “Egyptian”. In the Montenegrin census, 225 people self-identified as “Egyptian”. Ashkali are predominant in the central and eastern regions of Kosovo: Ferizaj, Kosovo Polje and Lipljan. Egyptians live in western Kosovo: in Gjakova, Istok, Peć and Deçan. The Ashkali/Egyptian community of Kosovo had 98% unemployment in 2009.[7]

6.3 Culture

CHAPTER 6. ASHKALI AND BALKAN EGYPTIANS

[7] http://www.minelres.lv/reports/S&M/Kosovo_ ShadowReport_BalkanSunflowers_2009.pdf [8] Abedin Toplica: “Flamuri Kombëtar i Ashkalive / Zastava Aškalija / The National Flag”, Ashkali Horizonti, nr. 2, 2003 www.ashkali.org.yu “The ﬂag is red with a black rising eagle in front of a green disk. The red and black color are similar to the Albanian ﬂag. The green disk represent[s] Islam"

6.5.1 Footnotes 6.5.2 Cited works • Dragan Novaković, Potomci faraona u Srbiji, DT Magazin, 4. April 1998. An “Ashkali ﬂag” (Matica Aškalija, Amëza e Ashkalive) was designed in 1999 by Abedin Toplica.[8]

While Roma, Ashkali, and Egyptians claim ethnic differences among them, they frequently intermarry. But, overall marriages between Roma and non-Roma (Gadje, outsiders) are extremely rare. Egyptians, Roma, and Ashkalija do not classify one another as Gadje.[7] The Ashkali and Roma claim the Egyptians as their own; whereas the Ashkali and Egyptians dispute over each other’s background.[2] No television or radio channels are dedicated to Askhali or Egyptian minority audiences.[7]

• Marushiakova, Elena; Heuss, Herbert; Boev, Ivan; Rychlik, Jan; Ragaru, Nadege; Zemon, Rubin; Popov, Vesselin; Friedman, Victor (2001). Identity Formation among Minorities in the Balkans: The cases of Roms, Egyptians and Ashkali in Kosovo (PDF). Soﬁa: Minority Studies Society, Studii Romani.

6.6 External links • Gypsy Blood: The Roma, Ashkali and Egyptian IDPs of Mitrovica, Kosovo, 2005

6.4 See also • Democratic Ashkali Party of Kosovo

6.5 References [1] Попис становништва, домаћинстава и станова 2011. у Републици Србији: Становништво према националној припадности - „Oстали" етничке заједнице са мање од 2000 припадника и двојако изјашњени

• TV Debate with Ashkali and Egyptian Community Members (in Albanian), ECMI Kosovo (Youtube channel), February 12, 2013 • NEW ETHNIC IDENTITIES IN THE BALKANS: THE CASE OF THE EGYPTIANS • Diﬀerences of prejudices and collective blames toward to the Balkan’s Egyptians • Egjiptianëve Kosovarë • Union of Balkan’s Egyptians

[2] Valeriu Nicolae; Hannah Slavik (2007). Roma Diplomacy. IDEA. ISBN 978-1-932716-33-7.

• The New Democratic Initiative of Kosovo (Iniciativa e re Demokrarike e Kosovës)

[3] “NEW ETHNIC IDENTITIES IN THE BALKANS: THE CASE OF THE EGYPTIANS”

• New Democratic Initiative of Kosovo, based in Switzerland

[4] Даскалова, Ангелина; Мария Райкова (2005). Грамоти на българските царе (in Bulgarian). София: Академично издателство "Марин Дринов". p. 57. [5] Trubeta, Sevasti (March 2005). “Balkan Egyptians and Gypsy/Roma Discourse” (PDF). Nationalities Papers 33 (1): pp. 71–95. doi:10.1080/00905990500053788. [6] Memorandum of the Society for Threatened People on the Issue of Lead Poisoning of Roma in IDP Camps in Kosovo, GFBV.

• Minority Rights Group • Ashkali ﬂag at FAME

Chapter 7

Judeo-Masonic conspiracy theory

German poster from 1935 saying, “World politics – World revolution. Freemasonry is an international organisation beholden to Jewry with the political goal of establishing Jewish domination through world-wide revolution.”

The Judeo-Masonic conspiracy is a conspiracy theory[2] involving an alleged secret coalition of Jews and Masons. These theories were popular on the reactionary right, particularly in France,[3] Russia, and Eastern Europe, with similar allegations still being published.

French revolution: before and after: satirical drawing by French draftsman Caran d'Ache, 1898, in the middle of the Dreyfus aﬀair and the foundation of Action Française. Although the Ancien Régime is not shown as idyllic, the contemporary situation is shown as an increase of oppression, which technical improvements (notice the plowshare) don't lighten, and to which ﬁnancial capitalism (the banker with his top hat and his wallet), the Freemason (with his set square and plumb bob) and the Jew (with a curved nose) are contributors.[1]

7.1 Elders of Zion The Judeo-Masonic conspiracy theory merges two older strains of conspiracy claims: Anti-Masonic conspiracy claims and Anti-Semitic conspiracy claims. It was heavily inﬂuenced by publication of The Protocols of the Elders of Zion,[3] a forged document that appeared in the Russian Empire purporting to be an expose of a worldwide Jew-

ish conspiracy. The Protocols claim that the Jews had inﬁltrated Freemasonry and were using the fraternity to further their aims. Adherents of the Judeo-Masonic conspiracy took the claim made by the Protocols to extremes and claimed that the leaders of Freemasonry and the leaders of the Jewish plot were one and the same.

Catholic France driven by Jews and Freemasons, drawing by Achille Lemot in Le Pèlerin, 1902.

CHAPTER 7. JUDEO-MASONIC CONSPIRACY THEORY

“The Aryan breaks the chains of the Jew and the Freemason that held him captive”, drawing of 1897 in a book by Augustin-Joseph Jacquet, France

7.2 “Conceptual inﬂuence”

ies claiming masonic authority, many men identified today as freemasons were probably unaware of each other’s According to Dr. Danny Keren (a member of the De- masonic association and clearly cannot be seen as actpartment of Computer Science at Haifa University), the ing in concert. Yet they did share certain beliefs and “conceptual inspiration” of the Protocols of the Elders of ideals.”[5] Zion was the 1797 treatise, Memoirs Illustrating the His- French Masonry of the time was exclusive, denying inititory of Jacobinism by the French priest Augustin Barruel, ation to Jews, along with many other classes of people.[5] which claimed the Revolution was a Masonic led conspiracy with the aim of overthrowing the moral teachings of the Roman Catholic Church. According to Keren, “in his treatise, Barruel did not himself blame the Jews, who 7.3 Barry Domvile, and The Link were emancipated as a result of the Revolution. However, in 1806, Barruel circulated a forged letter, proba- The founder of a British pro-Nazi association, 'The bly sent to him by members of the state police opposed Link',[6] retired Admiral Sir Barry Domvile coined the tito Napoleon Bonaparte's liberal policy toward the Jews, tle “Judmas” for the alleged Judeo-Masonic conspiracy.[7] calling attention to the alleged part of the Jews in the con- Domvile claimed that the “activities of Judmas are conspiracy he had earlier attributed to the Masons. This myth fined to a small section of both Jews and Masons: the of an international Jewish conspiracy reappeared later on large majority have no idea of the work undertaken bein 19th century Europe in places such as Germany and hind the façade of Judmas.”[8] Domvile alleged that “the aim of these international Jews is a World state kept in Poland.”[4] According to the Grand Lodge of British Columbia and subjection by the[9]power of money, and working for its the executive Yukon website: “While it is both simplistic and specious Jewish masters” and that “Masonry is[10] partner for the conduct of Jewish policy.” to lay the responsibility for the French Revolution at the door of Freemasonry, there is no question that freema- Domvile said that he first started thinking about a Jewishsons, as individuals, were active in building, and rebuild- Masonic theory as a result of Hitler.[8] Domvile referred ing, a new society. Considering the large number of bod- both to The Protocols of the Elders of Zion,[9] and to

7.8. REFERENCES

The Secret Powers Behind Revolution by Vicomte Léon de Poncins.[8] Domvile was aware that The Protocols of the Elders of Zion had been denounced as a forgery, but regarded their authorship as “immaterial”.[10]

• Peter Knight, Conspiracy Theories in American History: An Encyclopedia, ABC-CLIO, 2003, ISBN 978-1-57607-812-9

7.4 Post-Soviet Russia

• Richard Giﬃths, Patriotism Perverted, Captain Ramsay and the Far Right Club and British AntiSemitism 1939–40, Constable & Co., London, 1998, ISBN 0-09-467920-7, online at Google Books

The Judeo-Masonic conspiracy theories found new currency among the various marginal political forces in postSoviet Russia, where widespread destitution created fertile ground for conspiracy theories,[11] combined with blood libel and Holocaust denial. These viewpoints are also voiced by several antisemitic writers, notably by Igor Shafarevich,[12] Oleg Platonov,[13] Vadim Kozhinov and the late Grigory Klimov.[11][14][15] An opinion poll conducted in Moscow ca. 1990 has shown that 18% of Moscow residents believed that there is Zionist conspiracy against Russia and further 25% did not exclude such a possibility.

7.5 Link to the Bilderberg group Contemporary conspiracy theorists, who hew to theories centered on the Bilderberg Group and an alleged impending New World Order, often draw upon older concepts found in the Jewish-Masonic conspiracy theory, frequently blaming the Rothschild family or “international bankers”.[16] Because of the use of themes and tropes traditionally viewed as anti-semitic, these contemporary conspiracy theorists tend to draw the ire of groups sensitive to anti-semitic terminology, such as the AntiDefamation League.[16]

• Vicomte Léon de Poncins, The Secret Powers Behind Revolution, Boswell Publishing, London, 1929.

7.8 References [1] "www.friends-partners.org ''The development of modern anti-semitism''". Friends-partners.org. Retrieved 18 October 2011. [2] Leonidas Donskis (1 January 2003). Forms of Hatred: The Troubled Imagination in Modern Philosophy and Literature. Rodopi. pp. 41–. ISBN 90-420-1066-5. [3] “CHAPTER IV - CONSERVATIVE POLITICAL RHETORIC: THE JUDEO-MASONIC CONSPIRACY THEORY” (PDF). Vanderbilt University. library.vanderbilt.edu. Retrieved 25 January 2014. [4] “Shofar FTP Archives: ments/protocols/protocols.zion”. Nizkor.org. 02-10. Retrieved 2012-02-02. [5] “The French Revolution and freemasons”. sonry.bcy.ca. Retrieved 2012-02-02.

docu1993Freema-

[6] Giﬃths, Patriotism Perverted, pp39-42. The Link was founded in July 1937 by Domvile, and had nearly 1,800 members by March 1938, and over 4,300 by June 1938. [7] Domvile, From Admiral to Cabin Boy, p80. [8] Domvile, From Admiral to Cabin Boy, p81.

7.6 See also • Andinia Plan • Anti-Masonry • Antisemitic canard • Antisemitism • Masonic conspiracy theories • New World Order (conspiracy theory) • Synarchism

7.7 Further reading • Admiral Sir Barry Domvile KBE, CB, CMG, From Admiral to Cabin Boy, Boswell Publishing, London, 1947.

[9] Domvile, From Admiral to Cabin Boy, p82. [10] Domvile, From Admiral to Cabin Boy, p83. [11] “Anti-Semitic Conspiracy Theories Spread Globally As World Markets Grapple With Financial Crisis”. Adl.org. Retrieved 18 October 2011. [12] “The Jewish Role in the Bolshevik Revolution and Russia’s Early Soviet Regime”. Ihr.org. [13] “Antisemitism and Racism – The Stephen Roth Institute for the Study of Contemporary”. Tau.ac.il. Retrieved 18 October 2011. [14] Yerofeyev, Viktor. “Moscow Believes In Conspiracy Theories”. Rferl.org. Retrieved 18 October 2011. [15] “Some Russians still accuse Jews of `ritual murder' in czar’s death | j. the Jewish news weekly of Northern California”. Jewishsf.com. 19 December 1997. Retrieved 18 October 2011. [16] Conspiracy theories in American history: an encyclopedia - Peter Knight - Google Boeken. Books.google.com. Retrieved 2012-02-02.

7.8.1

CHAPTER 7. JUDEO-MASONIC CONSPIRACY THEORY

Bibliography

• Teluskin, Joseph. “The Protocols of the Learned Elders of Zion” (PDF). Retrieved 25 January 2014.

7.9 External links • “The Judeo-Masonic Conspiracy”

Chapter 8

Catholic Church This article is about the church headed by the Pope. For churches with shared beliefs and traditions, see Catholicism. For other uses, see Catholic Church (disambiguation). “Roman Catholic Church” redirects here. For other uses, see Roman Catholic Church (disambiguation).

government provider of education and medical services in the world.[19]

The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the largest Christian church, with more than 1.25 billion members worldwide.[2] One of the oldest religious institutions in the world, it has played a prominent role in the history of Western civilisation.[3] Headed by the Bishop of Rome, known as the Pope, its doctrines are summarised in the Nicene Creed.[4] The Catholic Church is also distinguished by its celebration of the seven sacraments.

8.1 Name

Of the seven sacraments,[13] the principal one is the Eucharist, celebrated liturgically in Mass. The church teaches that through consecration by a priest, bread and wine become the body and blood of Christ.[14] The Catholic Church practises closed communion, with only baptised members in a state of grace ordinarily permitted to receive it.[15]

Since the East–West Schism of 1054, the Eastern Church has taken the adjective “Orthodox” as its distinctive epithet, and the Western Church in communion with the Holy See has similarly taken “Catholic”, keeping that description also after the 16th-century Reformation, when those that ceased to be in communion became known as Protestants.[24][25]

The Church venerates Mary as Mother of God and practises numerous Marian devotions.[16] It has deﬁned four Marian dogmatic teachings: her Immaculate Conception without original sin, her status as the Mother of God,[17] her perpetual virginity and her bodily Assumption into Heaven at the end of her earthly life.[18]

The name “Catholic Church” is the most common designation used in oﬃcial church documents.[26] It is also the name which Pope Paul VI used when signing documents of the Second Vatican Council.[27] However, documents produced both by the Holy See[note 4] and by certain national episcopal conferences[note 5] occasionally refer to the Church as the Roman Catholic Church. The Catechism of Pope Pius X, published in 1908, also used the term “Roman” to distinguish the Catholic Church from other Christian communities who are not in full communion with the Holy See.[28]

In the late 20th century, the Catholic Church was criticised for its doctrines on sexuality and the ordination of women and its handling of sexual abuse cases.

Further information: Roman Catholic (term) and History of the term “Catholic”

The word catholic is derived from the Greek word καθολικός (katholikos), which means “universal”. Katholikos is associated with the adverb καθόλου (katholou), a contraction of the phrase καθ' ὅλου (kath' The Catholic Church teaches that it is the one true church holou), which means “according to the whole”.[20] [5][note 1][8] founded by Jesus Christ, that its bishops are the successors of Christ’s apostles, and that the Pope is the Catholic was first used to describe the Christian church successor to Saint Peter.[9] The Church maintains that the in the early 2nd century.[21] The first known use of the doctrine on faith and morals that it declares as definitive phrase “the catholic church” (he katholike ekklesia) ocis infallible.[10][note 2] The Latin Church, the autonomous curred in the letter from St Ignatius to the Smyrnaeans, Eastern Catholic Churches and religious institutes such written about 110 AD.[note 3] In the Catechetical Disas the Jesuits, mendicant orders and enclosed monastic courses of St. Cyril of Jerusalem, the name “Catholic orders, reflect a variety of theological emphases in the Church” is used to distinguish it from other groups that also call themselves the Church.[22][23] Church.[11][12]

Catholic spiritual teaching includes spreading the Gospel while Catholic social teaching emphasises support for the sick, the poor and the aﬄicted through corporal works of mercy. The Catholic Church is the largest non-

CHAPTER 8. CATHOLIC CHURCH

8.2 Organisation The Catholic Church is led by clergy who have received the sacrament of Holy Orders. There are three levels of clergy, the episcopate (bishops), whose members are usually given a geographical area to lead called a diocese or eparchy; the presbyterate (priests), who usually serve the bishops by leading local parishes; and the diaconate (deacons), who serve the bishops and priests in a variety of ministerial roles. Ultimately leading the entire Catholic Church is the Bishop of Rome, commonly called the Pope. In parallel to the diocesan structure are a variety of religious institutes that function autonomously, often subject only to the authority of the Pope, though sometimes subject to the local bishop. Most religious institutes only have male or female members but some have both. Additionally, lay members aid many liturgical functions during worship services.

8.2.1

Papacy and Roman Curia

the Roman Curia, the central governing body that administers the day-to-day business of the Catholic Church. The Pope is also Sovereign of Vatican City State,[33] a small city-state entirely enclaved within the city of Rome, which is an entity distinct from the Holy See. It is as head of the Holy See, not as head of Vatican City State, that the Pope receives ambassadors of states and sends them his own diplomatic representatives.[34] The position of cardinal is a rank of honour bestowed by popes on certain clergy, such as leaders within the Roman Curia, bishops serving in major cities and distinguished theologians. For advice and assistance in governing, the pope may turn to the College of Cardinals.[35] Following the death or resignation of a pope,[note 6] members of the College of Cardinals who are under age 80 meet in a papal conclave to elect a successor.[37] Although the conclave may elect any male Catholic as Pope, since 1389 only cardinals have been elected.[38]

8.2.2 Canon law

Main article: Hierarchy of the Catholic Church Main article: Canon law (Catholic Church) Further information: Pope and List of popes The Church’s hierarchy is headed by the Bishop of Rome, The canon law of the Catholic Church is the system of laws and legal principles made and enforced by the hierarchical authorities to regulate the church’s external organisation and government and to order and direct the activities of Catholics towards the church’s mission.[39] In the Catholic Church, universal positive ecclesiastical laws, based upon either immutable divine and natural law, or changeable circumstantial and merely positive law, derive formal authority and promulgation from the oﬃce of pope who, as Supreme Pontiﬀ, possesses the totality of legislative, executive and judicial power in his person.[40] It has all the ordinary elements of a mature legal system:[41] laws, courts, lawyers, judges,[41] a fully articulated legal code,[42] principles of legal interpretation[43] and coercive penalties that are limited to moral coercion.[44][45]

Pope Francis, elected in the papal conclave, 2013

known as the Pope (Latin: papa; “father”), who is the leader of the worldwide Catholic Church composed of the Latin Church and the Eastern Catholic Churches in full communion with the see of Rome.[29] The current Pope, Francis, was elected on 13 March 2013 by papal conclave.[30]

Canon law concerns the Catholic Church’s life and organisation and is distinct from civil law. In its own field it gives force to civil law only by specific enactment in matters such as the guardianship of minors.[46] Similarly, civil law may give force in its field to canon law, but only by specific enactment, as with regard to canonical marriages.[47] Currently, the 1983 Code of Canon Law is in effect primarily for the Latin Church.[48] The distinct 1990 Code of Canons for the Eastern Churches (CCEO, after the Latin initials) applies to the autonomous Eastern Catholic Churches.[49]

The oﬃce of the Pope is known as the papacy. The Catholic Church holds that Christ instituted the papacy upon giving the keys of Heaven to Saint Peter. His 8.2.3 Autonomous particular churches ecclesiastical jurisdiction is called the "Holy See" (Sancta Sedes in Latin), or the "Apostolic See" (meaning the see Main articles: Latin Church and Eastern Catholic of the apostle Peter).[31][32] Directly serving the Pope is Churches

8.2. ORGANISATION

The Catholic Church is made up of 24 autonomous particular churches, each of which accepts the supreme authority of the Bishop of Rome on matters of doctrine.[50][51] These churches, also known by the Latin term sui iuris churches, are communities of Catholic Christians whose forms of worship reflect different historical and cultural influences rather than differences in doctrine. In general, each sui iuris church is headed by a patriarch or high-ranking bishop,[52] and has a degree of self-governance over the particulars of its internal organisation, liturgical rites, liturgical calendar and other A map of Catholicism by population percentage (for aspects of its spirituality.[53] absolute figures, see below). The largest by far of the particular churches is the Latin Church, which reports over one billion members. It developed in southern Europe and North Africa. Then it spread throughout Western, Central and Northern Europe, before expanding to the rest of the world. The Latin Church is part of Western Christianity, a heritage of certain beliefs and customs originating in various European countries, some of which are inherited by many Christian denominations that trace their origins to the Protestant Reformation.[54] Relatively small in terms of adherents compared to the Latin Church, but important to the overall structure of the Church, are the 23 self-governing Eastern Catholic Churches with a combined membership of 17.3 million as of 2010.[55] The Eastern Catholic Churches follow the traditions and spirituality of Eastern Christianity and are composed of Eastern Christians who have always remained in full communion with the Catholic Church or who have chosen to reenter full communion in the centuries following the East–West Schism and earlier divisions. Some Eastern Catholic Churches are governed by a patriarch who is elected by the synod of the bishops of that church,[56] others are headed by a major archbishop,[57] others are under a metropolitan,[58] and others are organised as individual eparchies.[59] The Roman Curia has a specific department, the Congregation for the Oriental Churches, to maintain relations with them.[60]

Countries by number of Catholics in 2010.[61] More than 100 million More than 50 million More than 20 million More than 10 million More than 5 million More than 1 million Individual countries, regions, or major cities are served by particular churches known as dioceses or eparchies, each overseen by a Catholic bishop. Each diocese is united with one of the worldwide "sui iuris" particular churches such as the Latin Church or one of the Eastern Catholic Churches. In 2008, the Catholic Church had 2,795 dioceses.[62] The bishops in a particular country are members of a national or regional episcopal conference.[63] Dioceses are divided into parishes, each with one or more priests, deacons or lay ecclesial ministers.[64] Parishes are responsible for the day to day celebration of the sacraments and pastoral care of the laity.[65]

8.2.4

In the Latin Church, Catholic men may serve as deacons or priests by receiving sacramental ordination. Men and women may serve as extraordinary ministers of Holy Communion, as readers (lectors); or as altar servers. Historically, boys and men have only been permitted to serve as altar servers; however since the 1990s, girls and women Dioceses, parishes, and religious in- have also been permitted.[66][note 7]

stitutes

Ordained Catholics, as well as members of the laity, may enter into consecrated life either on an individual basis, as a hermit or consecrated virgin, or by joining an institute of consecrated life (a religious institute or a secular instiSee also: Catholic Church § Ordination and § Women tute) in which to take vows conﬁrming their desire to foland ordination

CHAPTER 8. CATHOLIC CHURCH

low the three evangelical counsels of chastity, poverty and obedience.[67] Examples of institutes of consecrated life are the Benedictines, the Carmelites, the Dominicans, the Franciscans, the Missionaries of Charity, the Legionaries of Christ and the Sisters of Mercy.[67]

lieved by the Church to have been handed down since the time of the Apostles.[82] Sacred Scripture and Sacred Tradition are collectively known as the “deposit of faith” (depositum ﬁdei). These are in turn interpreted by the Magisterium (from magister, Latin for “teacher”), the Church’s teaching authority, which is exercised by “Religious institutes” is a modern term encompassing the Pope and the College of Bishops in union with the both "religious orders" and "religious congregations" Pope, the bishop of Rome.[83] Catholic doctrine is au[68] which were once distinguished in Canon Law. The thoritatively summarised in the Catechism of the Catholic terms “Religious order” and “religious institute” tend to Church, published by the Holy See.[84][85] [69] be used as synonyms colloquially.

8.2.5

Membership statistics

8.3.1 Nature of God

Main article: Catholicism by country Further information: List of Christian denominations by number of members Church membership in 2011 was 1.214 billion (17.5% of the world population),[70] an increase from 437 million in 1950[71] and 654 million in 1970.[72] Since 2010, the rate of increase was 1.5% with a 2.3% increase in Africa and a 0.3% increase in the Americas and Europe. 48.8% of Catholics live in the Americas, 23.5% in Europe, 16.0% in Africa, 10.9% in Asia and 0.8% in Oceania.[70] Catholics represent about half of all Christians.[73] In 2011, the Church had 413,418 priests. The main growth areas have been Asia and Africa with 39% and 32% increases respectively since 2000, while the numbers were steady in the Americas and dropped by 9% in Europe.[70] In 2006, members of consecrated life totalled 945,210; 743,200 of whom were female.[74] As of 2009 there were approximately 5,100 bishops total in the Latin and Eastern churches of the Catholic Church.[75]

8.3 Doctrine

Traditional graphic representation of the Trinity: The earliest attested version of the diagram, from a manuscript of Peter of Poitiers' writings, c. 1210

The Catholic Church holds that there is one eternal God, Main articles: Catholic doctrine, Catholic theology and who exists as a perichoresis (mutual indwelling) of three Biblical canon Hypostases, or Persons: God the Father; God the Son; and God the Holy Spirit, which together are called the Catholic doctrine has developed over the centuries, re- "Holy Trinity".[86] flecting direct teachings of early Christians, formal defi- Catholics believe that Jesus Christ is the Second Person nitions of heretical and orthodox beliefs by ecumenical of the Trinity, God the Son. In an event known as the councils and in papal bulls, and theological debate by Incarnation, through the power of the Holy Spirit, God scholars. The Church believes that it is continually guided became united with human nature through the conception by the Holy Spirit as it discerns new theological issues of Christ in the womb of the Blessed Virgin Mary. Christ and is protected infallibly from falling into doctrinal er- therefore is both fully divine and fully human, including ror when a firm decision on an issue is reached.[76][77] possessing a human soul. It is taught that Christ’s mission It teaches that revelation has one common source, God, and two distinct modes of transmission: Sacred Scripture and Sacred Tradition,[78][79] and that these are authentically interpreted by the Magisterium.[80][81] Sacred Scripture consists of the 73 books of the Catholic Bible, consisting of 46 Old Testament and 27 New Testament writings. Sacred Tradition consists of those teachings be-

on earth included giving people his teachings and providing his example for them to follow as recorded in the four Gospels.[87] Jesus is believed to have remained sinless while on earth, and to have allowed himself to be unjustly executed by Cruciﬁxion, as sacriﬁce of himself to reconcile humanity to God; this reconciliation is known as the Paschal Mystery.[88] The Greek term “Christ” and

8.3. DOCTRINE

the Hebrew “Messiah” both mean “anointed one”, refer- 8.3.3 ring to the Christian belief that Jesus’ death and resurrection are the fulﬁlment of the Old Testament’s messianic prophecies.[89]

Judgement after death

The Church teaches dogmatically that “the Holy Spirit proceeds eternally from the Father and the Son, not as from two principles but as from one single principle”.[90] It holds that the Father, as the “principle without principle”, is the ﬁrst origin of the Spirit, but also that he, as Father of the only Son, is with the Son the single principle from which the Spirit proceeds.[91] This belief is expressed in the Filioque clause added to the Latin version of the Nicene Creed of 381, but not included in the Greek versions of the Creed that are used in Eastern Christianity.[92]

8.3.2

Nature of the Church

The Catholic Church teaches that it is the "one true church",[5][93] “the universal sacrament of salvation for the human race.”[94][95] According to the Catechism, the Catholic Church is further described in the Nicene Creed as the “one, holy, catholic, and apostolic Church”.[96] These are collectively known as the Four Marks of the Church. The church teaches that its founder is Jesus Christ.[97][98] The New Testament records several events considered integral to the establishment of the Catholic Church, including Jesus’ activities and teaching and his appointment of the apostles as witnesses to his ministry, suffering, and resurrection. The Great Commission, after his resurrection, instructed the apostles to continue his work. The coming of the Holy Spirit upon the apostles, in an event known as Pentecost, is seen as the beginning of the public ministry of the Catholic Church.[99] The church teaches that all duly consecrated bishops have a lineal succession from the apostles of Christ, known as apostolic succession.[100] In particular, the Bishop of Rome (the Pope) is considered the successor to the apostle Simon Peter, a position from which he derives his supremacy over the Church.[101] Catholic belief holds that the Church “is the continuing presence of Jesus on earth”[102] and that it alone possesses the full means of salvation.[103] Through the passion (suffering) of Christ leading to his crucifixion as described in the Gospels, it is said Christ made himself an oblation to God the Father in order to reconcile humanity to God;[104] the Resurrection of Jesus makes him the firstborn from the dead, the first among many brethren.[105] By reconciling with God and following Christ’s words and deeds, an individual can enter the Kingdom of God.[106] The Church sees its liturgy and sacraments as perpetuating the graces achieved through Christ’s sacrifice to strengthen a person’s relationship with Christ and aid in overcoming sin.[13]

Before his resurrection from the dead, Jesus Christ grants salvation to souls by the Harrowing of Hell. Fresco, by Fra Angelico circa 1430s

The Catholic Church teaches that, immediately after death, the soul of each person will receive a particular judgement from God, based on their sins and their relationship to Christ.[107] This teaching also attests to another day when Christ will sit in universal judgement of all mankind. This final judgement, according to the church’s teaching, will bring an end to human history and mark the beginning of both a new and better heaven and earth ruled by God in righteousness.[109] Depending on the judgement rendered following death, it is believed that a soul may enter one of three states of afterlife: • Heaven is a state of unending union with the divine nature of God, not ontologically, but by grace. It is an eternal life, in which the soul contemplates God in ceaseless beatitude.[110] • Purgatory is a temporary condition for the purification of souls who, although destined for Heaven, are not fully detached from sin and thus cannot enter Heaven immediately.[111] In Purgatory, the soul suffers, and is purged and perfected. Souls in purgatory may be aided in reaching heaven by the prayers of the faithful on earth and by the intercession of saints.[112] • Final Damnation: Finally, those who persist in living in a state of mortal sin and do not repent before death subject themselves to hell, an everlasting separation from God.[113] The Church teaches that no one is condemned to hell without having freely decided to

CHAPTER 8. CATHOLIC CHURCH reject God.[114] No one is predestined to hell and no one can determine with absolute certitude who has been condemned to hell.[115] Catholicism teaches that through God’s mercy a person can repent at any point before death, be illuminated with the truth of the Catholic faith, and thus obtain salvation.[116] Some Catholic theologians have speculated that the souls of unbaptised infants and non-Christians without mortal sin but who die in original sin are assigned to limbo, although this is not an oﬃcial dogma of the Church.[117]

While the Catholic Church teaches that it alone possesses the full means of salvation,[103] it also acknowledges that the Holy Spirit can make use of Christian communities separated from itself to “impel towards Catholic unity”[118] and “tend and lead toward the Catholic Church”,[118] and thus bring people to salvation, because these separated communities contain some elements of proper doctrine, albeit admixed with errors. It teaches that anyone who is saved is saved through the Catholic Church but that people can be saved outside of the ordinary means ("ex opere operato") known as baptism of desire, and by pre-baptismal martyrdom, known as baptism of blood, as well as when conditions of invincible ignorance are present, although invincible ignorance in itself The Blessed Virgin Mary is highly regarded in the Catholic is not a means of salvation.[119] Church, proclaiming her as Mother of God, free from original sin and an intercessor.

8.3.4

Virgin Mary and devotions

Main articles: Veneration of Mary in Roman Catholicism, Roman Catholic Mariology and Catholic devotions Further information: Mary (mother of Jesus) Catholic Mariology deals with the doctrines and teachings concerning the life of the Mary, the mother of Jesus, as well as the veneration of Mary in daily life. Mary is held in special regard, declared the Mother of God, and to have remained a Perpetual Virgin throughout her life.[17] Further teachings include her Immaculate Conception without the stain of original sin and bodily assumption into heaven at the end of her life, both of which have been infallibly deﬁned as dogma, by Pope Pius IX in 1854 and Pope Pius XII in 1950 respectively,[120] but only after consulting with the Catholic bishops throughout the world to ascertain that this is a Catholic belief.[121]

several Marian apparitions aﬃrmed by the Church, such as Lourdes, Fátima, and Guadalupe,[124] are also popular Catholic devotions.[125]

Devotions are “external practices of piety” which are not part of the official liturgy of the Catholic Church but are part of the popular spiritual practices of Catholics.[126] Outside of Mariology, other devotional practices include the Stations of the Cross, the Sacred Heart of Jesus, the Holy Face of Jesus,[127] the various scapulars, novenas to various saints,[128] pilgrimages[129] and devotions to the Blessed Sacrament,[128] and the veneration of saintly images such as the santos.[130] The bishops at the Second Vatican Council reminded Catholics that “devotions should be so drawn up that they harmonize with the liturgical seasons, accord with the sacred liturgy, are in some fashion derived from it, and lead the people to it, since, Devotions to Mary are part of Catholic piety but are in fact, the liturgy by its very nature far surpasses any of [131] distinct from the worship of God.[122] Practices include them.” prayers and Marian art, music, and architecture. Several liturgical Marian feasts are celebrated throughout the Church Year and she is honoured with many titles such as Queen of Heaven. Pope Paul VI called her Mother of the 8.4 Liturgical worship Church because, by giving birth to Christ, she is considered to be the spiritual mother to each member of the Main article: Catholic liturgy Body of Christ.[120] Because of her influential role in the Further information: Christian liturgy life of Jesus, prayers and devotions such as the Hail Mary, Among the 24 autonomous (sui iuris) churches, numerthe Rosary, the Salve Regina and the Memorare are com- ous liturgical and other traditions exist, called rites, which mon Catholic practices.[123] Pilgrimages to the sites of reflect historical and cultural diversity rather than dif-

8.4. LITURGICAL WORSHIP

Catholic religious objects— Holy Bible, cruciﬁx and rosary.

Celebration of Tridentine Mass before an altar

ferences in belief.[132] In the deﬁnition of the Code of Canons of the Eastern Churches, “a rite is the liturgical, theological, spiritual, and disciplinary patrimony, culture and circumstances of history of a distinct people, by which its own manner of living the faith is manifested in each Church sui iuris".[133]

The 1962 edition of the Roman Missal, published a few months before the Second Vatican Council opened, was the last that presented the Mass as standardised in 1570 by Pope Pius V at the request of the Council of Trent and that is therefore known as the Tridentine Mass.[140] Pope Pius V’s Roman Missal was subjected to minor revisions by Pope Clement VIII in 1604, Pope Urban VIII in 1634, Pope Pius X in 1911, Pope Pius XII in 1955, and Pope John XXIII in 1962. Each successive edition was the ordinary form of the Roman Rite Mass until superseded by a later edition. When the 1962 edition was superseded by that of Paul VI, promulgated in 1969, its continued use at ﬁrst required permission from bishops;[141] but Pope Benedict XVI's 2007 motu proprio Summorum Pontiﬁcum allowed free use of it for Mass celebrated without a congregation and authorised parish priests to permit, under certain conditions, its use even at public Masses. Except for the scriptural readings, which Pope Benedict allowed to be proclaimed in the vernacular language, it is celebrated exclusively in liturgical Latin.[142]

The liturgy of the sacrament of the Eucharist, called the Mass in the West and Divine Liturgy or other names in the East, is the principal liturgy of the Catholic Church.[134] This is because it is considered the propitiatory sacriﬁce of Christ himself.[135] The most widely used is the Roman Rite, usually in its ordinary form promulgated by Paul VI in 1969, but also in its authorised extraordinary form, the Tridentine Mass as in the 1962 edition of the Roman Missal. Eastern Catholic Churches have their own rites. The liturgies of the Eucharist and the other sacraments vary from rite to rite based on diﬀering theological emphasis.

8.4.1

Western rites

The Roman Rite is the most common rite of worship used by the Catholic Church. Its use is found worldwide, originating in Rome and spreading throughout Europe, inﬂuencing and eventually supplanting local rites.[137] The present ordinary form of Mass in the Roman Rite, found in the post-1969 editions of the Roman Missal, is usually celebrated in the local vernacular language, using an oﬃcially approved translation from the original text in Latin. An outline of its major liturgical elements can be found in the side bar.

Since 2014, clergy in the small personal ordinariates set up for groups of former Anglicans under the terms of the 2009 document Anglicanorum Coetibus[143] are permitted to use a variation of the Roman Rite called “Divine Worship” or, less formally, “Ordinariate Use”,[144] which incorporates elements of the Anglican liturgy and traditions.[note 8]

In the archdiocese of Milan, with around ﬁve million Catholics the largest in Europe,[145] Mass is celebrated according to the Ambrosian Rite. Other Latin Church rites include the Mozarabic[146] and those of some religious institutes.[147] These liturgical rites have an antiquity of In 2007, Pope Benedict XVI aﬃrmed the continued use at least 200 years before 1570, the date of Pope Pius V’s of the 1962 Roman Missal as an extraordinary form of Quo primum, and were thus allowed to continue.[148] the Roman Rite (“a Forma extraordinaria"), speaking of it also as an usus antiquior (older use), and issued new permissive norms for its employment.[138] An instruction 8.4.2 Eastern rites issued four years later spoke of the two forms or usages of the Roman Rite approved by the pope as the ordinary The Eastern Catholic Churches share common patrimony form and the extraordinary form (“the forma ordinaria" and liturgical rites as their counterparts, including Eastern Orthodox and other Eastern Christian churches who are and “the forma extraordinaria").[139]

CHAPTER 8. CATHOLIC CHURCH Catechism of the Catholic Church categorises the sacraments into three groups, the “sacraments of Christian initiation”, “sacraments of healing” and “sacraments at the service of communion and the mission of the faithful”. These groups broadly reﬂect the stages of people’s natural and spiritual lives which each sacrament is intended to serve.[155] The liturgies of the sacraments are central to the church’s mission. According to the catechism:

An Eastern Catholic bishop of the Syro-Malabar Church holding the Mar Thoma Cross which symbolises the heritage and identity of the Saint Thomas Christians of India

no longer in communion with the Holy See. These include churches that historically developed in Russia, Caucasus, the Balkans, North Eastern Africa, India and the Middle East. The Eastern Catholic Churches are groups of faithful who have either never been out of communion with the Holy See or who have restored communion with it at the cost of breaking communion with their associates of the same tradition.[149]

In the liturgy of the New Covenant every liturgical action, especially the celebration of the Eucharist and the sacraments, is an encounter between Christ and the Church. The liturgical assembly derives its unity from the “communion of the Holy Spirit” who gathers the children of God into the one Body of Christ. This assembly transcends racial, cultural, social – indeed, all human aﬃnities.[156] According to church doctrine, the sacraments of the church require the proper form, matter, and intent to be validly celebrated.[157] In addition, the Canon Laws for both the Latin Church and the Eastern Catholic Church govern who may licitly celebrate certain sacraments, as well as strict rules about who may receive the sacraments.[158] Notably, because the Church teaches that Christ is present in the Eucharist,[140] those who are conscious of being in a state of mortal sin are forbidden to receive the sacrament until they have received absolution through the sacrament of Reconciliation (Penance).[159] Catholics are normally obliged to abstain from eating for at least an hour before receiving the sacrament.[159] NonCatholics such are ordinarily prohibited from receiving the Eucharist as well.[158][160]

The rites used by the Eastern Catholic Churches include the Byzantine Rite, in its Antiochian, Greek and Slavonic varieties; the Alexandrian Rite; the Syriac Rite; the Armenian Rite; the Maronite Rite and the Chaldean Rite. Eastern Catholic Churches have the autonomy to set the particulars of their liturgical forms and worship, within certain limits to protect the “accurate observance” of their liturgical tradition.[150] In the past some of the rites used by the Eastern Catholic Churches were subject to a degree of liturgical Latinisation. However, in recent years Eastern Catholic Churches have returned to traditional Eastern practices in accord with the Vatican II Catholics, even if they were in danger of death and undecree Orientalium Ecclesiarum.[151] Each church has its able to approach a Catholic minister, may not ask for the sacraments of the Eucharist, penance or anointing of the own liturgical calendar.[152] sick from someone, such as a Protestant minister, who is not known to be validly ordained in line with Catholic teaching on ordination.[161][162] Likewise, even in grave 8.4.3 Sacraments and pressing need, Catholic ministers may not administer these sacraments to those who do not manifest Catholic Main article: Sacraments of the Catholic Church faith in the sacrament. In relation to the churches of Eastern Christianity not in communion with the Holy See, the The Catholic Church teaches that it was entrusted with Catholic Church is less restrictive, declaring that “a cerseven sacraments that were instituted by Christ. The tain communion in sacris, and so in the Eucharist, given number and nature of the sacraments were defined by suitable circumstances and the approval of Church auseveral ecumenical councils, most recently the Coun- thority, is not merely possible but is encouraged.”[163] cil of Trent.[153][note 9] These are Baptism, Confirmation, the Eucharist, Penance, Anointing of the Sick (formerly called Extreme Unction, one of the "Last Rites"), Holy Orders and Holy Matrimony. Sacraments are visible ritu- Sacraments of Christian initiation als that Catholics see as signs of God’s presence and effective channels of God’s grace to all those who receive them Main article: Sacraments of Initiation with the proper disposition (ex opere operato).[154] The

8.4. LITURGICAL WORSHIP

85 chrismation, because the essential rite is the anointing of the person with chrism,[176] a mixture of olive oil and some perfumed substance, usually balsam, blessed by a bishop.[176][177] Those who receive conﬁrmation must be in a state of grace, which for those who have reached the age of reason means that they should ﬁrst be cleansed spiritually by the sacrament of Penance; they should also have the intention of receiving the sacrament, and be prepared to show in their lives that they are Christians.[178]

An Italian priest during the sacrament of Baptism

Baptism As viewed by the Catholic Church, Baptism is the first of three sacraments of initiation as a Christian.[164] It washes away all sins, both original sin and personal actual sins.[165] It makes a person a member of the Church.[166] As a gratuitous gift of God that requires no merit on the part of the person who is baptised, it is conferred even on children,[167] who, though they have no personal sins, need it on account of original sin.[168] If a new-born child is in a danger of death, anyone—be it a doctor, a nurse, or a parent—may baptise the child.[169] Baptism marks a person permanently and cannot be repeated.[170] The Catholic Church recognises as valid baptisms conferred even by people who are not Catholics or Christians, provided that they intend to baptise (“to do what the Church does when she baptises”) and that they use the Trinitarian baptismal formula.[171] Confirmation The Catholic Church sees the sacrament of confirmation as required to complete the grace given in baptism.[172] When adults are baptised, confirmation is normally given immediately afterwards,[173] a practice followed even with newly baptised infants in the Eastern Catholic Churches.[174] In the West confirmation of children is delayed until they are old enough to understand or at the bishop’s discretion.[175] In Western Christianity, particularly Catholicism, the sacrament is called confirmation, because it confirms and strengthens the grace of baptism; in the Eastern Churches, it is called

Pope Benedict XVI celebrates the Eucharist at the canonisation of Frei Galvão in São Paulo, Brazil on 11 May 2007

Eucharist For Catholics, the Eucharist is the sacrament which completes Christian initiation. It is described as “the source and summit of the Christian life”.[179] The ceremony in which a Catholic first receives the Eucharist is known as First Communion.[180] The Eucharistic celebration, also called the Mass or Divine liturgy, includes prayers and scriptural readings, as well as an offering of bread and wine, which are brought to the altar and consecrated by the priest to become the body and the blood of Jesus Christ, a change called transubstantiation.[181][note 10] The words of consecration reflect the words spoken by Jesus during the Last Supper, where Christ offered his body and blood to his Apostles the night before his crucifixion. The sacrament re-presents (makes present) the sacrifice of Jesus on the cross,[182] and perpetuates it. Christ’s death and resurrection gives grace through the sacrament that unites the faithful with Christ and one another, remits venial sin, and aids against committing moral sin (though mortal sin itself is forgiven through the sacrament of penance).[183]

CHAPTER 8. CATHOLIC CHURCH

A painting of the Anointing of the Sick being administered by a priest during the last rites.

Sick, is believed to give comfort, peace, courage and, if the sick person is unable to make a confession, even forgiveness of sins.[190] A Catholic believer prays in a church in Mexico.

Sacraments of healing

The sacrament is also referred to as Unction, and in the past as Extreme Unction, and it is one of the three sacraments that constitute the last rites, together with Penance and Viaticum (Eucharist).[191]

The two sacraments of healing are the Sacrament of Sacraments at the service of communion Penance and Anointing of the Sick. Penance The Sacrament of Penance (also called Reconciliation, Forgiveness, Confession, and Conversion[184] ) exists for the conversion of those who, after baptism, separate themselves from Christ by sin.[185] Essential to this sacrament are acts both by the sinner (examination of conscience, contrition with a determination not to sin again, confession to a priest, and performance of some act to repair the damage caused by sin) and by the priest (determination of the act of reparation to be performed and absolution).[186] Serious sins (mortal sins) should be confessed at least once a year and always before receiving Holy Communion, while confession of venial sins also is recommended.[187] The priest is bound under the severest penalties to maintain the "seal of confession", absolute secrecy about any sins revealed to him in confession.[188] Anointing of the Sick While chrism is used only for the three sacraments that cannot be repeated, a diﬀerent oil is used by a priest or bishop to bless a Catholic who, because of illness or old age, has begun to be in danger of death.[189] This sacrament, known as Anointing of the

According to the Catechism of the Catholic Church there are two sacraments of communion directed towards the salvation of others: priesthood and marriage.[192] Within the general vocation to be a Christian, these two sacraments consecrate to specific mission or vocation among the people of God. Men receive the holy orders to feed the Church by the word and grace. Spouses marry so that their love may be fortified to fulfill duties of their state.[193]

Ordination The sacrament of Holy Orders consecrates and deputes some Christians to serve the whole body as members of three degrees or orders: episcopate (bishops), presbyterate (priests) and diaconate (deacons).[194][195] The Church has deﬁned rules on who may be ordained into the clergy. In the Latin Church, the priesthood is generally restricted to celibate men, and the episcopate is always restricted to celibate men.[196] Men who are already married may be ordained in certain Eastern Catholic churches in most countries,[197] and the personal ordinariates and may become deacons even in the Western Church[198][199] (see Clerical marriage). But after becoming a Roman Catholic priest, a man may

8.5. SOCIAL AND CULTURAL ISSUES

not marry (see Clerical celibacy) unless he is formally ered the only appropriate context for sexual activity.[212] laicised. Church teachings about sexuality have become an issue of All clergy, whether deacons, priests or bishops, may increasing controversy, especially after the close of the preach, teach, baptise, witness marriages and conduct Second Vatican Council, due to changing cultural attifuneral liturgies.[200] Only bishops and priests can ad- tudes in the Western world described as the sexual revominister the sacraments of the Eucharist, Reconciliation lution. (Penance) and Anointing of the Sick.[201][202] Only bishops can administer the sacrament of Holy Orders, which 8.5.1 ordains someone into the clergy.[203] Matrimony Main article: Sacrament of marriage See also: Catholic Church § Sexual morality

Sexual morality

See also: Catholic Church § Sacrament of marriage Main articles: Catholic teachings on sexual morality and Marriage (Catholic Church)

Sexuality is considered integral to a person’s identity and ability to form lasting relationships. The Catholic Church calls all members to live chastely according to their state in life. Chastity includes temperance, self-mastery, personal and cultural growth, and grace. It requires refraining from lust, masturbation, fornication, pornography, prostitution and, especially, rape. Chastity for those who are not married requires living in continence, abstaining from sexual activity; those who are married are called to conjugal chastity.[213] In the church’s teaching, sexual activity is reserved to married couples, whether in a sacramental marriage among Christians, or in a natural marriage among those who are unbaptised. Even in romantic relationships, particularly engagement to marriage, partThe church does not recognise divorce as ending a valid ners are called to practice continence, in order to test mumarriage and allows state recognised divorce only as a tual respect and fidelity.[214] means of protecting the property and well being of the spouses and any children. However, consideration of par- Chastity in marriage requires in particular conjugal fiticular cases by the competent ecclesiastical tribunal can delity and protecting the fecundity of marriage. The coulead to declaration of the invalidity of a marriage, a dec- ple must foster trust and honesty as well as spiritual and laration usually referred to as an annulment.[208] Remar- physical intimacy. Sexual activity must always be open [215] the church calls this the proriage following a divorce is not permitted unless the prior to the possibility of life; [208] creative significance. It must likewise always bring a marriage was declared invalid. couple together in love; the church calls this the unitive significance.[216] The Catholic Church teaches that marriage is a social and spiritual bond between a man and a woman, ordered towards the good of the spouses and procreation of children; according to Catholic teachings on sexual morality, it is the only appropriate context for sexual activity. A Catholic marriage, or any marriage between baptised individuals of any Christian denomination, is viewed as a sacrament. A sacramental marriage, once consummated, cannot be dissolved except by death.[204][note 11] The Church recognises certain conditions, such as freedom of consent, as required for any marriage to be valid; In addition, the Church sets specific rules and norms, known as canonical form, that Catholics must follow.[207]

8.5 Social and cultural issues Main articles: Catholic social teaching, Catholicism and sexuality and Criticism of the Catholic Church

Contraception and certain other sexual practices are not permitted, although natural family planning methods are permitted to provide healthy spacing between births, or to postpone children for a just reason.[217] Pope Francis said in 2015 that he is worried that the church has grown “obsessed” with issues such as abortion, same-sex marriage and contraception and has criticized the Catholic Church for placing dogma before love, and for prioritizing moral doctrines over helping the poor and marginalized.[218][219]

Catholic teaching regarding most social issues involves maintaining bodily integrity. Catholic social teaching, reﬂecting the concern Jesus showed for the impoverished, places a heavy emphasis on the corporal works of mercy and the spiritual works of mercy, namely the support and concern for the sick, the poor and the aﬄicted.[209][210] Divorce and declarations of nullity Church teaching calls for a preferential option for the poor while canon law prescribes that “The Christian faith- Main article: Annulment (Catholic Church) ful are also obliged to promote social justice and, mindful Further information: Divorce law by country of the precept of the Lord, to assist the poor.”[211]

Catholic teaching regarding sexuality calls for a practice Canon law makes no provision for divorce between bapof chastity, with a focus on maintaining the spiritual and tised individuals, as a valid, consummated sacramenbodily integrity of the human person. Marriage is consid- tal marriage is considered to be a lifelong bond.[220]

88 However, a declaration of nullity may be granted when proof is produced that essential conditions for contracting a valid marriage were absent from the beginning — in other words, that the marriage was not valid due to some impediment. A declaration of nullity, commonly called an annulment, is a judgement on the part of an ecclesiastical tribunal determining that a marriage was invalidly attempted.[221] In addition, marriages among unbaptised individuals may be dissolved with papal permission under certain situations, such as a desire to marry a Catholic, under Pauline or Petrine privilege.[205][206] An attempt at remarriage following divorce without a declaration of nullity places “the remarried spouse […] in a situation of public and permanent adultery”. An innocent spouse who lives in continence following divorce, or couples who live in continence following a civil divorce for a grave cause, do not sin.[222] Worldwide, diocesan tribunals completed over 49000 cases for nullity of marriage in 2006. Over the past 30 years about 55 to 70% of annulments have occurred in the United States. The growth in annulments has been substantial; in the United States, 27,000 marriages were annulled in 2006, compared to 338 in 1968. However, approximately 200,000 married Catholics in the United States divorce each year; 10 million total as of 2006.[223][note 12] Divorce is increasing in some predominantly Catholic countries in Europe.[225] In some predominantly Catholic countries, it is only in recent years that divorce was introduced (i.e. Italy (1970), Portugal (1975), Brazil (1977), Spain (1981), Ireland (1996), Chile (2004) and Malta (2011), while the Philippines and the Vatican City have no procedure for divorce (the Philippines does, however, allow divorce for Muslims).

Contraception Main article: Christian views on contraception § Catholicism See also: Catholic Church and HIV/AIDS and Catholic response to assisted reproductive technology

CHAPTER 8. CATHOLIC CHURCH cant disagreement with the Church’s teaching on contraception.[228] Catholics for Choice stated in 1998 that 96% of U.S. Catholic women had used contraceptives at some point in their lives and that 72% of Catholics believed that one could be a good Catholic without obeying the Church’s teaching on birth control.[229] Use of natural family planning methods among United States Catholics purportedly is low, although the number cannot be known with certainty.[note 13] As Catholic health providers are among the largest providers of services to patients with HIV/AIDS worldwide, there is signiﬁcant controversy within and outside the church regarding the use of condoms as a means of limiting new infections, as condom use ordinarily constitutes prohibited contraceptive use.[232] Similarly, the Catholic Church opposes in vitrio fertilisation (IVF), saying that the artiﬁcial process replaces the love between a husband and wife.[233] In addition, it opposes IVF because it might cause disposal of embryos; Catholics believe an embryo is an individual with a soul who must be treated as such.[234] For this reason, the church also opposes abortion.[235] Homosexuality Main article: Homosexuality and Roman Catholicism The Catholic Church also teaches that “homosexual acts” are “contrary to the natural law”, “acts of grave depravity” and “under no circumstances can they be approved”, but that persons experiencing homosexual tendencies must be accorded respect and dignity.[236] According to the Catechism of the Catholic Church, The number of men and women who have deep-seated homosexual tendencies is not negligible. This inclination, which is objectively disordered, constitutes for most of them a trial. They must be accepted with respect, compassion, and sensitivity. Every sign of unjust discrimination in their regard should be avoided…. Homosexual persons are called to chastity. By the virtues of self-mastery that teach them inner freedom, at times by the support of disinterested friendship, by prayer and sacramental grace, they can and should gradually and resolutely approach Christian perfection.[237]

The church teaches that sexual intercourse should only take place between a married man and woman, and should be without the use of birth control or contraception. In his encyclical Humanae vitae[226] (1968), Pope Paul VI firmly rejected all contraception, thus contradicting dissenters in the Church that saw the birth control pill as an ethically justifiable method of contraception, though he permitted the regulation of births by means of natural family planning. This teaching was This part of the Catechism was quoted by Pope Francis in continued especially by John Paul II in his encyclical a 2013 press interview in which he remarked, when asked Evangelium Vitae, where he clarified the Church’s posi- about an individual: tion on contraception, abortion and euthanasia by condemning them as part of a “culture of death” and calling I think that when you encounter a person instead for a "culture of life".[227] like this [the individual he was asked about], Many Western Catholics have voiced signifiyou must make a distinction between the fact

8.5. SOCIAL AND CULTURAL ISSUES

of Saint Vincent de Paul.[244] The Catholic nun Mother Teresa of Calcutta, India, founder of the Missionaries of Charity, was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1979 for her humanitarian work among India’s poor.[245] Bishop Carlos Filipe Ximenes Belo won the same award in 1996 for “work towards a just and peaceful solution to the con[246] This remark and others made in the same interview were ﬂict in East Timor”. seen as a change in the tone, but not in the substance of The Church is also actively engaged in international aid the teaching of the Church,[239] which includes opposition and development through organisations such as Catholic to same-sex marriage.[240] Certain dissenting Catholic Relief Services, Caritas International, Aid to the Church groups oppose the position of the Catholic Church and in Need, refugee advocacy groups such as the Jesuit seek to change it.[241] Refugee Service and community aid groups such as the Saint Vincent de Paul Society.[247] of a person being gay from the fact of being a lobby, because lobbies, all are not good. That is bad. If a person is gay and seeks the Lord and has good will, well who am I to judge them?[238]

8.5.2

Social services 8.5.3 State and religion

Main articles: Catholic Church and health care and Catholic education Main article: Relations between the Catholic Church and The Catholic Church is the largest non-government the state Further information: Established church The Catholic teaching in Dignitatis Humanae, the Second Vatican Council’s Declaration on Religious Freedom (1965), states that all people are entitled to religious freedom, that constitutional law should recognise such freedom and that no one is to be coerced into belief in the Catholic Faith but the Church also condemns the notion that “the Church ought to be separated from the state”, as in the Syllabus of Errors. While recognising religious freedom, the Second Vatican Council in Dignitatis Humanae “leaves intact the traditional Catholic teaching on the moral duty of individuals and societies toward the true religion and the one Church of Christ”.

8.5.4 Women and ordination Main articles: Catholic Church doctrine on the ordination of women and Catholic Church and women

provider of education and medical services in the world.[19] In 2010, the Catholic Church’s Pontiﬁcal Council for Pastoral Assistance to Health Care Workers said that the Church manages 26% of health care facilities in the world, including hospitals, clinics, orphanages, pharmacies and centres for those with leprosy.[242]

Women religious engage in a variety of occupations, from contemplative prayer, to teaching, to providing health care, to working as missionaries.[74][243] While Holy Orders are reserved for men, Catholic women have played diverse roles in the life of the church, with religious institutes providing a formal space for their participation and convents providing spaces for their self-government, prayer and inﬂuence through many centuries. Religious sisters and nuns have been extensively involved in developing and running the Church’s worldwide health and education service networks.[248]

Religious institutes for women have played a particularly prominent role in the provision of health and education services,[243] as with orders such as the Sisters of Mercy, Little Sisters of the Poor, the Missionaries of Charity, the Sisters of St. Joseph of the Sacred Heart, the Sisters of the Blessed Sacrament and the Daughters of Charity

Eﬀorts in support of the ordination of women led to several rulings by the Roman Curia or Popes against the proposal, as in Declaration on the Question of the Admission of Women to the Ministerial Priesthood (1976), Mulieris Dignitatem (1988) and Ordinatio Sacerdotalis (1994). According to the latest ruling, found in Or-

Blessed Mother Teresa of Calcutta advocated for the sick, the poor and the needy by practising the acts of corporal works of mercy.

CHAPTER 8. CATHOLIC CHURCH

dinatio Sacerdotalis, Pope John Paul II affirmed that 8.6 History the Catholic Church “does not consider herself authorized to admit women to priestly ordination.”[249] In de- Main article: History of the Catholic Church fiance of these rulings, opposition groups such as Roman Further information: Early history of Christianity, Catholic Womenpriests have performed ceremonies they Historiography of early Christianity and Apostolic Age affirm as sacramental ordinations (with, reputedly, an or- The Christian religion is based on the teachings of Jesus daining male Catholic bishop in the first few instances) which, according to canon law, are both illicit and invalid and considered mere simulations[250] of the sacrament of ordination.[251][note 14] The Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith responded by issuing a statement clarifying that any Catholic bishops involved in ordination ceremonies for women, as well as the women themselves if they were Catholic, would automatically receive the penalty of excommunication (latae sententiae, literally “with the sentence already applied”, i.e. automatically), citing canon 1378 of canon law and other church laws.[252] This fresco (1481–82) by Pietro Perugino in the Sistine Chapel shows Jesus giving the keys of heaven to Saint Peter.

8.5.5

Sex abuse cases

Main article: Catholic sex abuse cases In the 1990s and 2000s (decade), the issue of sexual abuse of minors by Catholic clergy and other church members became the subject of civil litigation, criminal prosecution, media coverage and public debate in countries around the world. The Catholic Church was criticised for its handling of abuse complaints when it became known that some bishops had shielded accused priests, transferring them to other pastoral assignments where some continued to commit sexual oﬀences.

Christ, who lived and preached in the 1st century AD in the province of Judea of the Roman Empire. Catholic doctrine teaches that the contemporary Catholic Church is the continuation of this early Christian community established by Jesus.[5] Christianity spread throughout the early Roman Empire, despite persecutions due to conﬂicts with the pagan state religion. Emperor Constantine legalised the practice of Christianity in 313, and it became the state religion in 380. Germanic invaders of Roman territory in the 5th and 6th centuries, many of whom had previously adopted Arian Christianity, eventually adopted Catholicism to ally themselves with the papacy and the monasteries.

Main article: Laudato si'

In the 7th and 8th centuries, expanding Muslim conquests following the advent of Islam led to an Arab domination of the Mediterranean that severed political connections between that area and northern Europe, and weakened cultural connections between Rome and the Byzantine Empire. Conﬂicts involving authority in the church, particularly the authority of the Bishop of Rome ﬁnally culminated in the East–West Schism in the 11th century, splitting the Church into the Catholic and Orthodox Churches. Earlier splits within the Church occurred after the Council of Ephesus (431) and the Council of Chalcedon (451). However, a few Eastern Churches remained in communion with Rome, and portions of some others established communion in the 15th century and later, forming what are called the Eastern Catholic Churches.

In Laudato si', dated 24 May 2015, Pope Francis critiques consumerism and irresponsible development, laments environmental degradation and global warming.[255] The pope expressed concern that the warming of the planet a symptom of a greater problem: the developed world’s indiﬀerence to the destruction of the planet as humans pursue short-term economic gains.[256]

Early monasteries throughout Europe helped preserve Greek and Roman classical civilisation. The Church eventually became the dominant influence in Western civilisation into the modern age. Many Renaissance figures were sponsored by the church. The 16th century, however, began to see challenges to the Church, in particular to its religious authority, by figures in the Protestant Reformation, as well as in the 17th century by secular

In response to the scandal, formal procedures have been established to help prevent abuse, encourage the reporting of any abuse that occurs and to handle such reports promptly, although groups representing victims have disputed their eﬀectiveness.[253] In 2014, Pope Francis instituted the Pontiﬁcal Commission for the Protection of Minors for the safeguarding of minors.[254]

8.5.6

Climate change

8.6. HISTORY intellectuals in the Enlightenment. Concurrently, Spanish and Portuguese explorers and missionaries spread the Church’s influence through Africa, Asia, and the New World. In 1870, the First Vatican Council declared the dogma of papal infallibility and the Kingdom of Italy annexed the city of Rome, the last portion of the Papal States to be incorporated into the new nation. In the 20th century, anticlerical governments around the world, including Mexico and Spain, persecuted or executed thousands of clerics and laypersons. In the Second World War, the Church condemned Nazism, and protected hundreds of thousands of Jews from the Holocaust; its efforts, however, have been criticised as inadequate. After the war, freedom of religion was severely restricted in the Communist countries newly aligned with the Soviet Union, several of which had large Catholic populations. In the 1960s, the Second Vatican Council led to several controversial reforms of the church liturgy and practices, an effort described as “opening the windows” by defenders, but leading to harsh criticism in several conservative circles. In the face of increased criticism from both within and without, the Church has upheld or reaffirmed at various times controversial doctrinal positions regarding sexuality and gender, including limiting clergy to males, and moral exhortations against abortion, contraception, sexual activity outside of marriage, remarriage following divorce without annulment, and against same-sex marriage.

8.6.1

Apostolic era and papacy

The New Testament, in particular the Gospels, records Jesus’ activities and teaching, his appointment of the twelve Apostles and his Great Commission of the Apostles, instructing them to continue his work.[98][257] The book Acts of Apostles, tells of the founding of the Christian church and the spread of its message to the Roman empire.[258] The Catholic Church teaches that its public ministry began on Pentecost, occurring ﬁfty days following the date Christ is believed to have resurrected.[99] At Pentecost, the Apostles are believed to have received the Holy Spirit, preparing them for their mission in leading the church.[259][260] The Catholic Church teaches that the college of bishops, led by the Bishop of Rome are the successors to the Apostles.[261]

91 Rome until the mid-2nd century, when the structure of a single bishop and plural presbyters was adopted,[267] and that later writers retrospectively applied the term “bishop of Rome” to the most prominent members of the clergy in the earlier period and also to Peter himself.[267] On this basis, Oscar Cullmann,[268] Henry Chadwick,[269] and Bart D. Ehrman[270] question whether there was a formal link between Peter and the modern papacy. Raymond E. Brown also says that it is anachronistic to speak of Peter in terms of local bishop of Rome, but that Christians of that period would have looked on Peter as having “roles that would contribute in an essential way to the development of the role of the papacy in the subsequent church”. These roles, Brown says, “contributed enormously to seeing the bishop of Rome, the bishop of the city where Peter died, and where Paul witnessed to the truth of Christ, as the successor of Peter in care for the church universal”.[267]

8.6.2 Antiquity and Roman Empire Main articles: Early centers of Christianity and List of Christian heresies Conditions in the Roman Empire facilitated the spread of new ideas. The empire’s network of roads and waterways facilitated travel, and the Pax Romana made travelling safe. The empire encouraged the spread of a common culture with Greek roots, which allowed ideas to be more easily expressed and understood.[271] Unlike most religions in the Roman Empire, however, Christianity required its adherents to renounce all other gods, a practice adopted from Judaism (see Idolatry). The Christians’ refusal to join pagan celebrations meant they were unable to participate in much of public life, which caused non-Christians—including government authorities—to fear that the Christians were angering the gods and thereby threatening the peace and prosperity of the Empire. The resulting persecutions were a deﬁning feature of Christian self-understanding until Christianity was legalised in the 4th century.[272]

In the account of the Confession of Peter found in the Gospel of Matthew, Christ designates Peter as the “rock” upon which Christ’s church will be built.[262][263] The Catholic Church considers the Bishop of Rome, the Pope, to be the successor to Saint Peter.[264] Some scholars state Peter was the ﬁrst Bishop of Rome.[265][note 15] Others say that the institution of the papacy is not dependent on the idea that Peter was Bishop of Rome or even on his ever having been in Rome.[266] Many scholars hold that a Nineteenth-century drawing of Old St. Peter’s Basilica, originally church structure of plural presbyters/bishops persisted in built in 318 by Constantine

92 In 313, Emperor Constantine I's Edict of Milan legalised Christianity, and in 330 Constantine moved the imperial capital to Constantinople, modern Istanbul, Turkey. In 380 the Edict of Thessalonica made Catholic Christianity the state church of the Roman Empire, a position that within the diminishing territory of the Byzantine Empire would persist until the empire itself ended in the fall of Constantinople in 1453, while elsewhere the church was independent of the empire, as became particularly clear with the East–West Schism. During the period of the Seven Ecumenical Councils, five primary sees emerged, an arrangement formalised in the mid-6th century by Emperor Justinian I as the pentarchy of Rome, Constantinople, Antioch, Jerusalem and Alexandria.[273][274] In 451 the Council of Chalcedon, in a canon of disputed validity,[275] elevated the see of Constantinople to a position “second in eminence and power to the bishop of Rome”.[276] From c. 350 to c. 500, the bishops, or popes, of Rome, steadily increased in authority through their consistent intervening in support of orthodox leaders in theological disputes, which encouraged appeals to them.[277] Emperor Justinian, who in the areas under his control definitively established a form of caesaropapism,[278] in which “he had the right and duty of regulating by his laws the minutest details of worship and discipline, and also of dictating the theological opinions to be held in the Church”,[279] reestablished imperial power over Rome and other parts of the West, initiating the period termed the Byzantine Papacy (537–752), during which the bishops of Rome, or popes, required approval from the emperor in Constantinople or from his representative in Ravenna for consecration, and most were selected by the emperor from his Greek-speaking subjects,[280] resulting in a “melting pot” of Western and Eastern Christian traditions in art as well as liturgy.[281] Most of the Germanic tribes who in the following centuries invaded the Roman Empire had adopted Christianity in its Arian form, which the Catholic Church declared heretical.[282] The resulting religious discord between Germanic rulers and Catholic subjects[283] was avoided when, in 497, Clovis I, the Frankish ruler, converted to orthodox Catholicism, allying himself with the papacy and the monasteries.[284] The Visigoths in Spain followed his lead in 589,[285] and the Lombards in Italy in the course of the 7th century.[286] Western Christianity, particularly through its monasteries, was a major factor in preserving classical civilisation, with its art (see Illuminated manuscript) and literacy.[287][288] Through his Rule, Benedict of Nursia (c.480–543), one of the founders of Western monasticism, exerted an enormous influence on European culture through the appropriation of the monastic spiritual heritage of the early Church and, with the spread of the Benedictine tradition, through the preservation and transmission of ancient culture. During this period, monastic Ireland became a centre of learning and early Irish missionaries such as St Columbanus and St

CHAPTER 8. CATHOLIC CHURCH Columba spread Christianity and established monasteries across continental Europe. The massive Islamic invasions of the mid-7th century began a long struggle between Christianity and Islam throughout the Mediterranean Basin. The Byzantine Empire soon lost the lands of the eastern patriarchates of Jerusalem, Alexandria and Antioch and was reduced to that of Constantinople, the empire’s capital. As a result of Islamic domination of the Mediterranean, the Frankish state, centred away from that sea, was able to evolve as the dominant power that shaped the Western Europe of the Middle Ages.[289] The battles of Toulouse and Poitiers halted the Islamic advance in the West. Two or three decades later, in 751, the Byzantine Empire lost to the Lombards the city of Ravenna from which it governed the small fragments of Italy, including Rome, that acknowledged its sovereignty. The fall of Ravenna meant that confirmation by a no longer existent exarch was not asked for during the election in 752 of Pope Stephen II and that the papacy was forced to look elsewhere for a civil power to protect it.[290] In 754, at the urgent request of Pope Stephen, the Frankish king Pepin the Short conquered the Lombards. He then gifted the lands of the former exarchate to the pope, thus initiating the Papal States. Rome and the Byzantine East would delve into further conflict during the Photian schism of the 860s, when Photius criticised the Latin west of adding of the filioque clause after being excommunicated by Nicholas I. Though the schism was reconciled, unresolved issues would lead to further division.[291]

8.6.3 Medieval and Renaissance periods The Catholic Church was the dominant influence on Western civilisation from late antiquity to the dawn of the modern age.[3] It was the primary sponsor of Romanesque, Gothic, Renaissance, Mannerist and Baroque styles in art, architecture and music.[292] Renaissance figures such as Raphael, Michelangelo, Leonardo da Vinci, Botticelli, Fra Angelico, Tintoretto, Titian, Bernini and Caravaggio are examples of the numerous visual artists sponsored by the Church.[293] In the eleventh century, the efforts of Hildebrand of Sovana led to the creation of the College of Cardinals to elect new Popes, starting with Pope Alexander II in the papal election of 1061. When Alexander II died, Hildebrand was elected to succeed him, as Pope Gregory VII. The basic election system of the College of Cardinals which Gregory VII helped establish has continued to function into the twenty-first century. Pope Gregory VII further initiated the Gregorian Reforms regarding the independence of the clergy from secular authority. This led to the Investiture Controversy between the church and the Holy Roman Emperors, over which had the authority to appoint bishops and Popes.[294][295] In 1095, Byzantine emperor Alexius I appealed to Pope

8.6. HISTORY Urban II for help against renewed Muslim invasions in the Byzantine–Seljuk Wars,[296] which caused Urban to launch the First Crusade aimed at aiding the Byzantine Empire and returning the Holy Land to Christian control.[297] In the 11th century, strained relations between the primarily Greek church and the Latin Church separated them in the East–West Schism, partially due to conﬂicts over papal authority. The Fourth Crusade and the sacking of Constantinople by renegade crusaders proved the ﬁnal breach.[298]

8.6.4 Age of discovery Main article: Catholic Church and the Age of Discovery The Age of Discovery beginning in the 15th century saw the expansion of Western Europe’s political and cultural inﬂuence worldwide. Because of the prominent role the strongly Catholic nations of Spain and Portugal played in Western Colonialism, Catholicism was spread to the Americas, Asia and Oceania by explorers, conquistadors, and missionaries, as well as by the transformation of societies through the socio-political mechanisms of colonial rule. Pope Alexander VI had awarded colonial rights over most of the newly discovered lands to Spain and Portugal[306] and the ensuing patronato system allowed state authorities, not the Vatican, to control all clerical appointments in the new colonies.[307] In 1521 the Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan made the ﬁrst Catholic converts in the Philippines.[308] Elsewhere, Portuguese missionaries under the Spanish Jesuit Francis Xavier evangelised in India, China, and Japan.[309]

8.6.5 Reformation The Renaissance period was a golden age for Roman Catholic art. Pictured: the Sistine Chapel ceiling.

Main article: Protestant Reformation In 1517, Martin Luther, an Augustinian friar in Ger-

In the early 13th century mendicant orders were founded by Francis of Assisi and Dominic de Guzmán. The studia conventualia and studia generalia of the mendicant orders played a large role in the transformation of Church sponsored cathedral schools and palace schools, such as that of Charlemagne at Aachen, into the prominent universities of Europe.[299] Scholastic theologians and philosophers such as the Dominican priest Thomas Aquinas studied and taught at these studia. Aquinas’ Summa Theologica was an intellectual milestone in its synthesis of the legacy of Ancient Greek philosophers such as Plato and Aristotle with the content of Christian revelation.[300] A growing sense of church-state conflicts marked the 14th century. To escape instability in Rome, Clement V in 1309 became the first of seven popes to reside in the fortified city of Avignon in southern France[301] during a period known as the Avignon Papacy. The Avignon Papacy ended in 1376 when the Pope returned to Rome,[302] but was followed in 1378 by the 38-year-long Western schism with claimants to the papacy in Rome, Avignon and (after 1409) Pisa.[302] The matter was finally resolved in 1417 at the Council of Constance where the cardinals called upon all three claimants to the papal throne to re- Martin Luther initiated the Protestant Reformation against the sign, and held a new election naming Martin V pope.[303] Catholic Church in 1517 In 1438, the Council of Florence convened, which featured a strong dialogue focussed on understanding the theological differences between the East and West, with the hope of reuniting the Catholic and Orthodox churches.[304] Several eastern churches reunited, forming the Eastern Catholic Churches.[305]

many, sent his Ninety-Five Theses to several bishops.[310] His theses protested key points of Catholic doctrine as well as the sale of indulgences.[310][311] In Switzerland, Huldrych Zwingli, John Calvin, and other Protestant Reformers further criticised Catholic teachings. These challenges developed into the European movement called the

CHAPTER 8. CATHOLIC CHURCH

Protestant Reformation, which gave birth to a variety of Christian denominations known today collectively as Protestantism.[312] The English Reformation during the reign of Henry VIII began as a political dispute. When the pope denied Henry’s petition for a declaration of nullity of his marriage to Catherine of Aragon, he had the Acts of Supremacy passed, making him head of the English Church.[313] The Reformation led to clashes between the Protestant Schmalkaldic League and the Catholic Emperor Charles V and his allies. The first nine-year war ended in 1555 with the Peace of Augsburg but continued tensions produced a far graver conflict—the Thirty Years’ War—which broke out in 1618.[314] In France, a series of conflicts termed the French Wars of Religion was fought from 1562 to 1598 between the Huguenots (French Calvinists) and the forces of the French Catholic League. A series of popes sided with and became financial supporters of the Catholic League.[315] This ended under Pope Clement VIII, who hesitantly accepted King Henry IV’s 1598 Edict of Nantes, which granted civil and religious toleration to French Protestants.[314][315] The Council of Trent (1545–1563) became the driving force behind the Counter-Reformation in response to the Protestant movement. Doctrinally, it reaffirmed central Catholic teachings such as transubstantiation and the requirement for love and hope as well as faith to attain salvation.[316] In subsequent centuries, Catholicism spread widely across the world despite experiencing a reduction in its hold on European populations due to the growth of religious scepticism during and after the Enlightenment.[317]

8.6.6

Enlightenment and modern period

cism was the 1685 revocation of the Edict of Nantes by King Louis XIV, which ended a century-long policy of religious toleration of Protestant Huguenots. The French Revolution of 1789 brought about a shifting of powers from the Church to the State, destruction of churches and the establishment of a Cult of Reason.[319] In 1798, Napoleon Bonaparte's General Louis Alexandre Berthier invaded Italy, imprisoning Pope Pius VI, who died in captivity. Napoleon later re-established the Catholic Church in France through the Concordat of 1801.[320] The end of the Napoleonic wars brought Catholic revival and the return of the Papal States.[321] In 1854, Pope Pius IX, with the support of the overwhelming majority of Roman Catholic bishops, whom he had consulted from 1851 to 1853, proclaimed the Immaculate Conception as a dogma.[322] In 1870, the First Vatican Council affirmed the doctrine of papal infallibility when exercised in specifically defined pronouncements.[323][324] Controversy over this and other issues resulted in a breakaway movement called the Old Catholic Church.[325] Italian unification of the 1860s incorporated the Papal States, including Rome itself from 1870, into the Kingdom of Italy, thus ending the papacy’s millennial temporal power. The pope rejected the Italian Law of Guarantees, which granted him special privileges, and to avoid placing himself in visible subjection to the Italian authorities remained a "prisoner in the Vatican".[326] This stand-off, which was spoken of as the Roman Question, was resolved by the 1929 Lateran Treaties, whereby the Holy See acknowledged Italian sovereignty over the former Papal States and Italy recognised papal sovereignty over Vatican City as a new sovereign and independent state.[327]

8.6.7 Twentieth century A number of anti-clerical governments emerged in the twentieth century. The 1926 Calles Law separating church and state in Mexico led to the Cristero War[328] in which over 3,000 priests were exiled or assassinated,[329] churches desecrated, services mocked, nuns raped and captured priests shot.[328] Following the 1917 Bolshevik Revolution, persecution of the Church and Catholics in the Soviet Union continued into the 1930s with the execution and exiling of clerics, monks and laymen, the conﬁscation of religious implements and closure of churches.[330][331] In the 1936– 39 Spanish Civil War, the Catholic hierarchy allied itself with Franco’s Nationalists against the Popular Front Ruins of the Jesuit Reduction at São Miguel das Missões in Brazil. government,[332] citing Republican violence against the [333][334] Pope Pius XI referred to these three From the 17th century onward, the Enlightenment ques- Church. countries as a “terrible triangle”.[335][336] tioned the power and inﬂuence of the Catholic Church over Western society.[318] 18th century writers such as After violations of the 1933 Reichskonkordat beVoltaire and the Encyclopédistes wrote biting critiques of tween the Church and Nazi Germany, Pope Pius both religion and the Church. One target of their criti- XI issued the 1937 encyclical Mit brennender Sorge

8.6. HISTORY which publicly condemned the Nazis’ persecution of the Church and their ideology of neopaganism and racial superiority.[337][338][339] The Church condemned the 1939 invasion of Poland that started World War II and other subsequent wartime Nazi invasions.[340] Thousands of Catholic priests, nuns and brothers were imprisoned and murdered throughout the countries occupied by the Nazis, including Saints Maximilian Kolbe and Edith Stein.[341] While Pope Pius XII has been credited with helping to save hundreds of thousands of Jews in the Holocaust,[342][343] the Church has also been accused of encouraging centuries of antisemitism[344] and not doing enough to stop Nazi atrocities.[345]

95 Marcel Lefebvre, however, strongly criticised the council, arguing that its liturgical reforms led “to the destruction of the Holy Sacrifice of the Mass and the sacraments”, among other issues.[358] Several teachings of the Catholic Church came under increased scrutiny both concurrent with and following the council; among those teachings was the church’s teaching regarding the immorality of contraception. The recent introduction of hormonal contraception (including “the pill”), which were believed by some to be morally different than previous methods, prompted John XXIII to form a committee to advise him of the moral and theological issues with the new method.[359][360] Paul VI later expanded the committee’s scope to freely examine all methods, and the committee’s unreleased final report was rumoured to suggest permitting at least some methods of contraception. Paul did not agree with the arguments presented, and eventually issued Humanae vitae, saying it upheld the constant teaching of the church against contraception, expressly including hormonal methods as prohibited.[note 16] A large negative response to this document followed its release.[361]

Postwar Communist governments in Eastern Europe severely restricted religious freedoms.[346] Although some priests and religious collaborated with Communist regimes,[347] many were imprisoned, deported or executed and the Church was an important player in the fall of Communism in Europe.[348] In 1949, Communist victory in the Chinese Civil War led to the expulsion of all foreign missionaries.[349] The new government also created the Patriotic Church whose unilaterally appointed bishops were initially rejected by Rome before many of John Paul II them were accepted.[350] In the 1960s, the Cultural Revolution saw the closure of all religious establishments. When Chinese churches eventually reopened, they remained under the control of the Patriotic Church. Many Catholic pastors and priests continued to be sent to prison for refusing to renounce allegiance to Rome.[351]

Second Vatican Council Main articles: Post Vatican II history of the Catholic Church and Spirit of Vatican II See also: Catholic Church § contraception The Second Vatican Council in the 1960s introduced the most signiﬁcant changes to Catholic practices since the Council of Trent four centuries before.[352] Initiated by Pope John XXIII, this ecumenical council modernised the practices of the Catholic Church, allowing the Mass to be said in the vernacular (local language) and encouraging “fully conscious, and active participation in liturgical celebrations”.[353] It intended to engage the Church more closely with the present world (aggiornamento), which was described by its advocates as an “opening of the windows”.[354] In addition to changes in the liturgy, it led to changes to the Church’s approach to ecumenism,[355] and a call to improved relations with non-Christian religions, especially Judaism, in its document Nostra aetate.[356] The council, however, generated signiﬁcant controversy in implementing its reforms: proponents of the "Spirit of Vatican II" such as Swiss theologian Hans Küng said that Vatican II had “not gone far enough” to change church policies.[357] Traditionalist Catholics, such as Archbishop

Pope John Paul II with U.S. President Ronald Reagan and his wife, Nancy, in 1982.

In 1978, Pope John Paul II, formerly archbishop of Kraków in then-Communist Poland, became the ﬁrst nonItalian Pope in 455 years. His 27-year pontiﬁcate was one of the longest in history.[362] Mikhail Gorbachev, the president of the Soviet Union, credited the Polish Pope with hastening the fall of Communism in Europe.[363] John Paul sought to evangelise an increasingly secular world. He instituted World Youth Day as a “worldwide encounter with the Pope” for young people which is now held every two to three years.[364] He travelled more than any other Pope, visiting 129 countries,[365] and used television and radio as means of spreading the Church’s teachings. He also emphasised the dignity of work and natural rights of labors to have fair wages and safe conditions in Laborem exercens,[366] and also emphasised several church teachings, including moral exhortations against abortion, euthanasia, and against widespread

CHAPTER 8. CATHOLIC CHURCH

use of the death penalty, in Evangelium Vitae.[367]

8.6.8

Twenty-ﬁrst century

In 2005, following the death of John Paul II, Pope Benedict XVI, head of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith under John Paul, was elected. He was known for upholding traditional Christian values against secularisation,[368] and for liberalising use of the Tridentine Mass as found in the Roman Missal of 1962.[369] In 2012, the 50th anniversary of Vatican II, an assembly of the Synod of Bishops discussed reevangelising lapsed Catholics in the developed world.[370] Benedict resigned due to advanced age in 2013, the ﬁrst Pope to do so in nearly ﬁve hundred years.[371] Pope Francis succeeded Benedict in 2013. In 2014, the Third Extraordinary General Assembly of the Synod of Bishops addressed the church’s ministry towards families and marriages and to Catholics in “irregular” relationships, such as those who divorced and remarried outside of the church without a declaration of nullity.[372][373]

8.7 See also • Anti-Catholicism • Catholic Church and evolution • Catholic Church by country • Catholic guilt • Catholic spirituality • Folk Catholicism • Catholic Church and science • List of Roman Catholic hymns • List of Catholic religious institutes • Lists of Roman Catholics • Role of the Christian Church in civilization • Relations between Catholicism and Judaism • Vocational discernment in the Catholic Church

8.8 Notes [1] While the Catholic Church considers itself to be the authentic continuation of the Christian community founded by Jesus, it teaches that other Christian churches and communities can be in an imperfect communion with the Catholic Church.[6][7]

[2] Catechism of the Catholic Church, para. 890: “The mission of the Magisterium is linked to the definitive nature of the covenant established by God with his people in Christ. It is this Magisterium’s task to preserve God’s people from deviations and defections and to guarantee them the objective possibility of professing the true faith without error. Thus, the pastoral duty of the Magisterium is aimed at seeing to it that the People of God abides in the truth that liberates. To fulfill this service, Christ endowed the Church’s shepherds with the charism of infallibility in matters of faith and morals. The exercise of this charism takes several forms:" [3] Quote of St Ignatius to the Smyrnaeans (circa 110 AD): “Wheresoever the bishop shall appear, there let the people be, even as where Jesus may be, there is the universal [katholike] Church.”[22] [4] Examples uses of “Roman Catholic” by the Holy See: the encyclicals Divini Illius Magistri of Pope Pius XI and Humani generis of Pope Pius XII; joint declarations signed by Pope Benedict XVI with Archbishop of Canterbury Rowan Williams on 23 November 2006 and Patriarch Bartholomew I of Constantinople on 30 November 2006. [5] Example use of “Roman” Catholic by a bishop’s conference: The Baltimore Catechism, an official catechism authorised by the Catholic bishops of the United States, states: “That is why we are called Roman Catholics; to show that we are united to the real successor of St Peter” (Question 118) and refers to the Church as the “Roman Catholic Church” under Questions 114 and 131 (Baltimore Catechism). [6] The last resignation occurred on 28 February 2013, when Pope Benedict XVI retired, citing ill health in his advanced age. The next most recent resignation occurred in 1415, as part of the Council of Constance's resolution of the Avignon Papacy.[36] [7] In 1992, the Vatican clarified the 1983 Code of Canon Law removed the requirement that altar servers be male; permission to use female altar servers within a diocese is at the discretion of the bishop.[66] [8] The Divine Worship variant of the Roman Rite differs from the “Anglican Use” variant, which was introduced in 1980 for the few United States parishes established in accordance with a pastoral provision for former members of the Episcopal Church (the American branch of the Anglican Communion). Both uses adapted Anglican liturgical traditions for use within the Catholic Church. [9] Other councils that addressed the sacraments include the Second Council of Lyon (1274); Council of Florence (1439); as well as the Council of Trent (1547)[153] [10] For an outline of the Eucharistic liturgy in the Roman Rite, see the side bar in the “Worship and liturgy”. [11] Marriages involving unbaptised individuals are considered valid, but not sacramental. While sacramental marriages are insoluble, non-sacramental marriages may be dissolved under certain situations, such as a desire to marry a Catholic, under Pauline or Petrine privilege.[205][206]

8.9. REFERENCES

[12] With regard to divorce in the United States, according to the Barna Group, among all who have been married, 33% have been divorced at least once; among American Catholics, 28% (the study did not track religious annulments).[224] [13] Regarding use of Natural Family Planning, in 2002, 24% of the U.S. population identiﬁed as Catholic,[230] but according to a 2002 study by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, of sexually active Americans avoiding pregnancy, only 1.5% were using NFP.[231] [14] According to Roman Catholic Womanpriests: “The principal consecrating Roman Catholic male bishop who ordained our ﬁrst women bishops is a bishop with apostolic succession within the Roman Catholic Church in full communion with the pope.”[251] [15]

Joyce, George (1913). "The Pope". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. Regarding Peter as the first Bishop of Rome, “It is not, however, difficult to show that the fact of his [Peter’s] bishopric is so well attested as to be historically certain. In considering this point, it will be well to begin with the third century, when references to it become frequent, and work backwards from this point. In the middle of the third century St. Cyprian expressly terms the Roman See the Chair of St. Peter, saying that Cornelius has succeeded to “the place of Fabian which is the place of Peter” (Ep 55:8; cf. 59:14). Firmilian of Caesarea notices that Stephen claimed to decide the controversy regarding rebaptism on the ground that he held the succession from Peter (Cyprian, Ep. 75:17). He does not deny the claim: yet certainly, had he been able, he would have done so. Thus in 250 the Roman episcopate of Peter was admitted by those best able to know the truth, not merely at Rome but in the churches of Africa and of Asia Minor. In the first quarter of the century (about 220) Tertullian (De Pud. 21) mentions Callistus’s claim that Peter’s power to forgive sins had descended in a special manner to him. Had the Roman Church been merely founded by Peter and not reckoned him as its first bishop, there could have been no ground for such a contention. Tertullian, like Firmilian, had every motive to deny the claim. Moreover, he had himself resided at Rome, and would have been well aware if the idea of a Roman episcopate of Peter had been, as is contended by its opponents, a novelty dating from the first years of the third century, supplanting the older tradition according to which Peter and Paul were co-founders, and Linus first bishop. About the same period, Hippolytus (for Lightfoot is surely right in holding him to be the author of the first part of the “Liberian Catalogue” — “Clement of Rome”, 1:259) reckons Peter in the list of Roman bishops....”[265]

[16] While ruling contraception to be prohibited, Pope Paul VI did, however, consider Natural Family Planning methods to be morally permissible if used with just cause.

8.9 References • NOTE: CCC stands for Catechism of the Catholic Church. The number following CCC is the para-

97 graph number, of which there are 2865. The numbers cited in the Compendium of the CCC are question numbers, of which there are 598. Canon law citations from the 1990 Code of Canons of the Eastern Churches are labeled "CCEO, Canon xxx”, to distinguish from canons of the 1983 Code of Canon Law, which are labeled “Canon xxx”. [1] ""Christ’s Faithful - Hierarchy, Laity, Consecrated Life, 880—883"". Catechism of the Catholic Church, Second Edition. Libreria Editrice Vaticana. 2012. The Pope, Bishop of Rome and Peter’s successor, 'is the perpetual and visible source and foundation of the unity both of the bishops and of the whole company of the faithful.' 'For the Roman Pontiff, by reason of his office as Vicar of Christ, and as pastor of the entire Church has full, supreme, and universal power over the whole Church, a power which he can always exercise unhindered.' [2] “Vatican statistics report church growth remains steady worldwide”. National Catholic Reporter. 2 May 2015. Retrieved 1 July 2015. [3] O'Collins, p. v (preface). [4] Stanford, Peter (29 June 2011). “Roman Catholic Church”. BBC Religions. Retrieved 14 December 2014. [5] “Vatican congregation reaffirms truth, oneness of Catholic Church”. Catholic News Service. Retrieved 17 March 2012. [6] “Responses to Some Questions regarding Certain Aspects of the Doctrine of the Church”. Vatican.va. It is possible, according to Catholic doctrine, to affirm correctly that the Church of Christ is present and operative in the churches and ecclesial Communities not yet fully in communion with the Catholic Church, on account of the elements of sanctification and truth that are present in them. [7] “Declaration on the Unicity and Salvific Universality of Jesus Christ and the Church "Dominus Iesus", 17.”. Vatican.va. Therefore, there exists a single Church of Christ, which subsists in the Catholic Church, governed by the Successor of Peter and by the Bishops in communion with him. The Churches which, while not existing in perfect Koinonia with the Catholic Church, remain united to her by means of the closest bonds, that is, by apostolic succession and a valid Eucharist, are true particular Churches. Therefore, the Church of Christ is present and operative also in these Churches, even though they lack full communion with the Catholic Church, since they do not accept the Catholic doctrine of the Primacy, which, according to the will of God, the Bishop of Rome objectively has and exercises over the entire Church. … “The Christian faithful are therefore not permitted to imagine that the Church of Christ is nothing more than a collection—divided, yet in some way one—of Churches and ecclesial communities; nor are they free to hold that today the Church of Christ nowhere really exists, and must be considered only as a goal which all Churches and ecclesial communities must strive to reach.” [8] Bokenkotter, Thomas (2004). A Concise History of the Catholic Church. New York: Doubleday. p. 7.

[9] “The Apostolic Tradition”. Catechism of the Catholic Church. Vatican. Retrieved 22 July 2011. [10] Second Vatican Council, Lumen gentium, 25 [11] "CCC, 835”. Vatican.va. The rich variety of … theological and spiritual heritages proper to the local churches 'unified in a common effort shows all the more resplendently the catholicity of the undivided Church'.(cf. Second Vatican Council, Dogmatic Constitution on the Church Lumen gentium, 23) [12] Colin Gunton. “Christianity among the Religions in the Encyclopedia of Religion”, Religious Studies, Vol. 24, number 1, page 14. In a review of an article from the Encyclopedia of Religion, Gunton writes: "[T]he article [on Catholicism in the encyclopedia] rightly suggests caution, suggesting at the outset that Roman Catholicism is marked by several different doctrinal, theological and liturgical emphases.” [13] “The paschal mystery in the sacraments of the church”. Compendium OF THE CATECHISM OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. Vatican.va. 2005. Retrieved 14 December 2014. [14] "CCC 1333,1375—1376, 1416". Vatican.va. Retrieved 13 December 2014. [15] "CCC, 1399”. Vatican.va. Retrieved 26 June 2012.

CHAPTER 8. CATHOLIC CHURCH

Eastern or Greek. At the Reformation the term 'Catholic' was claimed as its exclusive right by the body remaining under the Roman obedience, in opposition to the 'Protestant' or 'Reformed' National Churches. These, however, also retained the term, giving it, for the most part, a wider and more ideal or absolute sense, as the attribute of no single community, but only of the whole communion of the saved and saintly in all churches and ages. In England, it was claimed that the Church, even as Reformed, was the national branch of the 'Catholic Church' in its proper historical sense.” Note: The full text of the OED deﬁnition of “catholic” can be consulted here. [25] McBrien, Richard (2008). The Church. Harper Collins. p. xvii. Online version available Browseinside.harpercollins.com. Quote: "[T]he use of the adjective 'Catholic' as a modiﬁer of 'Church' became divisive only after the East–West Schism... and the Protestant Reformation. … In the former case, the Western Church claimed for itself the title Catholic Church, while the East appropriated the name Orthodox Church. In the latter case, those in communion with the Bishop of Rome retained the adjective “Catholic”, while the churches that broke with the Papacy were called Protestant.” [26] Catechism of the Catholic Church. Vatican.va. Retrieved 1 May 2009.

[16] "CCC 963-975". Vatican.va. Retrieved 20 December 2014.

[27] The Vatican. Documents of the II Vatican Council. Retrieved 4 May 2009. Note: The Pope’s signature appears in the Latin version.

[17] “Pope Benedict XVI. 1 January 2012 – Feast of Solemnity of the Blessed Virgin Mary”. Vatican.va. 1 January 2012. Retrieved 17 August 2012.

[28] “The Catechism of St Pius X, The Ninth Article of the Creed, Question 20”. Cin.org. Retrieved 28 October 2010.

[18] "Munificentissimus Deus: Defining the Dogma of the Assumption”. Apostolic Constitution of Pope Pius XII. 1 November 1950. Retrieved 15 June 2011. According to paragraph 44: "...we [Pope Pius XII] pronounce, declare, and define it to be a divinely revealed dogma: that the Immaculate Mother of God, the ever Virgin Mary, having completed the course of her earthly life, was assumed body and soul into heavenly glory.”

[29] “Christ’s Faithful – Hierarchy, Laity, Consecrated Life: The episcopal college and its head, the Pope”. Catechism of the Catholic Church. Vatican City: Libreria Editrice Vaticana. 1993. Retrieved 14 April 2013.

[19] Agnew, John (12 February 2010). “Deus Vult: The Geopolitics of Catholic Church”. Geopolitics 15 (1): 39– 61. doi:10.1080/14650040903420388. [20] “Catholic”. Dictionary.com. Retrieved 30 June 2011. Entries from multiple reference works. [21] MacCulloch, Christianity, p. 127. [22] Thurston, Herbert (1908). “Catholic”. In Knight, Kevin. The Catholic Encyclopedia 3. New York: Robert Appleton Company. Retrieved 17 August 2012. [23] “Cyril of Jerusalem, Lecture XVIII, 26”. Tertullian.org. 6 August 2004. Retrieved 17 August 2012. [24] “catholic, adj. and n.” Oxford English Dictionary Online. Oxford University Press, June 2014. Web. 7 August 2014. Excerpt: “After the separation of East and West 'Catholic' was assumed as its descriptive epithet by the Western or Latin Church, as 'Orthodox' was by the

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Vallely, Paul (June 28, 2015). “The Pope’s Ecological Vow”. Retrieved June 29, 2015. Kreeft, p. 980. Burkett, p. 263 "CCC, 1076”. Vatican.va. Retrieved 8 November 2014. § 1076: The Church was made manifest to the world on the day of Pentecost by the outpouring of the Holy Spirit.... "Holy Ghost". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. 1913. “He [the Holy Spirit] is essentially the Spirit of truth (John 14:16-17; 15:26), Whose oﬃce it is to ...to teach the Apostles the full meaning of it [of the truth] (John 14:26; 16:13). With these Apostles He will abide for ever (John 14:16). Having descended on them at Pentecost, He will guide them in their work (Acts 8:29)...

[261] "CCC, 880, 883”. Vatican.va. Retrieved 1 November 2014.

[244] “Vocations Online Internet Directory of Women’s Religious Communities”. Joliet Diocese Vocation Office. [262] Christian Bible, Matthew 16:13-20 2010. [263] “Saint Peter the Apostle: Incidents important in interpretations of Peter”. Encyclopaedia Britannica. Retrieved 8 [245] “Press Release – The Nobel Peace Prize 1979”. NobelNovember 2014. prize.org. 27 October 1979. Retrieved 28 October 2010. [246] “Press Release – Nobel Peace Prize 1996”. Nobel- [264] "CCC, 880–881”. Vatican.va. Retrieved 1 November 2014. prize.org. 11 October 1996. Retrieved 28 October 2010. [247] “International Catholic Peacebuilding Organizations (di- [265] Joyce, George (1913). "The Pope". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. rectory)". Catholic Peacebuilding Network. 2015. Retrieved 2 April 2015. [266] “Was Peter in Rome?". Catholic Answers. 10 August 2004. Retrieved 9 November 2014. if Peter never made it [248] Sack, Kevin (20 August 2011). “Nuns, a 'Dying Breed,' to the capital, he still could have been the first pope, since Fade From Leadership Roles at Catholic Hospitals”. The one of his successors could have been the first holder of New York Times. that office to settle in Rome. After all, if the papacy ex[249] Apostolic Letter Ordinatio Sacerdotalis of John Paul II to ists, it was established by Christ during his lifetime, long the Bishops of the Catholic Church on Reserving Priestly before Peter is said to have reached Rome. There must Ordination to Men Alone Copyright 1994 Libreria Editrice have been a period of some years in which the papacy did Vaticana. Retrieved 25 March 2015 not yet have its connection to Rome.

8.9. REFERENCES

105

[267] Raymond E. Brown, 101 Questions and Answers on the [286] Drew, Katherine Fischer (2014). The Lombard Laws. Bible (Paulist Press 2003 ISBN 978-0-8091-4251-4), pp. University of Pennsylvania Press. p. xviii. ISBN 978132–134 0-8122-1055-2. [268] Oscar Cullmann (1962), Peter: Disciple, Apostle, Martyr [287] How The Irish Saved Civilization: The Untold Story of Ireland’s Heroic Role from the Fall of Rome to the Rise of (2 ed.), Westminster Press p. 234 Medieval Europe by Thomas Cahill, 1995. [269] Henry Chadwick (1993), The Early Church, Penguin [288] Cahill, Thomas. How the Irish Saved Civilization. Hodder Books p. 18 and Stoughton, 1995. [270] Ehrman, Bart D (2006). “Peter, Paul, and Mary Magdalene: The Followers of Jesus in History and Legend.”. [289] “Medieval Cities”. google.com. pp. 27–32. Oxford University Press. p. 84. ISBN 0-19-530013-0. [290] Jeﬀrey Richards, The Popes and the Papacy in the Early Peter, in short, could not have been the ﬁrst bishop of Middle Ages (Routledge 2014 ISBN 978-1-317-67817-5), Rome, because the Roman church did not have anyone as p. 230 its bishop until about a hundred years after Peter’s death. [271] Bokenkotter, p. 24. [272] MacCulloch, Christianity, pp. 155–159, 164.

[291] Walker, Willston (1985). History of the Christian Church. Simon and Schuster. pp. 250–1. ISBN 978-0-68418417-3.

[292] Woods, pp. 115–27 [273] Paul Valliere, Conciliarism (Cambridge University Press 2012 ISBN 978-1-107-01574-6), p. 92 [293] Duffy, p. 133. [274] Patriarch Bartholomew, Encountering the Mystery (Ran- [294] Vidmar, The Catholic Church Through the Ages (2005), dom House 2008 ISBN 978-0-385-52561-9), p. 3 pp. 107–11 [275] George C. Michalopulos,“Canon 28 and Eastern Papal- [295] Duffy, Saints and Sinners (1997), p. 78, quote: “By ism: Cause or Effect?" contrast, Paschal’s successor Eugenius II (824–7), elected with imperial influence, gave away most of these papal [276] Noble, p. 214. gains. He acknowledged the Emperor’s sovereignty in the papal state, and he accepted a constitution imposed by [277] “Rome (early Christian).” Cross, F. L., ed., The Oxford Lothair which established imperial supervision of the adDictionary of the Christian Church. New York: Oxford ministration of Rome, imposed an oath to the Emperor University Press. 2005 on all citizens, and required the Pope–elect to swear fealty before he could be consecrated. Under Sergius II (844–7) [278] “A Source Book for Ancient Church History”. it was even agreed that the Pope could not be consecrated google.com. p. 538. without an imperial mandate, and that the ceremony must be in the presence of his representative, a revival of some [279] Ayer, p. 553 of the more galling restrictions of Byzantine rule.” [280] “Behind Locked Doors”. google.com. pp. 10–12. [296] Riley-Smith, p. 8 [281] Duffy, Eamon. 1997. Saints & Sinners: A History of the [297] Bokenkotter, pp. 140–141 Popes. Yale University Press. pp. 66–67 [282] Le Goff, p. 14:"The face of the barbarian invaders had been transformed by another crucial fact. Although some of them had remained pagan, another part of them, not the least, had become Christian. But, by a curious chance, which was to leave serious consequences, these converted barbarians – the Ostrogoths, Visigoths, Burgundians, Vandals, and later the Lombards – had been converted to Arianism, which had become a heresy after the council of Nicaea. They had in fact been converted by followers of the 'apostle of the Goths’, Wulfilas.”

[298] Phillips, Jonathan (2005). The Fourth Crusade and the Sack of Constantinople. Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0684-18417-3. [299] Woods, pp. 44–48 [300] Bokenkotter, pp. 158–159 [301] Duﬀy, Saints and Sinners (1997), p. 122 [302] Morris, p. 232

[303] Collinson, p. 240 [283] Le Goff, p. 14: “Thus what should have been a religious bond was, on the contrary, a subject of discord and [304] Geanakoplos, Deno John. Constantinople and the West. sparked off bitter conflicts between Arian barbarians and Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 0Catholic Romans.” 299-11880-0. [284] Le Goff, p. 21: “Clovis’ master-stroke was to convert [305] Colinge, William J. (2012). Historical Dictionary of himself and his people not to Arianism, like the other barCatholicism. Scarecrow Press. p. 169. ISBN 978-0barian kings, but to Catholicism.” 8108-5755-1. [285] Le Goff, p. 21

[306] Koschorke, p. 13, p. 283

106

CHAPTER 8. CATHOLIC CHURCH

[307] Hastings (1994), p. 72

[339] Rhodes, p. 204-205

[308] Koschorke, p. 21

[340] Cook, p. 983

[309] Koschorke, p. 3, p. 17

[341] “Non-Jewish Victims of Persecution in Germany”. Yad Vashem. Retrieved 28 October 2010.

[310] Bokenkotter, p. 215 [311] Vidmar, p. 184.

[342] Bokenkotter p. 192

[312] Bokenkotter, pp. 223–224

[343] Deák, p. 182

[344] Eakin, Emily (1 September 2001). “New Accusations Of a Vatican Role In Anti-Semitism; Battle Lines Were [314] Vidmar, The Catholic Church Through the Ages (2005), p. Drawn After Beatiﬁcation of Pope Pius IX”. The New 233 York Times. Retrieved 9 March 2008. [313] Bokenkotter, pp. 235–237

[315] Duﬀy, Saints and Sinners (1997), pp. 177–8 [316] Bokenkotter, pp. 242–244 [317] Maxwell, Melvin Bible Truth or Church Tradition page 70

[345] Phayer, pp. 50–57 [346] “Pope Stared Down Communism in Homeland – and Won”. CBC News. April 2005. Retrieved 31 January 2008.

[318] Pollard, pp. 7–8 [319] Bokenkotter, pp. 283–285 [320] Collins, p. 176 [321] Duﬀy, pp. 214–216

[347] Smith, Craig (10 January 2007). “In Poland, New Wave of Charges Against Clerics”. The New York Times. Retrieved 23 May 2008. [348] “Untold story of 1989”. The Tablet. Retrieved 28 October 2010.

[322] “John Paul II, General Audience, March 24, 1993”. Vat[349] Bokenkotter, pp. 356–358 ican.va. 24 March 1993. Retrieved 30 June 2011. [323] Leith, Creeds of the Churches (1963), p. 143 [324] Duﬀy, Saints and Sinners (1997), p. 232

[350] “China installs Pope-backed bishop”. BBC News. 21 September 2007. Retrieved 28 October 2010.

[351] Chadwick, p.259 [325] Fahlbusch, The Encyclopedia of Christianity (2001), p. 729 [352] The Second Vatican Council Celebrating Its Achievements and the Future page 86 [326] David I. Kertzer, Prisoner of the Vatican (Houghton Mifﬂin Harcourt 2006 ISBN 978-0-547-34716-5) [353] “CONSTITUTION ON THE SACRED LITURGY [327] Connell, William J.; Gardaphé, Fred (2010). AntiItalianism: Essays on a Prejudice. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 33–4. ISBN 978-0-230-11532-3. [328] Chadwick, Owen, pp. 264–265

SACROSANCTUM CONCILIUM”. Vatican.va. 4 December 1963. Retrieved 12 January 2012. [354] Duﬀy, pp. 270–276 [355] Duﬀy, Saints and Sinners (1997), p. 272, p. 274

[329] Scheina, p. 33.

[356] Pope Paul VI. Nostra aetate: Declaration on the Relation of the Church to Non-Christian Religions. 28 October 1965. Retrieved 16 June 2011. According to Section 4: Riasanovsky 634 “True, the Jewish authorities and those who followed their lead pressed for the death of Christ; still, what happened Payne, p. 13 in His passion cannot be charged against all the Jews, without distinction, then alive, nor against the Jews of today. Alonso, pp. 395–396 Although the Church is the new people of God, the Jews Blood of Spain, Ronald Fraser p. 415, collective letter of should not be presented as rejected or accursed by God, bishops of Spain, addressed to the bishops of the world. as if this followed from the Holy Scriptures.” ISBN 0-7126-6014-3 [357] Bauckham, p. 373 Fontenelle, Mrg R (1939), Seine Heiligkeit Pius XI, pg 164. Alsactia, France [358] O'Neel, Brian. “Holier Than Thou: How Rejection of

[330] Riasanovsky 617 [331] [332] [333] [334]

[335]

[336] Encyclical Divini Redemptoris, § 18 (AAS 29 [1937], 74). 1937. Libreria Editrice Vaticana (English translation) [337] Rhodes, p. 182-183 [338] Rhodes, p. 197

Vatican II Led Lefebvre into Schism”, This Rock, Volume 14, Number 4. San Diego: Catholic Answers, April 2003. [359] May, John F. (2012). World Population Policies: Their Origin, Evolution, and Impact. Springer. pp. 202–3. ISBN 978-94-007-2837-0.

8.10. BIBLIOGRAPHY

[360] Kinkel, R. John (2014). Papal Paralysis: How the Vatican Dealt with the AIDS Crisis. Lexington. p. 2. ISBN 9780-7391-7684-9. [361] “Germain Grisez on “Humanae Vitae,” Then and Now: The Dust Still Hasn't Settled, But There Are Signs of Hope”. Zenit: The World Seen from Rome. 14 July 2003. Retrieved 16 November 2014. [362] “2 April – This Day in History”. History.co.uk. Retrieved 28 October 2010. [363] Peter and Margaret Hebblethwaite and Peter Stanford (2 April 2005). “Obituary: Pope John Paul II”. The Guardian (London). Retrieved 28 October 2010. [364] “WYD 2011 Madrid – Oﬃcial Site – What is WYD?". Madrid11.com. 15 June 2011. Retrieved 17 August 2012. [365] Maxwell-Stuart, P.G. (2006). Chronicle of the Popes: Trying to Come Full Circle. London: Thames & Hudson. p. 234. ISBN 978-0-500-28608-1. [366] John Paul II (15 May 1981). “Laborem exercens”. Libreria Editrice Vaticana. Retrieved 16 November 2014. [367] John Paul II (25 March 1995). “Evangelium Vitae”. Libreria Editrice Vaticana. Retrieved 16 November 2014. [368] Johnston, Jerry Earl (18 February 2006). “Benedict’s encyclical oﬀers hope for world”. Deseret News. Retrieved 12 September 2010. WebCitation archive [369] Gledhill, Ruth “Pope set to bring back Latin Mass that divided the Church” The Times 11 October 2006. Retrieved 21 November 2010 WebCitation archive [370] “Summary of the synod assemblies”, Synodal Information, Rome, IT: The Vatican, 2005-03-09 [371] Smith-Spark, Laura; Messia, Hada (13 February 2013). “Pope’s resignation was not forced by health issues, spokesman says”. CNN. Retrieved 30 March 2015. [372] Dias, Elizabeth (8 October 2013). “Pope Francis Calls Extraordinary Synod on Family and Marriage”. Time Magazine. Retrieved 17 November 2014. [373] Twomey, Fr. D. Vincent (24 October 2014). “The “media synod” has eclipsed the real one”. Catholic Herald. Retrieved 17 November 2014.

8.10 Bibliography • Asci, Donald P. (2002) The Conjugal Act as Personal Act. A Study of the Catholic Concept of the Conjugal Act in the Light of Christian anthropology, San Francisco: Ignatius Press. ISBN 0-89870-8443. • Ayer, Joseph Cullen (1941). A Source Book for Ancient Church History. Mundus Publishing. ISBN 978-1-84830-134-4.

107 • “Canon 42”. 1983 Code of Canon Law. Vatican. Retrieved 9 March 2008. • "Catechism of the Catholic Church". Libreria Editrice Vaticana. 1994. Retrieved 1 May 2011. • Barry, Rev. Msgr. John F (2001). One Faith, One Lord: A Study of Basic Catholic Belief. Gerard F. Baumbach, Ed.D. ISBN 0-8215-2207-8. • Bauer, Susan Wise (2010). The History of Medieval World: From the Conversion of Constantine to the First Crusade. Norton. ISBN 978-0-393-05975-5. • Baumgartner, Frederic J. (2003). Behind Locked Doors: A History of the Papal Elections. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 0-312-29463-8. • Bethell, Leslie (1984). The Cambridge history of Latin America. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-23225-2. • Bokenkotter, Thomas (2004). A Concise History of the Catholic Church. Doubleday. ISBN 0-38550584-1. • Bunson, Matthew (2008). Our Sunday Visitor’s Catholic Almanac. Our Sunday Visitor Publishing. ISBN 1-59276-441-X. • Bruni, Frank; Burkett, Elinor (2002). A Gospel of Shame: Children, Sexual Abuse and the Catholic Church. Harper Perennial. p. 336. ISBN 978-0-06052232-2. • Chadwick, Owen (1995). A History of Christianity. Barnes & Noble. ISBN 0-7607-7332-7. • Clarke, Graeme (2005), “Third-Century Christianity”, in Bowman, Alan K., Peter Garnsey and Averil Cameron. The Cambridge Ancient History 2nd ed., volume 12: The Crisis of Empire, A.D. 193–337, Cambridge University Press, pp. 589–671, ISBN 978-0-521-30199-2. • Collins, Michael; Price, Mathew A. (1999). The Story of Christianity. Dorling Kindersley. ISBN 07513-0467-0. • Coriden, James A; Green, Thomas J; Heintschel, Donald E. (1985). The Code of Canon Law: A Text and Commentary, Study Edition. Paulist Press. ISBN 978-0-8091-2837-2. • Davidson, Ivor (2005). The Birth of the Church. Monarch. ISBN 1-85424-658-5. • Derrick, Christopher (1967). Trimming the Ark: Catholic Attitudes and the Cult of Change. New York: P.J. Kennedy & Sons. ISBN 978-0-09096850-3.

108 • Duﬀy, Eamon (1997). Saints and Sinners, a History of the Popes. Yale University Press. ISBN 0-30007332-1. • Dussel, Enrique (1981). A History of the Church in Latin America. Wm. B. Eerdmans. ISBN 0-80282131-6. • Fahlbusch, Erwin (2007). The Encyclopedia of Christianity. Wm. B. Eerdmans. ISBN 0-80282415-3. • Froehle, Bryan; Mary Gautier (2003). Global Catholicism, Portrait of a World Church. Orbis books; Center for Applied Research in the Apostolate, Georgetown University. ISBN 1-57075-375X. • Gale Group. (2002) New Catholic Encyclopedia, 15 vol, with annual supplements; highly detailed coverage • Hastings, Adrian (2004). The Church in Africa 1450–1950. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19826399-6. • Herring, George (2006). An Introduction to the History of Christianity. Continuum International. ISBN 0-8264-6737-7. • John Paul II, (2006) He Gave Them the Law of Life as Their Inheritance, in:Man and Woman He created Them. A Theology of the Body, transl. M. Waldstein, Boston: Pauline Books and Media, pp. 617– 663 ISBN 0-8198-7421-3 • Koschorke, Klaus; Ludwig, Frieder; Delgado, Mariano (2007). A History of Christianity in Asia, Africa, and Latin America, 1450–1990. Wm B Eerdmans Publishing Co. ISBN 978-0-8028-2889-7.

CHAPTER 8. CATHOLIC CHURCH • Marthaler, Berard (1994). Introducing the Catechism of the Catholic Church, Traditional Themes and Contemporary Issues. Paulist Press. ISBN 08091-3495-0. • McBrien, Richard and Harold Attridge, eds. (1995) The HarperCollins Encyclopedia of Catholicism. HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-06-065338-5. • McManners, John, ed. The Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity. (Oxford University Press 1990). ISBN 0-19-822928-3. • Norman, Edward (2007). The Roman Catholic Church, An Illustrated History. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-25251-6. • O'Collins, Gerald; Farrugia, Maria (2003). Catholicism: The Story of Catholic Christianity Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-925995-3. • Perreau-Saussine, Emile (2012). Catholicism and Democracy: An Essay in the History of Political Thought. ISBN 978-0-691-15394-0. • Phayer, Michael (2000). The Catholic Church and the Holocaust, 1930–1965. Indiana University Press. ISBN 0-253-33725-9. • Pollard, John Francis (2005). Money and the Rise of the Modern Papacy, 1850–1950. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-81204-7. • Rhodes, Anthony (1973). The Vatican in the Age of the Dictators (1922–1945). Holt, Rinehart and Winston. ISBN 0-03-007736-2. • Riley-Smith, Jonathan (1997). The First Crusaders. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-51100308-0.

• Kreeft, Peter (2001). Catholic Christianity. Ignatius Press. ISBN 0-89870-798-6.

• Schreck, Alan (1999). The Essential Catholic Catechism.Servant Publications. ISBN 1-56955-128-6.

• Latourette, by Kenneth Scott. Christianity in a Revolutionary Age: A History of Christianity in the 19th and 20th centuries (5 vol. 1969); detailed coverage of Catholicism in every major country

• Schwaller, John Frederick. (2011) The history of the Catholic Church in Latin America: from conquest to revolution and beyond (NYU Press)

• Leith, John (1963). Creeds of the Churches. Aldine Publishing Co. ISBN 0-664-24057-7. • MacCulloch, Diarmaid (2010). Christianity: The First Three Thousand Years. Viking. ISBN 9780-670-02126-0. originally published 2009 by Allen Lane, as A History of Christianity • MacCulloch, Diarmaid (2003). The Reformation. Viking. ISBN 0-670-03296-4. • MacMullen, Ramsay (1984), Christianizing the Roman Empire: (A.D. 100–400). New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, ISBN 978-0-585-38120-6

• Smith, Janet, ed. (1993) Why “Humanae Vitae” Was Right, San Francisco: Ignatius Press. • Smith, Janet (1991) “Humanae Vitae”, a Generation Later, Washington D.C.: Catholic University of America Press, • Stewart, Cynthia. (2008) The Catholic Church: A Brief Popular History 337 pages • Tausch, Arno. (2011) The Pope – How Many Divisions Does He Have?' A First Global Survey of World Catholicism Based on the 'World Values Survey' and the 'European Social Survey' ('El Papa ¿Cuántas Divisiones Tiene? Sondeo Global

8.11. EXTERNAL LINKS Del Catolicismo Mundial Según El 'World Values Survey' Y El 'European Social Survey') (February 17, 2011). Centro Argentino De Estudios Internacionales e-Book No. 49 . Available at SSRN: http://ssrn.com/abstract=1763187 or http://dx.doi. org/10.2139/ssrn.1763187 • Vatican, Central Statistics Office (2007). Annuario Pontificio (Pontifical Yearbook). Libreria Editrice Vaticana. ISBN 978-88-209-7908-9. • Vidmar, John (2005). The Catholic Church Through the Ages. Paulist Press. ISBN 0-8091-4234-1. • Wilken, Robert (2004). “Christianity”. in Hitchcock, Susan Tyler; Esposito, John. Geography of Religion. National Geographic Society. ISBN 07922-7317-6. • Woods Jr, Thomas (2005). How the Catholic Church Built Western Civilization. Regnery Publishing, Inc. ISBN 0-89526-038-7.

8.11 External links • Vatican.va – official website of the Holy See • News.va – official news website • Vatican YouTube – official YouTube channel

109

Chapter 9

The Protocols of the Elders of Zion “Protocols of Zion” redirects here. For the ﬁlm, see Henry Ford funded printing of 500,000 copies that were Protocols of Zion (ﬁlm). distributed throughout the US in the 1920s. Adolf Hitler was a major proponent. It was studied, as if factual, in German classrooms after the Nazis came to power in 1933,[1] despite having been exposed as fraudulent by The Times of London in 1921. It is still widely available today in numerous languages, in print and on the Internet, and continues to be presented by some proponents as a genuine document.

9.1 Creation

A reproduction of the 1905 Russian edition by Serge Nilus, appearing in Praemonitus Praemunitus (1920).

The Protocols is a fabricated document purporting to be factual. Textual evidence shows that it could not have been produced prior to 1901. It is notable that the title of Serge Nilus's widely distributed edition contains the dates “1902–1903”, and it is likely that the document was actually written at this time in Russia, despite Nilus’ attempt to cover this up by inserting French-sounding words into his edition.[2] Cesare G. De Michelis argues that it was manufactured in the months after a Russian Zionist congress in September 1902, and that it was originally a parody of Jewish idealism meant for internal circulation among antisemites until it was decided to clean it up and publish it as if it were real. Self-contradictions in various testimonies show that the individuals involved—including the text’s initial publisher, Pavel Krushevan—purposefully obscured the origins of the text and lied about it in the decades afterwards.[3]

If the placement of the forgery in 1902–1903 Russia is correct, then it was written at the beginning of the anti-Jewish pogroms in the Russian Empire, in which The Protocols of the Elders of Zion or The Protocols thousands of Jews died or ﬂed the country. Many of of the Meetings of the Learned Elders of Zion is an the people whom De Michelis suspects of involvement antisemitic fabricated text purporting to describe a Jewish in the forgery were directly responsible for inciting the plan for global domination. The forgery was ﬁrst pub- pogroms. lished in Russia in 1903, translated into multiple languages, and disseminated internationally in the early part of the 20th century. According to the claims made by 9.1.1 Sources employed some of its publishers, the Protocols are the minutes of a late 19th-century meeting where Jewish leaders discussed Source material for the forgery consisted jointly of their goal of global Jewish hegemony by subverting the Dialogue aux enfers entre Machiavel et Montesquieu (Dimorals of Gentiles, and by controlling the press and the alogue in Hell Between Machiavelli and Montesquieu), an world’s economies. 1864 political satire by Maurice Joly;[4] and a chapter 110

9.2. STRUCTURE AND CONTENT

111

from Biarritz, an 1868 novel by the antisemitic German 1849.”[17] Following his dismissal, Goedsche began a canovelist Hermann Goedsche, which had been translated reer as a conservative columnist, and wrote literary fiction into Russian in 1872.[5] under the pen name Sir John Retcliffe.[18] His 1868 novel A major source for the Protocols was Der Judenstaat by Biarritz (To Sedan) contains a chapter called “The JewTheodor Herzl, which was referred to as Zionist Protocols ish Cemetery in Prague and the Council of Representain its initial French and Russian editions. Paradoxically, tives of the Twelve Tribes of Israel.” In it, Goedsche (who early Russian editions of the Protocols assert that they did was unaware that only two of the original twelve Biblical not come from a Zionist organization.[6] The text, which “tribes” remained) depicts a clandestine nocturnal meeting of members of a mysterious rabbinical cabal that is nowhere advocates for Zionism, resembles a parody of planning a diabolical “Jewish conspiracy.” At midnight, [7] Herzl’s ideas. the Devil appears to contribute his opinions and insight. The chapter closely resembles a scene in Alexandre Dumas, père's Giuseppe Balsamo (1848), in which Joseph 9.1.2 Literary forgery Balsamo a.k.a. Alessandro Cagliostro and company plot the Affair of the Diamond Necklace.[19] The Protocols is one of the best-known and mostdiscussed examples of literary forgery, with analysis In 1872 a Russian translation of “The Jewish Cemetery and proof of its fraudulent origin going as far back as in Prague” appeared in St. Petersburg as a separate pam1921.[8] The forgery is an early example of "conspiracy phlet of purported non-fiction. François Bournand, in his theory" literature.[9] Written mainly in the first per- Les Juifs et nos Contemporains (1896), reproduced the soson plural,[lower-alpha 1] the text includes generalizations, liloquy at the end of the chapter, in which the character truisms, and platitudes on how to take over the world: Levit expresses as factual the wish that Jews be “kings of take control of the media and the financial institutions, the world in 100 years” —crediting a “Chief Rabbi John change the traditional social order, etc. It does not con- Readcliff.” Perpetuation of the myth of the authenticity of Goedsche’s story, in particular the “Rabbi’s speech”, tain specifics.[11] facilitated later accounts of the equally mythical authenticity of the Protocols.[18] Like the Protocols, many asserted that the fictional “rabbi’s speech” had a ring of 9.1.3 Maurice Joly authenticity, regardless of its origin: “This speech was Elements of the Protocols were plagiarized from Joly’s published in our time, eighteen years ago,” read an 1898 fictional Dialogue in Hell, a thinly-veiled attack on the report in La Croix, “and all the events occurring bewere anticipated in it with truly frightening political ambitions of Napoleon III, who, represented by fore our eyes [20] accuracy.” [12] the non-Jewish character Machiavelli, plots to rule the world. Joly, a monarchist and legitimist, was imprisoned in France for 15 months as a direct result of his book’s publication. Scholars have noted the irony that Dialogue in Hell was itself a plagiarism, at least in part, of a novel by Eugène Sue, Les Mystères du Peuple (1849–56).[13]

Fictional events in Joly’s Dialogue aux enfers entre Machiavel et Montesquieu, which appeared four years before Biarritz, may well have been the inspiration for Goedsche’s fictional midnight meeting, and details of the outcome of the supposed plot. Goedsche’s chapter may an outright plagiarism of Joly, Dumas père, Identifiable phrases from Joly constitute 4% of the first have been [21][lower-alpha 2] or both. half of the first edition, and 12% of the second half; later editions, including most translations, have longer quotes from Joly.[14] The Protocols 1–19 closely follow the order of Maurice Joly’s Dialogues 1–17. For example:

9.2 Structure and content

The Protocols purports to document the minutes of a latePhilip Graves brought this plagiarism to light in a series of 19th-century meeting attended by world Jewish leaders, articles in The Times in 1921, the ﬁrst published evidence the “Elders of Zion”, who are conspiring to take over the [15][16] that the Protocols was not an authentic document. world.[22][23] The forgery places in the mouths of the Jewish leaders a variety of plans, most of which derive from older antisemitic canards.[22][23] For example, the Proto9.1.4 Hermann Goedsche cols includes plans to subvert the morals of the non-Jewish world, plans for Jewish bankers to control the world’s Main article: Sir John Retcliﬀe economies, plans for Jewish control of the press, and – ultimately – plans for the destruction of civilization.[22][23] “Goedsche was a postal clerk and a spy for the Prussian The document consists of twenty-four “protocols”, which Secret Police. He had been forced to leave the postal have been analyzed by Steven Jacobs and Mark Weitzwork due to his part in forging evidence in the prosecu- man, who documented several recurrent themes that aption against the Democratic leader Benedict Waldeck in pear repeatedly in the 24 protocols,[lower-alpha 3] as shown

112

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in the following table:[24]

Conspiracy references According to Daniel Pipes,

9.3 History 9.3.1

Publication history

See also: List of editions of Protocols of the Elders of Zion The Protocols appeared in print in the Russian Empire as early as 1903. The antisemitic tract was published as a serialized set of articles in Znamya, a Black Hundreds newspaper owned by Pavel Krushevan. It appeared again in 1905 as a final chapter (Chapter XII) of a second edition of Velikoe v malom i antikhrist (The Great in the Small & Antichrist), a book by Serge Nilus. In 1906, it appeared in pamphlet form edited by G. Butmi.[25] These first three (and subsequently more) Russian language imprints were published and circulated in the Russian Empire during the 1903–6 period as a tool for scapegoating Jews, blamed by the monarchists for the defeat in the Russo-Japanese War and the 1905 Russian Revolution. Common to all three texts is the idea that Jews aim for world domination. Since The Protocols are presented as merely a document, the front matter and back matter are needed to explain its alleged origin. The diverse imprints, however, are mutually inconsistent. The general claim is that the document was stolen from a secret Jewish organization. Since the alleged original stolen manuscript does not exist, one is forced to restore a purported original edition. This has been done by the Italian scholar, Cesare G. De Michelis in 1998, in a work which was translated into English and published in 2004, where he treats his subject as Apocrypha.[25][26] As fiction in the genre of literature, the tract was further analyzed by Umberto Eco in his novel Foucault’s Pendulum in 1988 (English translation in 1989), in 1994 in chapter 6, “Fictional Protocols”, of his Six Walks in the Fictional Woods and in his 2010 novel The Cemetery of Prague. As the 1917 Russian Revolution unfolded, causing white Russians to flee to the West, this text was carried along and assumed a new purpose. Until then, The Protocols had remained obscure;[26] it now became an instrument for blaming Jews for the Russian Revolution. It became a tool, a political weapon, used against the Bolshevikis who were depicted as overwhelmingly Jewish, allegedly executing the “plan” embodied in The Protocols. The purpose was to discredit the October Revolution, prevent the West from recognizing the Soviet Union, and bring about the downfall of Vladimir Lenin's regime.[25][26]

9.3.2

First Russian language editions

The great importance of The Protocols lies in its permitting antisemites to reach beyond their traditional circles and find a large international audience, a process that continues to this day. The forgery poisoned public life wherever it appeared; it was “self-generating; a blueprint that migrated from one conspiracy to another.”[27] The book’s vagueness—almost no names, dates, or issues are specified— has been one key to this wide-ranging success. The purportedly Jewish authorship also helps to make the book more convincing. Its embrace of contradiction—that to advance, Jews use all tools available, including capitalism and communism, philo-Semitism and antisemitism, democracy and tyranny—made it possible for The Protocols to reach out to all: rich and poor, Right and Left, Christian and Muslim, American and Japanese.[11] Pipes notes that the Protocols emphasizes recurring themes of conspiratorial antisemitism: “Jews always scheme”, “Jews are everywhere”, “Jews are behind every institution”, “Jews obey a central authority, the shadowy 'Elders’", and “Jews are close to success.”[28] The Protocols is widely considered influential in the development of other conspiracy theories, and reappears repeatedly in contemporary conspiracy literature, such as Jim Marrs' Rule by Secrecy. Some recent editions proclaim that the “Jews” depicted in the Protocols are a cover identity for other conspirators such as the Illuminati,[29] Freemasons, the Priory of Sion, or even, in the opinion of David Icke, "extra-dimensional entities.”

9.3.3 Emergence in Russia The chapter “In the Jewish Cemetery in Prague” from Goedsche’s Biarritz, with its strong antisemitic theme containing the alleged rabbinical plot against the European civilization, was translated into Russian as a separate pamphlet in 1872.[5] In 1921, Princess Catherine Radziwill gave a private lecture in New York. She claimed that the Protocols were a forgery compiled in 1904–5 by Russian journalists Matvei Golovinski and ManasevichManuilov at the direction of Pyotr Rachkovsky, Chief of the Russian secret service in Paris.[30] In 1944, German writer Konrad Heiden identiﬁed Golovinski as an author of the Protocols.[29] Radziwill’s account was supported by Russian historian Mikhail Lepekhine, who published his ﬁndings in November 1999 in the French newsweekly L'Express.[31] Lepekhine considers the Protocols a part of a scheme to persuade Tsar

9.3. HISTORY

113 Krushevan and Nilus editions The Protocols were published at the earliest, in serialized form, from August 28 to September 7 (O.S.) 1903, in Znamya, a Saint Petersburg daily newspaper, under Pavel Krushevan. Krushevan had initiated the Kishinev pogrom four months earlier.[35] In 1905, Sergei Nilus published the full text of the Protocols in Chapter XII, the ﬁnal chapter (pp 305–417), of the second edition (or third, according to some sources) of his book, Velikoe v malom i antikhrist, which translates as “The Great within the Small: The Coming of the AntiChrist and the Rule of Satan on Earth”. He claimed it was the work of the First Zionist Congress, held in 1897 in Basel, Switzerland.[25] When it was pointed out that the First Zionist Congress had been open to the public and was attended by many non-Jews, Nilus changed his story, saying the Protocols were the work of the 1902–3 meetings of the Elders, but contradicting his own prior statement that he had received his copy in 1901:

The front piece of a 1912 edition utilizing occult symbols.

Nicholas II that the modernization of Russia was really a Jewish plot to control the world.[32] Stephen Eric Bronner writes that groups opposed to progress, parliamentarianism, urbanization, and capitalism, and an active Jewish role in these modern institutions, were particularly drawn to the antisemitism of the document.[33] Ukrainian scholar Vadim Skuratovsky offers extensive literary, historical and linguistic analysis of the original text of the Protocols and traces the influences of Fyodor Dostoyevsky's prose (in particular, The Grand Inquisitor and The Possessed) on Golovinski’s writings, including the Protocols.[32] In his book The Non-Existent Manuscript, Italian scholar Cesare G. De Michelis studies early Russian publications of the Protocols. The Protocols were first mentioned in the Russian press in April 1902, by the Saint Petersburg newspaper Novoye Vremya (Новое Время – The New Times). The article was written by a famous conservative publicist Mikhail Menshikov as a part of his regular series “Letters to Neighbors” ("Письма к ближним") and was titled “Plots against Humanity”. The author described his meeting with a lady (Yuliana Glinka, as it is known now) who, after telling him about her mystical revelations, implored him to get familiar with the documents later known as the Protocols; but after reading some excerpts, Menshikov became quite skeptical about their origin and did not publish them.[34]

In 1901, I succeeded through an acquaintance of mine (the late Court Marshal Alexei Nikolayevich Sukotin of Chernigov) in getting a manuscript that exposed with unusual perfection and clarity the course and development of the secret Jewish Freemasonic conspiracy, which would bring this wicked world to its inevitable end. The person who gave me this manuscript guaranteed it to be a faithful translation of the original documents that were stolen by a woman from one of the highest and most influential leaders of the Freemasons at a secret meeting somewhere in France—the beloved nest of Freemasonic conspiracy.[36] Stolypin’s fraud investigation, 1905 A subsequent secret investigation ordered by Pyotr Stolypin, the newly appointed chairman of the Council of Ministers, came to the conclusion that the Protocols first appeared in Paris in antisemitic circles around 1897–1898.[37] When Nicholas II learned of the results of this investigation, he requested, “The Protocols should be confiscated, a good cause cannot be defended by dirty means.”[38] Despite the order, or because of the “good cause”, numerous reprints proliferated.[35]

9.3.4 The Protocols in the West In the United States, The Protocols are to be understood in the context of the First Red Scare (1917–20). The text circulated in 1919 in American government circles, speciﬁcally diplomatic and military, in typescript form, a copy of which is archived by the Hoover Institute.[39] It also appeared in 1919 in the Public Ledger as a pair

114

CHAPTER 9. THE PROTOCOLS OF THE ELDERS OF ZION erman, who later became the head of the journalism department at Columbia University. On May 8, 1920, an article[46] in The Times followed German translation and appealed for an inquiry into what it called an “uncanny note of prophecy”. In the leader (editorial) titled “The Jewish Peril, a Disturbing Pamphlet: Call for Inquiry”, Wickham Steed wrote about The Protocols: What are these 'Protocols’? Are they authentic? If so, what malevolent assembly concocted these plans and gloated over their exposition? Are they forgery? If so, whence comes the uncanny note of prophecy, prophecy in part fulﬁlled, in part so far gone in the way of fulﬁllment?".[47] Steed retracted his endorsement of The Protocols after they were exposed as a forgery.[48]

THE PROTOCOLS AND WORLD REVOLUTION A 1934 edition by the Patriotic Publishing Company of Chicago.

INCLUDING A TRANSLATION AND ANALYSIS OF THE

..PROTOCOLS OF THE MEETINGS

of serialized newspaper articles. But all references to “Jews” were replaced with references to Bolsheviki as an exposé by the journalist and subsequently highly respected Columbia University School of Journalism dean Carl W. Ackerman.[39] In 1923, there appeared an anonymously edited pamphlet by the Britons Publishing Society, a successor to The Britons, an entity created and headed by Henry Hamilton Beamish. This imprint was allegedly a translation by Victor E. Marsden, who died in October 1920.[39]

OF THE ZIONIST MEN OF WISDOM"

BOSTON

SMALL, MAYNARD

COMPANY

PUBLISHERs

Most versions substantially involve “protocols”, or minutes of a speech given in secret involving Jews who are organized as Elders, or Sages, of Zion,[40] and underlies 24 protocols that are supposedly followed by the Title page of 1920 edition from Boston. Jewish people. The Protocols has been proven to be a literary forgery and hoax as well as a clear case of United States In the US, Henry Ford sponsored the printing of 500,000 copies, and, from 1920 to 1922, pubplagiarism.[16][41][42][43][44] lished a series of antisemitic articles titled "The International Jew: The World’s Foremost Problem", in The English language imprints Dearborn Independent, a newspaper he owned. In 1921, Ford cited evidence of a Jewish threat: “The only stateOn October 27 and 28, 1919, the Philadelphia Public ment I care to make about the Protocols is that they ﬁt Ledger published excerpts of an English language trans- in with what is going on. They are 16 years old, and lation as the “Red Bible,” deleting all references to the they have ﬁtted the world situation up to this time.”[49] purported Jewish authorship and re-casting the document Robert A. Rosenbaum wrote that “In 1927, bowing to leas a Bolshevik manifesto.[45] The author of the articles gal and economic pressure, Ford issued a retraction and was the paper’s correspondent at the time, Carl W. Ack- apology—while disclaiming personal responsibility—for

9.3. HISTORY

115

the anti-Semitic articles and closed the Dearborn Inde- In the first article of Graves’ series, titled “A Literary pendent in 1927.[50] He was also an admirer of Nazi Ger- Forgery”, the editors of The Times wrote, “our Conmany.[51] stantinople Correspondent presents for the first time conIn 1934, an anonymous editor expanded the compilation clusive proof that the document is in the main a clumsy of the French with “Text and Commentary” (pp 136–41). The produc- plagiarism. He has forwarded us a copy[16] book from which the plagiarism is made.” In the same tion of this uncredited compilation was a 300-page book, [55] year, an entire book documenting the hoax was puban inauthentic expanded edition of the twelfth chapter Herman Bernstein. Despite lished in the United States by of Nilus’s 1905 book on the coming of the anti-Christ. this widespread and extensive debunking, the Protocols It consists of substantial liftings of excerpts of articles from Ford’s antisemitic periodical The Dearborn Inde- continued to be regarded as important factual evidence by antisemites. pendent. This 1934 text circulates most widely in the English-speaking world, as well as on the internet. The “Text and Commentary” concludes with a comment on 9.3.5 Middle East Chaim Weizmann's October 6, 1920, remark at a banquet: “A beneficent protection which God has instituted A translation made by an Arab Christian appeared in in the life of the Jew is that He has dispersed him all over Cairo in 1927 or 1928, this time as a book. The first transthe world”. Marsden, who was dead by then, is credited lation by an Arab Muslim was also published in Cairo, but with the following assertion: only in 1951.[56] It proves that the Learned Elders exist. It proves that Dr. Weizmann knows all about them. It proves that the desire for a “National Home” in Palestine is only camouflage and an infinitesimal part of the Jew’s real object. It proves that the Jews of the world have no intention of settling in Palestine or any separate country, and that their annual prayer that they may all meet “Next Year in Jerusalem” is merely a piece of their characteristic makebelieve. It also demonstrates that the Jews are now a world menace, and that the Aryan races will have to domicile them permanently out of Europe.[52]

The Times exposes a forgery, 1921 In 1920–1921, the history of the concepts found in the Protocols was traced back to the works of Goedsche and Jacques Crétineau-Joly by Lucien Wolf (an English Jewish journalist), and published in London in August 1921. But a dramatic exposé occurred in the series of articles in The Times by its Constantinople reporter, Philip Graves, who discovered the plagiarism from the work of Maurice Joly.[16]

9.3.6 Switzerland The Berne Trial, 1934–35 Main article: Berne Trial The selling of the Protocols (edited by German antisemite Theodor Fritsch) by the National Front during a political manifestation in the Casino of Berne on June 13, 1933,[lower-alpha 4] led to the Berne Trial in the Amtsgericht (district court) of Berne, the capital of Switzerland, on October 29, 1934. The plaintiﬀs (the Swiss Jewish Association and the Jewish Community of Berne) were represented by Hans Matti and Georges Brunschvig, helped by Emil Raas. Working on behalf of the defense was German antisemitic propagandist Ulrich Fleischhauer. On May 19, 1935, two defendants (Theodore Fischer and Silvio Schnell) were convicted of violating a Bernese statute prohibiting the distribution of “immoral, obscene or brutalizing” texts[57] while three other defendants were acquitted. The court declared the Protocols to be forgeries, plagiarisms, and obscene literature. Judge Walter Meyer, a Christian who had not heard of the Protocols earlier, said in conclusion,

I hope the time will come when nobody According to writer Peter Grose, Allen Dulles, who will be able to understand how in 1935 nearly was in Constantinople developing relationships in posta dozen sane and responsible men were able Ottoman political structures, discovered “the source” of for two weeks to mock the intellect of the the documentation and ultimately provided him to The Bern court discussing the authenticity of the Times. Grose writes that The Times extended a loan to so-called Protocols, the very Protocols that, the source, a Russian émigré who refused to be identified, [53] harmful as they have been and will be, are nothwith the understanding the loan would not be repaid. [35] ing but laughable nonsense. Colin Holmes, a lecturer in economic history at Sheffield University, identified the émigré as Michael Raslovleff, a self-identified antisemite, who gave the information to Vladimir Burtsev, a Russian émigré, anti-Bolshevik Graves so as not to “give a weapon of any kind to the and anti-Fascist who exposed numerous Okhrana agents provocateurs in the early 1900s, served as a witness at the Jews, whose friend I have never been.”[54]

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Berne Trial. In 1938 in Paris he published a book, The Protocols of the Elders of Zion: A Proved Forgery, based on his testimony.

were a gross forgery, they had sensational popularity and large sales in the 1920s and 1930s. They were translated into every language of Europe and sold widely in Arab lands, the US, and England. But it was in Germany after World War I that they had their greatest success. There they were used to explain all of the disasters that had befallen the country: the defeat in the war, the hunger, the destructive inﬂation.[63]

On November 1, 1937, the defendants appealed the verdict to the Obergericht (Cantonal Supreme Court) of Berne. A panel of three judges acquitted them, holding that the Protocols, while false, did not violate the statute at issue because they were “political publications” and not “immoral (obscene) publications (Schundliteratur)" in the strict sense of the law.[57] The presiding judge’s opinion stated, though, that the forgery of the Protocols was not questionable and expressed regret that the law Hitler refers to the Protocols in Mein Kampf: did not provide adequate protection for Jews from this sort of literature. The court refused to impose the fees of ...To what extent the whole existence of defense of the acquitted defendants to the plaintiffs, and this people is based on a continuous lie is the acquitted Theodor Fischer had to pay 100 Fr. to the shown incomparably by the Protocols of the total state costs of the trial (Fr. 28'000) that were evenWise Men of Zion, so infinitely hated by the tually paid by the Canton of Berne.[58] This decision gave Jews. They are based on a forgery, the grounds for later allegations that the appeal court “conFrankfurter Zeitung moans and screams once firmed authenticity of the Protocols” which is contrary to every week: the best proof that they are authenthe facts. A view favorable to the pro-Nazi defendants is tic. ... the important thing is that with posireported in an appendix to Leslie Fry's Waters Flowing tively terrifying certainty they reveal the nature Eastward.[59] A more scholarly work on the trial is in a and activity of the Jewish people and expose 139-page monograph by Urs Lüthi.[60] their inner contexts as well as their ultimate final aims.[64] The Basel Trial

Hitler endorsed the Protocols in his speeches from August 1921 on, and it was studied in German classrooms after the Nazis came to power.[1] At the height of World War II, the Nazi Propaganda Minister Joseph Goebbels proclaimed: “The Zionist Protocols are as up-to-date today as they were the day they were ﬁrst published.”[65] Historian Norman Cohn argued that it served as the Nazis’ “warrant for genocide”.[66]

A similar trial in Switzerland took place at Basel. The Swiss Frontists Alfred Zander and Eduard Rüegsegger distributed the Protocols (edited by the German Gottfried zur Beek) in Switzerland. Jules Dreyfus-Brodsky and Marcus Cohen sued them for insult to Jewish honor. At the same time, chief rabbi Marcus Ehrenpreis of Stockholm (who also witnessed at the Berne Trial) sued Alfred Zander who contended that Ehrenpreis himself had said In contrast to Hitler’s rantings, Nazi leader Erich von dem that the Protocols were authentic (referring to the fore- Bach-Zelewsky admitted: word of the edition of the Protocols by the German antisemite Theodor Fritsch). On June 5, 1936 these proceedI am the only living witness but I must say ings ended with a settlement.[lower-alpha 5] the truth. Contrary to the opinion of the National Socialists, that the Jews were a highly organized group, the appalling fact was that they 9.3.7 Germany had no organization whatsoever. The mass of the Jewish people were taken complete by sur[62] According to historian Norman Cohn, the assassins of prise. They did not know at all what to do; German Jewish politician Walter Rathenau (1867–1922) they had no directives or slogans as to how were convinced that Rathenau was a literal “Elder of they should act. This is the greatest lie of antiZion”. Semitism because it gives the lie to that old The Protocols also became a part of the Nazi propaganda slogan that the Jews are conspiring to domieﬀort to justify persecution of the Jews. “Distillations nate the world and that they are so highly orof the text appeared in German classrooms, indoctriganized. In reality, they had no organization nated the Hitler Youth, and invaded the USSR along with of their own at all, not even an information serGerman soldiers.”[1] In The Holocaust: The Destruction vice. If they had had some sort of organization, of European Jewry 1933–1945, Nora Levin states that these people could have been saved by the mil“Hitler used the Protocols as a manual in his war to exterlions, but instead, they were taken completely minate the Jews": by surprise. Never before has a people gone as unsuspectingly to its disaster. Nothing was Despite conclusive proof that the Protocols prepared. Absolutely nothing.[67][68]

9.4. SEE ALSO

117

For unknown reasons, publication of the Protocols was stopped in Germany in 1939.[69] An edition that was already ready for printing was blocked by the censorship laws.[70]

The 1988 charter of Hamas, a Palestinian Islamist group, states that The Protocols of the Elders of Zion embodies the plan of the Zionists.[79] Recent endorsements in the 21st century have been made by the Grand Mufti Sa'id Sabri, the education Richard S. Levy criticises the claim that the Protocols had of Jerusalem, Sheikh Ekrima [78] ministry of Saudi Arabia, member of the Greek Para large effect on Hitler’s thinking, writing that it is based [80] liament Ilias Kasidiaris, and young earth creationist [71] mostly on suspect testimony and lacks hard evidence. and tax evader Kent Hovind.[81] German language publications Having fled the Ukraine in 1918–19, Piotr ShabelskyBork brought the Protocols to Ludwig Muller Von Hausen who then published them in German.[72] Under the pseudonym Gottfried Zur Beek he produced the first and “by far the most important”[73] German translation. It appeared in January 1920 as a part of a larger antisemitic tract[74] dated 1919. After The Times discussed the book respectfully in May 1920 it became a bestseller. “The Hohenzollern family helped defray the publication costs, and Kaiser Wilhelm II had portions of the book read out aloud to dinner guests”.[65] Alfred Rosenberg's 1923 edition[75] “gave a forgery a huge boost”.[65]

In 2010, Italian philosopher and novelist Umberto Eco released his novel The Cemetery of Prague which contains a ﬁctional account of the origin of The Protocols forgery. In 2015, Poland’s appointed defence minister has been condemned for entertaining the possibility that The Protocols may be real.[82]

9.4 See also Pertinent concepts • Black propaganda • Hate speech

9.3.8

Italy

• World government

Fascist politician Giovanni Preziosi published the ﬁrst Individuals Italian edition of the Protocols in 1921.[76] The book however had little impact until the mid-1930s. A new 1937 • Heidegger and Nazism edition had a much higher impact, and three further editions in the following months sold 60,000 copies total.[76] Related or similar texts The ﬁfth edition had an introduction by Julius Evola, which argued around the issue of forgery, stating: “The • A Racial Program for the Twentieth Century problem of the authenticity of this document is secondary and has to be replaced by the much more serious and es• The permanent instruction of the Alta Vendita sential problem of its truthfulness”.[76] • Tanaka Memorial

9.3.9

Modern era

See also: Contemporary imprints of The Protocols of the Elders of Zion and New World Order (conspiracy theory) § The Protocols of the Elders of Zion The Protocols continue to be widely available around the world, particularly on the Internet, as well as in print in Japan, the Middle East, Asia, and South America.[77] Governments or political leaders in most parts of the world have not referred to the Protocols since World War II. The exception to this is the Middle East, where a large number of Arab and Muslim regimes and leaders have endorsed them as authentic, including endorsements from Presidents Gamal Abdel Nasser and Anwar Sadat of Egypt, one of the President Arifs of Iraq, King Faisal of Saudi Arabia, and Colonel Muammar al-Gaddaﬁ of Libya.[56][78]

• Protocols of Zion • Hamas Covenant • The Cemetery of Prague • Memoirs of Mr. Hempher, The British Spy to the Middle East • Warrant for Genocide

9.5 Notes [1] The text contains 44 instances of the word “I” (9.6%), and 412 instances of the word “we” (90.4%).[10] [2] This complex relationship was originally exposed by Graves 1921. The exposé has since been elaborated in many sources.

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[3] Jacobs analyses the Marsden English translation. Some other less common imprints have more or fewer than 24 protocols [4] The main speaker was the former chief of the Swiss General Staﬀ Emil Sonderegger. [5] Zander had to withdraw his contention and the stock of the incriminated Protocols were destroyed by order of the court. Zander had to pay the fees of this Basel Trial.[61]

9.6 References

[17] Keren, David (February 10, 1993), Commentary on The Protocols of the Elders of Zion (PDF), IGC, p. 4. Republished as “Introduction”, The Protocols of the Learned Elders of Zion, Marsden, Victor E transl. [18] Cohn, Norman (1966), Warrant for Genocide: The Myth of the Jewish World-Conspiracy and the Protocols of the Elder of Zion, New York: Harper & Row, pp. 32–36. [19] Eco, Umberto (1998), Serendipities: Language and Lunacy, New York: Columbia University Press, p. 14, ISBN 0-231-11134-7 [20] Olender, Maurice (2009), Race and Erudition, Harvard University Press, p. 11.

[1] Segel, BW and Levy, RS. A Lie and a Libel: The History of the Protocols of the Elders of Zion. University of Nebraska Press (1995), p. 30. ISBN 0803242433.

[21] Mendes-Flohr, Paul R; Reinharz, Jehuda (1995), The Jew in the Modern World: A Documentary History, p.363 see footnote, ISBN 0-19-507453-X

[2] Michelis, Cesare G. De (2004). The non-existent manuscript : a study of the Protocols of the sages of Zion. Lincoln: Univ. of Nebraska Press. p. 65. ISBN 0803217277.

[22] Chanes 2004, p. 58.

[3] Michelis, Cesare G. De (2004). The non-existent manuscript : a study of the Protocols of the sages of Zion. Lincoln: Univ. of Nebraska Press. pp. 76–80. ISBN 0803217277.

[25] de Michelis, Newhouse & Bi-Yerushalayim 2004.

[4] Jacobs & Weitzman 2003, p. 15. [5] Segel, Binjamin W (1996) [1926], Levy, Richard S, ed., A Lie and a Libel: The History of the Protocols of the Elders of Zion, University of Nebraska Press, p. 97, ISBN 08032-9245-7. [6] De Michelis, Newhouse & Bi-Yerushalayim 2004, p. 47. [7] De Michelis, Newhouse & Bi-Yerushalayim 2004, p. 114. [8] A Hoax of Hate, Jewish Virtual Library. [9] Boym, Svetlana (1999), “Conspiracy theories and literary ethics: Umberto Eco, Danilo Kis and 'The Protocols of Zion'", Comparative Literature 51 (Spring): 97, doi:10.2307/1771244. [10] The Protocols of the Learned Elders of Zion, Marsden, VE transl, Shoah education. [11] Pipes 1997, p. 85. [12] Ye’r, Bat; Kochan, Miriam; Littman, David (December 1, 2001), Islam and Dhimmitude, US: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, p. 142, ISBN 978-0-8386-3942-9. [13] Eco, Umberto (1994), “Fictional Protocols”, Six Walks in the Fictional Woods, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, p. 135, ISBN 0-674-81050-3 [14] De Michelis, Newhouse & Bi-Yerushalayim 2004, p. 8. [15] Bein, Alex (1990), The Jewish question: biography of a world problem, Fairleigh Dickinson Univ Press, p. 339, ISBN 978-0-8386-3252-9 [16] Graves 1921.

[23] Shibuya 2007, p. 571. [24] Jacobs & Weitzman 2003, pp. 21–25.

[26] Cohn 1967. [27] Eco, Umberto (1990), Foucault’s Pendulum, London: Picador, p. 490. [28] Pipes 1997, pp. 86–87. [29] Freund, Charles Paul (February 2000), “Forging Protocols”, Reason Magazine. [30] “Princess Radziwill Quizzed at Lecture; Stranger Questions Her Title After She Had Told of Forgery of “Jewish Protocols.” Creates Stir at Astor Leaves Without Giving His Name— Mrs. Huribut Corroborates the Princess. Stranger Quizzes Princess. Corroborates Mme. Radziwill. Never Reached Alexander III. The Corroboration. Says Orgewsky Was Proud of Work.”. The New York Times. March 4, 1921. Retrieved 2008-08-05. [31] Conan, Éric (November 16, 1999), “Les secrets d'une manipulation antisémite” [The secrets of an antisemite manipulation], L’Express (in French). [32] Skuratovsky, Vadim (2001), The Question of the Authorship of “The Protocols of the Elders of Zion”, Kiev: Judaica Institute, ISBN 966-7273-12-1. [33] Bronner 2003, p. ix, 56. [34] Karasova, T; Chernyakhovsky, D, Afterword (in Russian) in Cohn, Norman, Warrant for Genocide (in Russian) (translated ed.). [35] Kadzhaya, Valery. “The Fraud of a Century, or a book born in hell”. Archived from the original on December 17, 2005. Retrieved September 2005.. [36] Kominsky, Morris (1970), The Hoaxers, p. 209, ISBN 0-8283-1288-5. [37] Fyodorov, Boris, P. Stolypin’s attempt to resolve the Jewish question (in Russian), RU.

9.6. REFERENCES

[38] Burtsev, Vladimir (1938), “4”, The Protocols of the Elders of Zion: A Proved Forgery (in Russian), Paris: Jewniverse, p. 106. [39] Singerman 1980, pp. 48–78. [40] Rivera, David Allen (1998) [1994], “5”, Final Warning: A History of The New World Order. [41] Handwerk, Brian (September 11, 2006), “Anti-Semitic “Protocols of Zion” Endure, Despite Debunking”, National Geographic News. [42] “Protocols of the Elders of Zion”, Holocaust Encyclopedia, US: Holocaust Memorial Museum, May 4, 2009. [43] David 2000. [44] Carroll 2006. [45] Jenkins, Philip (1997), Hoods and Shirts: The Extreme Right in Pennsylvania, 1925–1950, UNC Press, p. 114, ISBN 0-8078-2316-3 [46] Steed, Henry Wickham (May 8, 1920), “A Disturbing Pamphlet: A Call for Enquiry”, The Times. [47] Friedländer, Saul (1997), Nazi Germany and the Jews, New York: HarperCollins, p. 95. [48] Liebich, A. The Antisemitism of Henry Wickham Steed. Patterns of Prejudice Volume 46, Issue 2, 2012. Retrieved May 21, 2015. [49] Wallace, Max (2003), The American Axis, St. Martin’s Press. [50] Rosenbaum, Robert A (2010). Waking to Danger: Americans and Nazi Germany, 1933-1941. Greenwood Press. p. 41. ISBN 978-0313385025.

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[60] Lüthi, Urs (1992), Der Mythos von der Weltverschwörung: die Hetze der Schweizer Frontisten gegen Juden und Freimaurer, am Beispiel des Berner Prozesses um die “Protokolle der Weisen von Zion” (in German), Basel/Frankfurt am Main: Helbing & Lichtenhahn, ISBN 978-3-7190-1197-0, OCLC 30002662 [61] Lüthi 1992, p. 45. [62] Cohn 1967, p. 169. [63] Nora Levin, The Holocaust: The Destruction of European Jewry 1933–1945. Quoting from IGC.org [64] Hitler, Adolf, “XI: Nation and Race”, Mein Kampf I, pp. 307–8. [65] Pipes 1997, p. 95. [66] Cohn, N. Warrant for Genocide: The Myth of the Jewish World Conspiracy and the Protocols of the Elders of Zion. Serif (2006). ISBN 1897959494. [67] Nora Levin (1968). The holocaust: the destruction of European Jewry, 1933-1945. T. Y. Crowell Co. p. 20. [68] Joel E. Dimsdale (January 1, 1980). Survivors, Victims, and Perpetrators: Essays on the Nazi Holocaust. Taylor & Francis. p. 35. ISBN 978-0-89116-351-0. [69] Michael Hagemeister (2011). “The Protocols of the Elders of Zion in court: The Bern trials, 1933-1937”. In Esther Webman. The Global Impact of 'The Protocols of the Elders of Zion'. London, New York: Routledge. pp. 241–253. [70] Michael Hagemeister, lecture at Cambridge University, 11 November 2014. video

[51] Dobbs, Michael (November 30, 1998), “Ford and GM Scrutinized for Alleged Nazi Collaboration”, The Washington Post: A01, retrieved March 20, 2006.

[71] Richard S. Levy (2014). “Setting the Record Straight Regarding The Protocols of the Elders of Zion: A Fool’s Errand?". In William C. Donahue and Martha B. Helfer. Nexus — Essays in German Jewish Studies 2. Camden House. pp. 43–61.

[52] Marsden, Victor E, “Introduction”, The protocols of the learned Elders of Zion (English ed.).

[72] Kellogg 2005, pp. 63–65.

[53] Grose, Peter (1994), Gentleman Spy: The Life of Allen Dulles, Houghton Miﬄin. [54] Poliakov, Leon (1997), “Protocols of the Learned Elders of Zion”, in Roth, Cecil, Encyclopedia Judaica (CD-ROM 1.0 ed.), Keter, ISBN 965-07-0665-8. [55] Bernstein 1921. [56] Lewis, Bernard (1986), Semites and Anti-Semites: An Inquiry into Conﬂict and Prejudice, WW Norton & Co., p. 199, ISBN 0-393-02314-1 [57] Hafner, Urs (December 23, 2005). “Die Quelle allen Übels? Wie ein Berner Gericht 1935 gegen antisemitische Verschwörungsphantasien vorging” (in German). Neue Zürcher Zeitung. Retrieved 2008-10-11. [58] Ben-Itto 2005. [59] Fry, Leslie. “Appendix II: The Berne Trials”. Waters Flowing Eastward. Retrieved 2009-08-11.

[73] Pipes 1997, p. 94. [74] Geheimnisse der Weisen von Zion (in German), Auf Vorposten, 1919. [75] Rosenberg, Alfred (1923), Die Protokolle der Weisen von Zion und die jüdische Weltpolitik, Munich: Deutscher Volksverlag. [76] Valentina Pisanty (2006), La difesa della razza: Antologia 1938-1943, Bompiani [77] Jacobs & Weitzmann 2003, pp. xi–xiv, 1–4. [78] Islamic Antisemitism in Historical Perspective (PDF), AntiDefamation League, pp. 8–9 [79] “Hamas Covenant”. Yale. 1988. Retrieved May 27, 2010. Today it is Palestine, tomorrow it will be one country or another. The Zionist plan is limitless. After Palestine, the Zionists aspire to expand from the Nile to the Euphrates. When they will have digested the region they

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overtook, they will aspire to further expansion, and so on. Their plan is embodied in the 'Protocols of the Elders of Zion', and their present conduct is the best proof of what we are saying.

• Graves, Philip (1921c), “The truth about 'The Protocols’: a literary forgery” (pamphlet), The Times (articles collection) (London).

[81] “Creationism Gets a Dash of Anti-Semitism” (Summer). SPL center. 2001.

• Hagemeister, Michael (2006), Brinks, Jan Herman; Rock, Stella; Timms, Edward, eds., Nationalist Myths and Modern Media. Contested Identities in the Age of Globalization, London/New York, pp. 243– 55.

[82] . Rajeev Syal, Polish defence minister condemned over Jewish conspiracy theory, The Guardian, November 10th, 2015

• Jacobs, Steven Leonard; Weitzman, Mark (2003), Dismantling the Big Lie: The Protocols of the Elders of Zion, ISBN 0-88125-785-0.

9.7 Bibliography

• Kellogg, Michael (2005), The Russian Roots of Nazism White Émigrés and the Making of National Socialism, 1917–1945, Cambridge.

[80] “Protocols of the Elders of Zion read aloud in Greek Parliament”.

• Ben-Itto, Hadassa (2005), The Lie That Wouldn't Die: One Hundred Years of The Protocols of the Elders of Zion, London; Portland, OR: Vallentine Mitchell, ISBN 978-0-85303-602-9 • • Bernstein, Herman (1921): The History of a Lie at Project Gutenberg • Bernstein, Herman (1921), The history of a lie, 'The protocols of the wise men of Zion' (page images) (study), Archive, retrieved 2009-0201. • Bronner, Stephen Eric (2003), A Rumor About the Jews: Reﬂections on Antisemitism and the Protocols of the Learned Elders of Zion, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-516956-5. • Carroll, Robert Todd (2006), “Protocols of the Learned Elders of Zion”, Skeptic’s Dictionary. • Chanes, Jerome A (2004), Antisemitism: a reference handbook, ABC-CLIO. • Cohn, Norman (1967), Warrant for Genocide, The myth of the Jewish world conspiracy and the 'Protocols of the Elders of Zion', Eyre & Spottiswoode, ISBN 1-897959-25-7. • David (June 30, 2000), “What’s the story with the 'Protocols of the Elders of Zion'?", The Straight Dope.

• Lüthi, Urs (1992), Der Mythos von der Weltverschwörung: die Hetze der Schweizer Frontisten gegen Juden und Freimaurer, am Beispiel des Berner Prozesses um die “Protokolle der Weisen von Zion” (in German), Basel/Frankfurt am Main: Helbing & Lichtenhahn, ISBN 978-3-7190-1197-0, OCLC 30002662. • de Michelis, Cesare G; Newhouse, Richard; BiYerushalayim (June 1, 2004) [1998], The nonexistent manuscript: a study of the Protocols of the sages of Zion, Lincoln and London: Vidal Sassoon International Center for the Study of Antisemitism, Universiṭah ha-ʻIvrit; University of Nebraska Press, p. 113, ISBN 978-0-8032-1727-0. • Pipes, Daniel (1997), Conspiracy: How the Paranoid Style Flourishes and Where It Comes From, The Free Press, Simon & Schuster, ISBN 0-684-831317. • Singerman, Robert (1980), “The American Career of the Protocols of the Elders of Zion”, American Jewish History 71.

9.8 Further reading • A Hoax of Hate, The Anti-Defamation League, 2002. • Eisner, Will, The Plot: The Secret Story of the Protocols of the Elders of Zion, ISBN 0-393-06045-4.

• Graves, Philip (August 16–18, 1921), “The Truth about the Protocols: A Literary Forgery”, The Times (London).

• Fox, Frank (1997), “The Protocols of the Elders of Zion and the Shadowy world of Elie de Cyon”, East European Jewish Aﬀairs 27 (1): 3–22, doi:10.1080/13501679708577838.

• Graves, Philip (September 4, 1921b), "'Jewish World Plot': An Exposure. The Source of 'The Protocols of Zion'. Truth at Last” (PDF), The New York Times, Front p, Sec 7.

• Goldberg, Isaac (1936), The so-called “Protocols of the Elders of Zion": a Deﬁnitive Exposure of One of the Most Malicious Lies in History, Girard, KS: E. Haldeman-Julius.

9.9. EXTERNAL LINKS • Hagemeister, Michael, “The Protocols of the Elders of Zion: Between History and Fiction”, New German Critique 35 (1103), retrieved 2009-09-15 • Kis, Danilo (1989), “The Book of Kings and Fools”, The Encyclopedia of the Dead, Faber & Faber. • Landes, Richard; Katz, Steven, eds. (2012), Paranoid Apocalypse: A Hundred-Year Retrospective on 'The Protocols of the Elders of Zion', New York: New York University Press.

121 • Dickerson, D (ed.), Protocols (Index of several resources), Institute for Global Communications. • Dickerson, D (ed.), The protocols of the learned Elders of Zion (PDF), Marsden, transl., IGC. • Eco, Umberto (August 17, 2002), “The poisonous Protocols”, The Guardian • Eshed, Eli (2005), The Plot: The Secret Story of the Protocols of the Elders of Zion, graphic novel by Will Eisner (review), IL: Notes.

• Shibuya, Eric (2007), “The Struggle with RightWing Extremist Groups in the United States”, in Forest, James, Countering terrorism and insurgency in the 21st century 3, Greenwood.

• Rothstein, Edward (April 21, 2006), “The Antisemitic Hoax That Refuses to Die”, The New York Times (exhibition review).

• Timmerman, Kenneth R (2003), Preachers of Hate: Islam and the War on America, Crown Forum, ISBN 1-4000-4901-6.

• Weiss, Anthony (March 4, 2009), “Elders of Zion to Retire”, The Jewish Daily Forward (Purim spoof article).

• Webman, Esther, ed. (2011), The Global Impact of The Protocols of the Elders of Zion. A century-old myth, London and New York: Routledge, ISBN 0415-59892-3.

• Wiesel, Elie (August 13, 2006), Nobel Peace Prize winner (audio) (talk).

• Wolf, Lucien (1921), The Myth of the Jewish Menace in World Aﬀairs or, The Truth About the Forged Protocols of the Elders of Zion, New York: Macmillan.

• “Protocols of the Learned Elders of Zion”, Encyclopaedia Britannica.

• Matussek, Carmen (2013), Carmen Matussek: The Protocols of the Elders of Zion in the Arab world, World Jewish Congress website.

9.9 External links • Public Statement (PDF), The American Jewish Committee, 4pp. A disclaimer published as a result of a conference held in New York City on November 30, 1920. • The Protocols of the Elders of Zion: Between History and Fiction, By Michael Hagemeister • Protocols of the Elders of Zion; a fabricated “historic” document (PDF) (report), United States Holocaust Museum: Subcommittee to Investigate the Administration of the Internal Security Act and Other Internal Security Laws, 88th Congress, 2d Session, August 6, 1964. • The Protocols of the Elders of Zion, Jewish Virtual Library. • Antisemitic Propaganda: “The Protocols of the Learned Elders of Zion”, Ontario Consultants on Religious Tolerance, September 2004. • “A Dangerous Lie”, Holocaust Encyclopedia, United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, April 2006.

• History of the Protocols of the Learned Elders of Zion, BCY, CA: Freemasonry.

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The Times exposed the Protocols as a forgery on August 16–18, 1921

Chapter 10

Judaism This article is about the Jewish religion. For consideration of ethnic, historic and cultural aspects of the Jewish identity, see Jews.

Judaica (clockwise from top): Shabbat candlesticks, handwashing cup, Chumash and Tanakh, Torah pointer, shofar and etrog box

Judaism (from Latin: Iudaismus, derived from Greek Ἰουδαϊσμός, originally from Hebrew ‫יהודה‬, Yehudah, "Judah";[1][2] in Hebrew: ‫יהדות‬, Yahadut, the distinctive characteristics of the Judean ethnos)[3] encompasses the religion, philosophy, culture and way of life of the Jewish people.[4] Judaism is an ancient monotheistic religion, with the Torah as its foundational text (part of the larger text known as the Tanakh or Hebrew Bible), and supplemental oral tradition represented by later texts such as the Midrash and the Talmud. Judaism is considered by religious Jews to be the expression of the covenantal relationship that God established with the Children of Israel.[5]

Silver case containing a handwritten Torah (Museum of Jewish Art and History, Paris)

Judaism there are a variety of movements, most of which emerged from Rabbinic Judaism, which holds that God revealed his laws and commandments to Moses on Mount Sinai in the form of both the Written and Oral Torah.[6] Historically, this assertion was challenged by various groups such as the Sadducees and Hellenistic JuJudaism includes a wide corpus of texts, practices, the- daism during the Second Temple period; the Karaites and ological positions, and forms of organization. Within Sabbateans during the early and later medieval period;[7] 123

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CHAPTER 10. JUDAISM

and among segments of the modern non-Orthodox denominations. Modern branches of Judaism such as Humanistic Judaism may be nontheistic.[8] Today, the largest Jewish religious movements are Orthodox Judaism (Haredi Judaism and Modern Orthodox Judaism), Conservative Judaism and Reform Judaism. Major sources of difference between these groups are their approaches to Jewish law, the authority of the Rabbinic tradition, and the significance of the State of Israel.[9] Orthodox Judaism maintains that the Torah and Jewish law are divine in origin, eternal and unalterable, and that they should be strictly followed. Conservative and Reform Judaism are more liberal, with Conservative Judaism generally promoting a more “traditional” interpretation of Judaism’s requirements than Reform Judaism. A typi- Glass platter inscribed with the Hebrew word zokhreinu – recal Reform position is that Jewish law should be viewed member us as a set of general guidelines rather than as a set of restrictions and obligations whose observance is required of all Jews.[10][11] Historically, special courts enforced Jewish law; today, these courts still exist but the practice of Judaism is mostly voluntary.[12] Authority on theological and legal matters is not vested in any one person or organization, but in the sacred texts and rabbis and scholars who interpret them.[13] Judaism claims a historical continuity spanning more than 3,000 years. Judaism has its roots as a structured religion in the Middle East during the Bronze Age.[14] Of the major world religions, Judaism is considered one of the oldest monotheistic religions.[15][16] The Hebrews / Israelites were already referred to as “Jews” in later books of the Tanakh such as the Book of Esther, with the term Jews replacing the title “Children of Israel”.[17] Judaism’s texts, traditions and values strongly influenced later Abrahamic religions, including Christianity, Islam and the Baha'i Faith.[18][19] Many aspects of Judaism have also directly or indirectly influenced secular Western ethics and civil law.[20] Jews are an ethnoreligious group[21] and include those born Jewish and converts to Judaism. In 2012, the world Jewish population was estimated at about 14 million, or roughly 0.2% of the total world population.[22] About 42% of all Jews reside in Israel and another 42% reside in North America, with most of the remainder living in Europe, and other minority groups spread throughout South America, Asia, Africa, and Australia.[23]

A 19th-century silver Macedonian Hanukkah menorah

the people he created.[24] Judaism thus begins with ethical monotheism: the belief that God is one and is concerned with the actions of humankind.[25] According to the Tanakh (Hebrew Bible), God promised Abraham to make of his oﬀspring a great nation.[26] Many generations later, he commanded the nation of Israel to love and worship only one God; that is, the Jewish nation is to reciprocate God’s concern for the world.[27] He also commanded the Jewish people to love one another; that is, Jews are to imitate God’s love for people.[28] These commandments are but two of a large corpus of commandments and laws that constitute this covenant, which is the substance of Judaism.

Thus, although there is an esoteric tradition in Judaism (Kabbalah), Rabbinic scholar Max Kadushin has char10.1 Defining characteristics and acterized normative Judaism as “normal mysticism”, because it involves everyday personal experiences of God principles of faith through ways or modes that are common to all Jews.[29] This is played out through the observance of the Halakha and given verbal expression in the Birkat Ha-Mizvot, the 10.1.1 Defining characteristics short blessings that are spoken every time a positive comUnlike other ancient Near Eastern gods, the Hebrew God mandment is to be fulfilled. is portrayed as unitary and solitary; consequently, the The ordinary, familiar, everyday things and ocHebrew God’s principal relationships are not with other currences, we have constitute occasions for the gods, but with the world, and more specifically, with

10.1. DEFINING CHARACTERISTICS AND PRINCIPLES OF FAITH

125

experience of God. Such things as one’s daily sustenance, the very day itself, are felt as manifestations of God’s loving-kindness, calling for the Berakhot. Kedushah, holiness, which is nothing else than the imitation of God, is concerned with daily conduct, with being gracious and merciful, with keeping oneself from deﬁlement by idolatry, adultery, and the shedding of blood. The Birkat Ha-Mitzwot evokes the consciousness of holiness at a rabbinic rite, but the objects employed in the majority of these rites are non-holy and of general character, while the several holy objects are non-theurgic. And not only do ordinary things and occurrences bring with them the experience of God. Everything that happens to a man evokes that experience, evil as well as good, for a Berakah is said also at evil tidings. Hence, although the experience of God is like none other, the occasions for experiencing Him, for having a consciousness of Him, are manifold, even if we consider only those that call for Berakot.[30]

3. I believe with perfect faith that the Creator, Blessed be His Name, has no body, and that He is free from all the properties of matter, and that there can be no (physical) comparison to Him whatsoever.

Whereas Jewish philosophers often debate whether God is immanent or transcendent, and whether people have free will or their lives are determined, Halakha is a system through which any Jew acts to bring God into the world.

9. I believe with perfect faith that this Torah will not be exchanged, and that there will never be any other Torah from the Creator, Blessed be His Name.

Ethical monotheism is central in all sacred or normative texts of Judaism. However, monotheism has not always been followed in practice. The Jewish Bible (Tanakh) records and repeatedly condemns the widespread worship of other gods in ancient Israel.[31] In the Greco-Roman era, many diﬀerent interpretations of monotheism existed in Judaism, including the interpretations that gave rise to Christianity.[32] Moreover, as a non-creedal religion, some have argued that Judaism does not require one to believe in God. For some, observance of Jewish law is more important than belief in God per se.[33] In modern times, some liberal Jewish movements do not accept the existence of a personiﬁed deity active in history.[34][35]

10.1.2

4. I believe with perfect faith that the Creator, Blessed be His Name, is the ﬁrst and the last. 5. I believe with perfect faith that to the Creator, Blessed be His Name, and to Him alone, it is right to pray, and that it is not right to pray to any being besides Him. 6. I believe with perfect faith that all the words of the prophets are true. 7. I believe with perfect faith that the prophecy of Moses our teacher, peace be upon him, was true, and that he was the chief of the prophets, both those who preceded him and those who followed him. 8. I believe with perfect faith that the entire Torah that is now in our possession is the same that was given to Moses our teacher, peace be upon him.

10. I believe with perfect faith that the Creator, Blessed be His Name, knows all the deeds of human beings and all their thoughts, as it is written, “Who fashioned the hearts of them all, Who comprehends all their actions” (Psalms 33:15). 11. I believe with perfect faith that the Creator, Blessed be His Name, rewards those who keep His commandments and punishes those that transgress them. 12. I believe with perfect faith in the coming of the Messiah; and even though he may tarry, nonetheless, I wait every day for his coming. 13. I believe with perfect faith that there will be a revival of the dead at the time when it shall please the Creator, Blessed be His name, and His mention shall be exalted for ever and ever.

Core tenets —Maimonides

Main article: Jewish principles of faith 13 Principles of Faith: 1. I believe with perfect faith that the Creator, Blessed be His Name, is the Creator and Guide of everything that has been created; He alone has made, does make, and will make all things.

Scholars throughout Jewish history have proposed numerous formulations of Judaism’s core tenets, all of which have met with criticism.[36] The most popular formulation is Maimonides' thirteen principles of faith, developed in the 12th century. According to Maimonides, any Jew who rejects even one of these principles would be considered an apostate and a heretic.[37][38] Jewish scholars have held points of view diverging in various ways from Maimonides’ principles.[39][40]

2. I believe with perfect faith that the Creator, Blessed be His Name, is One, and that there is no unity in any manner like His, and that He alone is our God, In Maimonides’ time, his list of tenets was criticized by Hasdai Crescas and Joseph Albo. Albo and the Raavad who was, and is, and will be.

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CHAPTER 10. JUDAISM

argued that Maimonides’ principles contained too many items that, while true, were not fundamentals of the faith. Along these lines, the ancient historian Josephus emphasized practices and observances rather than religious beliefs, associating apostasy with a failure to observe Jewish law and maintaining that the requirements for conversion to Judaism included circumcision and adherence to traditional customs. Maimonides’ principles were largely ignored over the next few centuries.[41] Later, two poetic restatements of these principles ("Ani Ma'amin" and "Yigdal") became integrated into many Jewish liturgies,[42] leading to their eventual nearuniversal acceptance.[43][44] In modern times, Judaism lacks a centralized authority that would dictate an exact religious dogma.[13][45] Because of this, many diﬀerent variations on the basic beliefs are considered within the scope of Judaism.[39] Even so, all Jewish religious movements are, to a greater or lesser extent, based on the principles of the Hebrew Bible and various commentaries such as the Talmud and Midrash. Judaism also universally recognizes the Biblical Covenant between God and the Patriarch Abraham as well as the additional aspects of the Covenant revealed to Moses, who is considered Judaism’s greatest prophet.[39][46][47][48][49] In the Mishnah, a core text of Rabbinic Judaism, acceptance of the Divine origins of this covenant is considered an essential aspect of Judaism and those who reject the Covenant forfeit their share in the World to Come.[50]

• Halakhic literature • Major Codes of Jewish Law and Custom • Mishneh Torah and commentaries • Tur and commentaries • Shulchan Aruch and commentaries • Responsa literature • Jewish Thought and Ethics • Jewish philosophy • Musar literature and other works of Jewish ethics • Kabbalah • Hasidic works • Siddur and Jewish liturgy • Piyyut (Classical Jewish poetry)

10.2.1 Jewish legal literature Main article: Halakha

The basis of Jewish law and tradition (halakha) is the Torah (also known as the Pentateuch or the Five Books of Moses). According to rabbinic tradition there are 613 commandments in the Torah. Some of these laws are directed only to men or to women, some only to the ancient priestly groups, the Kohanim and Leviyim (members of the tribe of Levi), some only to farmers within 10.2 Jewish religious texts the Land of Israel. Many laws were only applicable when the Temple in Jerusalem existed, and fewer than 300 of The following is a basic, structured list of the central these commandments are still applicable today. works of Jewish practice and thought. While there have been Jewish groups whose beliefs were • Tanakh[51] (Hebrew Bible) and Rabbinic literature • Mesorah • Targum • Jewish Biblical exegesis (also see Midrash below)

claimed to be based on the written text of the Torah alone (e.g., the Sadducees, and the Karaites), most Jews believed in what they call the oral law. These oral traditions were transmitted by the Pharisee sect of ancient Judaism, and were later recorded in written form and expanded upon by the rabbis.

Rabbinic Judaism (which derives from the Pharisees) has • Works of the Talmudic Era (classic rabbinic litera- always held that the books of the Torah (called the written law) have always been transmitted in parallel with an ture) oral tradition. To justify this viewpoint, Jews point to the • Mishnah and commentaries text of the Torah, where many words are left undeﬁned, and many procedures mentioned without explanation or • Tosefta and the minor tractates instructions; this, they argue, means that the reader is as• Talmud: sumed to be familiar with the details from other, i.e., oral, • The Babylonian Talmud and commen- sources. This parallel set of material was originally transtaries mitted orally, and came to be known as “the oral law". • Jerusalem Talmud and commentaries By the time of Rabbi Judah haNasi (200 CE), after the destruction of Jerusalem, much of this material was • Midrashic literature: edited together into the Mishnah. Over the next four cen• Halakhic Midrash turies this law underwent discussion and debate in both • Aggadic Midrash of the world’s major Jewish communities (in Israel and

10.2. JEWISH RELIGIOUS TEXTS Babylonia), and the commentaries on the Mishnah from each of these communities eventually came to be edited together into compilations known as the two Talmuds. These have been expounded by commentaries of various Torah scholars during the ages. Halakha, the rabbinic Jewish way of life, then, is based on a combined reading of the Torah, and the oral tradition— the Mishnah, the halakhic Midrash, the Talmud and its commentaries. The Halakha has developed slowly, through a precedent-based system. The literature of questions to rabbis, and their considered answers, is referred to as responsa (in Hebrew, Sheelot U-Teshuvot.) Over time, as practices develop, codes of Jewish law are written that are based on the responsa; the most important code, the Shulchan Aruch, largely determines Orthodox religious practice today.

10.2.2

Jewish philosophy

Main article: Jewish philosophy Jewish philosophy refers to the conjunction between serious study of philosophy and Jewish theology. Major Jewish philosophers include Solomon ibn Gabirol, Saadia Gaon, Judah Halevi, Maimonides, and Gersonides. Major changes occurred in response to the Enlightenment (late 18th to early 19th century) leading to the postEnlightenment Jewish philosophers. Modern Jewish philosophy consists of both Orthodox and non-Orthodox oriented philosophy. Notable among Orthodox Jewish philosophers are Eliyahu Eliezer Dessler, Joseph B. Soloveitchik, and Yitzchok Hutner. Well-known nonOrthodox Jewish philosophers include Martin Buber, Franz Rosenzweig, Mordecai Kaplan, Abraham Joshua Heschel, Will Herberg, and Emmanuel Lévinas. Related Topics • Torah databases (electronic versions of the Traditional Jewish Bookshelf) • List of Jewish prayers and blessings

10.2.3

Rabbinic hermeneutics

13 Principles of Hermeneutics:

127 4. When a general rule is followed by illustrative particulars, only those particulars are to be embraced by it. 5. A law that begins with specifying particular cases, and then proceeds to an all-embracing generalization, is to be applied to particulars cases not specified but logically falling into the same generalization. 6. A law that begins with a generalization as to its intended applications, then continues with the specification of particular cases, and then concludes with a restatement of the generalization, can be applied only to the particular cases specified. 7. The rules about a generalization being followed or preceded by specifying particulars (rules 4 and 5) will not apply if it is apparent that the specification of the particular cases or the statement of the generalization is meant purely for achieving a greater clarity of language. 8. A particular case already covered in a generalization that is nevertheless treated separately suggests that the same particularized treatment be applied to all other cases which are covered in that generalization. 9. A penalty specified for a general category of wrongdoing is not to be automatically applied to a particular case that is withdrawn from the general rule to be specifically prohibited, but without any mention of the penalty. 10. A general prohibition followed by a specified penalty may be followed by a particular case, normally included in the generalization, with a modification in penalty, either toward easing it or making it more severe. 11. A case logically falling into a general law but treated separately remains outside the provisions of the general law except in those instances where it is specifically included in them. 12. Obscurities in Biblical texts may be cleared up from the immediate context or from subsequently occurring passages 13. Contradictions in Biblical passages may be removed through the mediation of other passages.

[52] 1. A law that operates under certain conditions will —R. Ishmael surely be operative in other situations where the same conditions are present in a more acute form Orthodox and many other Jews do not believe that the revealed Torah consists solely of its written contents, but 2. A law operating in one situation will also be operof its interpretations as well. The study of Torah (in its ative in another situation, if the text characterizes widest sense, to include both poetry, narrative, and law, both situations in identical terms. and both the Hebrew Bible and the Talmud) is in Judaism 3. A law that clearly expresses the purpose it was meant itself a sacred act of central importance. For the sages of to serve will also apply to other situations where the the Mishnah and Talmud, and for their successors today, the study of Torah was therefore not merely a means to identical purpose may be served.

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CHAPTER 10. JUDAISM

learn the contents of God’s revelation, but an end in itself. According to Rabbinic tradition, all valid interpretations According to the Talmud, of the written Torah were revealed to Moses at Sinai in oral form, and handed down from teacher to pupil (The oral revelation is in effect coextensive with the Talmud itThese are the things for which a person enjoys self). When different rabbis forwarded conflicting interthe dividends in this world while the principal pretations, they sometimes appealed to hermeneutic prinremains for the person to enjoy in the world to ciples to legitimize their arguments; some rabbis claim come; they are: honoring parents, loving deeds that these principles were themselves revealed by God to of kindness, and making peace between one Moses at Sinai.[57] person and another. But the study of the Torah is equal to them all. (Talmud Shabbat 127a).

Thus, Hillel called attention to seven commonly used hermeneutical principles in the interpretation of laws In Judaism, “the study of Torah can be a means of expe- (baraita at the beginning of Sifra); R. Ishmael, thirteen riencing God”.[53] Reflecting on the contribution of the (baraita at the beginning of Sifra; this collection is largely Amoraim and Tanaim to contemporary Judaism, Profes- an amplification of that of Hillel).[58] Eliezer b. Jose haGelili listed 32, largely used for the exegesis of narrasor Jacob Neusner observed: tive elements of Torah. All the hermeneutic rules scattered through the Talmudim and Midrashim have been The rabbi’s logical and rational inquiry is not collected by Malbim in Ayyelet ha-Shachar, the introducmere logic-chopping. It is a most serious and tion to his commentary on the Sifra. Nevertheless, R. substantive effort to locate in trivialities the Ishmael’s 13 principles are perhaps the ones most widely fundamental principles of the revealed will of known; they constitute an important, and one of JuGod to guide and sanctify the most specific daism’s earliest, contributions to logic, hermeneutics, and and concrete actions in the workaday world .... jurisprudence.[59] Judah Hadassi incorporated Ishmael’s Here is the mystery of Talmudic Judaism: the principles into Karaite Judaism in the 12th century.[60] alien and remote conviction that the intellect is Today R. Ishmael’s 13 principles are incorporated into an instrument not of unbelief and desacralizathe Jewish prayer book to be read by observant Jews on a [54] tion but of sanctification.” daily basis.[61][62][63][64] To study the Written Torah and the Oral Torah in light of each other is thus also to study how to study the word of God.

10.3 Jewish identity

In the study of Torah, the sages formulated and followed various logical and hermeneutical principles. According 10.3.1 Origin of the term “Judaism” to David Stern, all Rabbinic hermeneutics rest on two baThe term Judaism derives from Iudaismus, a Latinized sic axioms: form of the Ancient Greek Ἰουδαϊσμός or Ioudaïsmos (from the verb ἰουδαΐζειν, “to side with or imifirst, the belief in the omnisignificance of tate the [Judeans]"),[65] and it was ultimately inspired by Scripture, in the meaningfulness of its every the Hebrew ‫יהודה‬, Yehudah, "Judah";[66][67] in Hebrew: word, letter, even (according to one famous re‫ַיֲהדּות‬, Yahadut. The term Ἰουδαϊσμός first appears in port) scribal flourish; second, the claim of the the Hellenistic Greek book of 2 Maccabees in the 2nd essential unity of Scripture as the expression of century BCE. In the context of the age and period it the single divine will.[55] meant “seeking or forming part of a cultural entity”[68] and resembled its antonym hellenismos, a word that signiThese two principles make possible a great variety of in- fied a people’s submission unto Hellenic (Greek) cultural terpretations. According to the Talmud, norms. The conflict between iudaismos and hellenismos lay behind the Maccabean revolt and hence the invention of the term iudaismos.[68] Shaye J. D. Cohen writes in his A single verse has several meanings, but no two book The Beginnings of Jewishness: verses hold the same meaning. It was taught in the school of R. Ishmael: 'Behold, My word is like fire—declares the Lord—and like a hammer that shatters rock' (Jer 23:29). Just as this hammer produces many sparks (when it strikes We are tempted, of course, to translate [Ioudaïsmos] the rock), so a single verse has several meanas “Judaism,” but this translation is too narrow, beings.” (Talmud Sanhedrin 34a). cause in this first occurrence of the term, Ioudaïsmos has not yet be reduced to designation of a religion. It Observant Jews thus view the Torah as dynamic, because means rather “the aggregate of all those characteristics that makes Judaeans Judaean (or Jews Jewish).” Among it contains within it a host of interpretations[56]

10.3. JEWISH IDENTITY

129 flesh that has its origin in Platonic philosophy and that permeated Hellenistic Judaism.[71] Consequently, in his view, Judaism does not fit easily into conventional Western categories, such as religion, ethnicity, or culture. Boyarin suggests that this in part reflects the fact that much of Judaism’s more than 3,000-year history predates the rise of Western culture and occurred outside the West (that is, Europe, particularly medieval and modern Europe). During this time, Jews experienced slavery, anarchic and theocratic self-government, conquest, occupation, and exile. In the Diaspora, they were in contact with, and influenced by, ancient Egyptian, Babylonian, Persian, and Hellenic cultures, as well as modern movements such as the Enlightenment (see Haskalah) and the rise of nationalism, which would bear fruit in the form of a Jewish state in their ancient homeland, the Land of Israel. They also saw an elite population convert to Judaism (the Khazars), only to disappear as the centers of power in the lands once occupied by that elite fell to the people of Rus and then the Mongols. Thus, Boyarin has argued that “Jewishness disrupts the very categories of identity, because it is not national, not genealogical, not religious, but all of these, in dialectical tension.”[72] In contrast to this point of view, practices such as Humanistic Judaism reject the religious aspects of Judaism, while retaining certain cultural traditions.

10.3.3 Who is a Jew? Main article: Who is a Jew? A mezuzah case

these characteristics, to be sure, are practices and beliefs that we would today call “religious,” but these practices and beliefs are not the sole content of the term. Thus Ioudaïsmos should be translated not as “Judaism” but as Judaeanness.[69] The earliest instance in Europe where the term was used to mean “the profession or practice of the Jewish religion; the religious system or polity of the Jews"{cn} is Robert Fabyan’s The newe cronycles of Englande and of Fraunce a 1513. “Judaism” as a direct translation of the Latin Iudaismus ﬁrst occurred in a 1611 English translation of the Apocrypha (Deuterocanon in Catholic and Eastern Orthodoxy), 2 Macc. ii. 21: “Those that behaved themselues manfully to their honour for Iudaisme.”[70]

According to Rabbinic Judaism, a Jew is anyone who was either born of a Jewish mother or who converted to Judaism in accordance with Jewish Law. American Reform Judaism and British Liberal Judaism accept the child of one Jewish parent (father or mother) as Jewish if the parents raise the child with a Jewish identity. All mainstream forms of Judaism today are open to sincere converts, although conversion has traditionally been discouraged since the time of the Talmud. The conversion process is evaluated by an authority, and the convert is examined on his or her sincerity and knowledge.[73] Converts are called “ben Abraham” or “bat Abraham”, (son or daughter of Abraham). Conversions have on occasion been overturned. In 2008, Israel’s highest religious court invalidated the conversion of 40,000 Jews, mostly from Russian immigrant families, even though they had been approved by an Orthodox rabbi.[74]

Rabbinical Judaism maintains that a Jew, whether by birth or conversion, is a Jew forever. Thus a Jew who 10.3.2 Distinction between Jews as a peo- claims to be an atheist or converts to another religion ple and Judaism is still considered by traditional Judaism to be Jewish. According to some sources, the Reform movement has According to Daniel Boyarin, the underlying distinction maintained that a Jew who has converted to another rebetween religion and ethnicity is foreign to Judaism it- ligion is no longer a Jew,[75][76] and the Israeli Governself, and is one form of the dualism between spirit and ment has also taken that stance after Supreme Court cases

130

CHAPTER 10. JUDAISM

and statutes.[77] However, the Reform movement has indicated that this is not so cut and dried, and diﬀerent situations call for consideration and diﬀering actions. For example, Jews who have converted under duress may be permitted to return to Judaism “without any action on their part but their desire to rejoin the Jewish community” and “A proselyte who has become an apostate remains, nevertheless, a Jew”. (p. 100–106).[78] Karaite Judaism believes that Jewish identity can only be transmitted by patrilineal descent. Although a minority of modern Karaites believe that Jewish identity requires that both parents be Jewish, and not only the father. They argue that only patrilineal descent can transmit Jewish identity on the grounds that all descent in the Torah went according to the male line.[79] The question of what determines Jewish identity in the State of Israel was given new impetus when, in the 1950s, David Ben-Gurion requested opinions on mihu Yehudi (“who is a Jew”) from Jewish religious authorities and intellectuals worldwide in order to settle citizenship questions. This is still not settled, and occasionally resurfaces in Israeli politics.

10.3.4

Jewish demographics

Main article: Jewish population by country The total number of Jews worldwide is diﬃcult to assess because the deﬁnition of “who is a Jew” is problematic; not all Jews identify themselves as Jewish, and some who identify as Jewish are not considered so by other Jews. According to the Jewish Year Book (1901), the global Jewish population in 1900 was around 11 million. The latest available data is from the World Jewish Population Survey of 2002 and the Jewish Year Calendar (2005). In 2002, according to the Jewish Population Survey, there were 13.3 million Jews around the world. The Jewish Year Calendar cites 14.6 million. Jewish population growth is currently near zero percent, with 0.3% growth from 2000 to 2001.

10.4 Jewish religious movements Main article: Jewish religious movements

10.4.1

Rabbinic Judaism

Rabbinic Judaism (or in some Christian traditions, Rabbinism) (Hebrew: “Yahadut Rabanit” – ‫ )יהדות רבנית‬has been the mainstream form of Judaism since the 6th century CE, after the codiﬁcation of the Talmud. It is characterised by the belief that the Written Torah (Written Law) cannot be correctly interpreted without reference to the

Oral Torah and the voluminous literature specifying what behavior is sanctioned by the Law. The Jewish Enlightenment of the late 18th century resulted in the division of Ashkenazi (Western) Jewry into religious movements or denominations, especially in North America and Anglophone countries. The main denominations today outside Israel (where the situation is rather different) are Orthodox, Conservative, and Reform. • Orthodox Judaism holds that both the Written and Oral Torah were divinely revealed to Moses, and that the laws within it are binding and unchanging. Orthodox Jews generally consider commentaries on the Shulchan Aruch (a condensed codification of halakha that largely favored Sephardic traditions) to be the definitive codification of Jewish law. Orthodoxy places a high importance on Maimonides’ 13 principles as a definition of Jewish faith. • Orthodoxy is often divided into Modern Orthodox Judaism and Haredi Judaism. Haredi Judaism is less accommodating to modernity and has less interest in nonJewish disciplines, and it may be distinguished from Modern Orthodox Judaism in practice by its styles of dress and more stringent practices. Subsets of Haredi Judaism include: Hasidic Judaism, which is rooted in the Kabbalah and distinguished by reliance on a Rebbe or religious teacher; and Sephardic Haredi Judaism, which emerged among Sephardic (Asian and North African) Jews in Israel. • Conservative Judaism, known as Masorti outside the United States and Canada, is characterized by a commitment to traditional Jewish laws and customs, including observance of Shabbat and kashrut, a deliberately non-fundamentalist teaching of Jewish principles of faith, a positive attitude toward modern culture, and an acceptance of both traditional rabbinic and modern scholarship when considering Jewish religious texts. Conservative Judaism teaches that Jewish law is not static, but has always developed in response to changing conditions. It holds that the Torah is a divine document written by prophets inspired by God and reflecting his will, but rejects the Orthodox position that it was dictated by God to Moses.[80][81] Conservative Judaism holds that the Oral Law is divine and normative, but holds that both the Written and Oral Law may be interpreted by the rabbis to reflect modern sensibilities and suit modern conditions. • Reform Judaism, called Liberal or Progressive Judaism in many countries, defines Judaism as a religion rather than as a race or culture, rejects most of

10.5. JEWISH OBSERVANCES the ritual and ceremonial laws of the Torah while observing moral laws, and emphasizes the ethical call of the Prophets. Reform Judaism has developed an egalitarian prayer service in the vernacular (along with Hebrew in many cases) and emphasizes personal connection to Jewish tradition.

A Reform synagogue with mixed seating and equal participation of men and women

131 (i.e., the Middle East, Central Asia, and North Africa). This term, as commonly used, has nothing to do with the oﬃcial Masorti (Conservative) movement. There is a great deal of ambiguity in the ways “secular” and “traditional” are used in Israel: they often overlap, and they cover an extremely wide range in terms of ideology and religious observance. The term “Orthodox” is not popular in Israeli discourse, although the percentage of Jews who come under that category is far greater than in the diaspora. What would be called “Orthodox” in the diaspora includes what is commonly called dati (religious) or haredi (ultra-Orthodox) in Israel. The former term includes what is called "Religious Zionism" or the “National Religious” community, as well as what has become known over the past decade or so as haredileumi (nationalist haredi), or “Hardal”, which combines a largely haredi lifestyle with nationalist ideology. (Some people, in Yiddish, also refer to observant Orthodox Jews as frum, as opposed to frei (more liberal Jews)). Haredi applies to a populace that can be roughly divided into three separate groups along both ethnic and ideological lines: (1) “Lithuanian” (non-hasidic) haredim of Ashkenazic origin; (2) Hasidic haredim of Ashkenazic origin; and (3) Sephardic haredim.

• Reconstructionist Judaism, like Reform Judaism, does not hold that Jewish law, as such, requires 10.4.2 Alternative Judaism observance, but unlike Reform, Reconstructionist thought emphasizes the role of the community in de- Main article: Alternative Judaism ciding what observances to follow. • Jewish Renewal is a recent North American movement which focuses on spirituality and social justice, but does not address issues of Jewish law. Men and women participate equally in prayer.

Karaite Judaism deﬁnes itself as the remnants of the nonRabbinic Jewish sects of the Second Temple period, such as the Sadducees. The Karaites (“Scripturalists”) accept only the Hebrew Bible and what they view as the Peshat • Humanistic Judaism is a small non-theistic move- (“simple” meaning); they do not accept non-biblical writment centered in North America and Israel that em- ings as authoritative. Some European Karaites do not phasizes Jewish culture and history as the sources of see themselves as part of the Jewish community at all, although most do. Jewish identity. The Samaritans, a very small community located entirely around Mount Gerizim in the Nablus/Shechem region of Jewish movements in Israel the West Bank and in Holon, near Tel Aviv in Israel, regard themselves as the descendants of the Israelites of Main article: Religion in Israel the Iron Age kingdom of Israel. Their religious practices are based on the literal text of the written Torah (Five Most Jewish Israelis classify themselves as “secular” Books of Moses), which they view as the only authorita(hiloni), “traditional” (masorti), “religious” (dati) or tive scripture (with a special regard also for the Samaritan Haredi. The term “secular” is more popular as a self- Book of Joshua). description among Israeli families of western (European) origin, whose Jewish identity may be a very powerful force in their lives, but who see it as largely indepen10.5 Jewish observances dent of traditional religious belief and practice. This portion of the population largely ignores organized religious life, be it of the oﬃcial Israeli rabbinate (Orthodox) or 10.5.1 Jewish ethics of the liberal movements common to diaspora Judaism Main article: Jewish ethics (Reform, Conservative). The term “traditional” (masorti) is most common as a self-description among Israeli families of “eastern” origin Jewish ethics may be guided by halakhic traditions, by

132 other moral principles, or by central Jewish virtues. Jewish ethical practice is typically understood to be marked by values such as justice, truth, peace, loving-kindness (chesed), compassion, humility, and self-respect. Speciﬁc Jewish ethical practices include practices of charity (tzedakah) and refraining from negative speech (lashon hara). Proper ethical practices regarding sexuality and many other issues are subjects of dispute among Jews.

CHAPTER 10. JUDAISM of other Jewish denominations count female Jews as well. In addition to prayer services, observant traditional Jews recite prayers and benedictions throughout the day when performing various acts. Prayers are recited upon waking up in the morning, before eating or drinking diﬀerent foods, after eating a meal, and so on.

The approach to prayer varies among the Jewish denominations. Diﬀerences can include the texts of prayers, the frequency of prayer, the number of prayers recited at various religious events, the use of musical instruments and 10.5.2 Prayers choral music, and whether prayers are recited in the traditional liturgical languages or the vernacular. In general, Main article: Jewish services Traditionally, Jews recite prayers three times daily, Orthodox and Conservative congregations adhere most closely to tradition, and Reform and Reconstructionist synagogues are more likely to incorporate translations and contemporary writings in their services. Also, in most Conservative synagogues, and all Reform and Reconstructionist congregations, women participate in prayer services on an equal basis with men, including roles traditionally ﬁlled only by men, such as reading from the Torah. In addition, many Reform temples use musical accompaniment such as organs and mixed choirs.

10.5.3 Religious clothing Further information: kippah, tzitzit and teﬁllin A kippah (Hebrew: ‫ִּכָּפה‬, plural kippot; Yiddish: ‫יַארמלקע‬, yarmulke) is a slightly rounded brimless skullcap worn by many Jews while praying, eating, reciting blessings, or studying Jewish religious texts, and at all times by some Jewish men. In Orthodox communities, only men wear kippot; in non-Orthodox communities, some women also wear kippot. Kippot range in size from a small round beanie that covers only the back of the head, to a large, snug cap that covers the whole crown.

Shacharit, Mincha, and Ma'ariv with a fourth prayer, Mussaf added on Shabbat and holidays. At the heart of each service is the Amidah or Shemoneh Esrei. Another key prayer in many services is the declaration of faith, the Shema Yisrael (or Shema). The Shema is the recitation of a verse from the Torah (Deuteronomy 6:4): Shema Yisrael Adonai Eloheinu Adonai Echad—"Hear, O Israel! The Lord is our God! The Lord is One!"

Tzitzit (Hebrew: ‫( )ִציצִית‬Ashkenazi pronunciation: tzitzis) are special knotted “fringes” or “tassels” found on the four corners of the tallit (Hebrew: ‫( )ַטִּלית‬Ashkenazi pronunciation: tallis), or prayer shawl. The tallit is worn by Jewish men and some Jewish women during the prayer service. Customs vary regarding when a Jew begins wearing a tallit. In the Sephardi community, boys wear a tallit from bar mitzvah age. In some Ashkenazi communities it is customary to wear one only after marriage. A tallit katan (small tallit) is a fringed garment worn under the clothing throughout the day. In some Orthodox circles, the fringes are allowed to hang freely outside the clothing.

Most of the prayers in a traditional Jewish service can be recited in solitary prayer, although communal prayer is preferred. Communal prayer requires a quorum of ten adult Jews, called a minyan. In nearly all Orthodox and a few Conservative circles, only male Jews are counted toward a minyan; most Conservative Jews and members

Teﬁllin (Hebrew: ‫)ְתִפִּלין‬, known in English as phylacteries (from the Greek word φυλακτήριον, meaning safeguard or amulet), are two square leather boxes containing biblical verses, attached to the forehead and wound around the left arm by leather straps. They are worn during weekday morning prayer by observant Jewish men

A Yemenite Jew at morning prayers, wearing a kippah skullcap, prayer shawl and teﬁllin

10.5. JEWISH OBSERVANCES and some Jewish women.[82]

133 involves burning fuel, and using electricity.

A kittel (Yiddish: ‫)קיטל‬, a white knee-length overgarment, is worn by prayer leaders and some observant tra- Three pilgrimage festivals ditional Jews on the High Holidays. It is traditional for the head of the household to wear a kittel at the Passover Main article: Shalosh regalim seder in some communities, and some grooms wear one Jewish holy days (chaggim), celebrate landmark events under the wedding canopy. Jewish males are buried in a tallit and sometimes also a kittel which are part of the tachrichim (burial garments).

10.5.4

Jewish holidays

Main article: Jewish holiday Jewish holidays are special days in the Jewish calendar, which celebrate moments in Jewish history, as well as central themes in the relationship between God and the world, such as creation, revelation, and redemption. Some sukkot in Jerusalem

in Jewish history, such as the Exodus from Egypt and the giving of the Torah, and sometimes mark the change of seasons and transitions in the agricultural cycle. The Main article: Shabbat Shabbat, the weekly day of rest lasting from shortly three major festivals, Sukkot, Passover and Shavuot, are called “regalim” (derived from the Hebrew word “regel”, or foot). On the three regalim, it was customary for the Israelites to make pilgrimages to Jerusalem to oﬀer sacriﬁces in the Temple. Shabbat

Two braided Shabbat challahs placed under an embroidered challah cover at the start of the Shabbat meal

before sundown on Friday night to nightfall Saturday night, commemorates God’s day of rest after six days of creation.[83] It plays a pivotal role in Jewish practice and is governed by a large corpus of religious law. At sundown on Friday, the woman of the house welcomes the Shabbat by lighting two or more candles and reciting a blessing. The evening meal begins with the Kiddush, a blessing recited aloud over a cup of wine, and the Mohtzi, a blessing recited over the bread. It is customary to have challah, two braided loaves of bread, on the table. During Shabbat Jews are forbidden to engage in any activity that falls under 39 categories of melakhah, translated literally as “work”. In fact the activities banned on the Sabbath are not “work” in the usual sense: They include such actions as lighting a ﬁre, writing, using money and carrying in the public domain. The prohibition of lighting a ﬁre has been extended in the modern era to driving a car, which

• Passover (Pesach) is a week-long holiday beginning on the evening of the 14th day of Nisan (the ﬁrst month in the Hebrew calendar), that commemorates the Exodus from Egypt. Outside Israel, Passover is celebrated for eight days. In ancient times, it coincided with the barley harvest. It is the only holiday that centers on home-service, the Seder. Leavened products (chametz) are removed from the house prior to the holiday, and are not consumed throughout the week. Homes are thoroughly cleaned to ensure no bread or bread by-products remain, and a symbolic burning of the last vestiges of chametz is conducted on the morning of the Seder. Matzo is eaten instead of bread. • Shavuot (“Pentecost” or “Feast of Weeks”) celebrates the revelation of the Torah to the Israelites on Mount Sinai. Also known as the Festival of Bikurim, or ﬁrst fruits, it coincided in biblical times with the wheat harvest. Shavuot customs include all-night study marathons known as Tikkun Leil Shavuot, eating dairy foods (cheesecake and blintzes are special favorites), reading the Book of Ruth, decorating homes and synagogues with greenery, and wearing white clothing, symbolizing purity. • Sukkot (“Tabernacles” or “The Festival of Booths”) commemorates the Israelites’ forty years of wandering through the desert on their way to the Promised

134

CHAPTER 10. JUDAISM Land. It is celebrated through the construction of temporary booths called sukkot (sing. sukkah) that represent the temporary shelters of the Israelites during their wandering. It coincides with the fruit harvest, and marks the end of the agricultural cycle. Jews around the world eat in sukkot for seven days and nights. Sukkot concludes with Shemini Atzeret, where Jews begin to pray for rain and Simchat Torah, “Rejoicing of the Torah”, a holiday which marks reaching the end of the Torah reading cycle and beginning all over again. The occasion is celebrated with singing and dancing with the Torah scrolls. Shemini Atzeret and Simchat Torah are technically considered to be a separate holiday and not a part of Sukkot.

High Holy Days

commanded to search their souls and make amends for sins committed, intentionally or not, throughout the year. Holiday customs include blowing the shofar, or ram’s horn, in the synagogue, eating apples and honey, and saying blessings over a variety of symbolic foods, such as pomegranates. • Yom Kippur, (“Day of Atonement”) is the holiest day of the Jewish year. It is a day of communal fasting and praying for forgiveness for one’s sins. Observant Jews spend the entire day in the synagogue, sometimes with a short break in the afternoon, reciting prayers from a special holiday prayerbook called a “Machzor”. Many non-religious Jews make a point of attending synagogue services and fasting on Yom Kippur. On the eve of Yom Kippur, before candles are lit, a prefast meal, the “seuda mafseket”, is eaten. Synagogue services on the eve of Yom Kippur begin with the Kol Nidre prayer. It is customary to wear white on Yom Kippur, especially for Kol Nidre, and leather shoes are not worn. The following day, prayers are held from morning to evening. The ﬁnal prayer service, called “Ne'ilah”, ends with a long blast of the shofar.

Purim Main article: Purim Purim (Hebrew: ‫ פורים‬Pûrîm "lots") is a joyous Jew-

Yom Kippur by Maurycy Gottlieb (1878) Purim street scene in Jerusalem

Main article: High Holidays ish holiday that commemorates the deliverance of the The High Holidays (Yamim Noraim or “Days of Awe”) Persian Jews from the plot of the evil Haman, who sought to exterminate them, as recorded in the biblical Book revolve around judgment and forgiveness. of Esther. It is characterized by public recitation of the Book of Esther, mutual gifts of food and drink, charity • Rosh Hashanah, (also Yom Ha-Zikkaron or “Day of to the poor, and a celebratory meal (Esther 9:22). Other Remembrance”, and Yom Teruah, or “Day of the customs include drinking wine, eating special pastries Sounding of the Shofar"). Rosh Hashanah is the hamantashen, dressing up in masks and costumes, called Jewish New Year (literally, “head of the year”), aland organizing carnivals and parties. though it falls on the ﬁrst day of the seventh month of the Hebrew calendar, Tishri. Rosh Hashanah marks Purim is celebrated annually on the 14th of the Hebrew the beginning of the 10-day period of atonement month of Adar, which occurs in February or March of leading up to Yom Kippur, during which Jews are the Gregorian calendar.

10.5. JEWISH OBSERVANCES

135 been emphasized since the establishment of the State of Israel. Other days Main articles: Tisha B'Av, Yom Hashoah and Yom Ha'atzmaut Tisha B'Av (Hebrew: ‫ תשעה באב‬or ‫ט׳ באב‬, “the Ninth of Av") is a day of mourning and fasting commemorating the destruction of the First and Second Temples, and in later times, the expulsion of the Jews from Spain. The modern holidays of Yom Ha-shoah (Holocaust Remembrance Day) and Yom Ha'atzmaut (Israeli Independence Day) commemorate the horrors of the Holocaust and the achievement of Israel independence, respectively.

10.5.5 Torah readings Main article: Torah reading

Torah reading, France, 1860 Museum of Jewish Art and History

Hanukkah Main article: Hanukkah

The core of festival and Shabbat prayer services is the public reading of the Torah, along with connected readings from the other books of the Tanakh, called Haftarah. Over the course of a year, the whole Torah is read, with the cycle starting over in the autumn, on Simchat Torah.

10.5.6 Synagogues and religious buildings Main article: Synagogue Synagogues are Jewish houses of prayer and study. They

Hanukkah (Hebrew: ‫ ֲחנֻכָּה‬, “dedication”) also known as the Festival of Lights, is an eight-day Jewish holiday that starts on the 25th day of Kislev (Hebrew calendar). The festival is observed in Jewish homes by the kindling of lights on each of the festival’s eight nights, one on the ﬁrst night, two on the second night and so on. The holiday was called Hanukkah (meaning “dedication”) because it marks the re-dedication of the Temple after its desecration by Antiochus IV Epiphanes. Spiritually, Hanukkah commemorates the “Miracle of the Oil”. According to the Talmud, at the re-dedication of the Temple in Jerusalem following the victory of the Maccabees over the Seleucid Empire, there was only enough consecrated oil to fuel the eternal ﬂame in the Interior of the Belz Great Synagogue in Jerusalem. Temple for one day. Miraculously, the oil burned for eight days – which was the length of time it took to press, usually contain separate rooms for prayer (the main sancprepare and consecrate new oil. tuary), smaller rooms for study, and often an area for Hanukkah is not mentioned in the Bible and was never community or educational use. There is no set blueprint considered a major holiday in Judaism, but it has be- for synagogues and the architectural shapes and interior come much more visible and widely celebrated in mod- designs of synagogues vary greatly. The Reform moveern times, mainly because it falls around the same time ment mostly refer to their synagogues as temples. Some as Christmas and has national Jewish overtones that have traditional features of a synagogue are:

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• The ark (called aron ha-kodesh by Ashkenazim and hekhal by Sephardim) where the Torah scrolls are kept (the ark is often closed with an ornate curtain (parochet) outside or inside the ark doors);

ing meat and eating dairy varies by the order in which they are consumed and by community, and can extend for up to six hours. Based on the Biblical injunction against cooking a kid in its mother’s milk, this rule is mostly derived from the Oral Torah, the Talmud and Rabbinic • The elevated reader’s platform (called bimah by law.[84] Chicken and other kosher birds are considered the Ashkenazim and tebah by Sephardim), where the same as meat under the laws of kashrut, but the prohibiTorah is read (and services are conducted in tion is Rabbinic, not Biblical.[87] Sephardi synagogues); The use of dishes, serving utensils, and ovens may make • The eternal light (ner tamid), a continually lit lamp food treif that would otherwise be kosher. Utensils that or lantern used as a reminder of the constantly lit have been used to prepare non-kosher food, or dishes that menorah of the Temple in Jerusalem have held meat and are now used for dairy products, render the food treif under certain conditions.[84] • The pulpit, or amud, a lectern facing the Ark where Furthermore, all Orthodox and some Conservative authe hazzan or prayer leader stands while praying. thorities forbid the consumption of processed grape prodIn addition to synagogues, other buildings of signiﬁcance ucts made by non-Jews, due to ancient pagan practices [84] Some Conservative authoriin Judaism include yeshivas, or institutions of Jewish of using wine in rituals. ties permit wine and grape juice made without rabbinic learning, and mikvahs, which are ritual baths. supervision.[88]

10.5.7

Dietary laws: kashrut

Main article: Kashrut The Jewish dietary laws are known as kashrut. Food prepared in accordance with them is termed kosher, and food that is not kosher is also known as treifah or treif. People who observe these laws are colloquially said to be “keeping kosher”.[84] Many of the laws apply to animal-based foods. For example, in order to be considered kosher, mammals must have split hooves and chew their cud. The pig is arguably the most well-known example of a non-kosher animal.[85] Although it has split hooves, it does not chew its cud.[86] For seafood to be kosher, the animal must have fins and scales. Certain types of seafood, such as shellfish, crustaceans, and eels, are therefore considered non-kosher. Concerning birds, a list of non-kosher species is given in the Torah. The exact translations of many of the species have not survived, and some non-kosher birds’ identities are no longer certain. However, traditions exist about the kashrut status of a few birds. For example, both chickens and turkeys are permitted in most communities. Other types of animals, such as amphibians, reptiles, and most insects, are prohibited altogether.[84] In addition to the requirement that the species be considered kosher, meat and poultry (but not fish) must come from a healthy animal slaughtered in a process known as shechitah. Without the proper slaughtering practices even an otherwise kosher animal will be rendered treif. The slaughtering process is intended to be quick and relatively painless to the animal. Forbidden parts of animals include the blood, some fats, and the area in and around the sciatic nerve.[84] Jewish law also forbids the consumption of meat and dairy products together. The waiting period between eat-

The Torah does not give specific reasons for most of the laws of kashrut.[84] However, a number of explanations have been offered, including maintaining ritual purity, teaching impulse control, encouraging obedience to God, improving health, reducing cruelty to animals and preserving the distinctness of the Jewish community.[89] The various categories of dietary laws may have developed for different reasons, and some may exist for multiple reasons. For example, people are forbidden from consuming the blood of birds and mammals because, according to the Torah, this is where animal souls are contained.[90] In contrast, the Torah forbids Israelites from eating non-kosher species because “they are unclean”.[91] The Kabbalah describes sparks of holiness that are released by the act of eating kosher foods, but are too tightly bound in non-kosher foods to be released by eating.[92] Survival concerns supersede all the laws of kashrut, as they do for most halakhot.[93][94]

10.5.8 Laws of ritual purity Main article: Tumah The Tanakh describes circumstances in which a person who is tahor or ritually pure may become tamei or ritually impure. Some of these circumstances are contact with human corpses or graves, seminal flux, vaginal flux, menstruation, and contact with people who have become impure from any of these.[95][96] In Rabbinic Judaism, Kohanim, members of the hereditary caste that served as priests in the time of the Temple, are mostly restricted from entering grave sites and touching dead bodies.[97] During the Temple period, such priests (Kohanim) were required to eat their bread offering (Terumah) in a state of ritual purity, which laws eventually led to more rigid laws being enacted, such as hand-washing which became a requisite of all Jews before consuming ordinary bread.

10.5. JEWISH OBSERVANCES

137 denominations.[98]

A silver matchbox holder for ritual use on Shabbat with inscription in Hebrew

Family purity

Especially in Orthodox Judaism, the Biblical laws are augmented by Rabbinical injunctions. For example, the Torah mandates that a woman in her normal menstrual period must abstain from sexual intercourse for seven days. A woman whose menstruation is prolonged must continue to abstain for seven more days after bleeding has stopped.[95] The Rabbis conflated ordinary niddah with this extended menstrual period, known in the Torah as zavah, and mandated that a woman may not have sexual intercourse with her husband from the time she begins her menstrual flow until seven days after it ends. In addition, Rabbinical law forbids the husband from touching or sharing a bed with his wife during this period. Afterwards, purification can occur in a ritual bath called a mikveh.[98] Traditional Ethiopian Jews keep menstruating women in separate huts and, similar to Karaite practice, do not allow menstruating women into their temples because of a temple’s special sanctity. Emigration to Israel and the influence of other Jewish denominations have led to Ethiopian Jews adopting more normative Jewish practices.[99][100]

10.5.9 Life-cycle events Life-cycle events, or rites of passage, occur throughout a Jew’s life that serve to strengthen Jewish identity and bind him/her to the entire community. • Brit milah – Welcoming male babies into the covenant through the rite of circumcision on their eighth day of life. The baby boy is also given his Hebrew name in the ceremony. A naming ceremony intended as a parallel ritual for girls, named zeved habat or brit bat, enjoys limited popularity. • Bar mitzvah and Bat mitzvah – This passage from childhood to adulthood takes place when a female Jew is twelve and a male Jew is thirteen years old among Orthodox and some Conservative congregations. In the Reform movement, both girls and boys have their bat/bar mitzvah at age thirteen. This is often commemorated by having the new adults, male only in the Orthodox tradition, lead the congregation in prayer and publicly read a “portion” of the Torah.

18th century circumcision chair Museum of Jewish Art and History

Main article: Niddah An important subcategory of the ritual purity laws relates to the segregation of menstruating women. These laws are also known as niddah, literally “separation”, or family purity. Vital aspects of halakha for traditionally observant Jews, they are not usually followed by Jews in liberal

• Marriage – Marriage is an extremely important lifecycle event. A wedding takes place under a chuppah, or wedding canopy, which symbolizes a happy house. At the end of the ceremony, the groom breaks a glass with his foot, symbolizing the continuous mourning for the destruction of the Temple, and the scattering of the Jewish people. • Death and Mourning – Judaism has a multi-staged mourning practice. The ﬁrst stage is called the shiva (literally “seven”, observed for one week) during which it is traditional to sit at home and be

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CHAPTER 10. JUDAISM comforted by friends and family, the second is the shloshim (observed for one month) and for those who have lost one of their parents, there is a third stage, avelut yud bet chodesh, which is observed for eleven months.

10.6 Community leadership 10.6.1

Classical priesthood

10.6.2 Prayer leaders From the time of the Mishnah and Talmud to the present, Judaism has required specialists or authorities for the practice of very few rituals or ceremonies. A Jew can fulﬁll most requirements for prayer by himself. Some activities—reading the Torah and haftarah (a supplementary portion from the Prophets or Writings), the prayer for mourners, the blessings for bridegroom and bride, the complete grace after meals—require a minyan, the presence of ten Jews. The most common professional clergy in a synagogue are: • Rabbi of a congregation – Jewish scholar who is charged with answering the legal questions of a congregation. This role requires ordination by the congregation’s preferred authority (i.e., from a respected Orthodox rabbi or, if the congregation is Conservative or Reform, from academic seminaries). A congregation does not necessarily require a rabbi. Some congregations have a rabbi but also allow members of the congregation to act as shatz or baal kriyah (see below). • Hassidic Rebbe – rabbi who is the head of a Hasidic dynasty.

Jewish students with their teacher in Samarkand, Uzbekistan c. 1910.

The role of the priesthood in Judaism has significantly diminished since the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE, when priests attended to the Temple and sacrifices. The priesthood is an inherited position, and although priests no longer have any but ceremonial duties, they are still honored in many Jewish communities. Many Orthodox Jewish communities believe that they will be needed again for a future Third Temple and need to remain in readiness for future duty. • Kohen (priest) – patrilineal descendant of Aaron, brother of Moses. In the Temple, the kohanim were charged with performing the sacrifices. Today, a Kohen is the first one called up at the reading of the Torah, performs the Priestly Blessing, as well as complying with other unique laws and ceremonies, including the ceremony of redemption of the firstborn. • Levi (Levite) – Patrilineal descendant of Levi the son of Jacob. In the Temple in Jerusalem, the levites sang Psalms, performed construction, maintenance, janitorial, and guard duties, assisted the priests, and sometimes interpreted the law and Temple ritual to the public. Today, a Levite is called up second to the reading of the Torah.

• Hazzan (note: the “h” denotes voiceless pharyngeal fricative) (cantor) – a trained vocalist who acts as shatz. Chosen for a good voice, knowledge of traditional tunes, understanding of the meaning of the prayers and sincerity in reciting them. A congregation does not need to have a dedicated hazzan. Jewish prayer services do involve two specified roles, which are sometimes, but not always, filled by a rabbi or hazzan in many congregations. In other congregations these roles are filled on an ad-hoc basis by members of the congregation who lead portions of services on a rotating basis: • Shaliach tzibur or Shatz (leader—literally “agent” or “representative”—of the congregation) leads those assembled in prayer, and sometimes prays on behalf of the community. When a shatz recites a prayer on behalf of the congregation, he is not acting as an intermediary but rather as a facilitator. The entire congregation participates in the recital of such prayers by saying amen at their conclusion; it is with this act that the shatz’s prayer becomes the prayer of the congregation. Any adult capable of reciting the prayers clearly may act as shatz. In Orthodox congregations and some Conservative congregations, only men can be prayer leaders, but all Progressive communities now allow women to serve in this function. • The Baal kriyah or baal koreh (master of the reading) reads the weekly Torah portion. The requirements for being the baal kriyah are the same as those

10.7. HISTORY for the shatz. These roles are not mutually exclusive. The same person is often qualified to fill more than one role, and often does. Often there are several people capable of filling these roles and different services (or parts of services) will be led by each. Many congregations, especially larger ones, also rely on a:

139 • Mashgiach – Supervises manufacturers of kosher food, importers, caterers and restaurants to ensure that the food is kosher. Must be an expert in the laws of kashrut and trained by a rabbi, if not a rabbi himself.

10.7 History

• Gabbai (sexton) – Calls people up to the Torah, ap- Main article: Jewish history points the shatz for each prayer session if there is no This section is about the history of Judaism. For the standard shatz, and makes certain that the synagogue book on Ancient Judaism, see Ancient Judaism (book). is kept clean and supplied. The three preceding positions are usually voluntary and considered an honor. Since the Enlightenment large syn- 10.7.1 Origins agogues have often adopted the practice of hiring rabbis and hazzans to act as shatz and baal kriyah, and this is Main article: Origins of Judaism still typically the case in many Conservative and Reform Further information: Ancient Semitic religion congregations. However, in most Orthodox synagogues At its core, the Tanakh is an account of the Israelites' these positions are ﬁlled by laypeople on a rotating or adhoc basis. Although most congregations hire one or more Rabbis, the use of a professional hazzan is generally declining in American congregations, and the use of professionals for other oﬃces is rarer still.

10.6.3

Specialized religious roles

• Dayan (judge) – An ordained rabbi with special legal training who belongs to a beth din (rabbinical court). In Israel, religious courts handle marriage and divorce cases, conversion and ﬁnancial disputes in the Jewish community. Scenes from the Book of Esther decorate the Dura-Europos synagogue dating from 244 CE

• Mohel (circumciser) – An expert in the laws of circumcision who has received training from a previrelationship with God from their earliest history until the ously qualified mohel and performs the brit milah building of the Second Temple (c. 535 BCE). Abraham (circumcision). is hailed as the first Hebrew and the father of the Jewish people. As a reward for his act of faith in one God, • Shochet (ritual slaughterer) – In order for meat to be he was promised that Isaac, his second son, would inherit kosher, it must be slaughtered by a shochet who is an the Land of Israel (then called Canaan). Later, the deexpert in the laws of kashrut and has been trained by scendants of Isaac’s son Jacob were enslaved in Egypt, another shochet. and God commanded Moses to lead the Exodus from • Sofer (scribe) – Torah scrolls, tefillin (phylacteries), Egypt. At Mount Sinai they received the Torah—the five mezuzot (scrolls put on doorposts), and gittin (bills of books of Moses. These books, together with Nevi'im and divorce) must be written by a sofer who is an expert Ketuvim are known as Torah Shebikhtav as opposed to the in Hebrew calligraphy and has undergone rigorous Oral Torah, which refers to the Mishnah and the Talmud. Eventually, God led them to the land of Israel where the training in the laws of writing sacred texts. tabernacle was planted in the city of Shiloh for over 300 • Rosh yeshiva – A Torah scholar who runs a yeshiva. years to rally the nation against attacking enemies. As time went on, the spiritual level of the nation declined • Mashgiach of a yeshiva – Depending on which to the point that God allowed the Philistines to capture yeshiva, might either be the person responsible for the tabernacle. The people of Israel then told Samuel the ensuring attendance and proper conduct, or even su- prophet that they needed to be governed by a permanent pervise the emotional and spiritual welfare of the king, and Samuel appointed Saul to be their King. When students and give lectures on mussar (Jewish ethics). the people pressured Saul into going against a command

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conveyed to him by Samuel, God told Samuel to appoint nation identical with the Jewish religion formed.[108] David in his stead. John Day argues that the origins of biblical Yahweh, El, Asherah, and Ba'al, may be rooted in earlier Canaanite religion, which was centered on a pantheon of gods much like the Greek pantheon.[109]

10.7.2 Antiquity Main articles: Ancient Israel and Judah, Babylonian captivity, Hellenistic Judaism, Hasmonean Kingdom, Iudaea Province and Bar Kokhba revolt

The Western Wall in Jerusalem is a remnant of the wall encircling the Second Temple. The Temple Mount is the holiest site in Judaism.

Once King David was established, he told the prophet Nathan that he would like to build a permanent temple, and as a reward for his actions, God promised David that he would allow his son, Solomon, to build the First Temple and the throne would never depart from his children. Rabbinic tradition holds that the details and interpretation of the law, which are called the Oral Torah or oral law, were originally an unwritten tradition based upon what God told Moses on Mount Sinai. However, as the persecutions of the Jews increased and the details were in danger of being forgotten, these oral laws were recorded by Rabbi Judah HaNasi (Judah the Prince) in the Mishnah, redacted circa 200 CE. The Talmud was a compilation of both the Mishnah and the Gemara, rabbinic commentaries redacted over the next three centuries. The Gemara originated in two major centers of Jewish scholarship, Palestine and Babylonia.[101] Correspondingly, two bodies of analysis developed, and two works of Talmud were created. The older compilation is called the Jerusalem Talmud. It was compiled sometime during the 4th century in Palestine.[101] The Babylonian Talmud was compiled from discussions in the houses of study by the scholars Ravina I, Ravina II, and Rav Ashi by 500 CE, although it continued to be edited later. Some critical scholars oppose the view that the sacred texts, including the Hebrew Bible, were divinely inspired. Many of these scholars accept the general principles of the documentary hypothesis and suggest that the Torah consists of inconsistent texts edited together in a way that calls attention to divergent accounts.[102][103][104] Many suggest that during the First Temple period, the people of Israel believed that each nation had its own god, but that their god was superior to other gods.[105][106] Some suggest that strict monotheism developed during the Babylonian Exile, perhaps in reaction to Zoroastrian dualism.[107] In this view, it was only by the Hellenic period that most Jews came to believe that their god was the only god, and that the notion of a clearly bounded Jewish

According to the Hebrew Bible, the United Monarchy was established under Saul and continued under King David and Solomon with its capital in Jerusalem. After Solomon’s reign the nation split into two kingdoms, the Kingdom of Israel (in the north) and the Kingdom of Judah (in the south). The Kingdom of Israel was conquered by the Assyrian ruler Sargon II in the late 8th century BCE with many people from the capital Samaria being taken captive to Media and the Khabur River valley. The Kingdom of Judah continued as an independent state until it was conquered by a Babylonian army in the early 6th century BCE, destroying the First Temple that was at the center of ancient Jewish worship. The Judean elite were exiled to Babylonia and this is regarded as the ﬁrst Jewish Diaspora. Later many of them returned to their homeland after the subsequent conquest of Babylonia by the Persians seventy years later, a period known as the Babylonian Captivity. A new Second Temple was constructed, and old religious practices were resumed. During the early years of the Second Temple, the highest religious authority was a council known as the Great Assembly, led by Ezra of the Book of Ezra. Among other accomplishments of the Great Assembly, the last books of the Bible were written at this time and the canon sealed. Hellenistic Judaism spread to Ptolemaic Egypt from the 3rd century BCE. After the Great Revolt (66–73 CE), the Romans destroyed the Temple. Hadrian built a pagan idol on the Temple grounds and prohibited circumcision; these acts of ethnocide provoked the Bar Kokhba revolt 132–136 CE after which the Romans banned the study of the Torah and the celebration of Jewish holidays, and forcibly removed virtually all Jews from Judea. In 200 CE, however, Jews were granted Roman citizenship and Judaism was recognized as a religio licita (“legitimate religion”), until the rise of Gnosticism and Early Christianity in the fourth century. Following the destruction of Jerusalem and the expulsion of the Jews, Jewish worship stopped being centrally organized around the Temple, prayer took the place of sacriﬁce, and worship was rebuilt around the community (represented by a minimum of ten adult men) and the establishment of the authority of rabbis who acted as teachers and leaders of individual communities (see Jewish dias-

10.7. HISTORY pora).

10.7.3

141 faith is erroneous.

Historical Jewish groupings (to 1700)

Over a long time, Jews formed distinct ethnic groups in several diﬀerent geographic areas — amongst others, the Ashkenazi Jews (of central and Eastern Europe), the Sephardi Jews (of Spain, Portugal, and North Africa), the Beta Israel of Ethiopia, and the Yemenite Jews from the southern tip of the Arabian Peninsula. Many of these groups have developed diﬀerences in their prayers, traditions and accepted canons; however these distinctions are mainly the result of their being formed at some cultural distance from normative (rabbinic) Judaism, rather than based on any doctrinal dispute.

10.7.4 Persecutions Main articles: Persecution of Jews, Antisemitism and History of antisemitism Antisemitism arose during the Middle Ages, in the form of persecutions, pogroms, forced conversion, expulsions, social restrictions and ghettoization. This was different in quality to any repressions of Jews in ancient times. Ancient repression was politically motivated and Jews were treated the same way as any other ethnic group would have been. With the rise of the Churches, attacks on Jews became motivated instead by theological considerations specifically deriving from Christian views about Jews and Judaism.[110] During the Middle Ages, Jewish people under Muslim rule generally The Torah Ark of the Beth Jakov synagogue in Macedonia experienced tolerance and integration,[111] but there were occasional outbreaks of violence like Almohad’s persecuAround the 1st century CE there were several small Jew- tions.[112] ish sects: the Pharisees, Sadducees, Zealots, Essenes, and Christians. After the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE, these sects vanished. Christianity sur- 10.7.5 Hasidism vived, but by breaking with Judaism and becoming a separate religion; the Pharisees survived but in the form of Main article: Hasidic Judaism Rabbinic Judaism (today, known simply as “Judaism”). The Sadducees rejected the divine inspiration of the Hasidic Judaism was founded by Yisroel ben Eliezer Prophets and the Writings, relying only on the Torah as (1700–1760), also known as the Ba'al Shem Tov (or divinely inspired. Consequently, a number of other core Besht). It originated in a time of persecution of the Jewtenets of the Pharisees’ belief system (which became the ish people, when European Jews had turned inward to basis for modern Judaism), were also dismissed by the Talmud study; many felt that most expressions of Jewish Sadducees. (The Samaritans practiced a similar religion, life had become too “academic”, and that they no longer which is traditionally considered separate from Judaism.) had any emphasis on spirituality or joy. His disciples atLike the Sadducees who relied only on the Torah, some Jews in the 8th and 9th centuries rejected the authority and divine inspiration of the oral law as recorded in the Mishnah (and developed by later rabbis in the two Talmuds), relying instead only upon the Tanakh. These included the Isunians, the Yudganites, the Malikites, and others. They soon developed oral traditions of their own, which differed from the rabbinic traditions, and eventually formed the Karaite sect. Karaites exist in small numbers today, mostly living in Israel. Rabbinical and Karaite Jews each hold that the others are Jews, but that the other

tracted many followers; they themselves established numerous Hasidic sects across Europe. Hasidic Judaism eventually became the way of life for many Jews in Europe. Waves of Jewish immigration in the 1880s carried it to the United States. The movement itself claims to be nothing new, but a refreshment of original Judaism. Or as some have put it: “they merely re-emphasized that which the generations had lost”.[113] Nevertheless, early on there was a serious schism between Hasidic and nonHasidic Jews. European Jews who rejected the Hasidic movement were dubbed by the Hasidim as Misnagdim,

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(lit. “opponents”). Some of the reasons for the rejection of Hasidic Judaism were the overwhelming exuberance of Hasidic worship, its untraditional ascriptions of infallibility and alleged miracle-working to their leaders, and the concern that it might become a messianic sect. Since then diﬀerences between the Hasidim and their opponents have slowly diminished and both groups are now considered part of Haredi Judaism.

10.7.6

The Enlightenment and new religious movements

Main articles: Haskalah and Jewish religious movements In the late 18th century CE, Europe was swept by a group of intellectual, social and political movements known as the Enlightenment. The Enlightenment led to reductions in the European laws that prohibited Jews to interact with the wider secular world, thus allowing Jews access to secular education and experience. A parallel Jewish movement, Haskalah or the “Jewish Enlightenment”, began, especially in Central Europe and Western Europe, in response to both the Enlightenment and these new freedoms. It placed an emphasis on integration with secular society and a pursuit of non-religious knowledge through reason. With the promise of political emancipation many Jews saw no reason to continue to observe Jewish law and increasing numbers of Jews assimilated into Christian Europe. Modern religious movements of Judaism all formed in reaction to this trend. In Central Europe, followed by Great Britain and the United States, Reform Judaism and Liberal Judaism developed, relaxing legal obligations (especially those that limited Jewish relations with non-Jews), emulating Protestant decorum in prayer, and emphasizing the ethical values of Judaism’s Prophetic tradition. Modern Orthodox Judaism developed in reaction to Reform Judaism, by leaders who argued that Jews could participate in public life as citizens equal to Christians, while maintaining the observance of Jewish law. Meanwhile, in the United States, wealthy Reform Jews helped European scholars, who were Orthodox in practice but critical (and skeptical) in their study of the Bible and Talmud, to establish a seminary to train rabbis for immigrants from Eastern Europe. These left-wing Orthodox rabbis were joined by right-wing Reform rabbis who felt that Jewish law should not be entirely abandoned, to form the Conservative movement. Orthodox Jews who opposed the Haskalah formed Haredi Orthodox Judaism. After massive movements of Jews following The Holocaust and the creation of the state of Israel, these movements have competed for followers from among traditional Jews in or from other countries.

Judaism is practised in all parts of the world, for example in a synagogue in downtown Mumbai.

10.7.7 Spectrum of observance Countries such as the United States, Israel, Canada, United Kingdom, Argentina and South Africa contain large Jewish populations. Jewish religious practice varies widely through all levels of observance. According to the 2001 edition of the National Jewish Population Survey, in the United States’ Jewish community—the world’s second largest—4.3 million Jews out of 5.1 million had some sort of connection to the religion. Of that population of connected Jews, 80% participated in some sort of Jewish religious observance, but only 48% belonged to a synagogue, and fewer than 16% attend regularly.[114] Birth rates for American Jews have dropped from 2.0 to 1.7.[115] (Replacement rate is 2.1.) Intermarriage rates range from 40-50% in the US, and only about a third of children of intermarried couples are raised as Jews. Due to intermarriage and low birth rates, the Jewish population in the US shrank from 5.5 million in 1990 to 5.1 million in 2001. This is indicative of the general population trends among the Jewish community in the Diaspora, but a focus on total population obscures growth trends in some denominations and communities, such as Haredi Judaism. The Baal teshuva movement is a movement of Jews who have “returned” to religion or become more observant.

10.8 Judaism and other religions

10.8. JUDAISM AND OTHER RELIGIONS

10.8.1

143

Christianity and Judaism

and antipathy towards Jews developed in the early years of Christianity and was reinforced by ever increasing anti-Jewish measures over the ensuing cenMain article: Christianity and Judaism See also: Christianity and antisemitism and Christian– turies. The action taken by Christians against Jews included acts of violence, and murder culminating in the Jewish reconciliation Holocaust.[119]:21[120]:169[121] These attitudes were reinforced in Christian preaching, art and popular teaching Christianity was originally a sect of Second Temple Ju- for two millennia, containing contempt for Jews,[122] as daism, but the two religions diverged in the first century. well as statutes which were designed to humiliate and stigThe differences between Christianity and Judaism origi- matise Jews. nally centered on whether Jesus was the Jewish Messiah, but eventually became irreconcilable. Major differences between the two faiths include the nature of the Messiah, 10.8.2 Islam and Judaism of atonement and sin, the status of God’s commandments to Israel, and perhaps most significantly of the nature Main article: Islam and Judaism of God himself. Due to these differences, Judaism traditionally regards Christianity as Shituf, or worship of Both Judaism and Islamic religion arose from the patrithe God of Israel which is not monotheistic. Christian- arch Abraham, and are therefore considered Abrahamic ity has traditionally regarded Judaism as obsolete with religions. In both Jewish and Muslim tradition, the Jewthe invention of Christianity and Jews as a people re- ish and Arab peoples are descended from the two sons of placed by the Church, though a Christian belief in dual- Abraham—Isaac and Ishmael, respectively. While both covenant theology emerged as a phenomenon following religions are monotheistic and share many commonaliChristian reflection on how their theology influenced the ties, they differ in that Jews do not consider Jesus or Nazi Holocaust.[116] Muhammad to be prophets. The religions’ adherents have Until their emancipation in the late 18th and the 19th century, Jews in Christian lands were subject to humiliating legal restrictions and limitations. They included provisions requiring Jews to wear specific and identifying clothing such as the Jewish hat and the yellow badge, restricting Jews to certain cities and towns or in certain parts of towns (ghettos), and forbidding Jews to enter certain trades (for example selling new clothes in medieval Sweden). Disabilities also included special taxes levied on Jews, exclusion from public life, restraints on the performance of religious ceremonies, and linguistic censorship. Some countries went even further and completely expelled Jews, for example England in 1290 (Jews were readmitted in 1655) and Spain in 1492 (readmitted in 1868). The first Jewish settlers in North America arrived in the Dutch colony of New Amsterdam in 1654; they were forbidden to hold public office, open a retail shop, or establish a synagogue. When the colony was seized by the British in 1664 Jewish rights remained unchanged, but by 1671 Asser Levy was the first Jew to serve on a jury in North America.[117] In 1791, Revolutionary France was the first country to abolish disabilities altogether, followed by Prussia in 1848. Emancipation of the Jews in the United Kingdom was achieved in 1858 after an almost 30-year struggle championed by Isaac Lyon Goldsmid[118] with the ability of Jews to sit in parliament with the passing of the Jews Relief Act 1858. The newly united German Empire in 1871 abolished Jewish disabilities in Germany, which were reinstated in the Nuremberg Laws in 1935. Jewish life in Christian lands was marked by frequent blood libels, expulsions, forced conversions and massacres. An underlying source of prejudice against Jews in Europe was religious. Christian rhetoric

interacted with each other since the 7th century, when Islam originated and spread in the Arabian peninsula. Indeed, the years 712 to 1066 CE under the Ummayad and the Abbasid rulers have been called the Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain. Non-Muslim monotheists living in these countries, including Jews, were known as dhimmis. Dhimmis were allowed to practice their religion and to administer their internal aﬀairs, but they were subject to certain restrictions that were not imposed on Muslims.[123] For example, they had to pay the jizya, a per capita tax imposed on free adult non-Muslim males,[123] and they were also forbidden to bear arms or testify in court cases involving Muslims.[124] Many of the laws regarding dhimmis were highly symbolic. For example, dhimmis in some countries were required to wear distinctive clothing, a practice not found in either the Qur'an or hadiths but invented in early medieval Baghdad and inconsistently enforced.[125] Jews in Muslim countries were not entirely free from persecution—for example, many were killed, exiled or forcibly converted in the 12th century, in Persia, and by the rulers of the Almohad dynasty in North Africa and Al-Andalus,[126] as well as by the Zaydi imams of Yemen in the 17th century (see: Mawza Exile). At times, Jews were also restricted in their choice of residence—in Morocco, for example, Jews were conﬁned to walled quarters (mellahs) beginning in the 15th century and increasingly since the early 19th century.[127] In the mid-20th century, Jews were expelled from nearly all of the Arab countries.[128][129][130] Most have chosen to live in Israel. Today, antisemitic themes including Holocaust denial have become commonplace in the propaganda of Islamic movements such as Hizbullah and Hamas, in the pronouncements of various agencies of the

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Islamic Republic of Iran, and even in the newspapers and other publications of Refah Partisi.[131]

10.10 References [1] Methods and Categories: Judaism and Gospel

10.8.3

Syncretic movements incorporating Judaism

There are some movements that combine elements of Judaism with those of other religions. The most well-known of these is Messianic Judaism, a religious movement, which arose in the 1960s,[132][133][134][135] that incorporates elements of Judaism with the tenets of Christianity.[135][136][137][138][139] The movement states that Jesus is the Jewish Messiah, and generally that he is part of the Trinity,[140][141] and salvation is only achieved through acceptance of Jesus as one’s savior.[142] Some members argue that Messianic Judaism is a sect of Judaism.[143] Jewish organizations of every denomination reject this, stating that Messianic Judaism is a Christian sect, as it harbors identical creeds to that of Pauline Christianity.[144] Other examples of syncretism include Semitic neopaganism, a loosely organized sect which incorporates pagan or Wiccan beliefs with some Jewish religious practices; Jewish Buddhists, another loosely organized group that incorporates elements of Asian spirituality in their faith; and some Renewal Jews who borrow freely and openly from Buddhism, Suﬁsm, Native American religion, and other faiths.

[2] AskOxford: Judaism [3] Shaye J.D. Cohen 1999 The Beginnings of Jewishness: Boundaries, Varieties, Uncertainties, Berkeley: University of California Press; p. 7 [4] Jacobs, Louis (2007). “Judaism”. In Fred Skolnik. Encyclopaedia Judaica 11 (2d ed.). Farmington Hills, Mich.: Thomson Gale. p. 511. ISBN 978-0-02-8659282. Judaism, the religion, philosophy, and way of life of the Jews. [5] “Knowledge Resources: Judaism”. Berkley Center for Religion, Peace, and World Aﬀairs. Retrieved 2011-1122. [6] “What is the oral Torah?". Torah.org. Retrieved 201008-22. [7] “Karaite Jewish University”. Kjuonline.com. Retrieved 2010-08-22. [8] “Society for Humanistic Judaism”. Shj.org. Retrieved 2010-08-22. [9] “Jewish Denominations”. ReligionFacts. Retrieved 201008-22.

The Kabbalah Centre, which employs teachers from multiple religions, is a New Age movement that claims to [10] “Reform Judaism”. ReligionFacts. Retrieved 2010-0822. popularize the kabbalah, part of the Jewish esoteric tradition.

[11] “What is Reform Judaism?". Reformjudaism.org. Retrieved 2010-08-22.

10.9 See also

[12] Encyclopædia Britannica. “Britannica Online Encyclopedia: Bet Din”. Britannica.com. Retrieved 2010-08-22.

Main article: Outline of Judaism

[13] “Judaism 101: Rabbis, Priests and Other Religious Functionaries”. Jewfaq.org. Retrieved 2010-08-22.

• Anti-Judaism • Frankism • Jewish views of religious pluralism

[14] “History of Judaism until 164 BCE”. History of Judaism. BBC. [15] “Religion & Ethics – Judaism”. BBC. Retrieved 2010-0822. [16] Religion: Three Religions, One God PBS

• Judaism by country • List of converts to Judaism • Sabbateanism • Secular Jewish culture

[17] Settings of silver: an introduction to Judaism p. 59 by Stephen M. Wylen, Paulist Press, 2000 [18] Heribert Busse (1998). Islam, Judaism, and Christianity: Theological and Historical Aﬃliations. Markus Wiener Publishers. pp. 63–112. ISBN 978-1-55876-144-5.

• Criticism of Judaism

[19] Irving M. Zeitlin (2007). The Historical Muhammad. Polity. pp. 92–93. ISBN 978-0-7456-3999-4.

• United States military chaplain symbols

[20] Jewish Contributions to Civilization: An Estimate (book)

10.10. REFERENCES

[21] See, for example, Deborah Dash Moore, American Jewish Identity Politics, University of Michigan Press, 2008, p. 303; Ewa Morawska, Insecure Prosperity: Small-Town Jews in Industrial America, 1890–1940, Princeton University Press, 1999. p. 217; Peter Y. Medding, Values, interests and identity: Jews and politics in a changing world, Volume 11 of Studies in contemporary Jewry, Oxford University Press, 1995, p. 64; Ezra Mendelsohn, People of the city: Jews and the urban challenge, Volume 15 of Studies in contemporary Jewry, Oxford University Press, 1999, p. 55; Louis Sandy Maisel, Ira N. Forman, Donald Altschiller, Charles Walker Bassett, Jews in American politics: essays, Rowman & Littlefield, 2004, p. 158; Seymour Martin Lipset, American Exceptionalism: A Double-Edged Sword, W. W. Norton & Company, 1997, p. 169. [22] “Jewish Population”. Retrieved 9 September 2013. [23] World Jewish Population, 2010. Sergio Della Pergola, Hebrew University of Jerusalem [24] Nahum Sarna 1969 Understanding Genesis. New York: Schocken [25] Jacob Neusner, ''Defining Judaism'', in Jacob Neusner and Alan Avery-Peck, “The Blackwell companion to Judaism” (Blackwell, 2003), p.3. Books.google.com.au. 2003-0223. ISBN 978-1-57718-059-3. Retrieved 2010-08-22. [26] Gen. 17:3-8 Genesis 17: 3-8: Abram fell facedown, and God said to him, “As for me, this is my covenant with you: You will be the father of many nations. No longer will you be called Abram ; your name will be Abraham, for I have made you a father of many nations. I will make you very fruitful; I will make nations of you, and kings will come from you. I will establish my covenant as an everlasting covenant between me and you and your descendants after you for the generations to come, to be your God and the God of your descendants after you. The whole land of Canaan, where you are now an alien, I will give as an everlasting possession to you and your descendants after you; and I will be their God;" Gen. 22:17-18 Genesis 22: 17-18: I will surely bless you and make your descendants as numerous as the stars in the sky and as the sand on the seashore. Your descendants will take possession of the cities of their enemies, and through your offspring all nations on earth will be blessed, because you have obeyed me.” [27] Exodus 20:3 “You shall have no other gods before me; Deut. 6:5 Deuteronomy 6:5 “Love the LORD your God with all your heart and with all your soul and with all your strength.” [28] Lev. 19:18 Leviticus 19:18: "'Do not seek revenge or bear a grudge against one of your people, but love your neighbor as yourself. I am the Lord” [29] Kadushin, Max, 1972 The Rabbinic Mind. New York: Bloch Publishing Company. 194 [30] Kadushin, Max, 1972 The Rabbinic Mind. New York: Bloch Publishing Company. 203

145

[31] The Books of Melachim (Kings) and Book of Yeshaiahu (Isaiah) in the Tanakh contain a few of the many Biblical accounts of Israelite kings and segments of ancient Israel’s population worshiping other gods. For example: King Solomon’s “wives turned away his heart after other gods...[and he] did that which was evil in the sight of the LORD, and went not fully after the LORD” (elaborated in 1 Melachim 11:4-10); King Ahab “went and served Baal, and worshiped him...And Ahab made the Asherah [a pagan place of worship]; and Ahab did yet more to provoke the LORD, the God of Israel, than all the kings of Israel that were before him” (1 Melachim 16:31-33); the prophet Isaiah condemns the people who “prepare a table for [the idol] Fortune, and that oﬀer mingled wine in full measure unto [the idol] Destiny” (Yeshaiahu 65:11-12). Translation: JPS (Jewish Publication Society) edition of the Tanakh, from 1917, available at Mechon Mamre. [32] The Jewish roots of Christological monotheism: papers from the St. Andrews conference on the historical origins of the worship of Jesus. Books.google.com. 1999. ISBN 978-90-04-11361-9. Retrieved 2010-08-22. [33] Steinberg, Milton 1947 Basic Judaism New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. 36 [34] “Judaism 101: Movements of Judaism”. Jewfaq.org. Retrieved 2010-08-22. [35] http://www.nola.com/community/st-tammany/index.ssf/ 2014/01/theology_on_tap_winter_2014_un.html [36] Rabbi S. of Montpelier, Yad Rama, Y. Alfacher, Rosh Amanah. [37] “Maimonides’ 13 Foundations of Judaism”. Mesora. However if he rejects one of these fundamentals he leaves the nation and is a denier of the fundamentals and is called a heretic, a denier, etc. [38] Rabbi Mordechai Blumenfeld. “Maimonides, 13 Principles of Faith”. Aish HaTorah. According to the Rambam, their acceptance deﬁnes the minimum requirement necessary for one to relate to the Almighty and His Torah as a member of the People of Israel [39] Daniel Septimus. “The Thirteen Principles of Faith”. MyJewishLearning.com. [40] Ronald L. Eisenberg (2004). The JPS guide to Jewish traditions. Jewish Publication Society. p. 509. ISBN 08276-0760-1. The concept of “dogma” is … not a basic idea in Judaism. [41] Dogma in Medieval Jewish Thought, Menachem Kellner. [42] “The Thirteen Principles of the Jewish Faith”. brew4Christians. Retrieved 2010-08-22.

He-

[43] “What Do Jews Believe?". Mechon Mamre. The closest that anyone has ever come to creating a widely accepted list of Jewish beliefs is Maimonides’ thirteen principles of faith. [44] The JPS guide to Jewish traditions, page 510, “The one that eventually secured almost universal acceptance was the Thirteen Principles of faith”

146

[45] “Judaism 101: What Do Jews Believe?". Jewfaq.org. Retrieved 2010-08-22. [46] “Description of Judaism, Ontario Consultants on Religious Tolerance”. Religioustolerance.org. Retrieved 2010-08-22. [47] “Judaism 101: The Patriarchs and the Origins of Judaism”. Jewfaq.org. Retrieved 2010-08-22.

CHAPTER 10. JUDAISM

[62] Chief Rabbi Sir Jonathan Sacks, 2006 The Koren Sacks Siddur: Hebrew/English Prayer Book: The Authorized Daily Prayer Book of the United Hebrew Congregations of the Commonwealth London: Harper Collins Publishers pp. 54-55 [63] Nosson Scherman 2003 The Complete Artscroll Siddur Third Edition Brooklyn, N.Y.: Mesorah Publications pp. 49-53

[48] Rietti, Rabbi Jonathan. “How Do You Know the Exodus Really Happened?". Archived from the original on 2004-09-18. The word "emunah" has been translated incorrectly by the King James Bible as merely “belief” or “faith”, when in actuality, it means conviction, which is a much more emphatic knowledge of God based on experience.

[64] Rabbi Schneur Zalman of Liadi, Nissen Mangel, 2003 Siddur Tehillat Hashem Kehot Publication Society. 24-25

[49] “Jewish Sacred Texts”. ReligionFacts. Retrieved 201008-22.

[67] AskOxford: Judaism Archived July 15, 2014 at the Wayback Machine

[50] M. San 10:1. Translation available here .

[68] Oskar Skarsaune (2002). In the Shadow of the Temple: Jewish Inﬂuences on Early Christianity. InterVarsity Press. pp. 39FF. ISBN 978-0-8308-2670-4. Retrieved 201008-22.

[51] “Judaism 101: A Glossary of Basic Jewish Terms and Concepts”. Union of Orthodox Jewish Congregations in America. April 12, 2006. [52] The Prayer book: Weekday, Sabbath, and Festival translated and arranged by Ben Zion Bokser. New York: Hebrew Publishing Company. 9-10 [53] Kadushin, Max 1972 The Rabbinic Mind New York: Bloch Publishing. 213 [54] Neusner, Jacob 2003 Invitation to the Talmud Stipf and Son, Oregon xvii-xxii [55] Stern, David “Midrash and Indeterminacy” in Critical Inquiry, Vol. 15, No. 1 (Autumn, 1988), p. 151. [56] Neusner, Jacob 2003 Invitation to the Talmud Stipf and Son, Oregon xvii-vix; Steinsaltz, Adin 1976 The Essential Talmud New York: Basic Books. 3-9; Strack, Hermann 1980 Introduction to the Midrash and Talmud New York: Atheneum. 95; Stern, David “Midrash and Indeterminacy” in Critical Inquiry, Vol. 15, No. 1 (Autumn, 1988), pp. 132-161 [57] Stern, David “Midrash and Indeterminacy” in Critical Inquiry, Vol. 15, No. 1 (Autumn, 1988), p. 147. [58] Cohen, Abner 1949 Everyman’s Talmud New York: E.P. Dutton & Co. xxiv; Strack, Hermann 1980 Introduction to the Midrash and Talmud New York: Atheneum. 95 [59] Cohen, Abner 1949 Everyman’s Talmud New York: E.P. Dutton & Co. xxiv; Steinsaltz, Adin 1976 The Essential Talmud New Yorki: Basic Books. 222; Strack, Hermann 1980 Introduction to the Midrash and Talmud New York: Atheneum. 95 [60] Strack, Hermann 1980 Introduction to the Midrash and Talmud New York: Atheneum. 95 [61] ‫סדור רינת ישראל לבני חוײל‬Jerusalem: 1974, pp. 38-39

[65] ἰουδαΐζειν. Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert; An Intermediate Greek-English Lexicon at the Perseus Project [66] “Methods and Categories: Judaism and Gospel”. Bibleinterp.com. 2007-11-06. Retrieved 2010-08-22.

[69] Shaye J.D. Cohen 1999 The Beginnings of Jewishness: Boundaries, Varieties, Uncertainties University of California Press. 105-106 [70] The Oxford English Dictionary. [71] Boyarin, Daniel (October 14, 1994). “Introduction”. A radical Jew: Paul and the politics of identity. Berkeley, California: University of California Press. pp. 13– 38. ISBN 0-520-08592-2. LCCN 93036269. Retrieved 2006-06-15. Paul was motivated by a Hellenistic desire for the One, which among other things produced an ideal of a universal human essence, beyond difference and hierarchy. This universal humanity, however, was predicated (and still is) on the dualism of the flesh and the spirit, such that while the body is particular, marked through practice as Jew or Greek, and through anatomy as male or female, the spirit is universal. Paul did not, however, reject the body—as did, for instance, the gnostics—but rather promoted a system whereby the body had its place, albeit subordinated to the spirit. Paul’s anthropological dualism was matched by a hermeneutical dualism as well. Just as the human being is divided into a fleshy and a spiritual component, so also is language itself. It is composed of outer, material signs and inner, spiritual significations. When this is applied to the religious system that Paul inherited, the physical, fleshy signs of the Torah, of historical Judaism, are re-interpreted as symbols of that which Paul takes to be universal requirements and possibilities for humanity. [72] Boyarin, Daniel (1994). “Answering the Mail”. A radical Jew: Paul and the politics of identity. Berkeley, California: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-085922. Jewishness disrupts the very categories of identity, because it is not national, not genealogical, not religious, but all of these, in dialectical tension with one another. [73] Weiner, Rebecca (2007). “Who is a Jew?". Jewish Virtual Library. Retrieved 2007-10-06.

10.10. REFERENCES

[74] Samuel G. Freedman, “Strains Grow Between Israel and Many Jews in the U.S.” New York Times, 6 February 2015 [75] "''Reform’s Position On...What is unacceptable practice?''". Faqs.org. 2010-06-29. Retrieved 2010-08-22.

147

[94] Y. Lichtenshtein M.A. “Weekly Pamphlet #805”. BarIlan University, Faculty of Jewish Studies, Rabbinical ofﬁce. ...certain prohibitions become allowed without a doubt because of lifethreatening circumstances, like for example eating non-kosher food

[76] Heschel, Susannah (1998) Abraham Geiger and the Jewish Jesus. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 157. ISBN 0-226-32959-3

[95] Vayyiqra (Leviticus) 15.

[77] “Law of Return 5710-1950”. Israel Ministry of Foreign Aﬀairs. 2007. Retrieved 2007-10-22.

[97] Avi Kehat. “Torah tidbits”. Ou.org. Retrieved 2010-0822.

[78] Jacob, Walter (1987). Contemporary American Reform Responsa. Mars, PA: Publishers Choice Book Mfg. Books.google.com. 1987. ISBN 0-88123-003-0. Retrieved 2011-09-28.

[98] “Judaism 101: Kosher Sex”. Jewfaq.org. Retrieved 201008-22.

[96] Bamidbar (Numbers) 19.

[99] “Karaites”. Encyclopedia.com. Retrieved 2010-08-22.

[79] http://www.karaite-korner.org/karaite_faq.shtml

[100] Wasserfall, Rahel (1999). Women and water: menstruation in Jewish life and law. Brandeis University Press. [80] Robert Gordis. “Torah MiSinai:Conservative Views”. A ISBN 0-87451-960-8. Modern Approach to a Living Halachah. Masorti World. Archived from the original on 2007-07-13. The Torah is [101] http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/ an emanation of God... This conception does not mean, 14213-talmud for us, that the process of revalation consisted of dictation [102] Yehezkal Kauffman, The Religion of Israel by God. [81] “Conservative Judaism”. Jewlicious. We therefore under- [103] Robert Alter The Art of Biblical Poetry stand this term as a metaphor to mean that the Torah is [104] E. A. Speiser Genesis (The Anchor Bible) divine and that it reflects God’s will. [82] “Tefillin”, “The Book of Jewish Knowledge”, Nathan [105] John Bright A History of Israel Ausubel, Crown Publishers, NY, 1964, p.458) [106] Martin Noth The History of Israel [83] “Shabbat”. Judaism 101. April 12, 2006.

[107] Ephraim Urbach The Sages [84] “Judaism 101: Kashrut”. Jewfaq.org. Retrieved 2010-08[108] Shaye Cohen The beginnings of Jewishness 22. [85] Chaya Shuchat. “The Kosher Pig?". It is also the most [109] John Day Yahweh and the Gods and Goddesses of Canaan, page 68. quintessentially “treif” of animals, with its name being nearly synonymous with non-kosher … Although far from [110] Langmuir, Gavin (1993). History, religion, and antialone in the litany of non-kosher animals, the pig seems to semitism. University of California Press. ISBN 0-520stand in a class of its own. 07728-8. [86] “Tamar Levy, St. Louis, MO – Block Yeshiva High [111] Cohen, Mark R. "The Neo-Lachrymose Conception of School, Grade 9”. OUkosher.org. Retrieved 2010-08-22. Jewish-Arab History.” Tikkun 6.3 (1991) [87] Shulchan Aruch, Yoreh De'ah, (87:3) [88] Elliot Dorﬀ, “On the Use of All Wines” PDF (2.19 MB), YD 123:1.1985, pp. 11–15.

[112] Amira K. Bennison and María Ángeles Gallego. "Jewish Trading in Fes On The Eve of the Almohad Conquest.” MEAH, sección Hebreo 56 (2007), 33-51

[89] “Kashrut Facts”. Religionfacts.com. Retrieved 2010-08- [113] ""The Maggid of Mezritch” Chapter 7 – Opposition Intensiﬁes”. Nishmas.org. Retrieved 2010-08-22. 22.

[90] “Judaism 101: Kashrut: Jewish Dietary Laws”. Jew- [114] http://www.harrisinteractive.com/vault/ Harris-Interactive-Poll-Research-While-Most-Americans-Believe-in-God-O faq.org. Retrieved 2010-08-22. pdf Religious service attendance at least once a month [91] Vayyiqra (Leviticus) 11 [115] This is My Beloved, This is My Friend: A Rabbinic Letter [92] Rice, Yisrael (2007-06-10). “Judaism and the Art of Eaton Intimate relations, p. 27, Elliot N. Dorﬀ ing”. Chabad. Retrieved 2010-08-22. [116] R. Kendall Soulen, The God of Israel and Christian The[93] Jewish life in WWII England: “there was a...special disology, (Minneapolis: Fortress, 1996) ISBN 978-0-8006pensation...that allowed Jews serving in the armed ser2883-3 vices to eat “non-kosher” when no Jewish food was available; that deviation from halacha was allowed 'in order to [117] “New Amsterdam’s Jewish Crusader”. Jewish Virtual Library. save a human life including your own.'"

148

[118] “Sir Isaac Lyon Goldsmid, 1st Baronet”. Encyclopedia Britannica. [119] Richard Harries. After the evil: Christianity and Judaism in the shadow of the Holocaust. Oxford University Press, 2003. ISBN 978-0-19-926313-4

CHAPTER 10. JUDAISM

early and mid-1970s, Jewish converts to Christianity established several congregations at their own initiative. Unlike the previous communities of Jewish Christians, Messianic Jewish congregations were largely independent of control from missionary societies or Christian denominations, even though they still wanted the acceptance of the larger evangelical community.

[120] Hans Küng. On Being a Christian. Doubleday, Garden City NY, 1976 ISBN 978-0-385-02712-0 [135] Melton, J. Gordon. Encyclopedia of Protestantism. Infobase Publishing, 2005, ISBN 978-0-8160-5456-5, p. [121] Lucy Dawidowicz The War Against the Jews, 1933–1945. 373. “Messianic Judaism is a Protestant movement that First published 1975; this Bantam edition 1986, p.23. emerged in the last half of the 20th century among beISBN 0-553-34532-X lievers who were ethnically Jewish but had adopted an Evangelical Christian faith... By the 1960s, a new ef[122] Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs. May 5, 2009. The fort to create a culturally Jewish Protestant Christianity Origins of Christian Anti-Semitism: Interview with Pieter emerged among individuals who began to call themselves van der Horst Messianic Jews.” [123] Lewis (1984), pp.10, 20 [136] Ariel, Yaakov (2006). “Judaism and Christianity Unite! The Unique Culture of Messianic Judaism”. In Gallagher, [124] Lewis (1984), p. 9, 27 Eugene V.; Ashcraft, W. Michael. Jewish and Christian [125] Lewis (1999), p.131 Traditions. Introduction to New and Alternative Religions in America 2. Westport, Conn: Greenwood Publish[126] Lewis (1984), pp. 17, 18, 52, 94, 95; Stillman (1979), pp. ing Group. p. 191. ISBN 978-0-275-98714-5. LCCN 27, 77 2006022954. OCLC 315689134. While Christianity started in the first century of the Common Era as a Jewish [127] Lewis (1984), p. 28 group, it quickly separated from Judaism and claimed to replace it; ever since the relationship between the two tra[128] “Why Jews Fled the Arab Countries”. Middle East Forum. ditions has often been strained. But in the twentieth cenRetrieved on 2013-07-28. tury groups of young Jews claimed that they had overcome [129] Shumsky, Dmitry. (2012-09-12) “Recognize Jews as the historical differences between the two religions and refugees from Arab countries”. Haaretz. Retrieved on amalgamated Jewish identity and customs with the Chris2013-07-28. tian faith. [130] Meir, Esther. (2012-10-09) “The truth about the expul- [137] Ariel, Yaakov (2006). “Judaism and Christianity Unite! The Unique Culture of Messianic Judaism”. In Gallagher, sion”. 'Haaretz. Retrieved on 2013-07-28. Eugene V.; Ashcraft, W. Michael. Jewish and Christian [131] Muslim Anti-Semitism by Bernard Lewis (Middle East Traditions. Introduction to New and Alternative ReliQuarterly) June 1998 gions in America 2. Westport, Conn: Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 194–195. ISBN 978-0-275-98714[132] Feher, Shoshanah. Passing over Easter: Constructing 5. LCCN 2006022954. OCLC 315689134. When the the Boundaries of Messianic Judaism, Rowman Altamira, term resurfaced in Israel in the 1940s and 1950s, it des1998, ISBN 978-0-7619-8953-0, p. 140. “This interest ignated all Jews who accepted Christianity in its Protesin developing a Jewish ethnic identity may not be surpristant evangelical form. Missionaries such as the Southing when we consider the 1960s, when Messianic Judaism ern Baptist Robert Lindsey noted that for Israeli Jews, the arose.” term nozrim, “Christians” in Hebrew, meant, almost automatically, an alien, hostile religion. Because such a term [133] Ariel, Yaakov (2006). “Judaism and Christianity Unite! made it nearly impossible to convince Jews that ChrisThe Unique Culture of Messianic Judaism”. In Gallagher, tianity was their religion, missionaries sought a more neuEugene V.; Ashcraft, W. Michael. Jewish and Christian tral term, one that did not arouse negative feelings. They Traditions. Introduction to New and Alternative Religions chose Meshichyim, Messianic, to overcome the suspicion in America 2. Westport, Conn: Greenwood Publishand antagonism of the term nozrim. Meshichyim as a term ing Group. p. 191. ISBN 978-0-275-98714-5. LCCN also had the advantage of emphasizing messianism as a 2006022954. OCLC 315689134. In the late 1960s and major component of the Christian evangelical belief that 1970s, both Jews and Christians in the United States were the missions and communities of Jewish converts to Chrissurprised to see the rise of a vigorous movement of Jewish tianity propagated. It conveyed the sense of a new, innovaChristians or Christian Jews. tive religion rather that [sic] an old, unfavorable one. The [134] Ariel, Yaakov (2006). “Judaism and Christianity Unite! term was used in reference to those Jews who accepted The Unique Culture of Messianic Judaism”. In Gallagher, Jesus as their personal savior, and did not apply to Jews Eugene V.; Ashcraft, W. Michael. Jewish and Christian accepting Roman Catholicism who in Israel have called Traditions. Introduction to New and Alternative Religions themselves Hebrew Christians. The term Messianic Juin America 2. Westport, Conn: Greenwood Publishdaism was adopted in the United States in the early 1970s ing Group. p. 194. ISBN 978-0-275-98714-5. LCCN by those converts to evangelical Christianity who advo2006022954. OCLC 315689134. The Rise of Messianic cated a more assertive attitude on the part of converts toJudaism. In the first phase of the movement, during the wards their Jewish roots and heritage.

10.10. REFERENCES

[138] Cohn-Sherbok, Dan (2000). “Messianic Jewish mission”. Messianic Judaism. London: Continuum International Publishing Group. p. 179. ISBN 978-0-8264-5458-4. OCLC 42719687. Retrieved August 10, 2010. Evangelism of the Jewish people is thus at the heart of the Messianic movement. [139] Ariel, Yaakov S. (2000). “Chapter 20: The Rise of Messianic Judaism”. Evangelizing the chosen people: missions to the Jews in America, 1880–2000 (Google Books). Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. p. 223. ISBN 978-0-8078-4880-7. OCLC 43708450. Retrieved August 10, 2010. Messianic Judaism, although it advocated the idea of an independent movement of Jewish converts, remained the offspring of the missionary movement, and the ties would never be broken. The rise of Messianic Judaism was, in many ways, a logical outcome of the ideology and rhetoric of the movement to evangelize the Jews as well as its early sponsorship of various forms of Hebrew Christian expressions. The missions have promoted the message that Jews who had embraced Christianity were not betraying their heritage or even their faith but were actually fulfilling their true Jewish selves by becoming Christians. The missions also promoted the dispensationalist idea that the Church equals the body of the true Christian believers and that Christians were defined by their acceptance of Jesus as their personal Savior and not by their affiliations with specific denominations and particular liturgies or modes of prayer. Missions had been using Jewish symbols in their buildings and literature and called their centers by Hebrew names such as Emanuel or Beth Sar Shalom. Similarly, the missions’ publications featured Jewish religious symbols and practices such as the lighting of a menorah. Although missionaries to the Jews were alarmed when they first confronted the more assertive and independent movement of Messianic Judaism, it was they [143] who were responsible for its conception and indirectly for its birth. The ideology, rhetoric, and symbols they had promoted for generations provided the background for the rise of a new movement that missionaries at first rejected as going too far but later accepted and even embraced.

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February 10, 2009. Retrieved August 18, 2010. To convert to the Jewish sect of HaDerech, accepting Yeshua as your King is the first act after one’s heart turns toward HaShem and His Torah – as one can not obey a commandment of God if they first do not love God, and we love God by following his Messiah. Without first accepting Yeshua as the King and thus obeying Him, then getting circumcised for the purpose of Jewish conversion only gains you access to the Jewish community. It means nothing when it comes to inheriting a place in the World to Come....Getting circumcised apart from desiring to be obedient to HaShem, and apart from accepting Yeshua as your King, is nothing but a surgical procedure, or worse, could lead to you believe that Jewish identity grants you a portion in the World to Come – at which point, what good is Messiah Yeshua, the Word of HaShem to you? He would have died for nothing!...As a convert from the nations, part of your obligation in keeping the Covenant, if you are a male, is to get circumcised in fulfillment of the commandment regarding circumcision. Circumcision is not an absolute requirement of being a Covenant member (that is, being made righteous before HaShem, and thus obtaining eternal life), but it is a requirement of obedience to God’s commandments, because circumcision is commanded for those who are of the seed of Abraham, whether born into the family, adopted, or converted....If after reading all of this you understand what circumcision is, and that is an act of obedience, rather than an act of gaining favor before HaShem for the purpose of receiving eternal life, then if you are male believer in Yeshua the Messiah for the redemption from death, the consequence of your sin of rebellion against Him, then pursue circumcision, and thus conversion into Judaism, as an act of obedience to the Messiah. • “Jewish Conversion – Giyur”. JerusalemCouncil.org. JerusalemCouncil.org. 2009. Retrieved 2009-02-05. We recognize the desire of people from the nations to convert to Judaism, through HaDerech (The Way)(Messianic Judaism), a sect of Judaism.

[140] “What are the Standards of the UMJC?". Union of Mes- [144] Orthodox Simmons, Shraga. “Why Jews Don't Believe sianic Jewish Congregations. June 1998. Retrieved May in Jesus”. Aish HaTorah. Retrieved July 28, 2010. 3, 2015. 1. We believe the Bible is the inspired, the only Jews do not accept Jesus as the messiah because: infallible, authoritative Word of G-d. #Jesus did not fulfill the messianic prophecies. #Je2. We believe that there is one G-d, eternally existent in sus did not embody the personal qualifications of three persons, Father, Son and Holy Spirit. the Messiah. #Biblical verses “referring” to Jesus 3. We believe in the deity of the L-RD Yeshua, the Mesare mistranslations. #Jewish belief is based on nasiah, in His virgin birth, in His sinless life, in His miracles, tional revelation. in His vicarious and atoning death through His shed blood, Conservative Waxman, Jonathan (2006). “Messianic in His bodily resurrection, in His ascension to the right Jews Are Not Jews”. United Synagogue of Conserhand of the Father, and in His personal return in power vative Judaism. Archived from the original on June and glory. 28, 2006. Retrieved 2007-02-14. Hebrew Christian, Jewish Christian, Jew for Jesus, Messianic [141] Israel b. Betzalel (2009). “Trinitarianism”. JerusalemJew, Fulfilled Jew. The name may have changed Council.org. Retrieved 2009-07-03. This then is who over the course of time, but all of the names reflect Yeshua is: He is not just a man, and as a man, he is not the same phenomenon: one who asserts that s/he from Adam, but from God. He is the Word of HaShem, is straddling the theological fence between Christhe Memra, the Davar, the Righteous One, he didn't betianity and Judaism, but in truth is firmly on the come righteous, he is righteous. He is called God’s Son, Christian side....we must affirm as did the Israeli he is the agent of HaShem called HaShem, and he is Supreme Court in the well-known Brother Daniel “HaShem” who we interact with and not die. case that to adopt Christianity is to have crossed the [142] “Do I need to be Circumcised?". JerusalemCouncil.org. line out of the Jewish community.

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Reform “Missionary Impossible”. Hebrew Union College. August 9, 1999. Retrieved 2007-02-14. Missionary Impossible, an imaginative video and curriculum guide for teachers, educators, and rabbis to teach Jewish youth how to recognize and respond to “Jews-for-Jesus,” “Messianic Jews,” and other Christian proselytizers, has been produced by six rabbinic students at Hebrew Union College-Jewish Institute of Religion’s Cincinnati School. The students created the video as a tool for teaching why Jewish college and high school youth and Jews in intermarried couples are primary targets of Christian missionaries. Reconstructionist/Renewal “FAQ’s About Jewish Renewal”. Aleph.org. 2007. Retrieved 2007-12-20. What is ALEPH’s position on so called messianic Judaism? ALEPH has a policy of respect for other spiritual traditions, but objects to deceptive practices and will not collaborate with denominations which actively target Jews for recruitment. Our position on so-called “Messianic Judaism” is that it is Christianity and its proponents would be more honest to call it that.

10.11 Bibliography • Marc Lee Raphael, “Judaism in America” (Columbia University Press, 2003) • Avery-Peck, Alan, and Neusner, Jacob, (eds), “The Blackwell reader in Judaism” (Blackwell, 2001) • Cohn-Sherbok, Dan, “Judaism: history, belief, and practice” (Routledge, 2003) • Avery-Peck, Alan, and Neusner, Jacob, (eds), “The Blackwell Companion to Judaism (Blackwell, 2003)

• A People Divided: Judaism in Contemporary America, Jack Wertheimer. Brandeis Univ. Press, 1997. • Encyclopaedia Judaica, Keter Publishing, CDROM edition, 1997 • The American Jewish Identity Survey, article by Egon Mayer, Barry Kosmin and Ariela Keysar; a sub-set of The American Religious Identity Survey, City University of New York Graduate Center. An article on this survey is printed in The New York Jewish Week, November 2, 2001. • Lewis, Bernard. (1984). The Jews of Islam. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-69100807-8 • Lewis, Bernard. (1999). Semites and Anti-Semites: An Inquiry into Conﬂict and Prejudice. W. W. Norton & Co. ISBN 0-393-31839-7 • Stillman, Norman (1979). The Jews of Arab Lands: A History and Source Book. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America. ISBN 0-82760198-0 • Day, John. Yahweh and the Gods and Goddesses of Canaan. Chippenham: Sheﬃeld Academic Press, 2000. • Dever, William G. Did God Have a Wife?. Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 2005. • Walsh, J.P.M. The Mighty From Their Thrones. Eugene: Wipf and Stock Publishers, 1987. • Finkelstein, Israel (1996). Ethnicity and Origin of the Iron I Settlers in the Highlands of Canaan: Can the Real Israel Please Stand Up? The Biblical Archaeologist, 59(4).

• Boyarin, Daniel 1994 A Radical Jew: Paul and the Politics of Identity Berkeley: University of California Jews in Islamic countries: Press • Ancient Judaism, Max Weber, Free Press, 1967, ISBN 0-02-934130-2 • Living Judaism: The Complete Guide to Jewish Belief, Tradition and Practice Wayne Dosick. • Conservative Judaism: The New Century, Neil Gillman, Behrman House. • American Jewish Orthodoxy in Historical Perspective Jeﬀrey S. Gurock, 1996, Ktav. • Philosophies of Judaism Julius Guttmann, trans. by David Silverman, JPS. 1964 • Back to the Sources: Reading the Classic Jewish Texts Ed. Barry W. Holtz, Summit Books

• A. Khanbaghi. The Fire, the Star and the Cross: Minority Religions in Medieval and Early Modern Iran (IB Tauris 2006).

10.12 External links General • Judaism 101, an extensive FAQ written by a librarian. • Judaism article from the 1901–1906 Jewish Encyclopedia • Shamash’s Judaism resource page

• A History of the Jews Paul Johnson, HarperCollins, 1988 Orthodox/Haredi

10.12. EXTERNAL LINKS • Orthodox Judaism – The Orthodox Union: Official website • Chabad-Lubavitch: Official website • Rohr Jewish Learning Institute: Official website • The Various Types of Orthodox Judaism • Aish HaTorah • Ohr Somayach Traditional/Conservadox • Union for Traditional Judaism Conservative

151 • Complete Tanakh (in Hebrew, with vowels). • Parallel Hebrew-English Tanakh • English Tanakh from the 1917 Jewish Publication Society version. • The Judaica Press Complete Tanach with Rashi in English • Torah.org. (also known as Project Genesis) Contains Torah commentaries and studies of Tanakh, along with Jewish ethics, philosophy, holidays and other classes. • The complete formatted Talmud online. Audio ﬁles of lectures for each page from an Orthodox viewpoint are provided in French, English, Yiddish and Hebrew. Reload the page for an image of a page of the Talmud.

• The United Synagogue of Conservative Judaism: Official website See also Torah database for links to more Judaism e-texts. • Masorti (Conservative) Movement in Israel Wikimedia Torah study projects • United Synagogue Youth Reform/Progressive • The Union for Reform Judaism (USA) • Reform Judaism (UK): Official website • Liberal Judaism (UK): Official website • World Union for Progressive Judaism (Israel): Official website Reconstructionist • Jewish Reconstructionist Federation: Official website Renewal • ALEPH: Alliance for Jewish Renewal: Official website • OHALAH Association of Rabbis for Jewish Renewal: Official website Humanistic • Society for Humanistic Judaism: Official website Karaite • World Movement for Karaite Judaism Jewish religious literature and texts

Text study projects at Wikisource. In many instances, the Hebrew versions of these projects are more fully developed than the English. • Mikraot Gedolot (Rabbinic Bible) in Hebrew (sample) and English (sample). • Cantillation at the “Vayavinu Bamikra” Project in Hebrew (lists nearly 200 recordings) and English. • Mishnah in Hebrew (sample) and English (sample). • Shulchan Aruch in Hebrew and English (Hebrew text with English translation).

Chapter 11

Freemasonry “Freemasons” redirects here. For other uses, see Freemasons (disambiguation). “Masonic” redirects here. For the ghost town in California, see Masonic, California.

or Grand Orient. There is no international, world-wide Grand Lodge that supervises all of Freemasonry; each Grand Lodge is independent, and they do not necessarily recognise each other as being legitimate.

11.1 Organisation, structure and beliefs 11.1.1 Masonic Lodge

The Masonic Square and Compasses. (Found with or without the letter G)

Freemasonry is a fraternal organisation that traces its origins to the local fraternities of stonemasons, which from the end of the fourteenth century regulated the qualifications of stonemasons and their interaction with authorities and clients. Masons are members of the organization. The degrees of freemasonry retain the three grades of medieval craft guilds, those of Apprentice, Journeyman or fellow (now called Fellowcraft), and Master Mason. These are the degrees offered by craft, or blue lodge Freemasonry. There are additional degrees, which vary with locality and jurisdiction, and are now administered by different bodies than the craft degrees.

Lodge in Palazzo Roﬃa, Florence set out for French (Moderns) ritual

Main article: Masonic Lodge

The Masonic Lodge is the basic organisational unit of Freemasonry. The lodge meets regularly to conduct the usual formal business of any small organisation (pay bills, organise social and charitable events, elect new members, etc.). In addition to business, the meeting may perform a ceremony to confer a Masonic degree[1] or receive a lecture, which is usually on some aspect of Masonic history or ritual.[2] At the conclusion of the meeting, the lodge or festive board, someThe basic, local organisational unit of Freemasonry is the might adjourn for a formal dinner, [3] times involving toasting and song. lodge. The lodges are usually supervised and governed at the regional level (usually coterminous with either a The bulk of Masonic ritual consists of degree ceremonies. state, province, or national border) by a Grand Lodge Candidates for Freemasonry are progressively initiated 152

11.1. ORGANISATION, STRUCTURE AND BELIEFS

153

into Freemasonry, first in the degree of Entered Apprentice. Some time later, in a separate ceremony, they will be passed to the degree of Fellowcraft, and finally they will be raised to the degree of Master Mason. In all of these ceremonies, the candidate is entrusted with passwords, signs and grips peculiar to his new rank.[4] Another ceremony is the annual installation of the Master and officers of the lodge.[1] In some jurisdictions Installed Master is valued as a separate rank, with its own secrets to distinguish its members.[5] In other jurisdictions, the grade is not recognised, and no inner ceremony conveys new secrets during the installation of a new Master of the lodge.[6]

of the symbolism is taught and explored through ritual.[10]

These private local lodges form the backbone of Freemasonry, and a Freemason will necessarily have been initiated into one of these. There also exist specialist lodges where Masons meet to celebrate anything from sport to Masonic research. The rank of Master Mason also entitles a Freemason to explore Masonry further through other degrees, administered separately from the craft, or “blue lodge” degrees described here, but having a similar format to their meetings.[10]

candidate to illustrate the legend and symbolism of each degree.[14]

All Freemasons begin their journey in the “craft” by being progressively initiated, passed and raised into the three degrees of craft, or blue lodge Masonry. During these three rituals, the candidate is progressively taught the meanings of the lodge symbols, and entrusted with grips, signs and words to signify to other Masons that he has been so initiated. The initiations are part allegory and part lecture, and revolve around the construction of the Temple of Solomon, and the artistry and death of his chief architect, Hiram Abiff. The degrees are those of Entered apprentice, Fellowcraft and Master Mason. While many different versions of these rituals exist, with two Most lodges have some sort of social calendar, allow- different lodge layouts and versions of the Hiram myth, ing Masons and their partners to meet in a less ritualised each version is recognisable to any Freemason from any environment.[7] Often coupled with these events is the jurisdiction.[10] obligation placed on every Mason to contribute to char- In some jurisdictions the main themes of each degree are ity. This occurs at both lodge and Grand Lodge level. illustrated by tracing boards. These painted depictions of Masonic charities contribute to many fields from educa- Masonic themes are exhibited in the lodge according to tion to disaster relief.[8][9] which degree is being worked, and are explained to the

There is very little consistency in Freemasonry. Because each Masonic jurisdiction is independent, each sets its own procedures. The wording of the ritual, the number of oﬃcers present, the layout of the meeting room, etc. varies from jurisdiction to jurisdiction.[10][11]

The idea of Masonic brotherhood probably descends from a 16th-century legal deﬁnition of a brother as one who has taken an oath of mutual support to another. Accordingly, Masons swear at each degree to keep the contents of that degree secret, and to support and protect their brethren unless they have broken the law.[15] In most lodges the oath or obligation is taken on a Volume of Sacred Law, whichever book of divine revelation is appropriate to the religious beliefs of the individual brother (usually the Bible in the Anglo-American tradition). In Progressive continental Freemasonry, books other than scripture are permissible, a cause of rupture between Grand lodges.[16]

The oﬃcers of the lodge are elected or appointed annually. Every Masonic Lodge has a Master, two Wardens, a secretary and a treasurer. There is also a Tyler, or outer guard, who is always present outside the door of a work- 11.1.3 Organisations of lodges ing lodge. Other oﬃces vary between jurisdictions.[10] Each Masonic lodge exists and operates according to a set Main article: Grand Lodge

of ancient principles known as the Landmarks of Freemasonry. These principles have thus far eluded any univer- Grand Lodges and Grand Orients are independent and sally accepted deﬁnition.[12] sovereign bodies that govern Masonry in a given country, state, or geographical area (termed a jurisdiction). There is no single overarching governing body that presides over 11.1.2 Ritual and symbolism worldwide Freemasonry; connections between diﬀerent jurisdictions depend solely on mutual recognition.[17][18] Main article: Masonic ritual and symbolism Freemasonry, as it exists in various forms all over the Freemasonry describes itself as a beautiful system of morality, veiled in allegory and illustrated by symbols.[13] The symbolism is mainly, but not exclusively, drawn from the manual tools of stonemasons – the square and compasses, the level and plumb rule, the trowel, among others. A moral lesson is attached to each of these tools, although the assignment is by no means consistent. The meaning

world, has a membership estimated by the United Grand Lodge of England at around six million worldwide.[1] The fraternity is administratively organised into independent Grand Lodges (or sometimes Grand Orients), each of which governs its own Masonic jurisdiction, which consists of subordinate (or constituent) Lodges. The largest single jurisdiction, in terms of membership, is the United Grand Lodge of England (with a membership estimated

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CHAPTER 11. FREEMASONRY tions, each claiming to be the legitimate Grand Lodge. Other Grand Lodges had to choose between them until the schism was healed.[22] ) Exclusive Jurisdiction can be waived when the two over-lapping Grand Lodges are themselves in Amity and agree to share jurisdiction (for example, since the Grand Lodge of Connecticut is in Amity with the Prince Hall Grand Lodge of Connecticut, the principle of Exclusive Jurisdiction does not apply, and other Grand Lodges may recognise both).[23] Regularity Regularity is a concept based on adherence to Masonic Landmarks, the basic membership requirements, tenets and rituals of the craft. Each Grand Lodge sets its own definition of what these landmarks are, and thus what is Regular and what is Irregular (and the definitions do not necessarily agree between Grand Lodges). Essentially, every Grand Lodge will hold that its landmarks (its requirements, tenets and rituals) are Regular, and judge other Grand Lodges based on those. If the differences are significant, one Grand Lodge may declare the other “Irregular” and withdraw or withhold recognition.[24][25]

Freemasons Hall, London, home of the United Grand Lodge of England

at around a quarter million). The Grand Lodge of Scotland and Grand Lodge of Ireland (taken together) have approximately 150,000 members.[1] In the United States total membership is just under two million.[19] Recognition, amity and regularity Freemasons’ Hall, London, c. 1809

Relations between Grand Lodges are determined by the concept of Recognition. Each Grand Lodge maintains a The most commonly shared rules for Recognition (based list of other Grand Lodges that it recognises.[20] When on Regularity) are those given by the United Grand Lodge two Grand Lodges recognise and are in Masonic com- of England in 1929: munication with each other, they are said to be in amity, and the brethren of each may visit each other’s lodges and • The Grand Lodge should be established by an existinteract Masonically. When two Grand Lodges are not ing regular Grand Lodge, or by at least three regular in amity, inter-visitation is not allowed. There are many lodges. reasons why one Grand Lodge will withhold or withdraw • A belief in a supreme being and scripture is a conrecognition from another, but the two most common are dition of membership. Exclusive Jurisdiction and Regularity.[21] • Initiates should take their vows on that scripture. Exclusive Jurisdiction Exclusive Jurisdiction is a concept whereby only one Grand Lodge will be recognised in any geographical area. If two Grand Lodges claim jurisdiction over the same area, the other Grand Lodges will have to choose between them, and they may not all decide to recognise the same one. (In 1849, for example, the Grand Lodge of New York split into two rival fac-

• Only men can be admitted, and no relationship exists with mixed lodges. • The Grand Lodge has complete control over the ﬁrst three degrees, and is not subject to another body. • All lodges shall display a volume of scripture with the square and compasses while in session.

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155

• There is no discussion of politics or religion. • “Antient landmarks, observed.[26]

11.1.4

customs

and

usages”

Other degrees, orders and bodies

Main article: Masonic appendant bodies Blue lodge Freemasonry oﬀers only three traditional degrees, and in most jurisdictions, the rank of past or installed master. Master Masons are also able to extend their Masonic experience by taking further degrees, in appendant bodies approved by their own Grand Lodge.[27] The Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite is a system of 33 degrees (including the three blue lodge degrees) administered by a local or national Supreme Council. This system is popular in North America and in Continental Europe. The York Rite, with a similar range, administers three orders of Masonry, namely the Royal Arch, Cryptic Masonry and Knights Templar.[28] In Britain, separate bodies administer each order. Freemasons are encouraged to join the Holy Royal Arch, which is linked to Mark Masonry in Scotland and Ireland, but separate in England. Templar and Cryptic Masonry also exist.[29] In the Nordic countries the Swedish Rite is dominant; a variation of it is also used in parts of Germany.

11.1.5

Print from 1870 portraying George Washington as Master of his lodge

Joining a lodge

Candidates for Freemasonry will have met most active members of the lodge they are joining before they are initiated. The process varies between jurisdictions, but the candidate will typically have been introduced by a friend at a lodge social function, or at some form of open evening in the lodge. In modern times, interested people often track down a local lodge through the Internet. The onus is on candidates to ask to join; while candidates may be encouraged to ask, they are never invited. Once the initial inquiry is made, an interview usually follows to determine the candidate’s suitability. If the candidate decides to proceed from here, the lodge ballots on the application before he (or she, depending on the Masonic Jurisdiction) can be accepted.[30] The absolute minimum requirement of any body of Freemasons is that the candidate must be free, and considered to be of good character.[31] There is usually an age requirement, varying greatly between Grand Lodges, and (in some jurisdictions) capable of being overridden by a dispensation from the Grand Lodge. The underlying assumption is that the candidate should be a mature adult.[30] In addition, most Grand Lodges require the candidate to declare a belief in a Supreme Being. In a few cases, the

candidate may be required to be of a specific religion. The form of Freemasonry most common in Scandinavia (known as the Swedish Rite), for example, accepts only Christians.[32] At the other end of the spectrum, “Liberal” or Continental Freemasonry, exemplified by the Grand Orient de France, does not require a declaration of belief in any deity, and accepts atheists (a cause of discord with the rest of Freemasonry).[33][34] During the ceremony of initiation, the candidate is expected to swear (usually on a volume of sacred text appropriate to his personal religious faith) to fulfil certain obligations as a Mason. In the course of three degrees, new masons will promise to keep the secrets of their degree from lower degrees and outsiders, and to support a fellow Mason in distress (as far as practicality and the law permit).[10] There is instruction as to the duties of a Freemason, but on the whole, Freemasons are left to explore the craft in the manner they find most satisfying. Some will further explore the ritual and symbolism of the craft, others will focus their involvement on the social side of the lodge, while still others will concentrate on the charitable functions of the lodge.[35][36]

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11.2 History Main article: History of Freemasonry

11.2.1

Origins

View of room at the Masonic Hall, Bury St Edmunds, Suﬀolk, England, early 20th century, set up for a Holy Royal Arch convocation

Goose and Gridiron, where the Grand Lodge of England was founded

Since the middle of the 19th century, Masonic historians have sought the origins of the movement in a series of similar documents known as the Old Charges, dating from the Regius Poem in about 1425[37] to the beginning of the 18th century. Alluding to the membership of a lodge of operative masons, they relate a mythologised history of the craft, the duties of its grades, and the manner in which oaths of fidelity are to be taken on joining.[38] The fifteenth century also sees the first evidence of ceremonial regalia.[39]

The ﬁrst Grand Lodge, the Grand Lodge of London and Westminster (later called the Grand Lodge of England (GLE)), was founded on 24 June 1717, when four existing London lodges met for a joint dinner. Many English Lodges joined the new regulatory body, which itself entered a period of self-publicity and expansion. However, many lodges could not endorse changes which some lodges of the GLE made to the ritual (they came to be known as the Moderns), and a few of these formed a rival Grand Lodge on 17 July 1751, which is now known as the "Antient Grand Lodge of England.” These two Grand Lodges vied for supremacy until the Moderns promised to return to the ancient ritual. They united on 25 November 1813 to form the United Grand Lodge of England (UGLE).[43][44] The Grand Lodge of Ireland and the Grand Lodge of Scotland were formed in 1725 and 1736 respectively, although neither persuaded all of the existing lodges in their countries to join for many years.[45][46]

11.2.2 North America The earliest known American lodges were in Pennsylvania. The Collector for the port of Pennsylvania, John Moore, wrote of attending lodges there in 1715, two years before the formation of the ﬁrst Grand Lodge in London. The Premier Grand Lodge of England appointed a Provincial Grand Master for North America in 1731, based in Pennsylvania.[47] Other lodges in the colony obtained authorisations from the later Antient Grand Lodge of England, the Grand Lodge of Scotland, and the Grand Lodge of Ireland, which was particularly well represented in the travelling lodges of the British Army.[48][49] Many lodges came into existence with no warrant from any Grand Lodge, applying and paying for their authorisation only after they were conﬁdent of their own survival.[50]

There is no clear mechanism by which these local trade organisations became today’s Masonic lodges, but the earliest rituals and passwords known, from operative lodges around the turn of the 17th–18th centuries, show continuity with the rituals developed in the later 18th century by accepted or speculative Masons, as those members who did not practice the physical craft came to be known.[40] The minutes of the Lodge of Edinburgh (Mary’s Chapel) No. 1 in Scotland show a continuity from an operative lodge in 1598 to a modern speculative lodge.[41] It is reputed to be the oldest Masonic lodge in the world.[42] After the American Revolution, independent U.S. Grand

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157

Lodges formed themselves within each state. Some thought was brieﬂy given to organising an overarching “Grand Lodge of the United States,” with George Washington (who was a member of a Virginian lodge) as the ﬁrst Grand Master, but the idea was short-lived. The various state Grand Lodges did not wish to diminish their own authority by agreeing to such a body.[51] Prince Hall Freemasonry Main article: Prince Hall Freemasonry Masonic initiation, Paris, 1745

Prince Hall Freemasonry exists because of the refusal of early American lodges to admit African-Americans. In 1775, an African-American named Prince Hall,[52] along with fourteen other African-Americans, was initiated into a British military lodge with a warrant from the Grand Lodge of Ireland, having failed to obtain admission from the other lodges in Boston. When the military Lodge left North America, those ﬁfteen men were given the authority to meet as a Lodge, but not to initiate Masons. In 1784, these individuals obtained a Warrant from the Premier Grand Lodge of England (GLE) and formed African Lodge, Number 459. When the UGLE was formed in 1813, all U.S.-based Lodges were stricken from their rolls – due largely to the War of 1812. Thus, separated from both UGLE and any concordantly recognised U.S. Grand Lodge, African Lodge re-titled itself as the African Lodge, Number 1 – and became a de facto “Grand Lodge” (this Lodge is not to be confused with the various Grand Lodges on the Continent of Africa). As with the rest of U.S. Freemasonry, Prince Hall Freemasonry soon grew and organised on a Grand Lodge system for each state.[53] Widespread segregation in 19th- and early 20th-century North America made it diﬃcult for African-Americans to join Lodges outside of Prince Hall jurisdictions – and impossible for inter-jurisdiction recognition between the parallel U.S. Masonic authorities. By the 1980s, such discrimination was a thing of the past, and today most U.S. Grand Lodges recognise their Prince Hall counterparts, and the authorities of both traditions are working towards full recognition.[54] The United Grand Lodge of England has no problem with recognising Prince Hall Grand Lodges.[55] While celebrating their heritage as lodges of black Americans, Prince Hall is open to all men regardless of race or religion.[56]

11.2.3

Emergence of Continental Freemasonry

of the 18th century. The Grande Loge de France formed under the Grand Mastership of the Duke of Clermont, who exercised only nominal authority. His successor, the Duke of Orléans, reconstituted the central body as the Grand Orient de France in 1773. Brieﬂy eclipsed during the French Revolution, French Freemasonry continued to grow in the next century.[57]

Schism The ritual form on which the Grand Orient of France was based was abolished in England in the events leading to the formation of the United Grand Lodge of England in 1813. However the two jurisdictions continued in amity (mutual recognition) until events of the 1860s and 1870s drove a seemingly permanent wedge between them. In 1868 the Supreme Council of the Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite of the State of Louisiana appeared in the jurisdiction of the Grand Lodge of Louisiana, recognised by the Grand Orient de France, but regarded by the older body as an invasion of their jurisdiction. The new Scottish rite body admitted blacks, and the resolution of the Grand Orient the following year that neither colour, race, nor religion could disqualify a man from Masonry prompted the Grand Lodge to withdraw recognition, and it persuaded other American Grand Lodges to do the same.[58] A dispute during the Lausanne Congress of Supreme Councils of 1875 prompted the Grand Orient de France to commission a report by a Protestant pastor which concluded that, as Freemasonry was not a religion, it should not require a religious belief. The new constitutions read, “Its principles are absolute liberty of conscience and human solidarity”, the existence of God and the immortality of the soul being struck out. It is possible that the immediate objections of the United Grand Lodge of England were at least partly motivated by the political tension between France and Britain at the time. The result was the withdrawal of recognition of the Grand Orient of France by the United Grand Lodge of England, a situation that continues today.[34]

English Freemasonry spread to France in the 1720s, ﬁrst as lodges of expatriates and exiled Jacobites, and then as distinctively French lodges which still follow the ritual of the Moderns. From France and England, Freemasonry spread to most of Continental Europe during the course Not all French lodges agreed with the new wording. In

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1894, lodges favouring the compulsory recognition of the Great Architect of the Universe formed the Grande Loge de France.[59] In 1913, the United Grand Lodge of England recognised a new Grand Lodge of Regular Freemasons, a Grand Lodge that follows a similar rite to Anglo-American Freemasonry with a mandatory belief in a deity.[60]

In masonry, the small available evidence points to the less empowered end of the scale.[69]

The majority of Freemasonry considers the Liberal (Continental) strand to be Irregular, and thus withhold recognition. For the Continental lodges, however, having a diﬀerent approach to Freemasonry was not a reason for severing masonic ties. In 1961, an umbrella organisation, Centre de Liaison et d'Information des Puissances maçonniques Signataires de l'Appel de Strasbourg (CLIPSAS) was set up, which today provides a forum for most of these Grand Lodges and Grand Orients worldwide. Included in the list of over 70 Grand Lodges and Grand Orients are representatives of all three of the above categories, including mixed and women’s organisations. The United Grand Lodge of England does not communicate with any of these jurisdictions, and expects its allies to follow suit. This creates the distinction between Anglo-American and Continental Freemasonry.[66][67]

In general, Continental Freemasonry is sympathetic to Freemasonry amongst women, dating from the 1890s when French lodges assisted the emergent co-masonic movement by promoting enough of their members to the 33rd degree of the Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite to allow them, in 1899, to form their own grand council, recognised by the other Continental Grand Councils of that Rite.[76] The United Grand Lodge of England issued a statement in 1999 recognising the two women’s grand lodges there to be regular in all but the participants. While they were not, therefore, recognised as regular, they were part of Freemasonry “in general”.[1][77] The attitude of most regular Anglo-American grand lodges remains that women Freemasons are not legitimate Masons.[78]

At the dawn of the Grand Lodge era, during the 1720s, James Anderson composed the first printed constitutions for Freemasons, the basis for most subsequent constitutions, which specifically excluded women from Freemasonry.[70] As Freemasonry spread, continental There are now three strands of Freemasonry in France, masons began to include their ladies in Lodges of Adopwhich extend into the rest of Continental Europe:tion, which worked three degrees with the same names as the men’s but different content. The French of• Liberal (also adogmatic or progressive) – Principles ficially abandoned the experiment in the early 19th [71][72] Later organisations with a similar aim of liberty of conscience, and laicity, particularly the century. [61] emerged in the United States, but distinguished the names separation of the Church and State. of the degrees from those of male masonry.[73] • Traditional – Old French ritual with a requirement for a belief in a supreme being.[62] (This strand is Maria Deraismes was initiated into Freemasonry in 1882, then resigned to allow her lodge to rejoin their Grand typified by the Grande Loge de France). Lodge. Having failed to achieve acceptance from any • Regular – Standard Anglo-American ritual, manda- masonic governing body, she and Georges Martin started tory belief in Supreme being.[63] a mixed masonic lodge that actually worked masonic ritual.[74] Annie Besant spread the phenomenon to the EnThe term Continental Freemasonry was used in Mackey’s glish speaking world.[75] Disagreements over ritual led to 1873 Encyclopedia of Freemasonry to “designate the the formation of exclusively female bodies of FreemaLodges on the Continent of Europe which retain many sons in England, which spread to other countries. Meanusages which have either been abandoned by, or never while, the French had re-invented Adoption as an allwere observed in, the Lodges of England, Ireland, and female lodge in 1901, only to cast it aside again in 1935. Scotland, as well as the United States of America”.[64] The lodges, however, continued to meet, which gave Today, it is frequently used to refer to only the Liberal rise, in 1959, to a body of women practising continenjurisdictions typified by the Grand Orient de France.[65] tal Freemasonry.[72]

11.2.4

Freemasonry and women

Main articles: Freemasonry

Freemasonry and women and Co-

11.3 Anti-Masonry Anti-Masonry (alternatively called Anti-Freemasonry) has been deﬁned as “opposition to Freemasonry”,[79][80] but there is no homogeneous anti-Masonic movement. AntiMasonry consists of widely diﬀering criticisms from diverse (and often incompatible) groups who are hostile to Freemasonry in some form. Critics have included religious groups, political groups, and conspiracy theorists.

The status of women in the old guilds and corporations of mediaeval masons remains uncertain. The principle of “femme sole” allowed a widow to continue the trade of her husband, but its application had wide local variations, ranging from full membership of a trade body to limited There have been many disclosures and exposés dating as trade by deputation to approved members of that body.[68] far back as the 18th century. These often lack context,[81]

11.3. ANTI-MASONRY

159 tions raised by the Roman Catholic Church are based on the allegation that Masonry teaches a naturalistic deistic religion which is in conﬂict with Church doctrine.[86] A number of Papal pronouncements have been issued against Freemasonry. The ﬁrst was Pope Clement XII's In eminenti apostolatus, 28 April 1738; the most recent was Pope Leo XIII's Ab apostolici, 15 October 1890. The 1917 Code of Canon Law explicitly declared that joining Freemasonry entailed automatic excommunication, and banned books favouring Freemasonry.[87]

Masonic Temple of Santa Cruz de Tenerife, one of the few Masonic temples that survived the Franco dictatorship in Spain.

may be outdated for various reasons,[82] or could be outright hoaxes on the part of the author, as in the case of the Taxil hoax.[83] These hoaxes and exposés have often become the basis for criticism of Masonry, often religious or political in nature or are based on suspicion of corrupt conspiracy of some form. The political opposition that arose after the "Morgan Aﬀair" in 1826 gave rise to the term AntiMasonry, which is still in use today, both by Masons in referring to their critics and as a self-descriptor by the critics themselves.[84]

11.3.1

Religious opposition

Freemasonry has attracted criticism from theocratic states and organised religions for supposed competition with religion, or supposed heterodoxy within the fraternity itself, and has long been the target of conspiracy theories, which assert Freemasonry to be an occult and evil power.[85]

In 1983, the Church issued a new code of canon law. Unlike its predecessor, the 1983 Code of Canon Law did not explicitly name Masonic orders among the secret societies it condemns. It states: “A person who joins an association which plots against the Church is to be punished with a just penalty; one who promotes or takes oﬃce in such an association is to be punished with an interdict.” This named omission of Masonic orders caused both Catholics and Freemasons to believe that the ban on Catholics becoming Freemasons may have been lifted, especially after the perceived liberalisation of Vatican II.[88] However, the matter was clariﬁed when Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger (later Pope Benedict XVI), as the Prefect of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, issued a Declaration on Masonic Associations, which states: "... the Church’s negative judgment in regard to Masonic association remains unchanged since their principles have always been considered irreconcilable with the doctrine of the Church and therefore membership in them remains forbidden. The faithful who enroll in Masonic associations are in a state of grave sin and may not receive Holy Communion.” Thus, from a Catholic perspective, there is still a ban on Catholics joining Masonic Lodges. For its part, Freemasonry has never objected to Catholics joining their fraternity. Those Grand Lodges in amity with UGLE deny the Church’s claims. The UGLE now states that “Freemasonry does not seek to replace a Mason’s religion or provide a substitute for it.”[1]

In contrast to Catholic allegations of rationalism and naturalism, Protestant objections are more likely to be based on allegations of mysticism, occultism, and even Satanism.[89] Masonic scholar Albert Pike is often quoted (in some cases misquoted) by Protestant anti-Masons as an authority for the position of Masonry on these issues.[90] However, Pike, although undoubtedly learned, was not a spokesman for Freemasonry and was also conChristianity and Freemasonry troversial among Freemasons in general. His writings represented his personal opinion only, and furthermore Main article: Opposition to Freemasonry within Chris- an opinion grounded in the attitudes and understandings tianity of late 19th century Southern Freemasonry of the USA. Notably, his book carries in the preface a form of disvoice has Although members of various faiths cite objections, cer- claimer from his own Grand Lodge. No one [91] ever spoken for the whole of Freemasonry. tain Christian denominations have had high proﬁle negative attitudes to Masonry, banning or discouraging their Free Methodist Church founder B.T. Roberts was a vomembers from being Freemasons. cal opponent of Freemasonry in the mid 19th century. The denomination with the longest history of objection to Roberts opposed the society on moral grounds and stated, Freemasonry is the Roman Catholic Church. The objec- “The god of the lodge is not the God of the Bible.”

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Roberts believed Freemasonry was a "mystery" or “alternate” religion and encouraged his church not to support ministers who were Freemasons. Freedom from secret societies is one of the “frees” upon which the Free Methodist Church was founded.[92]

Masons argue that Freemasonry promotes the interests of the Jews around the world and that one of its aims is to destroy the Al-Aqsa Mosque in order to rebuild the Temple of Solomon in Jerusalem.[101] In article 28 of its Covenant, Hamas states that Freemasonry, Rotary, and interest of Zionism and Since the founding of Freemasonry, many Bishops of other similar groups “work in the [102] according to its instructions ...” the Church of England have been Freemasons, such as Archbishop Geoffrey Fisher.[93] In the past, few mem- Many countries with a significant Muslim population do bers of the Church of England would have seen any in- not allow Masonic establishments within their jurisdiccongruity in concurrently adhering to Anglican Chris- tions. However, countries such as Turkey and Morocco tianity and practicing Freemasonry. In recent decades, have established Grand Lodges,[103] while in countries however, reservations about Freemasonry have increased such as Malaysia[104][105] and Lebanon[106] there are Diswithin Anglicanism, perhaps due to the increasing promi- trict Grand Lodges operating under a warrant from an esnence of the evangelical wing of the church. The for- tablished Grand Lodge. mer Archbishop of Canterbury, Dr Rowan Williams, ap- In Pakistan in 1972, Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto, then Prime Minpeared to harbour some reservations about Masonic rit- ister of Pakistan, placed a ban on Freemasonry. Lodge ual, whilst being anxious to avoid causing offence to buildings were confiscated by the government.[107] Freemasons inside and outside the Church of England. In 2003 he felt it necessary to apologise to British Freema- Masonic lodges existed in Iraq as early as 1917, when sons after he said that their beliefs were incompatible with the first lodge under the United Grand Lodge of EngChristianity and that he had barred the appointment of land (UGLE) was opened. Nine lodges under UGLE Freemasons to senior posts in his diocese when he was existed by the 1950s, and a Scottish lodge was formed in 1923. However, the position changed following Bishop of Monmouth.[94] the revolution, and all lodges were forced to close In 1933, the Orthodox Church of Greece officially dein 1965.[108] This position was later reinforced under clared that being a Freemason constitutes an act of Saddam Hussein; the death penalty was “prescribed” for apostasy and thus, until he repents, the person involved those who “promote or acclaim Zionist principles, inwith Freemasonry cannot partake of the Eucharist. This cluding freemasonry, or who associate [themselves] with has been generally affirmed throughout the whole EastZionist organisations.”[99] ern Orthodox Church. The Orthodox critique of Freemasonry agrees with both the Roman Catholic and Protestant versions: “Freemasonry cannot be at all compatible with Christianity as far as it is a secret organisation, 11.3.2 Political opposition acting and teaching in mystery and secret and deifying See also: Anti-Masonry and Suppression of Freemasonry rationalism.”[95] Regular Freemasonry has traditionally not responded to these claims, beyond the often repeated statement that those Grand Lodges in amity with UGLE explicitly adhere to the principle that “Freemasonry is not a religion, nor a substitute for religion. There is no separate 'Masonic deity,' and there is no separate proper name for a deity in Freemasonry.”[96] Christian men, who were discouraged from joining the Freemasons by their Churches or who wanted a more religiocentric society, joined similar fraternal organizations, such as the Knights of Columbus for Catholic Christians, and the Loyal Orange Institution for Protestant Christians,[97][98] although these fraternal organizations have been “organized in part on the style of and use many symbols of Freemasonry”.[97][98] Islam and Freemasonry Many Islamic anti-Masonic arguments are closely tied to both antisemitism and Anti-Zionism, though other criticisms are made such as linking Freemasonry to al-Masih ad-Dajjal (the false Messiah).[99][100] Some Muslim anti-

In 1799, English Freemasonry almost came to a halt due to Parliamentary proclamation. In the wake of the French Revolution, the Unlawful Societies Act 1799 banned any meetings of groups that required their members to take an oath or obligation.[109] The Grand Masters of both the Moderns and the Antients Grand Lodges called on Prime Minister William Pitt (who was not a Freemason) and explained to him that Freemasonry was a supporter of the law and lawfully constituted authority and was much involved in charitable work. As a result, Freemasonry was speciﬁcally exempted from the terms of the Act, provided that each private lodge’s Secretary placed with the local “Clerk of the Peace” a list of the members of his lodge once a year. This continued until 1967 when the obligation of the provision was rescinded by Parliament.[109] Freemasonry in the United States faced political pressure following the 1826 kidnapping of William Morgan by Freemasons and subsequent disappearance. Reports of the “Morgan Aﬀair”, together with opposition to Jacksonian democracy (Andrew Jackson was a prominent Mason) helped fuel an Anti-Masonic movement, culmi-

11.3. ANTI-MASONRY

161

nating in the formation of a short lived Anti-Masonic ular media is often negative.[115] Party which fielded candidates for the Presidential elec- In some countries anti-Masonry is often related to tions of 1828 and 1832.[110] antisemitism and anti-Zionism. For example, In 1980, the Iraqi legal and penal code was changed by Saddam Hussein's ruling Ba'ath Party, making it a felony to “promote or acclaim Zionist principles, including Freemasonry, or who associate [themselves] with Zionist organisations”.[99] Professor Andrew Prescott of the University of Sheffield writes: “Since at least the time of the Protocols of the Elders of Zion, antisemitism has gone hand in hand with anti-masonry, so it is not surprising that allegations that 11 September was a Zionist plot have been accompanied by suggestions that the attacks were inspired by a masonic world order”.[119] The Holocaust Main article: Holocaust victims § Freemasons See also: Liberté chérie (Freemasonry) and Suppression of Freemasonry In Italy, Freemasonry has become linked to a scandal con- The preserved records of the Reichssicherheitshauptamt cerning the Propaganda Due lodge (a.k.a. P2). This lodge was chartered by the Grande Oriente d'Italia in 1877, as a lodge for visiting Masons unable to attend their own lodges. Under Licio Gelli’s leadership, in the late 1970s, P2 became involved in the financial scandals that nearly bankrupted the Vatican Bank. However, by this time the lodge was operating independently and irregularly, as the Grand Orient had revoked its charter and expelled Gelli in 1976.[111] Lodge in Erlangen, Germany. First meeting after World War II with guests from USA, France and Czechoslovakia, 1948.

Conspiracy theorists have long associated Freemasonry with the New World Order and the Illuminati, and state that Freemasonry as an organisation is either bent on world domination or already secretly in control of world politics. Historically, Freemasonry has attracted criticism—and suppression—from both the politically far right (e.g., Nazi Germany)[112][113] and the far left (e.g. the former Communist states in Eastern Europe).[114] Even in modern democracies, Freemasonry is sometimes viewed with distrust.[115] In the UK, Masons working in the justice system, such as judges and police oﬃcers, were from 1999 to 2009 required to disclose their membership.[116] While a parliamentary inquiry found that there has been no evidence of wrongdoing, it was felt that any potential loyalties Masons might have, based on their vows to support fellow Masons, should be transparent to the public.[115][116][117] The policy of requiring a declaration of masonic membership of applicants for judicial oﬃce (judges and magistrates) was ended in 2009 by Justice Secretary Jack Straw (who had initiated the requirement in the 1990s). Straw stated that the rule was considered disproportionate, since no impropriety or malpractice had been shown as a result of judges being Freemasons.[118]

Forget-me-not

(the Reich Security Main Oﬃce) show the persecution of Freemasons during the Holocaust.[120] RSHA Amt VII (Written Records) was overseen by Professor Franz Six and was responsible for “ideological” tasks, by which was meant the creation of antisemitic and anti-Masonic propaganda. While the number is not accurately known, it is estimated that between 80,000 and 200,000 Freemasons were killed under the Nazi regime.[121] Masonic concentration camp inmates were graded as political prisoners and wore an inverted red triangle.[122]

The small blue forget-me-not ﬂower was ﬁrst used by the Grand Lodge Zur Sonne, in 1926, as a Masonic emblem at the annual convention in Bremen, Germany. In 1938 a forget-me-not badge—made by the same factory Freemasonry is both successful and controversial in as the Masonic badge—was chosen for the annual Nazi France; membership is rising, but reporting in the pop- Party Winterhilfswerk, the annual charity drive of the

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National Socialist People’s Welfare, the welfare branch [15] Robert L.D. Cooper, Cracking the Freemason’s Code, Rider 2006, p79 of the Nazi party. This coincidence enabled Freemasons to wear the forget-me-not badge as a secret sign of [16] “Masonic U.S. Recognition of French Grand Lodges in membership.[123][124][125]

the 20th century”, Paul M. Bessel. retrieved 8 November

2013 After World War II, the forget-me-not flower was again used as a Masonic emblem at the first Annual Convention of the United Grand Lodges of Germany in 1948.[126] [17] (editors) John Hamill and Robert Gilbert, Freemasonry, Angus, 2004, Glossary, p247 The badge is now worn in the coat lapel by Freemasons around the world to remember all who suffered in the [18] “Difficult Questions; Is Freemasonry a Global Conspirname of Freemasonry, especially those during the Nazi acy?" MasterMason.com, retrieved 18 November 2013 era.[126]

[19] Hodapp, Christopher. Freemasons for Dummies. Indianapolis: Wiley, 2005. p. 52.

11.4 See also • List of Freemasons

11.5 Footnotes [1] “Frequently Asked Questions” United Grand Lodge of England retrieved 30 October 2013

[20] Campbell, Donald G.; Committee on Ritual. “The Master Mason; Irregular and Clandestine Lodges”. Handbook for Candidate’s Coaches (excerpt). Grand Lodge F.&A.M. of California. Retrieved 2007-05-08. [21] Jim Bantolo, “On Recognition”, Masonic Short Talk, Pilar lodge, 2007, retrieved 25 November 2013 [22] Ossian Lang, “History of Freemasonry in the State of New York” (pdf), 1922, pp135-140, Masonic Trowel eBooks

[2] “Materials: Papers and Speakers” Provincial Grand Lodge of East Lancashire, retrieved 30 October 2013

[23] “Exclusive Jurisdiction”, Paul M. Bessel, 1998, retrieved 25 November 2013

[3] “Gentlemen, please be upstanding” Toasts for the festive board, Grand Lodge of British Columbia and Yukon retrieved 30 October 2013

[24] “Regularity in Freemasonry and its Meaning”, Grand Lodge of Latvia, retrieved 25 November 2013

[4] “Words, Grips and Signs” H. L. Haywood, Symbolical Masonry, 1923, Chapter XVIII, Sacred Texts website, retrieved 9 January 2014

[25] Tony Pope, “Regularity and Recognition”, from Freemasonry Universal, by Kent Henderson & Tony Pope, 1998, Pietre Stones website, retrieved 25 November 2013

[5] “Past Master” Masonic Dictionary, retrieved 31 October 2013

[26] UGLE Book of Constitutions, “Basic Principles for Grand Lodge Recognition”, any year since 1930, page numbers may vary.

[6] “Maçon célèbre : le Maître Installé" GADLU blog Maçonnique, 3 March 2013, retrieved 2 November 2013

[27] Robert L.D. Cooper, Cracking the Freemason’s Code, Rider 2006, p229

[7] For instance “Introduction into Freemasonry”, Provincial Grand Lodge of Hertfordshire, retrieved 8 November 2013

[28] Michael Johnstone, The Freemasons, Arcturus, 2005, pp 95–98

[8] “Charitable work”, UGLE, retrieved 8 November 2013

[29] J S M Ward, “The Higher Degrees Handbook”, Pietre Stones, retrieved 11 November 2013

[9] (editors) John Hamill and Robert Gilbert, Freemasonry, Angus, 2004, pp 214–220 [10] Michael Johnstone, The Freemasons, Arcturus, 2005, pp 101–120 [11] “Les Oﬃciers de Loge” Maconnieke Encyclopedie, retrieved 31 October 2013

[30] “How to become a Freemason”, Masonic Lodge of Education, retrieved 20 November 2013 [31] “Comment devenir franc-maçon?", Grande Loge de Luxembourg, retrieved 23 November 2013 [32] “Swedish Rite FAQ”, Grand Lodge of British Columbia & Yukon, Accessed 19 November 2013

[12] Alain Bernheim, “My Approach to Masonic History”, Pietre Stones, from address of 2011, retrieved 8 November 2013

[33] “Faut-il croire en Dieu?", Foire aux Questions, Grand Orient de France, Retrieved 23 November 2013

[13] “What is Freemasonry?" Grand Lodge of Alberta retrieved 7 November 2013

[34] Jack Buta, “The God Conspiracy, The Politics of Grand Lodge Foreign Relations”, Pietre-Stones, retrieved 23 November 2013

[14] Mark S. Dwor, “Some thoughts on the history of the Tracing Boards”, Grand Lodge of British Columbia and Yukon, 1999, retrieved 7 November 2013

[35] “Social events and activities”, Hampshire Province, retrieved 20 November 2013

11.5. FOOTNOTES

163

[36] “Who are Masons, and what do they do?", MasonicLodges.com, retrieved 20 November 2013

[54] Bessel, Paul M. “Prince Hall Masonry Recognition details: Historical Maps”. Retrieved 2005-11-14.

[37] Andrew Prescott, “The Old Charges Revisited”, from Transactions of the Lodge of Research No. 2429 (Leicester), 2006, Pietre-Stones Masonic Papers, retrieved 12 October 2013

[55] “Foreign Grand Lodges”, UGLE Website, retrieved 25 October 2013

[38] A. F. A. Woodford, preface to William James Hughan, The Old Charges of British Freemasons, London, 1872

[56] “History of Prince Hall Masonry: What is Freemasonry”, Most Worshipful Prince Hall Grand Lodge Free and Accepted Masons Jurisdiction of Pennsylvania, retrieved 25 October 2013

[39] John Yarker (1909). The Arcane Schools. Manchester. pp. 341–342.

[57] “History of Freemasonry”, Grand Orient de France, retrieved 12 November 2013

[40] Robert L.D. Cooper, Cracking the Freemason’s Code, Rider 2006, Chapter 4, p 53

[58] Paul Bessel, “U.S. Recognition of French Grand Lodges in the 1900s”, from Heredom: The Transactions of the Scottish Rite Research Society, vol 5, 1996, pp 221–244, Paul Bessel website, retrieved 12 November 2013

[41] David Murray Lyon, History of the Lodge of Edinburgh (Mary’s Chapel) No 1, Blackwood 1873, Preface [42] Stevenson, David (1988). The Origins of Freemasonry. Cambridge University Press. pp. 38–44. ISBN 0521396549. [43] S. Brent Morris (2006). The Complete Idiot’s Guide to Freemasonry. Alpha/Penguin Books. p. 27. ISBN 159257-490-4. [44] I. R. Clarke, “The Formation of the Grand Lodge of the Antients” , Ars Quatuor Coronatorum, vol 79 (1966), p. 270-73, Grand Lodge of British Columbia and Yukon, retrieved 28 June 2012 [45] H. L. Haywood, “Various Grand Lodges”, The Builder, vol X no 5, May 1924, Pietre Stones website, retrieved 9 January 2014 [46] Robert L.D. Cooper, Cracking the Freemason’s Code, Rider 2006, Chapter 1, p 17 [47] Francis Vicente, An Overview of Early Freemasonry in Pennsylvania, Pietre-Stones, retrieved 15 November 2013 [48] Werner Hartmann, “History of St. John’s Lodge No. 1”, St. John’s Lodge No. 1, A.Y.M., 2012, retrieved 16 November 2013 [49] M. Baigent and R. Leigh, The Temple and the Lodge, Arrow 1998, Appendix 2, pp360-362, “Masonic Field Lodges in Regiments in America”, 1775–77

[59] “History of the Grande Loge of France”, Grande Loge de France retrieved 14 November 2013 [60] Alain Bernheim, “My approach to Masonic History”, Manchester 2011, Pietre-Stones, retrieved 14 November 2013 [61] “Liberal Grand Lodges”, French Freemasonry, retrieved 14 November 2013 [62] “Traditional Grand Lodges”, French Freemasonry, retrieved 14 November 2013 [63] “Regular Grand Lodges”, French Freemasonry, retrieved 14 November 2013 [64] “Continental Lodges”,Mackey’s Encyclopedia of Freemasonry, retrieved 30 November 2013 [65] For instance “Women in Freemasonry, and Continental Freemasonry”, Corn Wine and Oil, June 2009, retrieved 30 November 2013 [66] Tony Pope, “At a Perpertual Distance: Liberal and Adogmatic Grand Lodges”, Presented to Waikato Lodge of Research No 445 at Rotorua, New Zealand, on 9 November 2004, as the annual Verrall Lecture, and subsequently published in the Transactions of the lodge, vol 14 #1, March 2005, Pietre-Stones, retrieved 13 November 2013 [67] “Current members”, CLIPSAS, retrieved 14 November 2014

[50] Robert L.D. Cooper, Cracking the Freemason’s Code, Rider 2006, p190

[68] Antonia Frazer, The Weaker Vessel, Mandarin paperbacks, 1989, pp108-109

[51] Bullock, Steven C.; Institute of Early American History and Culture (Williamsburg, Va.) (1996). Revolutionary brotherhood: Freemasonry and the transformation of the American social order, 1730–1840. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 978-0-8078-4750-3. OCLC 33334015.

[69] for example, see David Murray Lyon, History of the lodge of Edinburgh, Blackwood, Edinburgh, 1873, pp 121–123

[52] Johnson, Lawrence (1996). “Who is Prince Hall? And other well known Prince Hall Masons”. Retrieved 200511-14.

[70] Anderson, James (1734) [1723]. Paul Royster, ed. The Constitutions of the Free-Masons (Philadelphia ed.). Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: Benjamin Franklin. p. 49. Retrieved 12 August 2013. The Persons admitted Members of a Lodge must be good and true Men, free-born, and of mature and discreet Age, no Bondmen, no Women, no immoral or scandalous Men, but of good Report.

[53] “Prince Hall History Education Class” by Raymond T. Coleman(pdf) retrieved 13 October 2013

[71] “Adoptive Freemasonry” Entry from Mackey’s Lexicon of Freemasonry

164

[72] Barbara L. Thames, “A History of Women’s Masonry”, Phoenix Masonry, retrieved 5 March 2013 [73] “Order of the Eastern Star” Masonic Dictionary, retrieved 9 January 2013 [74] “Maria Deraismes (1828–1894)", Droit Humain, retrieved 5 March 2013. (French Language) [75] Jeanne Heaslewood, “A Brief History of the Founding of Co-Freemasonry”, 1999, Phoenix Masonry, retrieved 12 August 2013 [76] “Histoire du Droit Humain”, Droit Humain, retrieved 12 August 2013 [77] “Text of UGLE statement”, Honourable Fraternity of Ancient Freemasons, retrieved 12 August 2012 [78] Karen Kidd, Haunted Chambers: the Lives of Early Women Freemasons, Cornerstone, 2009, pp204-205 [79] “Anti-Masonry” – Oxford English Dictionary (Compact Edition), Oxford University Press, 1979, p.369 [80] “Antimasonry – Deﬁnition of Antimasonry by Webster Dictionary”. Webster-dictionary.net. Retrieved 2011-0908. [81] Morris, S. Brent (2006). The Complete Idiot’s Guide to Freemasonry. New York: Alpha Books. pp. 85 (also discussed in chapters 13 and 16). ISBN 978-1-59257490-2. OCLC 68042376. [82] Robinson, John J. (1993). A Pilgrim’s Path. New York: M. Evans. p. 129. ISBN 978-0-87131-732-2. OCLC 27381296. [83] de Hoyos, Arturo; S. Brent Morris (18 August 2002). “Leo Taxil Hoax — Bibliography”. Grand Lodge of British Columbia and Yukon. Retrieved 2007-07-07. Lists many books which perpetuate Masonic ritual hoaxes. [84] “Anti-mason” infoplease.com retrieved 9 January 2014 [85] Morris, S. Brent; The Complete Idiot’s Guide to Freemasonry, Alpha books, 2006, p,204.

CHAPTER 11. FREEMASONRY

[91] Pike, Albert; T. W. Hugo; Scottish Rite (Masonic order). Supreme Council of the Thirty-Third Degree for the Southern Jurisdiction (1950) [1871]. Morals and Dogma of the Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite of Freemasonry. Washington, DC: House of the Temple. OCLC 12870276. In preparing this work [Pike] has been about equally Author and Compiler. (p. iii.) ... The teachings of these Readings are not sacramental, so far as they go beyond the realm of Morality into those of other domains of Thought and Truth. The Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite uses the word “Dogma” in its true sense of doctrine, or teaching; and is not dogmatic in the odious sense of that term. Everyone is entirely free to reject and dissent from whatsoever herein may seem to him to be untrue or unsound (p. iv) [92] Snyder, Howard (2006). Populist Saints. Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company. p. 727. [93] Beresiner, Yasha (July 2006). “Archbishop Fisher – A Godly man and a Brother”. Masonic Quarterly Magazine (18). Retrieved 2007-05-07. [94] Hastings, Chris; Elizabeth Day (20 April 2003). “Rowan Williams apologises to Freemasons”. The Daily Telegraph. Archived from the original on 23 November 2007. Retrieved 2007-07-09. [95] “Freemasonry: Oﬃcial Statement of the Church of Greece (1933)". Orthodoxinfo.com. 12 October 1933. Retrieved 2011-01-15. [96] “Freemasonry and Religion” (PDF). United Grand Lodge of England. Retrieved 2013-11-02. [97] Jeﬀers, H. Paul (2005). Freemasons: A History and Exploration of the World’s Oldest Secret Society. Citadel Press. p. 110. ISBN 9780806526621. Founded by Michael J. McGivney, a New Haven, Connecticut, parish priest, the Knights of Columbus paralleled the structure of Freemasonry with ritual, degrees, passwords, and the motto “Charity, Unity, Fraternity, and Patriotism.” [98] Fields, Rona M. (1 January 1980). Northern Ireland: Society Under Siege. Transaction Publishers. p. 113. ISBN 9781412845090.

[99] Sands, David R (1 July 2004). “Saddam to be formally [86] Cardinal Law, Bernard (19 April 1985). “Letter of charged”. The Washington Times. Retrieved 2006-06-18. 19 April 1985 to U.S. Bishops Concerning Masonry”. CatholicCulture.org. Retrieved 2007-07-09. [100] Prescott, Andrew. The Study of Freemasonry as a New Academic Discipline. pp. 13–14. Retrieved 2008-12-18. [87] Canon 2335, 1917 Code of Canon Law from “Canon Law regarding Freemasonry, 1917–1983”. Grand Lodge of [101] “Can a Muslim be a Freemason” Wake up from your slumber, 2007, retrieved 8 January 2014 British Columbia and Yukon. [88] McInvale, Reid (1991). “Roman Catholic Church Law [102] “Hamas Covenant 1988”. Avalon.law.yale.edu. 18 August 1988. Retrieved 2011-01-15. Regarding Freemasonry”. Transactions of Texas Lodge of Research 27: 86–97. OCLC 47204246. [103] Leyiktez, Celil. “Freemasonry in the Islamic World”, Pietre-Stones Retrieved 2 October 2007. [89] Jack Chick. “The Curse of Baphomet”. Retrieved 200709-29. [104] “Home Page”, District Grand Lodge of the Eastern Archipelago, retrieved 9 January 2014 [90] Arturo de Hoyos and S. Brent Morris (2004). Is it True What They Say About Freemasonry, 2nd edition (revised), [105] “Mystery unveiled”. The Star Online. 17 April 2005. Retrieved 13 February 2014. chapter 1. M. Evans & Company.

11.6. EXTERNAL LINKS

165

[106] Freemasonry in Lebanon Lodges linked to the Grand [125] Francke, Karl Heinz; Ernst-Günther Geppert (1974). Lodge of Scotland, retrieved 22 August 2013 Die Freimaurer-Logen Deutschlands und deren Grosslogen 1737–1972 (in German) (Second rev. ed.). Bayreuth: [107] Peerzada Salman, “Masonic Mystique”, December 2009, Quatuor Coronati.Also in: Francke, Karl Heinz; ErnstDawn.com (News site), retrieved 3 January 2012 Günther Geppert (1988). Die Freimaurer-Logen Deutschlands und deren Grosslogen 1737 – 1985 : Matrikel und [108] Kent Henderson, “Freemasonry in Islamic Countries”, Stammbuch; Nachschlagewerk über 248 Jahre Geschichte 2007 paper, Pietre Stones, retrieved 4 January 2014 der Freimaurerei in Deutschland (in German). Bayreuth: Quatuor Coronati. ISBN 978-3-925749-05-6. OCLC [109] Andrew Prescott, “The Unlawful Societies Act”, First 75446479. published in M. D. J. Scanlan, ed., The Social Impact of Freemasonry on the Modern Western World, The Canonbury Papers I (London: Canonbury Masonic Research [126] “The Story Behind Forget Me Not Emblem!". Masonic Network. 11 December 2009. Centre, 2002), pp. 116–134, Pietre-Stones website, retrieved 9 January 2014 [110] “The Morgan Aﬀair”, Reprinted from The Short Talk Bulletin – Vol. XI, March, 1933 No. 3, Grand Lodge of British Columbia and Yukon, retrieved 4 January 2014 [111] King, Edward L. (2007). “P2 Lodge”. Retrieved 200610-31. [112] Wilkenson, James; H. Stuart Hughes (1995). Contemporary Europe: A History. Englewood Cliﬀs, NJ: Prentice Hall. p. 237. ISBN 978-0-13-291840-4. OCLC 31009810. [113] Zierer, Otto (1976). Concise History of Great Nations: History of Germany. New York: Leon Amiel Publisher. p. 104. ISBN 978-0-8148-0673-9. OCLC 3250405. [114] Michael Johnstone, The Freemasons, Arcturus, 2005, pp 73–75 [115] Hodapp, Christopher. Freemasons for Dummies. Indianapolis: Wiley, 2005. p. 86. [116] Bright, Martin (12 June 2005). "MPs told to declare links to Masons", The Guardian [117] Cusick, James (27 December 1996). Police want judges and MPs to reveal Masonic links too, The Independent [118] Sparrow, Andrew (5 November 2009). “Jack Straw scraps rule saying judges must declare if they are masons”. guardian.co.uk. Retrieved 7 November 2009. [119] Prescott, pp. 13–14, 30, 33. [120] “World War II Documents showing the persecution of Freemasonry”. Mill Valley Lodge #356. Retrieved 200605-21. [121] Freemasons for Dummies, by Christopher Hodapp, Wiley Publishing Inc., Indianapolis, 2005, p. 85, sec. Hitler and the Nazi [122] Katz. “Jews and Freemasons in Europe”. In Israel Gutman. The Encyclopedia of the Holocaust. p. vol. 2, p. 531. ISBN 978-0-02-897166-7. OCLC 20594356. [123] “Das Vergißmeinnicht-Abzeichen und die Freimaurerei, Die wahre Geschichte” (in German). Internetloge.de. Retrieved 2006-07-08. [124] Bernheim, Alain (10 September 2004). “The Blue ForgetMe-Not: Another Side Of The Story”. Pietre-Stones Review of Freemasonry. Retrieved 2006-07-08.

11.6 External links • "Freemasonry". ed.). 1911.

Encyclopædia Britannica (11th

• Web of Hiram at the University of Bradford. A database of donated Masonic material. • Masonic Books Online of the Pietre-Stones Review of Freemasonry • The Constitutions of the Free-Masons (1734), James Anderson, Benjamin Franklin, Paul Royster. Hosted by the Libraries at the University of Nebraska-Lincoln • The Mysteries of Free Masonry, by William Morgan, from Project Gutenberg • A Legislative Investigation into Masonry (1832) on Internet Archive, OCLC 1560509 • The United Grand Lodge of England’s Library and Museum of Freemasonry, London • A page about Freemasonry – claiming to be the world’s oldest Masonic website. • Articles on Judaism and Freemasonry • Anti-Masonry: Points of View – Edward L. King’s Masonic website

Chapter 12

Great Gypsy Round-up

Marquis de la Ensenada, Royal Minister who organized the roundup.

Fernando VI, who approved the Great Roundup.

The Great Gypsy Round-up (Spanish: Gran Redada de Gitanos), also known as the general imprisonment of the gypsies (prisión general de gitanos), was a raid authorized and organized by the Spanish Monarchy that led to the arrest of all gypsies (Romani) in the region, and their imprisonment in labor camps. The raid was approved by the King Ferdinand VI of Spain, and organized by his minister, the Marquis of Ensenada, and set in motion simultaneously across Spain on July 30, 1749.

ernor of the Council of Castile, Gaspar Vázquez Tablada, Bishop of Oviedo. It was later also supported by the opinion of the Jesuit Father Francisco Rávago, confessor to Ferdinand VI, whose reply about the morality of the roundup can be summarised in his commentary that: “The means proposed by the governor of the council to root out this bad race, which is hateful to God and pernicious to man, seem good to me. The king will be making Since a royal edict by Charles II in 1695, Spanish gypsies a great gift to God, Our Lord, if he manages to get rid of had been restricted to certain towns.[1] An official edict these people.” in 1717 restricted them to only 75 towns and districts, so The plan entailed sending troops to the towns with gypsy that they would not be concentrated in any one region. settlements, each carrying sealed set of instructions, which were only to be revealed to the commanders on a date just prior to the roundup in August. The gypsy 12.1 Organisation settlements were to be surrounded, and all able-bodied adult gypsy males were internally deported to forced laThe plans for the roundup were developed in secrecy. bor in the Naval arsenals or to specified mines, prisons, Among the first to draw up plans was the appointed Gov- or factories. The women and children were forced into 166

12.5. NOTES clothing manufacture. Those too ill to travel would remain in military custody until well enough to travel, or until they reached a “Christian death”. The operation was to be funded by confiscated goods and homes of the gypsies. The mechanics of the raid varied in efficiency from town to town. The roundup in Seville, where the city gates were closed by the encircling army to prevent escape of the target, created alarm in the general public, who was ignorant of the goals. Special edicts were obtained to prevent the use of churches as asylum. The definition of who exactly was a gypsy, proved to be difficult in many cases, and was prone to abuse. For example, Gypsies married to nongypsies were often spared. Nomadic gypsies, already less frequent, proved difficult to roundup. Ultimately nearly 9-12 thousand gypsies were detained. The latter stages of transport and housing of the detainees proved less organized.

12.2 Reversal As protests began to arise from diﬀerent communities, the orders were repeatedly modiﬁed to permit the release of some gypsies, often creating confusion among the local military commanders. Gradually, further imprisonments became sporadic, and in 1763, those gypsies who still remained in forced labor were ordered to be released by the king, a process that took the better part of two years.

12.3 Epilogue The Gran Redada can be viewed as one of the last attempts by the crown of Spain to purify the country of Spain by large-scale dislocation of a whole ethnic community. But if the Expulsion of the Jews in 1492 and the Expulsion of the Moriscos in 1609 were great tragedies, then history with the Great Round-Up, to paraphrase Marx, here repeated itself as farce.[2]

12.4 Sources • Antonio Gómez Alfaro, La Gran Redada de Gitanos, Ed. presencia gitana, Madrid, 1993. ISBN 84-87347-09-6 • Teresa San Román. La diferencia inquietante, (esp. págs. 38 a 43) Ed. Siglo XXI. Madrid, 1997. ISBN 84-323-0951-6 • Angus Fraser, Los gitanos, (esp. pág. 170 y sig.), Ed. Ariel, Barcelona, 2005, ISBN 84-344-6780-1.

167

12.5 Notes [1] Antonio Gómez Alfaro. “The Great “Gypsy” Round-up in Spain” (PDF). p. 4. [2] Quote from The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Napoleon by Marx

Chapter 13

Gypsy Lore Society The Gypsy Lore Society was founded in Great Britain in 1888 to unite persons interested in the history and lore of Gypsies and rovers and to establish closer contacts among scholars studying aspects of such cultures. David MacRitchie was one of its founders and he worked with Francis Hindes Groome until 1892 to produce its quarterly journal. From 1892, the organisation was dormant until its revival in 1907, when MacRitchie became its president. Another early member of the society was Sir Richard Burton, who wrote from Trieste in 1888: Since 1989 it has been headquartered in the United States. Its goals include promotion of the study of Roma, Gypsies and Travelers. Gypsy Lore Society publications include journal ROMANI STUDIES continuing Journal of the Gypsy Lore Society and Newsletter of the Gypsy Lore Society. The biannual journal, Romani Studies, concerned with disseminating accurate information aimed at increasing understanding of these cultures in their diverse forms. The Journal of the Gypsy Lore Society appeared in four series, starting in July 1888. The Society’s archives are held at the University of Liverpool. Among the Gypsy and Traveler cultures represented include those traditionally known as Roma, Sinti, Calé, Romnichels, Ludar, Irish Travellers, Scottish Travellers and others. The Society also sponsors programs and conferences. The Society has established the Victor Weybright Archives of Gypsy Studies, specializing in recent scholarly work on Gypsy, Traveler and related studies, for the beneﬁt of researchers and students. Current president of the Gypsy Lore Society is Elena Marushiakova.

13.1 Notes 13.2 External links • Gypsy Lore Society • Romani Studies 168

• Gypsy collections at the University of Liverpool • Opening Speech at the Annual Meeting and Conference of the GLS

Chapter 14

Zionism This article is about Zionism as a movement, not the tablishment of the State of Israel in 1948, Zionism continHistory of Israel. For other uses, see Zion (disambigua- ues primarily to advocate on behalf of Israel and address tion). threats to its continued existence and security. A religious variety of Zionism supports Jews upholding their Jewish identity deﬁned as adherence to religious Judaism, opposes the assimilation of Jews into other societies, and has advocated the return of Jews to Israel as a means for Jews to be a majority nation in their own state.[1] A variety of Zionism, called cultural Zionism, founded and represented most prominently by Ahad Ha'am, fostered a secular vision of a Jewish “spiritual center” in Israel. Unlike Herzl, the founder of political Zionism, Ha'am strived for Israel to be “a Jewish state and not merely a state of Jews”.[8] Another less common meaning is the political support for the State of Israel by non-Jews.

Theodor Herzl is considered the founder of the Zionist movement. In his 1896 book Der Judenstaat, he envisioned the founding of a future independent Jewish state during the 20th century.

͡ ˈnut], translit. TziyZionism (Hebrew: ‫ִצּיֹונּות‬, IPA: [tsijo̞ onut, after Zion) is a nationalist and political movement of Jews and Jewish culture that supports the reestablishment of a Jewish homeland in the territory deﬁned as the historic Land of Israel (roughly corresponding to Palestine, Canaan or the Holy Land).[1][2][3][4] Zionism emerged in the late 19th century in central and eastern Europe as a national revival movement, called Hovevei Tziyon. Soon after this most leaders of the movement associated the main goal with creating the desired state in Palestine, then an area controlled by the Ottoman Empire.[5][6][7]

Advocates of Zionism view it as a national liberation movement for the repatriation of a persecuted people residing as minorities in a variety of nations, to the homeland to which they had a historical connection.[9][10][11] Critics of Zionism view it as a colonialist,[12] racist[13] and exceptionalist[14] ideology that led advocates to violence during Mandatory Palestine, followed by the forced exodus of Palestinians, and the subsequent denial of their human rights.[15][16][17][18]

14.1 Overview Main article: Types of Zionism

The common denominator among all Zionists is the claim to Eretz Israel as the national homeland of the Jews and as the legitimate focus for Jewish national self-determination.[19] It is based on historical ties and religious traditions linking the Jewish people to the Land of Israel.[20] Zionism does not have a uniform ideology, but has evolved in a dialogue among a plethora of ideoloThe primary goals of Zionism until 1948, were the re- gies: General Zionism, Religious Zionism, Labor Zionestablishment of Jewish sovereignty in the Land of Israel ism, Revisionist Zionism, Green Zionism, etc. ("Eretz Israel" in Hebrew), ingathering of the exiles, and After almost two millennia of the Jewish diaspora residliberation of Jews from the antisemitic discrimination and ing in varied countries without a national state, the Zionist persecution that occurred in their diaspora. Since the es- movement was founded in the late 19th century by secular 169

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CHAPTER 14. ZIONISM

Jews, largely as a response by Ashkenazi Jews to rising antisemitism in Europe, exempliﬁed by the Dreyfus affair in France and the anti-Jewish pogroms in the Russian Empire.[21] The political movement was formally established by the Austro-Hungarian journalist Theodor Herzl in 1897 following the publication of his book Der Judenstaat (The Jewish State).[22] At that time, the movement sought to encourage Jewish migration to Ottoman Palestine.

ish identity or even to abandon traditional views and opinions in an attempt at modernization and assimilation into the modern world. A less radical form of assimilation was called cultural synthesis. Those in favor of cultural synthesis desired continuity and only moderate evolution, and were concerned that Jews should not lose their identity as a people. “Cultural synthesists” emphasized both a need to maintain traditional Jewish values and faith, and a need to conform to a modernist society, for instance, in [25] “I believe that a wondrous generation of Jews will spring complying with work days and rules. into existence. The Maccabeans will rise again. Let me In 1975, the United Nations General Assembly passed a repeat once more my opening words: The Jews who wish resolution that designated Zionism as "a form of racism for a State will have it. We shall live at last as free men and racial discrimination". The resolution was repealed in on our own soil, and die peacefully in our own homes. 1991 by replacing Resolution 3379 with United Nations The world will be freed by our liberty, enriched by our General Assembly Resolution 46/86. Within the context wealth, magnified by our greatness. And whatever we at- of the Arab–Israeli conflict, Zionism is viewed by critics tempt there to accomplish for our own welfare, will react as a system that fosters apartheid and racism.[26] powerfully and beneficially for the good of humanity.” Theodore Herzl, concluding words of The Jewish State, 1896[23] Although initially one of several Jewish political movements offering alternative responses to assimilation and antisemitism, Zionism expanded rapidly. In its early stages, supporters considered setting up a Jewish state in the historic territory of Palestine. After World War II and the destruction of Jewish life in Central and Eastern Europe where these alternative movements were rooted, it became dominant in thinking about a Jewish national state. Creating an alliance with Great Britain and securing support for some years for Jewish emigration to Palestine, Zionists also recruited among European Jews to immigrate there, especially in areas of the Russian Empire where anti-semitism was raging. The alliance with Britain was strained as the latter realized the implications of the Jewish movement for Arabs in Palestine but the Zionists persisted. The movement was eventually successful in establishing Israel on May 14, 1948 (5 Iyyar 5708 in the Hebrew calendar), as the homeland for the Jewish people. The proportion of the world’s Jews living in Israel has steadily grown since the movement emerged. By the early 21st century, more than 40% of the world’s Jews live in Israel, more than in any other country. These two outcomes represent the historical success of Zionism, and are unmatched by any other Jewish political movement in the past 2,000 years. In some academic studies, Zionism has been analyzed both within the larger context of diaspora politics and as an example of modern national liberation movements.[24] Zionism also sought assimilation of Jews into the modern world. As a result of the diaspora, many of the Jewish people remained outsiders within their adopted countries and became detached from modern ideas. So-called “assimilationist” Jews desired complete integration into European society. They were willing to downplay their Jew-

14.2 Terminology The term “Zionism” is derived from the word Zion (Hebrew: ,‫ציון‬Tzi-yon), referring to Jerusalem. Throughout eastern Europe in the late 19th century, numerous grassroots groups were promoting the national resettlement of the Jews in what was termed their “ancestral homeland”, as well as the revitalization and cultivation of the Hebrew language. These groups were collectively called the "Lovers of Zion" and were seen to encounter a growing Jewish movement toward assimilation. The ﬁrst use of the term is attributed to the Austrian Nathan Birnbaum, founder of a nationalist Jewish students’ movement Kadimah; he used the term in 1890 in his journal Selbstemanzipation (Self Emancipation).[27]

14.3 Organization The multi-national, worldwide Zionist movement is structured on representative democratic principles. Congresses are held every four years (they were held every two years before the Second World War) and delegates to the congress are elected by the membership. Members are required to pay dues known as a shekel. At the congress, delegates elect a 30-man executive council, which in turn elects the movement’s leader. The movement was democratic from its inception and women had the right to vote.[29] Until 1917, the World Zionist Organization pursued a strategy of building a Jewish National Home through persistent small-scale immigration and the founding of such bodies as the Jewish National Fund (1901 — a charity that bought land for Jewish settlement) and the AngloPalestine Bank (1903 — provided loans for Jewish businesses and farmers). In 1942, at the Biltmore Confer-

14.3. ORGANIZATION

171

ence, the movement included for the first time an express objective of the establishment of a Jewish state in the Land of Israel.[30] The 28th Zionist Congress, meeting in Jerusalem in 1968, adopted the five points of the “Jerusalem Program” as the aims of Zionism today. They are:[31] • Unity of the Jewish People and the centrality of Israel in Jewish life • Ingathering of the Jewish People in its historic homeland, Eretz Israel, through Aliyah from all countries • Strengthening of the State of Israel, based on the prophetic vision of justice and peace • Preservation of the identity of the Jewish People through fostering of Jewish and Hebrew education, and of Jewish spiritual and cultural values • Protection of Jewish rights everywhere Since the creation of modern Israel, the role of the Oz, who today is described as the 'aristocrat' movement has declined. It is now a peripheral factor Israeli author Amoz [33] in Israeli politics, though different perceptions of Zion- of Labor Zionism ism continue to play roles in Israeli and Jewish political discussion.[32]

14.3.1

Labor Zionism

Main article: Labor Zionists Labor Zionism originated in Eastern Europe. Socialist Zionists believed that centuries of oppression in antisemitic societies had reduced Jews to a meek, vulnerable, despairing existence that invited further antisemitism, a view originally stipulated by Theodor Herzl. They argued that a revolution of the Jewish soul and society was necessary and achievable in part by Jews moving to Israel and becoming farmers, workers, and soldiers in a country of their own. Most socialist Zionists rejected the observance of traditional religious Judaism as perpetuating a “Diaspora mentality” among the Jewish people, and established rural communes in Israel called "kibbutzim". The kibbutz began as a variation on a “national farm” scheme, a form of cooperative agriculture where the Jewish National Fund hired Jewish workers under trained supervision. The kibbutzim were a symbol of the Second Aliyah in that they put great emphasis on communalism and egalitarianism, representing to a certain extent Utopian socialism. Furthermore, they stressed selfsuﬃciency, which became an important aspect of Labor Zionism. Though socialist Zionism draws its inspiration and is philosophically founded on the fundamental values and spirituality of Judaism, its progressive expression of that Judaism has often fostered an antagonistic relationship with Orthodox Judaism.

Israeli youth from the Socialist Zionist youth movement No'al, meeting with Jewish resistance ﬁghter Simcha Rotem. Founded in 1924, No'al is one of the largest Zionist Youth movements.

Labor Zionism became the dominant force in the political and economic life of the Yishuv during the British Mandate of Palestine and was the dominant ideology of the political establishment in Israel until the 1977 election when the Israeli Labor Party was defeated. The Israeli Labor Party continues the tradition, although the most popular party in the kibbutzim is Meretz. Labor Zionism’s main institution is the Histadrut (general organisation of labor unions), which began by providing strikebreakers against a Palestinian worker’s strike in 1920 and until 1970s was the largest employer in Israel after the Israeli government.[34]

172

14.3.2

CHAPTER 14. ZIONISM

Liberal Zionism

sive debate; the contrarian spirit of davka; the refusal to bow to authoritarianism.”[37][38] Liberal Zionists see that “Jewish history shows that Jews need and are entitled to Main article: General Zionists General Zionism (or Liberal Zionism) was initially the a nation-state of their own. But they also think that this state must be a liberal democracy, which means that there must be strict equality before the law independent of religion, ethnicity or gender.”[39]

14.3.3 Nationalist Zionism Main article: Revisionist Zionism Revisionist Zionists led by Ze'ev Jabotinsky developed

Kibbutznikiyot (female Kibbutz members), during the 1948 Arab–Israeli War. The Kibbutz is the historical heartland of Labor Zionism.

dominant trend within the Zionist movement from the First Zionist Congress in 1897 until after the First World War. General Zionists identified with the liberal European middle class to which many Zionist leaders such as Herzl and Chaim Weizmann aspired. Liberal Zionism, although not associated with any single party in modern Israel, remains a strong trend in Israeli politics advocating free market principles, democracy and adherence to human rights. Kadima, the main centrist party during the 2000s that is now defunct, however, did identify with many of the fundamental policies of Liberal Zionist ideology, advocating among other things the need for Palestinian statehood in order to form a more democratic society in Israel, affirming the free market, and calling for equal rights for Arab citizens of Israel. In 2013, Ari Shavit suggested that the success of the then-new Yesh Atid party (representing secular, middle-class interests) embodied the success of “the new General Zionists.”[35] Dror Zeigerman writes that the traditional positions of the General Zionists—"liberal positions based on social justice, on law and order, on pluralism in matters of State and Religion, and on moderation and flexibility in the domain of foreign policy and security”—are still favored by important circles and currents within certain active political parties.[36]

Ze'ev Jabotinsky, founder of Revisionist Zionism

what became known as Nationalist Zionism. In 1935 the Revisionists left the World Zionist Organization because it refused to state that the creation of a Jewish state was an objective of Zionism.

Philosopher Carlo Strenger describes a modern-day Jabotinsky believed that, version of Liberal Zionism (supporting his vision of “Knowledge-Nation Israel”), rooted in the original ide“Although the Jews originated in the East, ology of Herzl and Ahad Ha'am, that stands in contrast they belonged to the West culturally, morally, to both the romantic nationalism of the right and the Netand spiritually. Zionism was conceived by zah Yisrael of the ultra-Orthodox. It is marked by a conJabotinsky not as the return of the Jews to their cern for democratic values and human rights, freedom to spiritual homeland but as an oﬀshoot or imcriticize government policies without accusations of displant of Western civilization in the East. This loyalty, and rejection of excessive religious inﬂuence in worldview translated into a geostrategic conpublic life. “Liberal Zionism celebrates the most authenception in which Zionism was to be permatic traits of the Jewish tradition: the willingness for incinently allied with European colonialism against

14.3. ORGANIZATION all the Arabs in the eastern Mediterranean.”[40]

173 • Local backlash[41]

The revisionists advocated the formation of a Jewish Neo-Zionism and post-Zionism share traits with “classiArmy in Palestine to force the Arab population to accept cal” Zionism but diﬀer by accentuating antagonist and mass Jewish migration. diametrically opposed poles already present in Zionism. Supporters of Revisionist Zionism developed the Likud “Neo Zionism accentuates the messianic and particuParty in Israel, which has dominated most governments laristic dimensions of Zionist nationalism, while postits normalising and universalistic since 1977. It advocates Israel’s maintaining control of Zionism accentuates [42] dimensions”. Post-Zionism asserts that Israel should the West Bank, including East Jerusalem, and takes a abandon the concept of a “state of the Jewish people” and hard-line approach in the Israeli-Arab conﬂict. In 2005 [43] or a binational state strive to be a state of all its citizens, the Likud split over the issue of creation of a Palestinian where Arabs and Jews live together while enjoying some state in the occupied territories. Party members advocattype of autonomy. ing peace talks helped form the Kadima Party.

14.3.4

Religious Zionism

14.3.7 Zionism and Haredi Judaism

Main article: Religious Zionism

See also: Haredim and Zionism

In the 1920s and 1930s Rabbi Abraham Isaac Kook (the ﬁrst Chief Rabbi of Palestine) and his son Rabbi Zevi Judah Kook saw great religious and traditional value in many of Zionism’s ideals, while rejecting its anti-religious undertones. They taught that Orthodox (Torah) Judaism embraces and mandates Zionism’s positive ideals, such as the ingathering of exiles, and political activity to create and maintain a Jewish political entity in the Land of Israel. In this way, Zionism serves as a bridge between Orthodox and secular Jews.

Most Haredi Orthodox organizations oppose Zionism; they view Zionism as a secular movement. They reject nationalism as a doctrine and consider Judaism to be ﬁrst and foremost a religion that is not dependent on a state. However, some Haredi movements (such as Shas since 2010) do openly aﬃliate with the Zionist movement.

While other Zionist groups tended to moderate their nationalism over time, the gains from the Six-Day War have led religious Zionism to play a signiﬁcant role in Israeli political life. Now associated with the National Religious Party and Gush Emunim, religious Zionists have been at the forefront of Jewish settlement in the West Bank and eﬀorts to assert Jewish control over the Old City of Jerusalem.

14.3.5

Green Zionism

Haredi rabbis do not consider Israel to be a halachic Jewish state because it has secular government. But they take responsibility for ensuring that Jews maintain religious ideals and, since most Israeli citizens are Jews, they pursue this agenda within Israel. Others reject any possibility of a Jewish state, since according to them a Jewish state is completely forbidden by Jewish religious law. In their view a Jewish state is considered an oxymoron. Two Haredi parties run candidates in Israeli elections. They are sometimes associated with views that could be regarded as nationalist or Zionist. They prefer coalitions with more nationalist Zionist parties, probably because these are more interested in enhancing the Jewish nature of the Israeli state.

Main article: Green Zionism Green Zionism is a branch of Zionism primarily concerned with the environment of Israel. The only environmental Zionist party is the Green Zionist Alliance.

14.3.6

Neo-Zionism and Post-Zionism

During the last quarter of the 20th century, classic nationalism in Israel declined. This led to the rise of two antagonistic movements: neo-Zionism and post-Zionism. Both movements mark the Israeli version of a worldwide Two ultra-Orthodox Jews, belonging to Neturei Karta, join in a phenomenon: large anti-Israel demonstration in Berlin, 2014

• Emergence of globalization, a market society and liberal culture The Sephardi-Orthodox party Shas rejected association

174 with the Zionist movement; however, in 2010 it joined the World Zionist Organization. Its voters generally identify as Zionist, and Knesset members frequently pursue what others might consider a Zionist agenda. Shas has supported territorial compromise with the Arabs and Palestinians, but it generally opposes compromise over Jewish holy sites. The non-Hasidic or 'Lithuanian' Haredi Ashkenazi world is represented by the Ashkenazi Agudat Israel/UTJ party. It has always avoided association with the Zionist movement and usually avoids voting on or discussing issues related to peace, because its members do not serve in the army. The party works to ensure that Israel and Israeli law are in tune with the halacha, on issues such as Shabbat rest. The rabbinical leaders of the so-called Litvishe world in current and past generations, such as Rabbi Elazar Menachem Shach and Rabbi Avigdor Miller, are strongly opposed to all forms of Zionism, religious and secular. They allow members to participate in Israeli political life, including both passive and active participation in elections. Many other Hasidic groups in Jerusalem, most famously the Satmar Hasidim, as well as the larger movement they are part of, the Edah HaChareidis, are strongly antiZionist. One of the best known Hasidic opponents of all forms of modern political Zionism was Hungarian rebbe and Talmudic scholar Joel Teitelbaum. In his view, the current State of Israel is contrary to Judaism, because it was founded by people who included some anti-religious personalities, and in apparent violation of the traditional notion that Jews should wait for the Jewish Messiah. Teitelbaum refers to core citations from classical Judaic sources in his arguments against modern Zionism; specifically, he refers to a passage in the Talmud, in which Rabbi Yosi b'Rebbi Hanina explains (Kesubos 111a) that the Lord imposed "Three Oaths" on the nation of Israel: a) Israel should not return to the Land together, by force; b) Israel should not rebel against the other nations; and c) The nations should not subjugate Israel too harshly. According to Teitelbaum, the second oath is relevant concerning the subsequent wars fought between Israel and Arab nations.

CHAPTER 14. ZIONISM creasing antisemitism among non-Jews.[47] The Chabad-Lubavitch Hasidic movement has traditionally not identiﬁed as Zionist. But, since the late 20th century, it has adopted a nationalist agenda. It opposes any territorial compromise in Israel and is considered NeoZionist.

14.4 Zionist beliefs Main articles: Return to Zion, Sabra (person), Aliyah, Racial antisemitism, New antisemitism, Religious antisemitism and Revival of the Hebrew language See also: Yiddish, Ladino language and Hebraization of surnames Zionism was established with the political goal of creating a Jewish state in order to create a nation where Jews could be the majority, rather than the minority they were in a variety of nations in the diaspora. Though later Zionist leaders hoped to create a Jewish state in Eretz Yisrael, Theodor Herzl “approached Great Britain about possible Jewish settlement in that country’s East African colonies.”[48] Another area considered was part of the “unoccupied” territory in Argentina. Aliyah (migration, literally “ascent”) to the Land of Israel is a recurring theme in Jewish prayers. Rejection of life in the Diaspora is a central assumption in Zionism.[49] Supporters of Zionism believed that Jews in the Diaspora were prevented from their full growth in Jewish individual and national life.

Zionists generally preferred to speak Hebrew, a Semitic language that developed under conditions of freedom in ancient Judah, and worked to modernize and adapt it for everyday use. Zionists sometimes refused to speak Yiddish, a language they thought had developed in the context of European persecution. Once they moved to Israel, many Zionists refused to speak their (diasporic) mother tongues and adopted new, Hebrew names. Hebrew was preferred not only for ideological reasons, but also because it allowed all citizens of the new state to have a common language, thus furthering the political and culOther opponent groups among the Edah HaChareidis tural bonds among Zionists. were Dushinsky, Toldos Aharon, Toldos Avrohom YitzMajor aspects of the Zionist idea are represented in the chok, Spinka, and others. They number in the tens Israeli Declaration of Independence: of thousands in Jerusalem, and hundreds of thousands worldwide. The Land of Israel was the birthplace of the The Neturei Karta, an orthodox Haredi religious moveJewish people. Here their spiritual, religious ment, strongly oppose Zionism and Israel; it considers the and political identity was shaped. Here they latter a racist regime.[44] The movement equates Zionism ﬁrst attained to statehood, created cultural valto Nazism in the sense of treating Jews as a race, stating ues of national and universal signiﬁcance and “Apart from the Zionists, the only ones who consistently gave to the world the eternal Book of Books. considered the Jews a race were the Nazis.”[45] Naturei After being forcibly exiled from their land, Karta believes that Zionist ideology is contrary to tradithe people kept faith with it throughout their tional Jewish law and beliefs, and to the teachings of the Dispersion and never ceased to pray and hope Holy Torah.[46] They believe that Zionism results in infor their return to it and for the restoration in it

14.5. HISTORY

175

of their political freedom. Impelled by this historic and traditional attachment, Jews strove in every successive generation to re-establish themselves in their ancient homeland. In recent decades they returned in their masses.[50]

Palestine by non-Jews), although there has been a constant minority presence of Jews. According to Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, Eretz Israel is a land promised to the Jews by God according to the Hebrew and Greek Bibles and the Quran, respectively. The Diaspora began in 586 BCE during the Babylonian occupation of Israel. The Babylonians destroyed the First Temple, which was central to Jewish culture at the time. After the 1st century Great Revolt and the 2nd century Bar Kokhba revolt, 14.5 History the Roman Empire expelled the Jews from Judea, changing the name to Syria Palaestina. The Bar Kokhba revolt Main articles: History of Zionism and History of Israel caused a spike in antisemitism and Jewish persecution. Since the first centuries CE, most Jews have lived out- The ensuing exile from Judea greatly increased the percent of Jews who were dispersed throughout the Diaspora instead of living in their original home. Zion is a hill near Jerusalem (now in the city), widely symbolizing the Land of Israel.[52] In the middle of the 16th century, Joseph Nasi, with the support of the Ottoman Empire, tried to gather the Portuguese Jews, first to migrate to Cyprus, then owned by the Republic of Venice, and later to resettle in Tiberias. Finally, Nasi was forced by the Ottoman Sultan Mehmed IV to visit him. To the surprise of his followers, in the presence of the Sultan, Nasi converted to Islam.[53] Between the 4th and 19th centuries, Nasi’s was the only The delegates at the First Zionist Congress, held in Basel, Switzer- practical attempt to establish some sort of Jewish politland (1897) ical center in Palestine.[54] In the 17th century Sabbatai Zevi (1626–1676) announced himself as the Messiah and gained many Jews to his side, forming a base in Salonika. He first tried to establish a settlement in Gaza, but moved later to Smyrna. After deposing the old rabbi Aaron Lapapa in the spring of 1666, the Jewish community of Avignon, France prepared to emigrate to the new kingdom. The readiness of the Jews of the time to believe the messianic claims of Sabbatai Zevi may be largely explained by the desperate state of Central European Jewry in the mid-17th century. The bloody pogroms of Bohdan Khmelnytsky had wiped out one-third of the Jewish population and destroyed many centers of Jewish learning and communal life.[55] In the 19th century, a current in Judaism supporting a return to Zion grew in popularity,[56] particularly in Europe, where antisemitism and hostility toward Jews were growing. The idea of returning to Palestine was rejected by the conferences of rabbis held in that epoch. Individual efforts supported the emigration of groups of Jews to Palestine, pre-Zionist Aliyah, even before 1897, the year considered as the start of practical Zionism.[57]

Lord Shaftesbury's “Memorandum to Protestant Monarchs of Europe for the restoration of the Jews to Palestine”, published in the Colonial Times, in 1841

side the Land of Israel (Eretz Israel, better known as

The Reformed Jews rejected this idea of a return to Zion. The conference of rabbis, at Frankfurt am Main, July 15– 28, 1845, deleted from the ritual all prayers for a return to Zion and a restoration of a Jewish state. The Philadelphia Conference, 1869, followed the lead of the German rabbis and decreed that the Messianic hope of Israel is “the union of all the children of God in the confession of the unity of God”. The Pittsburgh Conference, 1885, reiter-

176 ated this Messianic idea of reformed Judaism, expressing in a resolution that “we consider ourselves no longer a nation, but a religious community; and we therefore expect neither a return to Palestine, nor a sacriﬁcial worship under the sons of Aaron, nor the restoration of any of the laws concerning a Jewish state”.[58] Jewish settlements were established in the upper Mississippi region by W.D. Robinson in 1819. Others were developed near Jerusalem in 1850, by the American Consul Warder Cresson, a convert to Judaism. Cresson was tried and condemned for lunacy in a suit ﬁled by his wife and son. They asserted that only a lunatic would convert to Judaism from Christianity. After a second trial, based on the centrality of American 'freedom of faith' issues and antisemitism, Cresson won the bitterly contested suit.[59] He emigrated to Ottoman Palestine and established an agricultural colony in the Valley of Rephaim of Jerusalem. He hoped to “prevent any attempts being made to take advantage of the necessities of our poor brethren ... (that would) ... FORCE them into a pretended conversion.”[60]

CHAPTER 14. ZIONISM Yishuv in Palestine is usually dated to the arrival of the Bilu group in 1882, who commenced the First Aliyah. In the following years, Jewish immigration to Palestine started in earnest. Most immigrants came from the Russian Empire, escaping the frequent pogroms and state-led persecution in what are now Ukraine and Poland. They founded a number of agricultural settlements with ﬁnancial support from Jewish philanthropists in Western Europe. Additional Aliyahs followed the Russian Revolution and its eruption of violent pogroms, as well as the Nazi persecution of the 1930s. At the end of the 19th century, Jews were a small minority in Palestine.

In the 1890s, Theodor Herzl infused Zionism with a new ideology and practical urgency, leading to the First Zionist Congress at Basel in 1897, which created the World Zionist Organization (WZO).[63] Herzl’s aim was to initiate necessary preparatory steps for the development of a Jewish state. Herzl’s attempts to reach a political agreement with the Ottoman rulers of Palestine were unsuccessful and he sought the support of other governments. The WZO supported small-scale settlement in Palestine; Moral but not practical efforts were made in Prague to it focused on strengthening Jewish feeling and consciousorganized a Jewish emigration, by Abraham Benisch and ness and on building a worldwide federation. Moritz Steinschneider in 1835. In the United States, The Russian Empire, with its long record of stateMordechai Noah attempted to establish a Jewish refuge organized genocide and ethnic cleansing (“pogroms”), opposite Buffalo, New York on Grand Isle, 1825. These was widely regarded as the historic enemy of the Jewish early Jewish nation building efforts of Cresson, Benisch, people. The Zionist movement’s headquarters were located in Berlin, as many of its leaders were German Jews Steinschneider and Noah failed.[61][62] who spoke German. Given Russia’s anti-semitism, at the start of World War I, most Jews (and Zionists) supported Germany in its war with Russia.

14.5.1 Balfour Declaration and the Palestine Mandate

The Great Synagogue of Rishon LeZion was founded in 1885.

In 1903, the Zionist congress declined an oﬀer by the British to establish a homeland in Uganda. Lobbying by Russian Jewish immigrant Chaim Weizmann together with fear that American Jews would encourage the USA to support Germany in the war against communist Russia, culminated in the British government’s Balfour Declaration of 1917.

Sir Moses Montefiore, famous for his intervention in favor of Jews around the world, including the attempt to It endorsed the creation of a Jewish homeland in Palesrescue Edgardo Mortara, established a colony for Jews in tine, as follows: Palestine. In 1854, his friend Judah Touro bequeathed money to fund Jewish residential settlement in Palestine. His Majesty’s government view with favour Montefiore was appointed executor of his will, and used the establishment in Palestine of a national the funds for a variety of projects, including building in home for the Jewish people, and will use their 1860 the first Jewish residential settlement and almshouse best endeavours to facilitate the achievement outside of the old walled city of Jerusalem—today known of this object, it being clearly understood that as Mishkenot Sha'ananim. Laurence Oliphant failed in a nothing shall be done which may prejudice the like attempt to bring to Palestine the Jewish proletariat civil and religious rights of existing non-Jewish of Poland, Lithuania, Romania, and the Turkish Empire communities in Palestine, or the rights and (1879 and 1882). political status enjoyed by Jews in any other The official beginning of the construction of the New

country.[64]

14.5. HISTORY

177 calling for a “last stand”.[67] Upon the German adoption of the swastika, Theodore Newman Kaufman, a racist fascist, bent on provoking a race war and eliminating his perception of "inbred Germanism”, published Germany Must Perish! Anti-German articles, such as the Daily Express calling for an "Anti-Nazi boycott", in response to German antisemitism were published prior to Adolf Hitler’s rise, as well. This has lent to the conspiracy theory that Jews started the holocaust, although Propaganda Minister Joseph Goebbels was largely responsible for ignoring the patriotic Jew, and instead promoting antiGerman materials as “evidence” that the Jews needed to be eradicated.

14.5.2 Rise of Hitler In 1933, Hitler came to power in Germany, and in 1935 the Nuremberg Laws made German Jews (and later Austrian and Czech Jews) stateless refugees. Similar rules were applied by the many Nazi allies in Europe. The subsequent growth in Jewish migration and the impact of Nazi propaganda aimed at the Arab world led to the 1936–1939 Arab revolt in Palestine. Britain established the Peel Commission to investigate the situation. The commission did not consider the situation of Jews in Europe, but called for a two-state solution and Palestine as claimed by the World Zionist Organization in 1919 compulsory transfer of populations. Britain rejected this solution and instead implemented the White Paper of at the Paris Peace Conference 1939. This planned to end Jewish immigration by 1944 and to allow no more than 75,000 additional Jewish miIn 1922, the League of Nations adopted the declaration, grants. This was disastrous to European Jews already beand granted to Britain the Palestine Mandate: ing gravely discriminated against and in need of a place to seek refuge. The British maintained this policy until The Mandate will secure the establishment the end of the Mandate. of the Jewish national home ... and the development of self-governing institutions, and also safeguard the civil and religious rights of all the inhabitants of Palestine, irrespective of race and religion.[65] Weizmann’s role in obtaining the Balfour Declaration led to his election as the Zionist movement’s leader. He remained in that role until 1948, and then was elected as the ﬁrst President of Israel after the nation gained independence. Jewish migration to Palestine and widespread Jewish land purchases from feudal landlords contributed to landlessness among Palestinian Arabs, fueling unrest. Riots erupted in Palestine in 1920, 1921 and 1929, in which both Jews and Arabs were killed.[66] Britain was responsible for the Palestinian mandate and, after the Balfour Declaration, it supported Jewish immigration in principle. But, in response to the violent events noted above, the Peel Commission published a report proposing new provisions and restrictions in Palestine. In 1927, Ukrainian Jew Yitzhak Lamdan, wrote an epic Yitzhak Ben Zvi speaking at the opening meeting of the Fourth poem titled Masada to reﬂect the plight of the Jews, Parliament

178 The growth of the Jewish community in Palestine and the devastation of European Jewish life sidelined the World Zionist Organization. The Jewish Agency for Palestine under the leadership of David Ben-Gurion increasingly dictated policy with support from American Zionists who provided funding and inﬂuence in Washington, D.C., including via the highly eﬀective American Palestine Committee.

David Ben-Gurion proclaiming Israel’s independence beneath a large portrait of Theodor Herzl

During World War II, as the horrors of the Holocaust became known, the Zionist leadership formulated the One Million Plan, a reduction from Ben-Gurion’s previous target of two million immigrants. Following the end of the war, a massive wave of stateless Jews, mainly Holocaust survivors, began migrating to Palestine in small boats in deﬁance of British rules. The Holocaust united much of the rest of world Jewry behind the Zionist project.[68] The British either imprisoned these Jews in Cyprus or sent them to the British-controlled Allied Occupation Zones in Germany. The British, having faced the 1936–1939 Arab revolt against mass Jewish immigration into Palestine, were now facing opposition by Zionist groups in Palestine for subsequent restrictions. In January 1946 the AngloAmerican Committee of Inquiry was a joint British and American committee set up to examine the political, economic and social conditions in Palestine as they bore upon the problem of Jewish immigration and settlement and the well-being of the peoples living there; to consult representatives of Arabs and Jews, and to make other recommendations 'as necessary' for ad interim handling of these problems as well as for their eventual solution.[69] Ultimately the Committee’s plans were rejected by both Arabs and Jews; and Britain decided to refer the problem to the United Nations.

CHAPTER 14. ZIONISM

14.5.3 Post-WWII In 1947, the United Nations Special Committee on Palestine (UNSCOP) recommended that western Palestine should be partitioned into a Jewish state, an Arab state and a UN-controlled territory, Corpus separatum, around Jerusalem.[70] This partition plan was adopted on November 29, 1947 with UN GA Resolution 181, 33 votes in favor, 13 against, and 10 abstentions. The vote led to celebrations in the streets of Jewish cities.[71] However, the Palestinian Arabs and the Arab states rejected the UN decision, demanding a single state and removal of Jewish migrants, leading to the 1948 Arab–Israeli War. On May 14, 1948, at the end of the British mandate, the Jewish Agency, led by David Ben-Gurion, declared the creation of the State of Israel, and the same day the armies of seven Arab countries invaded Israel. The conflict led to an exodus of about 711,000 Palestinian Arabs,[72] known in Arabic as al-Nakba (“the Catastrophe”). Later, a series of laws passed by the first Israeli government prevented Palestinians from returning to their homes, or claiming their property. They and many of their descendants remain refugees.[73][74] The flight and expulsion of the Palestinians has since been widely, and controversially, described as having involved ethnic cleansing.[75][76] According to a growing consensus between Israeli and Palestinian historians, expulsion and destruction of villages played a part in the origin of the Palestinian refugees.[77] Efraim Karsh, however, states that most of the Arabs who fled left of their own accord or were pressured to leave by their fellow Arabs, despite Israeli attempts to convince them to stay.[78][79] Since the creation of the State of Israel, the World Zionist Organization has functioned mainly as an organization dedicated to assisting and encouraging Jews to migrate to Israel. It has provided political support for Israel in other countries but plays little role in internal Israeli politics. The movement’s major success since 1948 was in providing logistical support for migrating Jews and, most importantly, in assisting Soviet Jews in their struggle with the authorities over the right to leave the USSR and to practice their religion in freedom, and the exodus of 850,000 Jews from the Arab world, mostly to Israel. In 194445, Ben-Gurion described the One Million Plan to foreign officials as being the “primary goal and top priority of the Zionist movement.”[80] The immigration restrictions of the British White Paper of 1939 meant that such a plan could not be put into large scale effect until the Israeli Declaration of Independence in May 1948. The new country’s immigration policy had some opposition within the new Israeli government, such as those who argued that there was “no justification for organizing large-scale emigration among Jews whose lives were not in danger, particularly when the desire and motivation were not their own”[81] as well as those who argued that the absorption process caused “undue hardship”.[82] However, the force of Ben-Gurion’s influence and insistence ensured that his

14.6. NON-JEWISH SUPPORT FOR ZIONISM

179 entist and humanitarian Fridtjof Nansen from Norway. The French government, through Minister M. Cambon, formally committed itself to "... the renaissance of the Jewish nationality in that Land from which the people of Israel were exiled so many centuries ago.” In China, top ﬁgures of the Nationalist government, including Sun Yat-sen, expressed their sympathy with the aspirations of the Jewish people for a National Home.[86]

14.6.1 Christians supporting Zionism Main article: Christian Zionism Some Christians have actively supported the return of

Jewish zones in Palestine in 1947

immigration policy was carried out.[83][84]

14.6 Non-Jewish support for Zionism Political support for the Jewish return to the Land of Israel predates the formal organization of Jewish Zionism as a political movement. In the 19th century, advocates of the restoration of the Jews to the Holy Land were called Restorationists. The return of the Jews to the Holy Land was widely supported by such eminent ﬁgures as Queen Victoria, Napoleon Bonaparte,[85] King Edward VII, President John Adams of the United States, General Smuts of South Africa, President Masaryk of Czechoslovakia, philosopher and historian Benedetto Croce from Italy, Henry Dunant (founder of the Red Cross and author of the Geneva Conventions), and sci-

Martin Luther King, Jr. was a notable Christian supporter of Israel and Zionism.[87]

Jews to Palestine even prior to the rise of Zionism, as well as subsequently. Anita Shapira, a history professor emerita at Tel Aviv University, suggests that evangelical Christian restorationists of the 1840s 'passed this notion on to Jewish circles’.[88] It was common among the Puritans to anticipate and frequently to pray for a Jewish return to their homeland.[89] One of the principal Protestant teachers who promoted the biblical doctrine that the Jews would return to their national homeland was John Nelson Darby. His doctrine of dispensationalism is credited with promoting Zionism, following his 11 lectures on the hopes of the church, the Jew and the gentile given in Geneva in 1840.[90] However, others like C H Spurgeon,[91] both Horatius[92] and Andrew Bonar, Robert Murray M'Chyene,[93] and J C Ryle[94] were among a number of prominent proponents of both the importance and signiﬁcance of a Jewish return, who were not dispensationalist. Pro-Zionist views were em-

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braced by many evangelicals and also aﬀected international foreign policy. Notable early supporters of Zionism include British Prime Ministers David Lloyd George and Arthur Balfour, American President Woodrow Wilson and British Major-General Orde Wingate, whose activities in support of Zionism led the British Army to ban him from ever serving in Palestine. According to Charles Merkley of Carleton University, Christian Zionism strengthened signiﬁcantly after the SixDay War of 1967, and many dispensationalist and nondispensationalist evangelical Christians, especially in the United States, now strongly support Zionism.

On occasion, some non-Arab Muslims such as some Kurds and Berbers have also voiced support for Zionism.[102][103][104] During the Palestine Mandate era, As’ad Shukeiri, a Muslim scholar ('alim) of the Acre area, and the father of PLO founder Ahmad Shukeiri, rejected the values of the Palestinian Arab national movement and was opposed to the anti-Zionist movement.[105] He met routinely with Zionist oﬃcials and had a part in every pro-Zionist Arab organization from the beginning of the British Mandate, publicly rejecting Mohammad Amin al-Husayni's use of Islam to attack Zionism.[106]

Martin Luther King, Jr. was a strong supporter of Israel Some Indian Muslims have also expressed opposition and Zionism,[87] although the Letter to an Anti-Zionist to Islamic anti-Zionism. In August 2007, a delegation Friend is a work falsely attributed to him. of the All India Organization of Imams and mosques In the last years of his life, the founder of the Latter Day led by Maulana Jamil Ilyas visited Israel. The meeting Saint movement, Joseph Smith, declared, “the time for led to a joint statement expressing “peace and goodwill Jews to return to the land of Israel is now.” In 1842, from Indian Muslims”, developing dialogue between InSmith sent Orson Hyde, an Apostle of the Church of Je- dian Muslims and Israeli Jews, and rejecting the percepsus Christ of Latter Day Saints, to Jerusalem to dedicate tion that the Israeli-Palestinian conﬂict is of a religious the land for the return of the Jews.[95] nature.[107] The visit was organized by the American Jewish Committee. The purpose of the visit was to promote Some Arab Christians publicly supporting Israel include US author Nonie Darwish, and former Muslim Magdi meaningful debate about the status of Israel in the eyes of Muslims worldwide, and to strengthen the relationship Allam, author of Viva Israele,[96] both born in Egypt. Brigitte Gabriel, a Lebanese-born Christian US journalist between India and Israel. It is suggested that the visit could “open Muslim minds across the world to understand and founder of the American Congress for Truth, urges of the state of Israel, especially in Americans to “fearlessly speak out in defense of Amer- the democratic nature [108] the Middle East”. ica, Israel and Western civilization”.[97]

14.6.2

Muslims supporting Zionism 14.6.3 Hindu support for Zionism

Main article: Muslim Zionism Muslims who publicly defended Zionism include Dr.

Israeli Druze Scouts march to Jethro’s tomb. Today, thousands of Israeli Druze belong to 'Druze Zionist' movements.[98]

Tawﬁk Hamid, former member of a terrorist organization and current Islamic thinker and reformer,[99] Sheikh Prof. Abdul Hadi Palazzi, Director of the Cultural Institute of the Italian Islamic Community,[100] and Tashbih Sayyed, a Pakistani-American scholar, journalist, and author.[101]

Main articles: India–Israel relations and Hindu Nationalism After Israel’s creation in 1948, the Indian National Congress government opposed Zionism. Some writers have claimed that this was done in order to get more Muslim votes in India (where Muslims numbered over 30 million at the time).[109] However, conservative Hindu nationalists, led by the Sangh Parivar, openly supported Zionism, as did Hindu Nationalist intellectuals like Vinayak Damodar Savarkar and Sita Ram Goel.[110] Zionism as a national liberation movement to repatriate the Jewish people to their ancestral homeland appealed to many Hindu Nationalists, who viewed their struggle for independence from British rule and the Partition of India as national liberation for long-oppressed Hindus. An international opinion survey has shown that India is the most pro-Israel country in the world.[111] In more current times, conservative Indian parties and organizations tend to support Zionism.[110][112] This has invited attacks on the Hindutva movement by parts of the Indian left opposed to Zionism, and allegations that Hindus are conspiring with the "Jewish Lobby.”[113]

14.8. OPPOSITION TO ZIONISM

14.7 Marcus Garvey and Black Zionism See also: Alliance of Black Jews and Jews and Judaism in the African diaspora Zionist success in winning British support for the formation of a Jewish National Home in Palestine helped inspire the Jamaican nationalist Marcus Garvey to form a movement dedicated to returning Americans of African origin to Africa. During a speech in Harlem in 1920, Garvey stated: “other races were engaged in seeing their cause through—the Jews through their Zionist movement and the Irish through their Irish movement—and I decided that, cost what it might, I would make this a favorable time to see the Negro’s interest through.”[114] Garvey established a shipping company, the Black Star Line, to allow Black Americans to emigrate to Africa, but for various reasons he failed in his endeavour. Garvey helped inspire the Rastafari movement in Jamaica, the Black Jews[115] and the African Hebrew Israelites of Jerusalem who initially moved to Liberia before settling in Israel.

181 tions and individuals. Among those opposing Zionism are some secular Jews,[116] some branches of Judaism (Satmar Hasidim and Neturei Karta), the former Soviet Union,[117] some African-Americans,[118] many in the Muslim world, and Palestinians. Reasons for opposing Zionism are varied, and include the perceptions of unfair land conﬁscation, expulsions of Palestinians, violence against Palestinians, and alleged racism. Arab states in particular strongly oppose Zionism, which they believe is responsible for the 1948 Palestinian exodus. The preamble of the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights, which has been ratiﬁed by 53 African countries as of 2014, includes an undertaking to eliminate Zionism together with other practices including colonialism, neo-colonialism, apartheid, “aggressive foreign military bases” and all forms of discrimination.[119][120] Zionism had also been opposed by some Jews for other reasons even before the establishment of the state of Israel because “Zionism constitutes a danger, spiritual and physical, to the existence of our people.'.”.[121] The book also states “The booklet which we are publishing here, 'Serufay. Ha Kivshbnim Maashimim' ('The Holocaust Victims Accuse'), serves as an attempt to show, by means of testimonies., documents and reports, how Zionism and its high-level organizations brought a catastrophe upon our people during the era of the Nazi holocaust.”

14.8 Opposition to Zionism 14.8.1 Catholic Church and Zionism

Main articles: Anti-Zionism and Timeline of AntiZionism See also: Non-Zionism, Post-Zionism, Neo-Zionism, Main articles: Holy See–Israel relations, Supersessionism § Roman Catholicism and Christianity and antisemitism New Antisemitism and Criticism of Israel Zionism is opposed by a wide variety of organizaThe initial response of the Catholic Church seemed to be one of strong opposition to Zionism. Shortly after the 1897 Basel Conference, the semi-oﬃcial Vatican periodical (edited by the Jesuits) Civilta Cattolica gave its biblical-theological judgement on political Zionism: “1827 years have passed since the prediction of Jesus of Nazareth was fulﬁlled ... that [after the destruction of Jerusalem] the Jews would be led away to be slaves among all the nations and that they would remain in the dispersion [diaspora, galut] until the end of the world.” The Jews should not be permitted to return to Palestine with sovereignty: “According to the Sacred Scriptures, the Jewish people must always live dispersed and vagabondo [vagrant, wandering] among the other nations, so that they may render witness to Christ not only by the Scriptures ... but by their very existence”.

The rise of Palestinian Nationalism was a response to the emergence of Zionism, Arab Christian owned Falastin newspaper was the ﬁrst to warn about the perceived dangers of Zionism. 18 June 1936 issue featuring a caricature, 'The Zionist Crocodile to Palestine Arabs “Don't be afraid!!! I will swallow you peacefully..."'

Nonetheless, Theodore Herzl travelled to Rome in late January 1904, after the sixth Zionist Congress (August 1903) and six months before his death, looking for some kind of support. In January 22, Herzl ﬁrst met the Secretary of State, Cardinal Rafael Merry del Val. According to Herzl’s private diary notes, the Cardinal agreed on the history of Israel being the same as the one of the Catholic Church, but asked beforehand for a conversion

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of Jews to Catholicism. Three days later, Herzl met Pope Pius X, who replied to his request of support for a Jewish return to Israel in the same terms, saying that “we are unable to favor this movement. We cannot prevent the Jews going to Jerusalem, but we could never sanction it ... The Jews have not recognized our Lord, therefore we cannot recognize the Jewish people.” In 1922, the same periodical published a piece by its Viennese correspondent, “anti-Semitism is nothing but the absolutely necessary and natural reaction to the Jews’ arrogance...Catholic anti-Semitism - while never going beyond the moral law - adopts all necessary means to emancipate the Christian people from the abuse they suﬀer from their sworn enemy”.[122] This initial attitude changed over the next 50 years, until 1997, when at the Vatican symposium of that year, Pope John Paul II rejected the Christian roots of antisemitism, expressing that "... the wrong and unjust interpretations of the New Testament relating to the Jewish people and their supposed guilt [in Christ’s death] circulated for too long, engendering sentiments of hostility toward this people.”[123]

14.8.2

and protect their property, their honor, and their freedom with the harshest means of coercion. This is another area in which we shall set the entire world a wonderful example … Should there be many such immovable owners in individual areas [who would not sell their property to us], we shall simply leave them there and develop our commerce in the direction of other areas which belong to us.”[129][130] Derek Penslar says that Herzl may have been considering either South America or Palestine when he wrote the diary entry about expropriation.[131] According to Walter Lacquer, although many Zionists proposed transfer, it was never oﬃcial Zionist policy and in 1918 Ben-Gurion “emphatically rejected” it.[132]

Ilan Pappe argued that Zionism results in ethnic cleansing.[133] This view diverges from other New Historians, such as Benny Morris, who accept the Palestinian exodus narrative but place it in the context of war, not ethnic cleansing.[134] When Benny Morris was asked about the Lydda Death March, he responded “There are circumstances in history that justify ethnic cleansing. I know that this term is completely negative in the discourse of the 21st century, but when the choice is between ethnic cleansing and genocide - the annihilation of Characterization as colonialism or your people - I prefer ethnic cleansing.”[135]

ethnic cleansing

Saleh Abdel Jawad, Nur Masalha, Michael Prior, Ian Lustick, and John Rose have criticized Zionism for having Zionism has been characterized as colonialism, and Zionbeen responsible for violence against Palestinians, such ism has been criticized for promoting unfair confiscation as the Deir Yassin massacre, Sabra and Shatila massacre, of land, involving the expulsion of, and causing violence and Cave of the Patriarchs massacre.[136] towards, the Palestinians. The characterization of Zionism as colonialism has been described by, among others, In 1938, Mahatma Gandhi rejected Zionism, saying that Nur Masalha, Gershon Shafir, Michael Prior, Ilan Pappe, the establishment of a Jewish national home in Palestine is a religious act and therefore must not be performed by and Baruch Kimmerling.[12] force. He wrote, “Palestine belongs to the Arabs in the Others, such as Shlomo Avineri and Mitchell Bard, view same sense that England belongs to the English or France Zionism not as colonialist movement, but as a national to the French. It is wrong and inhuman to impose the movement that is contending with the Palestinian one.[124] Jews on the Arabs ... Surely it would be a crime against David Hoffman rejected the claim that Zionism is a humanity to reduce the proud Arabs so that Palestine can 'settler-colonial undertaking' and instead characterized be restored to the Jews partly or wholly as their national Zionism as a national program of affirmative action, home ... They can settle in Palestine only by the goodadding that there is unbroken Jewish presence in Israel will of the Arabs. They should seek to convert the Arab back to antiquity.[125] heart.”[137] Noam Chomsky, John P. Quigly, Nur Masalha, and Cheryl Rubenberg have criticized Zionism, saying it unfairly confiscates land and expels Palestinians.[126]

14.8.3 Characterization as racist

Edward Said and Michael Prior claim that the notion of expelling the Palestinians was an early component of Zionism, citing Herzl’s diary from 1895 which states “we shall endeavour to expel the poor population across the border unnoticed — the process of expropriation and the removal of the poor must be carried out discreetly and circumspectly.”[127] This quotation has been critiqued by Efraim Karsh for misrepresenting Herzl’s purpose.[128] He describes it as “a feature of Palestinian propaganda”, writing that Herzl was referring to the voluntary resettlement of squatters living on land purchased by Jews, and that the full diary entry stated, “It goes without saying that we shall respectfully tolerate persons of other faiths

See also: Racism in Israel § Zionism, Israel, Palestinians, and the United Nations and Israel and the apartheid analogy David Ben-Gurion stated that “There will be no discrimination among citizens of the Jewish state on the basis of race, religion, sex, or class.”[138] Likewise, Vladimir Jabotinsky avowed “the minority will not be rendered defenseless...[the] aim of democracy is to guarantee that the minority too has inﬂuence on matters of state policy.”[139] However, critics of Zionism consider it a colonialist[12] or

14.8. OPPOSITION TO ZIONISM racist[13] movement. According to historian Avi Shlaim, throughout its history up to present day, Zionism “is replete with manifestations of deep hostility and contempt towards the indigenous population.” Shlaim balances this by pointing out that there have always been individuals within the Zionist movement that have criticized such attitudes. He cites the example of Ahad Ha'am, who after visiting Palestine in 1891, published a series of articles criticizing the aggressive behaviour and political ethnocentrism of Zionist settlers. Ha'am wrote that the Zionists “behave towards the Arabs with hostility and cruelty, trespass unjustly upon their boundaries, beat them shamefully without reason and even brag about it, and nobody stands to check this contemptible and dangerous tendency” and that they believed that “the only language that the Arabs understand is that of force.”[140] Some criticisms of Zionism claim that Judaism’s notion of the "chosen people" is the source of racism in Zionism,[141] despite, according to Gustavo Perednik, that being a religious concept unrelated to Zionism.[142] In December 1973, the UN passed a series of resolutions condemning South Africa and included a reference to an “unholy alliance between Portuguese colonialism, Apartheid and Zionism.”[143] At the time there was little cooperation between Israel and South Africa,[144] although the two countries would develop a close relationship during the 1970s.[145] Parallels have also been drawn between aspects of South Africa’s apartheid regime and certain Israeli policies toward the Palestinians, which are seen as manifestations of racism in Zionist thinking.[146][147][148] In 1975 the UN General Assembly passed Resolution 3379, which said “Zionism is a form of racism and racial discrimination”. According to the resolution, “any doctrine of racial diﬀerentiation of superiority is scientifically false, morally condemnable, socially unjust, and dangerous.” The resolution named the occupied territory of Palestine, Zimbabwe, and South Africa as examples of racist regimes. Resolution 3379 was pioneered by the Soviet Union and passed with numerical support from Arab and African states amidst accusations that Israel was supportive of the apartheid regime in South Africa.[149] The resolution was robustly criticised by the US representative, Daniel Patrick Moynihan as an 'obscenity' and a 'harm ...done to the United Nations’.[150] 'In 1991 the resolution was repealed with UN General Assembly Resolution 46/86,[151] after Israel declared that it would only participate in the Madrid Conference of 1991 if the resolution were revoked.[152] The United States ...does not acknowledge, it will not abide by, it will never acquiesce in this infamous act… The lie is that Zionism is a form of racism. The overwhelmingly clear truth is that it is not. — Daniel Patrick Moynihan, speaking in the UN General Assembly after Resolution

183 3379 was passed, 1975.[150]

Arab countries sought to associate Zionism with racism in connection with a 2001 UN conference on racism, which took place in Durban, South Africa,[153] which caused the United States and Israel to walk away from the conference as a response. The ﬁnal text of the conference did not connect Zionism with racism. A human rights forum arranged in connection with the conference, on the other hand, did equate Zionism with racism and censured Israel for what it called “racist crimes, including acts of genocide and ethnic cleansing”.[154] Some supporters of Zionism, such as Chaim Herzog, argue that the movement is non-discriminatory and contains no racist aspects.[155]

14.8.4 Anti-Zionism or Antisemitism Main articles: Anti-Zionism § Anti-Zionism and antisemitism and New Antisemitism Some critics of anti-Zionism have argued that opposition to Zionism can be hard to distinguish from antisemitism,[156][157][158][159][160] and that criticism of Israel may be used as an excuse to express viewpoints that might otherwise be considered antisemitic.[161][162] Martin Luther King Jr. condemned anti-Zionism as antisemitic.[163] Other scholars consider certain forms of opposition to Zionism to constitute antisemitism.[159] A number of scholars have argued that opposition to Zionism and/or the State of Israel’s policies at the more extreme fringes often overlaps with antisemitism.[159] In the Arab world, the words “Jew” and “Zionist” are often used interchangeably. To avoid accusations of antisemitism, the Palestine Liberation Organization has historically avoided using the word “Jewish” in favor using “Zionist,” though PLO oﬃcials have sometimes slipped.[164] Some antisemites have alleged that Zionism was, or is, part of a Jewish plot to take control of the world.[165] One particular version of these allegations, "The Protocols of the Elders of Zion" (subtitle “Protocols extracted from the secret archives of the central chancery of Zion”) achieved global notability. The protocols are ﬁctional minutes of an imaginary meeting by Jewish leaders of this plot. Analysis and proof of their fraudulent origin goes as far back as 1921.[166] A 1920 German version renamed them "The Zionist Protocols".[167] The protocols were extensively used as propaganda by the Nazis and remain widely distributed in the Arab world. They are referred to in the 1988 Hamas charter.[168] There are examples of anti-Zionists using accusations, slanders, imagery and tactics previously associated with antisemites. On October 21, 1973, then-Soviet ambassador to the United Nations Yakov Malik declared: “The Zionists have come forth with the theory of the Chosen

184

CHAPTER 14. ZIONISM

People, an absurd ideology.” Similarly, an exhibit about [9] Israel Affairs - Volume 13, Issue 4, 2007 - Special Issue: Postcolonial Theory and the Arab-Israel Conflict Zionism and Israel in the former Museum of Religion and De-Judaizing the Homeland: Academic Politics in RewritAtheism in Saint Petersburg designated the following as ing the History of Palestine - S. Ilan Troen Soviet Zionist material: Jewish prayer shawls, tefillin and [169] Passover Hagaddahs, even though these are all reli- [10] Aaronson, Ran (1996). “Settlement in Eretz Israel – A gious items used by Jews for thousands of years.[170] Colonialist Enterprise? “Critical” Scholarship and Historical Geography” (PDF). Israel Studies (Indiana University On the other hand, anti-Zionist writers such as Noam Press) 1 (2): 214–229. Retrieved July 30, 2013. Chomsky, Norman Finkelstein, Michael Marder, and Tariq Ali have argued that the characterization of anti- [11] “Zionism and British imperialism II: Imperial financing Zionism as antisemitic is inaccurate, sometimes obscures in Palestine”, Journal of Israeli History: Politics, Society, Culture. Volume 30, Issue 2, 2011 - pages 115-139 legitimate criticism of Israel's policies and actions, and is Michael J. Cohen sometimes a political ploy to stifle criticism of Israel.[171] [12]

14.9 See also 14.9.1

• Bareli, Avi, “Forgetting Europe: Perspectives on the Debate about Zionism and Colonialism”, in Israeli historical revisionism: from left to right, Psychology Press, 2003, pp 99–116

History of Zionism and Israel

• Gathering of Israel

• Pappé Ilan, A history of modern Palestine: one land, two peoples, Cambridge University Press, 2006, pp 72–121

• List of Zionist ﬁgures • Return to Zion

• Prior, Michael, The Bible and colonialism: a moral critique, Continuum International Publishing Group, 1997, pp 106–215

• Yehud Medinata

14.9.2

• Shaﬁr, Gershon, “Zionism and Colonialism”, in The Israel / Palestinian Question, by Ilan Pappe, Psychology Press, 1999, pp 72–85

Miscellanea

• American Council for Judaism

• Lustick, Ian, For the Land and the Lord …

• Berne Trial

• Zuriek, Elia, The Palestinians in Israel: A Study in Internal Colonialism, Routledge & K. Paul, 1979

• Christian Zionism in the United Kingdom

• Penslar, Derek J., “Zionism, Colonialism and Postcolonialism”, in Israeli historical revisionism: from left to right, Psychology Press, 2003, pp 85–98

14.10 Footnotes

• Pappe, Ilan, The ethnic cleansing of Palestine, Oneworld, 2007

[1] Motyl 2001, pp. 604..

• Masalha, Nur (2007), The Bible and Zionism: invented traditions, archaeology and post-colonialism in Palestine-Israel 1, Zed Books, p. 16

[2] Herzl, Theodor (1988) [1896]. “Biography, by Alex Bein”. Der Judenstaat [The Jewish state]. transl. Sylvie d'Avigdor (republication ed.). New York: Courier Dover. p. 40. ISBN 978-0-486-25849-2. Retrieved 28 September 2010.

• Thomas, Baylis (2011), The Dark Side of Zionism: Israel’s Quest for Security Through Dominance, Lexington Books, p. 4 • Prior, Michael (1999), Zionism and the state of Israel: a moral inquiry, Psychology Press, p. 240

[3] Jewish Virtual Library: The First Zionist Congress and the Basel Program [4] A Deﬁnition of Zionism [5] Cohen, Robin (1995). The Cambridge Survey of World Migration. Cambridge University Press. p. 504.

• Shaﬁr, Gershon, Being Israeli: the dynamics of multiple citizenship, Cambridge University Press, 2002, pp 37–38

[13]

• Zionism, imperialism, and race, Abdul Wahhab Kayyali, ʻAbd al-Wahhāb Kayyālī (Eds), Croom Helm, 1979

[6] Gelvin, James (2007). The Israel-Palestine Conﬂict: One Hundred Years of War (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 51. ISBN 0521888352.

• Gerson, Allan, “The United Nations and Racism: the Case of Zionism and Racism”, in Israel Yearbook on Human Rights 1987, Volume 17; Volume 1987, Yoram Dinstein, Mala Tabory (Eds), Martinus Nijhoﬀ Publishers, 1988, p 68

[7] Ilan Pappe, The Ethnic Cleansing of Palestine, 2006, p.1011

• Hadawi, Sami, Bitter harvest: a modern history of Palestine, Interlink Books, 1991, p 183

[8] Ahad Ha'am, The Jewish State and Jewish Problem, trans. from the Hebrew by Leon Simon c 1912, Jewish Publication Society of America, Essential Texts of Zionism

• Beker, Avi, Chosen: the history of an idea, the anatomy of an obsession, Macmillan, 2008, p 131, 139, 151

14.10. FOOTNOTES • Dinstein, Yoram, Israel Yearbook on Human Rights 1987, Volume 17; Volume 1987, p 31, 136ge • Harkabi, Yehoshafat, Arab attitudes to Israel, pp 247–8 [14] See for example: M. Shahid Alam (2010), Israeli Exceptionalism: The Destabilizing Logic of Zionism Paperback, or “Through the Looking Glass: The Myth of Israeli Exceptionalism”, Huﬃngton Post [15] Nur Masalha (2007-09-15). The Bible and Zionism: Invented Traditions, Archaeology and Post-Colonialism in Palestine- Israel. Zed Books. p. 314. ISBN 978-184277-761-9. [16] Ned Curthoys; Debjani Ganguly (2007). Edward Said: The Legacy of a Public Intellectual. Academic Monographs. p. 315. ISBN 978-0-522-85357-5. Retrieved 12 May 2013. [17] Nādira Shalhūb Kīfūrkiyān (7 May 2009). Militarization and Violence Against Women in Conﬂict Zones in the Middle East: A Palestinian Case-Study. Cambridge University Press. p. 9. ISBN 978-0-521-88222-4. Retrieved 12 May 2013. [18] Paul Scham; Walid Salem; Benjamin Pogrund (15 October 2005). SHARED HISTORIES: A PALESTINIANISRAELI DIALOGUE. Left Coast Press. pp. 87–. ISBN 978-1-59874-013-4. Retrieved 12 May 2013. [19] Gideon Shimoni, The Zionist Ideology (1995) [20] Aviel Roshwald, “Jewish Identity and the Paradox of Nationalism”, in Michael Berkowitz, (ed.). Nationalism, Zionism and Ethnic Mobilization of the Jews in 1900 and Beyond, p. 15. [21] Wylen, Stephen M. Settings of Silver: An Introduction to Judaism, Second Edition, Paulist Press, 2000, p. 392. [22] Walter Laqueur, The History of Zionism (2003) p 40

185

[29] Sharfman, Dafnah (1993). Living Without a Constitution: Civil Rights in Israel. Retrieved May 2015. [30] American Jewish Year Book Vol. 45 (1943-1944) ProPalestine and Zionist Activities, pp 206-214 [31] Hagshama.org [32] “Zionist Philosophies”. Israel Ministry of Foreign Aﬀairs. Retrieved May 2015. [33] To Rule Jerusalem By Roger Friedland, Richard Hecht, University of California Press, 2000, page 203 [34] Guy Mundlak. Fading Corporatism: Israel’s Labor Law and Industrial Relations in Transition. Cornell University Press. p. 44. ISBN 978-0-8014-4600-9. Retrieved May 2015. [35] Ari Shavit, The dramatic headline of this election: Israel is not right wing Haaretz (January 24, 2013) [36] Dror Zeigerman (2013). A Liberal Upheaval: From the General Zionists to the Liberal Party (pre-book dissertation) (PDF). Friedrich Naumann Foundation for Liberty. [37] Carlo Strenger, Liberal Zionism Haaretz (May 26, 2010) [38] Carlo Strenger, Knowledge-Nation Israel: A New Unifying Vision, Azure Winter 2010, No. 39, pp. 35-57 [39] Carlo Strenger, Israel today: a society without a center Haaretz (March 7, 2015) [40] AVI SHLAIM, “PROLOGUE”, The Iron Wall: Israel and the Arab World since 1948, New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 1999, excerpt at New York Times, accessed 29 September 2015 [41] Uri Ram, The Future of the Past in Israel — A Sociology of Knowledge Approach, in Benny Morris, Making Israel, p.224.

[23] The Jewish State, by Theodore Herzl, (Courier Corporation, 27 Apr 2012), page 157

[42] Steve Chan, Anita Shapira, Derek Jonathan, Israeli Historical Revisionism: from left to right, Routledge, 2002, p.58.

[24] A.R. Taylor, “Vision and intent in Zionist Thought”, in The Transformation of Palestine, ed. by I. Abu-Lughod, 1971, ISBN 0-8101-0345-1, p. 10

[43] Can Israel Survive Post-Zionism? by Meyrav Wurmser. Middle East Quarterly, March 1999

[25] Tesler, Mark. Jewish History and the Emergence of Modern Political Zionism. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Printing Press, 1994. [26] Stefan Goranov, “Racism: A Basic Principle of Zionism” in Zionism and Racism. Proceedings of an International Symposium. The International Organization for the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination. New Brunswick. North America, 1979. 262p. [27] De Lange, Nicholas, An Introduction to Judaism, Cambridge University Press (2000), p. 30. ISBN 0-52146624-5.

[44] “We oppose the Zionists and their 'state' vigorously and we continue our prayers for the dismantlement of the Zionist 'state' and peace to the world.” Rabbi E Weissﬁsh, NETUREI KARTA, Representatives of Orthodox Jewry, US, London, Palestine and worldwide. [45] “THE GREAT GULF BETWEEN ZIONISM AND JUDAISM”, Paper delivered by G. J. Neuberger, a member of Neturei Karta, at the Tripoli Conference on Zionism and Racism. [46] “What is Zionism?" Jews against Zionism. [47] “Zionism promotes antisemitism”, Jews against Zionism

[28] Source: A Survey of Palestine, prepared in 1946 for the Anglo-American Committee of Inquiry, Volume II page 907 HMSO 1946.

[48] Tessler, Mark. A History of the Israeli-Palestinian Conﬂict. Indiana University Press, 1994. 47. Print.

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[49] E. Schweid, “Rejection of the Diaspora in Zionist Thought”, in Essential Papers on Zionism, ed. By Reinharz & Shapira, 1996, ISBN 0-8147-7449-0, p.133 [50] Harris, J. (1998) The Israeli Declaration of Independence The Journal of the Society for Textual Reasoning, Vol. 7 [51] unispal (September 3, 1947). “UNSCOP Report to the General Assembly, Volume 1, CHAPTER II, Par. A.,12 (doc.nr. A/364)". United Nations Special Committee on Palestine. Retrieved 2012-05-02. [52] This is Jerusalem, Menashe Harel, Canaan Publishing, Jerusalem, 1977, pp. 194-195 [53] Cohen, 1948 [54] “Joseph Nasi”, Jewish Virtual Library [55] Jewish Encyclopedia, Shabbethai Zebi, http://www. jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=531&letter=S [56] “Church History”, LDS Oﬃcial website [57] C.D. Smith, 2001, Palestine and the Arab-Israeli Conﬂict, 4th ed., ISBN 0-312-20828-6, p. 1–12, 33–38 [58] Jewish Encyclopedia, “Zionism,” http://www. jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=132&letter=Z [59] , Jewish Mag [60] Jewish Virtual Library, “Warder Cresson,” https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/biography/ Cresson.html [61] Jerry Klinger. Major Noah: American Patriot, American Zionist (PDF). Jewish American Society for Historic Preservation. Retrieved 12 May 2015. [62] “Mordecai Noah and St. Paul’s Cathedral: An American Proto-Zionist Solution to the “Jewish Problem"". Jewish American Society for Historic Preservation. Retrieved 12 May 2015. [63] Zionism & The British In Palestine, by Sethi, Arjun (University of Maryland) January 2007, accessed May 20, 2007. [64] Yapp, M.E. (1987-09-01). The Making of the Modern Near East 1792-1923. Harlow, England: Longman. p. 290. ISBN 978-0-582-49380-3. [65] League of Nations Palestine Mandate, July 24, 1922 [66] “Arab discontent”. BBC. Retrieved 17 April 2012. [67] Lamdan, Yitzhak (1927). Masada. [68] Johnson, Paul (May 1998). The Miracle. Commentary 105. pp. 21–28. [69] Anglo-American Committee of Inquiry - Preface. Yale Law School. [70] United Nations Special Committee on Palestine; report to the General Assembly, A/364, September 3, 1947 [71] Three minutes, 2000 years on YouTube, Video from the Jewish Agency for Israel

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[72] General Progress Report and Supplementary Report of the United Nations Conciliation Commission for Palestine, Covering the period from December 11, 1949 to October 23, 1950, (doc.nr. A/1367/Rev.1); October 23, 1950 [73] Kodmani-Darwish, p. 126; Féron, Féron, p. 94. [74] http://www.unrwa.org/etemplate.php?id=87 [75] Ian Black (November 26, 2010). “Memories and maps keep alive Palestinian hopes of return”. The Guardian (London). [76] Shavit, Ari. Survival of the Fittest? An Interview with Benny Morris. Logos. Winter 2004 [77] The expulsion of the Palestinians re-examined (Le Monde Diplomatique, English version, December 1997) Were they expelled? by Pappé, Ilan (Zochrot) “the important point is a growing consensus among Israeli and Palestinian historians about the Israeli expulsion of the Palestinians in 1948 (expulsion and the destruction of villages and towns)" (...) “The gist of the common ground is a consensus between the 'new historians’ in Israel and many Palestinian historians that Israel bore the main responsibility for the making of the problem.” [78] Karsh, Efraim (June 1996). “Rewriting Israel’s History”. The Middle East Quarterly. Retrieved 2014-08-10. [79] cf. Teveth, Shabtai (April 1990). “The Palestine Arab Refugee Problem and Its Origins”. Middle Eastern Studies. Retrieved 2014-08-10. [80] Hacohen 1991, p. 262 #2:"In meetings with foreign officials at the end of 1944 and during 1945, Ben-Gurion cited the plan to enable one million refugees to enter Palestine immediately as the primary goal and top priority of the Zionist movement. [81] Hakohen 2003, p. 46: “After independence, the government presented the Knesset with a plan to double the Jewish population within four years. This meant bringing in 600,000 immigrants in a four-year period. or 150,000 per year. Absorbing 150,000 newcomers annually under the trying conditions facing the new state was a heavy burden indeed. Opponents in the Jewish Agency and the government of mass immigration argued that there was no justification for organizing large-scale emigration among Jews whose lives were not in danger, particularly when the desire and motivation were not their own.” [82] Hakohen 2003, p. 246-247: “Both the immigrants’ dependence and the circumstances of their arrival shaped the attitude of the host society. The great wave of immigration in 1948 did not occur spontaneously: it was the result of a clear-cut foreign policy decision that taxed the country financially and necessitated a major organizational effort. Many absorption activists, Jewish Agency executives, and government officials opposed unlimited, nonselective immigration; they favored a gradual process geared to the country’s absorptive capacity. Throughout this period, two charges resurfaced at every public debate: one, that the absorption process caused undue hardship; two, that Israel’s immigration policy was misguided.”

14.10. FOOTNOTES

[83] Hakohen 2003, p. 47: “But as head of the government, entrusted with choosing the cabinet and steering its activities, Ben-Gurion had tremendous power over the country’s social development. His prestige soared to new heights after the founding of the state and the impressive victory of the IDF in the War of Independence. As prime minister and minister of defense in Israel’s first administration, as well as the uncontested leader of the country’s largest political party, his opinions carried enormous weight. Thus, despite resistance from some of his cabinet members, he remained unflagging in his enthusiasm for unrestricted mass immigration and resolved to put this policy into effect.” [84] Hakohen 2003, p. 247: “On several occasions, resolutions were passed to limit immigration from European and Arab countries alike. However, these limits were never put into practice, mainly due to the opposition of Ben-Gurion. As a driving force in the emergency of the state, Ben-Gurion— both prime minister and minister of defense—carried enormous weight with his veto. His insistence on the right of every Jew to immigrate proved victorious. He would not allow himself to be swayed by financial or other considerations. It was he who orchestrated the large-scale action that enabled the Jews to leave Eastern Europe and Islamic countries, and it was he who effectively forged Israel’s foreign policy. Through a series of clandestine activities carried out overseas by the Foreign Office, the Jewish Agency, the Mossad le-Aliyah, and the Joint Distribution Committee, the road was paved for mass immigration.” [85] http://www.haaretz.com/print-edition/news/ herzl-hinted-at-napoleon-s-zionist-past-1.120723 Herzl hinted at Napoleon’s 'Zionist past'

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• Geaves, Ron (2004). Islam and the West post 9/11. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. p. 31. ISBN 0-75465005-7.

[119] African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights (Banjul Charter), African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights

• Kassim, Anis F. (2000). The Palestine Yearbook of International Law, 1998–1999, Volume 10. Martinus Nijhoﬀ Publishers. p. 9. ISBN 90-411-13045.

[120] Ratiﬁcation Table: African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights, African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights, 2014

• Raphael Israeli, Palestinians Between Israel and Jordan', Prager, 1991, pages 158–159, 171, 182.

[121] “Holocaust Victims Accuse” by Reb. Moshe Shonfeld; [127] Bnei Yeshivos NY, NY; (1977) [122] Kertzer, David (2001). Civiltà cattolica, 1922, IV, pp.36971, cited in Unholy War. London: Pan Books. p. 273. ISBN 9780330390491.

• Prior, Michael P. Zionism and the state of Israel: a moral inquiry, Psychology Press, 1999, pp 191–192 • Penslar, Derek, Israel in history: the Jewish state in comparative perspective, Taylor & Francis, 2007, p 56.

[123] Rev. Thomas F. Stransky, Paulist. “A Catholic Views — Zionism and the State of Israel”. The Holy land. [124]

• Post-Zionism doesn't exist. Shlomo Avineri. • Zionism Is Not Colonialism. By Mitchell Bard.

• Said, Edward, The Edward Said reader, Random House, Inc., 2000, pp 128–129

[128] “Benny Morris’s Reign of Error, Revisited The PostZionist Critique”. Middle East Forum. Spring 2005. Retrieved 2014-08-13.

[125] Hoﬀman, David. Zionism is not a 'settler-colonial undertaking'. The Mail & Guardian, South Africa. June 28, [129] Patai, Raphael (editor) (1960). The Complete Diaries of 2005 Theodor Herzl, translation, June 1895 entry. Herzl Press and Thomas Yoseloﬀ. p. 88. [126] • Salaita, Steven George (2006). The Holy Land in transit: colonialism and the quest for Canaan. Syra[130] Alexander, Edward; Bogdanor, Paul (2006). The Jewish cuse University Press. p. 54. ISBN 0-8156-3109Divide Over Israel. Transaction. pp. 251–2. X. • Hirst, David (2003). The gun and the olive branch: [131] the roots of violence in the Middle East. Nation Books. pp. 418–419. ISBN 1-56025-483-1.

• Penslar, Derek, Israel in history: the Jewish state in comparative perspective, Taylor & Francis, 2007, p 56.

• Chomsky, Noam (1996). World orders, old and [132] Laquer, Walter (1972). A History of Zionism. Random new. Columbia University Press. p. 264:. ISBN House. pp. 231–232. 0-231-10157-0. • “FrontPage magazine interview with Christopher [133] Hitchens”. December 11, 2003.

• Pappe, Ilan, The ethnic cleansing of Palestine, Oneworld, 2007

14.10. FOOTNOTES

[134] Rane, Halim. Islam and Contemporary Civilisation. Academic Monographs, 2010. ISBN 978-0-522-85728-3. p. 198

189 • Lorch, Netanel, The Edge of the Sword: Israel’s War of Independence, 1947–1949, Putnam, 1961, p 87 • Pappe, Ilan, The ethnic cleansing of Palestine, Oneworld, 2007, p 88

[135] Shavit, Ari. “Survival of the Fittest (an interview with Historian Benny Morris)". Haaretz, Magazine Section, 9 [137] William R. Slomanson. Fundamental Perspectives on InJanuary 2004. Retrieved 2 February 2015. ternational Law. p. 50 [136]

• Khallidi, Walid, “Plan Dalet: The Zionist Master [138] Karsh, Efraim (1997). Fabricating Israeli History. Frank Plan for the Conquest of Palestine”, in Middle East Cass. p. 55. Forum, no. 22, Nov 1961, p 27. • Weisburd, David, Jewish Settler Violence, Penn [139] Sarig, Mordechai (1999). The Social and Political Philosophy of Ze'ev Jabotinsky. Valletine Mitchell. p. 50. State Press, 1985, pp 20–52 • Lustick, Ian, “Israel’s Dangerous Fundamentalists”, [140] shlaim, Avi (9 June 1994). “It can be done”. London Review of Books 16 (11): 26–27. Retrieved 2012-10-16. Foreign Policy, 68 (Fall 1987), pp 118–139 • Tessler, Mark, “Religion and Politics in the Jewish [141] State of Israel”, in Religious resurgence and politics in the contemporary world, (Emile Sahliyeh, Ed)., SUNY Press, 1990, pp 263–296. • Horowitz, Elliott S. (2006). Reckless rites: Purim and the legacy of Jewish violence. Princeton University Press. pp. 6–11. ISBN 0-691-12491-4.

• Korey, William, Russian antisemitism, Pamyat, and the demonology of Zionism, Psychology Press, 1995, pp 33–34 • Beker, Avi, Chosen: the history of an idea, the anatomy of an obsession, Macmillan, 2008, pp 139 • Shimoni, Gideon, Community and conscience: the Jews in apartheid South Africa, UPNE, 2003, p 167

• Rayner, John D. (1997). An understanding of Ju[142] Perednik, Gustavo. “Judeophobia”. The Coordination daism. p. 57. ISBN 1-57181-971-1. Forum for Countering Antisemitism. • Saleh Abdel Jawad (2007) “Zionist Massacres: the Creation of the Palestinian Refugee Problem in the ".. This identity is often explicitly worded 1948 War” in Israel and the Palestinian refugees, by its spokespersons. Thus, Yakov Malik, Eyal Benvenistî, Chaim Gans, Sari Hanafi (Eds.), the Soviet ambassador to the UN, declared Springer, p. 78: in 1973: “The Zionists have come forward with the theory of the Chosen People, an ab".. the Zionist movement, which claims to surd ideology.” (As it is well known, the bibbe secular, found it necessary to embrace lical concept of “Chosen People” is part of the idea of 'the promised land' of Old TesJudaism; Zionism has nothing to do with it). tament prophecy, to justify the confiscation " of land and the expulsion of the Palestini[143] Resolution 3151 G (XXVIII) of December 14, 1973 by ans. For example, the speeches and letter of the UN General Assembly Chaim Weizman, the secular Zionist leader, are filled with references to the biblical ori[144] Israel and Black Africa: A Rapprochement? Ethan A. gins of the Jewish claim to Palestine, which Nadelmann. Journal of Modern African Studies, Vol. 19, he often mixes liberally with more pragmatic No. 2 (Jun., 1981), pp. 183–219 and nationalistic claims. By the use of this premise, embraced in 1937, Zionists alleged [145] Brothers in arms — Israel’s secret pact with Pretoria (The that the Palestinians were usurpers in the Guardian, February 7, 2006) Promised Land, and therefore their expul[146] UN envoy hits Israel 'apartheid' (BBC, Feb. 23, 2007) sion and death was justified. The JewishAmerican writer Dan Kurzman, in his book [147] It’s time to rethink Zionism (The Guardian, Feb. 17, Genesis 1948 … describes the view of one 2009) of the Deir Yassin’s killers: 'The Sternists followed the instructions of the Bible more [148] Zionism as a Racist Ideology, by Kathleen and Bill rigidly than others. They honored the pasChristinson (Counterpunch, November 8 / 9, 2003) sage (Exodus 22:2): 'If a thief be found …' [149] UN General Assembly Resolution 3379, Racial DiscrimThis meant, of course, that killing a thief was ination (Council on Foreign Relations, November 10, not really murder. And were not the enemies 1975) of Zionism thieves, who wanted to steal from the Jews what God had granted them?' [150] Troy, Gil (2012). Moynihan’s Moment: America’s Fight Against Zionism as Racism. Oxford: Oxford University • Ehrlich, Carl. S., (1999) “Joshua, Judaism, and Press. p. 368. ISBN 9780196360331. Genocide”, in Jewish Studies at the Turn of the Twentieth Century, Judit Targarona Borrás, Ángel [151] 260 General Assembly Resolution 46-86- Revocation of Sáenz-Badillos (Eds). 1999, Brill. p 117-124. Resolution 3379- December 16, 1991 — and statement by • Hirst, David, The Gun and the Olive Branch: The President Herzog Dec 16, 1991, VOLUME 11–12: 1988– Roots of Violence in the Middle East. 1984, p 139. 1992

190

CHAPTER 14. ZIONISM

[152] Frum, David (2000). How We Got Here: The '70s. New [165] Norman Cohn, Warrant for Genocide, Serif 2001 chapter York, New York: Basic Books. p. 320. ISBN 0-4653 04195-7. [166] A Hoax of Hate [153] Anger over Zionism debate (BBC, Sept. 4, 2001) [167] Norman Cohn, Warrant for Genocide, Serif 2001 page [154] US abandons racism summit(BBC, Sept. 3, 2001) 75-76 [155] Israeli Ambassador Chaim Herzog’s Response To Zionism Is Racism Resolution. November 10, 1975. “You dare talk of racism when I can point with pride to the Arab ministers who have served in my government; to the Arab deputy speaker of my Parliament; to Arab officers and men serving of their own volition in our border and police defense forces, frequently commanding Jewish troops; to the hundreds of thousands of Arabs from all over the Middle East crowding the cities of Israel every year; to the thousands of Arabs from all over the Middle East coming for medical treatment to Israel; to the peaceful coexistence which has developed; to the fact that Arabic is an official language in Israel on a par with Hebrew; to the fact that it is as natural for an Arab to serve in public office in Israel as it is incongruous to think of a Jew serving in any public office in an Arab country, indeed being admitted to many of them. Is that racism? It is not! That, Mr. President, is Zionism.” [156] Laquer, Walter (2003). A History of Zionism. Random House. p. XXiii. [157] Ottolenghi, Emanuele (2003-11-29). “Anti-Zionism is anti-semitism”. The Guardian (London). Retrieved 2003-11-29. [158] “Anti-Zionism and Anti-Semitism”. Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs. Fall 2004. Retrieved 2012-11-17. [159] Anti-semitism in Germany: the post-Nazi epoch since 1945 By Werner Bergmann, Rainer Erb, page 182, “Continuity and Change: Extreme Right Perceptions of Zionism” by Roni Stauber in Anti-semitism worldwide 1999/2000 Tel Aviv University [160] Marcus, Kenneth L. (2007), “Anti-Zionism as Racism: Campus Anti-Semitism and the Civil Rights Act of 1964”, William & Mary Bill of Rights Journal 15 (3): 837–891 [161] Temko, Ned (October 17, 2006). “Critics of Israel 'fuelling hatred of British Jews’". The Guardian (London). [162] http://www.h-net.org/~{}antis/papers/jcr_antisemitism. pdf [163] Dr. King (January 20, 2003). “Anti-Zionism Is AntiSemitism”. FrontPage Magazine. Retrieved July 12, 2014. [164] Mitchell, Thomas G. (2000). Native vs. Settler. Greenwood Press. p. 48. To most Arabs the terms Jew or Jewish and Zionist are interchangeable. After the introduction of European anti-Semitism into the Arab world in the thirties and forties through the Axis powers, Arab propaganda has displayed many classic Nazi anti-Semitic claims about the Jews. For public relations purposes the PLO has never wanted to be accused of being anti-Semitic but rather only of being anti-Zionist. Occasionally its leaders slip, as Arafat did when he referred to the “Jewish invasion” in his speech.

[168] Hamas charter, article 32: “The Zionist plan is limitless. After Palestine, the Zionists aspire to expand from the Nile to the Euphrates. When they will have digested the region they overtook, they will aspire to further expansion, and so on. Their plan is embodied in the “Protocols of the Elders of Zion” ...” [169] Korey, W., “Updating the Protocols,” Midstream, May 1970, p. 17. [170] Prager, D; Telushkin, J. Why the Jews?: The Reason for Antisemitism. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1983. page 169-175. [171]

• Professor Noam Chomsky argues: “There have long been efforts to identify anti-Semitism and antiZionism in an effort to exploit anti-racist sentiment for political ends; “one of the chief tasks of any dialogue with the Gentile world is to prove that the distinction between anti-Semitism and anti-Zionism is not a distinction at all,” Israeli diplomat Abba Eban argued, in a typical expression of this intellectually and morally disreputable position (Eban, Congress Bi-Weekly, March 30, 1973). But that no longer suffices. It is now necessary to identify criticism of Israeli policies as anti-Semitism — or in the case of Jews, as “self-hatred,” so that all possible cases are covered.” — Chomsky, 1989 “Necessary Illusions”. • Philosopher Michael Marder argues: “To deconstruct Zionism is ... to demand justice for its victims - not only for the Palestinians, who are suffering from it, but also for the anti-Zionist Jews, “erased” from the officially consecrated account of Zionist history. By deconstructing its ideology, we shed light on the context it strives to repress and on the violence it legitimises with a mix of theological or metaphysical reasoning and affective appeals to historical guilt for the undeniably horrific persecution of Jewish people in Europe and elsewhere.” • American political scientist Norman Finkelstein argues that anti-Zionism and often just criticism of Israeli policies have been conflated with antisemitism, sometimes called new antisemitism for political gain: “Whenever Israel faces a public relations débâcle such as the Intifada or international pressure to resolve the Israel-Palestine conflict, American Jewish organizations orchestrate this extravaganza called the 'new anti-Semitism.' The purpose is several-fold. First, it is to discredit any charges by claiming the person is an antiSemite. It’s to turn Jews into the victims, so that the victims are not the Palestinians any longer. As people like Abraham Foxman of the ADL put it, the Jews are being threatened by a new holocaust. It’s a role reversal — the Jews are now the victims, not the Palestinians. So it serves the function of discrediting the people leveling the charge. It’s no

14.13. EXTERNAL LINKS

longer Israel that needs to leave the Occupied Territories; it’s the Arabs who need to free themselves of the anti-Semitism. — http://www.zmag.org/znet/ viewArticle/5104 • Tariq Ali, a British-Pakistani historian and political activist, argues that the concept of new antisemitism amounts to an attempt to subvert the language in the interests of the State of Israel. He writes that the campaign against “the supposed new 'anti-semitism'" in modern Europe is a “cynical ploy on the part of the Israeli Government to seal oﬀ the Zionist state from any criticism of its regular and consistent brutality against the Palestinians ... Criticism of Israel can not and should not be equated with anti-semitism.” He argues that most pro-Palestinian, anti-Zionist groups that emerged after the Six-Day War were careful to observe the distinction between anti-Zionism and antisemitism. — Ali, Tariq. “Notes on Anti-Semitism, Zionism and Palestine”, Counterpunch, March 4, 2004, ﬁrst published in il manifesto, February 26, 2004.

14.11 Primary sources • Herzl, Theodor. A Jewish state: an attempt at a modern solution of the Jewish question (1896) full text online • Herzl, Theodor. Theodor Herzl: Excerpts from His Diaries (2006) excerpt and text search

14.12 Further reading • Armborst-Weihs, Kerstin: The Formation of the Jewish National Movement Through Transnational Exchange: Zionism in Europe up to the First World War, European History Online, Mainz: Institute of European History, 2011, retrieved: August 17, 2011. • Beller, Steven. Herzl (2004) • Brenner, Michael, and Shelley Frisch. Zionism: A Brief History (2003) excerpt and text search • Butler, Judith: Parting Ways: Jewishness and the Critique of Zionism. Columbia University Press, 2013. ISBN 978-0231146111 • Cohen, Naomi. The Americanization of Zionism, 1897–1948 (2003). 304 pp. essays on specialized topics

191 Contemporary Jewry : Volume VII: Jews and Messianism in the Modern Era: Metaphor and Meaning, Oxford University Press, ISBN 9780195361988 • Hakohen, Devorah (2003), Immigrants in Turmoil: Mass Immigration to Israel and Its Repercussions in the 1950s and After, Syracuse University Press, ISBN 9780815629696 • David Hazony, Yoram Hazony, and Michael B. Oren, eds., “New Essays on Zionism,” Shalem Press, 2007. • Kloke, Martin: The Development of Zionism Until the Founding of the State of Israel, European History Online, Mainz: Institute of European History, 2010, retrieved: June 13, 2012. • Laqueur, Walter. A History of Zionism: From the French Revolution to the Establishment of the State of Israel (2003) survey by a leading scholar excerpt and text search • Medoﬀ, Rafael. “Recent Trends in the Historiography of American Zionism,” American Jewish History 86 (March 1998), 117–134. • Motyl, Alexander J. (2001). Encyclopedia of Nationalism, Volume II. Academic Press. ISBN 0-12227230-7. • Pawel, Ernst. The Labyrinth of Exile: A Life of Theodor Herzl (1992) excerpt and text search • Sachar, Howard M. A History of Israel: From the Rise of Zionism to Our Time (2007) excerpt and text search • Shimoni, Gideon. The Zionist Ideology (1995) • Taub, Gadi. The Settlers and the Struggle over the Meaning of Zionism (2010, Hebrew, English) • Taylor, A.R., 1971, 'Vision and intent in Zionist Thought', in 'The transformation of Palestine', ed. by I. Abu-Lughod, ISBN 0-8101-0345-1, Northwestern University Press, Evanston, USA • Urofsky, Melvin I. American Zionism from Herzl to the Holocaust (1995), a standard history • Wigoder, Geoﬀrey, ed. New Encyclopedia of Zionism and Israel (2nd ed. 2 vol. 1994); 1521pp

14.13 External links

• Friedman, Isaiah. “Theodor Herzl: Political Activity and Achievements,” Israel Studies 2004 9(3): 46– 79, online in EBSCO

• Media related to Zionism at Wikimedia Commons

• Hacohen, Dvorah (1991), “BenGurion and the Second World War”, in Jonathan Frankel, Studies in

• Works related to Zionism an Aﬃrmation of Judaism at Wikisource

• Works related to Zionism at Wikisource

192 • Central Zionist Archives site in Jerusalem • WZO website • Jewish State.com Zionism, News, Links • Exodus1947.com PBS Documentary Film focusing on the secret American involvement in Aliyah Bet, narrated by Morley Safer • SAZ — Support Association for Zionism • Hanoar Hatzioni UK A Jewish-Zionist Youth Movement • Theodore Herzl and Rev. William Hechler and the Zionist Beginnings • Is Zionism in Crisis? A Follow-Up Debate with Peter Beinart and Alan Dershowitz at The Graduate Center, CUNY

CHAPTER 14. ZIONISM

Chapter 15

International Romani Union • Austria • Belarus • Belgium • Bosnia-Herzegovina • Bulgaria • Brazil • Canada • Croatia Oﬃcial Romani ﬂag

• Czech Republic

The International Romani Union (Romani: Romano Internacionalno Jekhetanipe) is an organization active for the rights of the Romani people. Its seat is in Prague.

• Denmark

The IRU was officially established at the second World Romani Congress in 1978.[1] Its presidents have included Stanislav Stankiewicz, Emil Ščuka, and before him, Rajko Đurić who held this office for many years. The Spanish organisation Union Romani is affiliated with the International Romani Union.

• Finland

• Estonia

• France • Germany • India • Ireland

15.1 Mission

• Italy

The IRU aims to represent all of the world’s Romani peoples; to help encourage their continued cultural and linguistic development; to help resolve a variety of economic and social problems faced by Romani peoples; to connect the work of diﬀerent organizations and countries toward these ends; and to support human rights for all.[2]

• Kosovo • Latvia • Lithuania • Moldova • Netherlands • Norway

15.2 Membership

• Poland

The IRU has member organizations in the following countries:[2]

• Romania • Russia

• Albania

• Serbia

• Australia

• Slovakia 193

194

CHAPTER 15. INTERNATIONAL ROMANI UNION

• Slovenia • Spain • Sweden • Switzerland

started as a private initiative and gained the recognition of national and international, governmental and nongovernmental NGOs dealing with Roma issues, especially in Europe. It contains 32 electronic mailing lists in 15 languages with a total membership of over 22 000 e-mail addresses.

RVN aims to help the cooperation and exchange of information within Roma organizations and individuals, between Roma and non-Roma organizations and individ• Ukraine uals and also between Roma NGOs and oﬃcial institutions. It relates with the variety of Roma-related political, • United Kingdom cultural, economic and social issues on local and international levels, aiming to support the improvement of the Roma situation in Europe and other regions of the world. 15.3 Structure It oﬀers also on-line support, besides for IRU, also for various other Gypsy organizations, like Domari: The SoThe IRU consists of four bodies: Congress, Parliament, ciety of Gypsies in Israel, RomNews Network and Unión Romaní. Presidium, Court of Justice. • Turkey

The IRU Congress of the IRU includes delegates from member organizations, in proportion to the total Romani population in that country. Delegates can make individ- 15.4 History ual recommendation for the IRU, and together, they may choose whether to accept the IRU programme. In 1959, Ionel Rotaru founded The World Gypsy ComWhile members were Unlike the Congress, the Parliament is made up of a sin- munity (CMG) in France. gle representative (and one substitute) from each mem- mostly French, the organization made contacts in Poland, ber country. Parliament accepts reports on the situation Canada, Turkey, and other countries. When the French of Romani peoples around the world, and decides the do- government dissolved the CMG in 1965,[1] a breakaway mestic and international policies of the IRU. Delegates group formed the International Gypsy Committee (IGC) under the leadership of Vanko Rouda. When the 1971 must also approve each year’s budget.[2] World Romani Congress adopted the self-appellation of The Presidium serves as the IRU’s executive, and con“Roma” rather than gypsy, the IGC was renamed the ducts work through sub-commissions on “foreign policy, Komiteto Lumniako Romano (International Rom Comsocial and economic affairs, cultural and educational afmittee or IRC), and Rouda was re-confirmed as president. fairs, human rights, internal affairs, financial and budThe Committee became a member of the Council of Eugetary matters, legal and legislative matters, issues rerope the following year. The Committee was changed lating to Central and Eastern Europe, and issues relating again at the 1978 World Romani Congress and given [2] to America, Asia and Australia.” It may request studits present name. It was given consultative status at the ies and reports on a variety of topics, and make formal United Nations Economic and Social Council the folrecommendations to other IRU bodies, or to individual lowing year. The Union became a registered NGO with [2] countries or organizations. UNICEF in 1986. In 1993, it was promoted to Category Members of the Court of Justice are independent judges, II, Special Consultative Status at the United Nations. elected for their personal integrity, regardless of their More recently, the IRU has also sought recognition for its membership in the IRU. The Court is tasked with observown passports[7] ing all bodies of the IRU and ensuring their observance of the organization’s rules and regulations.[2]

15.3.1

Roma Virtual Network (RVN)

15.5 Funding

The main source of income is the membership fees of the Roma Virtual Network[3] is a public, non-partisan, nonindividual members, and member organizations. proﬁt grass-roots organization[4] under the umbrella of ERIO[5] and of IRU. It provides the international Romany community and friendly non-Romany organizations and individuals with 15.6 Institutional links useful information on Roma issues in a variety of languages via the Internet. Established on 19 July 1999, The IRU has institutional links with: - the Council of Euby Valery Novoselsky, member of IRU,[6] it has been rope. - OSCE (ODHIR). - UNHCHR. - UNO - ERTF.

15.7. REFERENCES The IRU has memorandum of understanding and cooperation with Ministry of Foreign Aﬀairs of the Czech Republic and other countries with a view to the “continuous improvement of the situation and living conditions of the Roma.

15.7 References [1] ZD Barany (1994). “Living on the Edge: The East European Roma in Postcommunist Politics and Societies”. Slavic Review. [2] About US, IRU [3] “Presentation of Roma Virtual Network (RVN)". Retrieved 8 June 2015. [4] “An Ordinary Miracle on a Roma Street”. Retrieved 8 June 2015. [5] ERIO’s Network members [6] "Мой Цыганский Паспорт". Retrieved 8 June 2015. [7] “Roma in Sweden: showing the way?". BBC News. 17 July 2009. Retrieved 5 May 2010.

• Ilona Klímová-Alexander (2005). The Romani Voice In World Politics: The United Nations and Non-state actors. Ashgate Publishing. ISBN 07546-4173-2. • Marushiakova, Elena and Vesselin Popov (2005). The Roma – a Nation without a State? Historical Background and Contemporary Tendencies. In: Burszta, Wojciech, Tomasz Kamusella and Sebastian Wojciechowski, eds. Nationalismus Across the Globe: An Overview of the Nationalism of Stateendowed and Stateless Nations. Poznan: School of Humanities and Journalism, pp. 433–455. • Timeline of Romani History - Patrin

195

Chapter 16

Nazism “National Socialism” redirects here. For other ideologies and groups called National Socialism, see National Socialism (disambiguation). “Nazi” redirects here. For other meanings, see Nazi (disambiguation). National Socialism (German: Nationalsozialismus), more commonly known as Nazism (/ˈnaːtsɪzᵊm/), is the ideology and practice associated with the 20thcentury German Nazi Party and Nazi state as well as other far-right groups. Usually characterized as a form of fascism that incorporates scientiﬁc racism and antiSemitism, Nazism developed out of the inﬂuences of PanGermanism, the Völkisch German nationalist movement, and the anti-communist Freikorps paramilitary groups that emerged during the Weimar Republic after German defeat in World War I. Nazism subscribed to theories of racial hierarchy and Social Darwinism. Germanic peoples (called the Nordic Race) were depicted as the purest of the Aryan race, and were therefore the master race. Opposed to both capitalism and communism, it aimed to overcome social divisions, with all parts of a homogeneous society seeking national unity and traditionalism. Nazism also vigorously pursued what it viewed as historically German territory under the doctrine of Pan-Germanism (or Heim ins Reich), as well as additional lands for German expansion under the doctrine of Lebensraum.

Socialist German Workers’ Party (Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei, NSDAP) to broaden its appeal. The National Socialist Program, adopted in 1920, called for a united Greater Germany that would deny citizenship to Jews or those of Jewish descent, while also supporting land reform and the nationalization of some industries. In Mein Kampf, written in 1924, Hitler outlined the antisemitism and anti-communism at the heart of his political philosophy, as well as his disdain for parliamentary democracy and his belief in Germany’s right to territorial expansion. In 1933, with the support of the elites, Hitler became Chancellor of Germany and the Nazis gradually established a one-party state, under which Jews, political opponents and other “undesirables” elements were marginalized, with several millions eventually imprisoned and killed. Hitler purged the party’s more socially and economically radical factions in the mid-1934 Night of the Long Knives and, after the death of President Hindenburg, political power was concentrated in his hands, as Führer or “leader”. Following the Holocaust and German defeat in World War II, only a few fringe racist groups, usually referred to as neo-Nazis, still describe themselves as following National Socialism.

16.1 Etymology

The term “National Socialism” arose out of attempts to create a nationalist redeﬁnition of “socialism”, as an alternative to both internationalist Marxist socialism and free market capitalism. The Nazis sought to achieve this by a “people’s community” (Volksgemeinschaft) with the aim of uniting all Germans as national comrades, whilst excluding those deemed either to be community aliens or “foreign peoples” (Fremdvölkische). It rejected the Marxist concept of class struggle, opposed ideas of class equality and international solidarity, and sought to defend private property and businesses. The Nazi Party was founded as the Pan-German nation- Flag of the National Socialist German Workers’ Party (alternaalist and antisemitic German Workers’ Party on 5 Jan- tive national ﬂag of Germany, 1933-45) uary 1919. By the early 1920s, Adolf Hitler assumed control of the organization and renamed it the National The full name of Adolf Hitler’s party was Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei (National Socialist Ger196

16.2. POSITION IN THE POLITICAL SPECTRUM

197

man Workers’ Party; NSDAP). The shorthand Nazi was The majority of scholars identify Nazism in practice as a formed from the first two syllables of the German pronun- form of far-right politics.[7] Far-right themes in Nazism ciation of the word “national” (IPA: [na-tsi̯-o-ˈnaːl]).[1] include the argument that superior people have a right and purge society of supThe term was in use before the rise of the NSDAP as a to dominate over other people [8] posed inferior elements. Adolf Hitler and other propocolloquial and derogatory word for a backwards peasant, nents officially portrayed Nazism as being neither leftcharacterizing an awkward and clumsy person. It derived [9][10] nor right-wing, but syncretic. Hitler in Mein Kampf [2][3] a from Ignaz, being a shortened version of Ignatius, directly attacked both left-wing and right-wing politics in common name in Bavaria, the area from which the Nazis Germany, saying: emerged. Opponents seized on this and shortened the first word of the party’s name, Nationalsozialistische, to the Today our left-wing politicians in particdismissive “Nazi”.[3][4][5][6] ular are constantly insisting that their cravenThe NSDAP briefly adopted the Nazi designation, athearted and obsequious foreign policy necestempting to reappropriate the term, but soon gave up sarily results from the disarmament of Ger[4][5] this effort and generally avoided it while in power. many, whereas the truth is that this is the policy The use of "Nazi Germany", "Nazi regime", and so on of traitors [...] But the politicians of the Right was popularized by German exiles abroad. From them, deserve exactly the same reproach. It was the term spread into other languages and was eventually through their miserable cowardice that those [4] brought back to Germany after World War II. ruffians of Jews who came into power in 1918 were able to rob the nation of its arms.[11]

16.2 Position in the political spectrum

Foreground, left to right: Führer Adolf Hitler; Hermann Göring; Minister of Propaganda Joseph Goebbels; Rudolf Hess

Hitler, when asked whether he supported the “bourgeois right-wing”, claimed that Nazism was not exclusively for any class, and indicated that it favoured neither the left nor the right, but preserved “pure” elements from both “camps”, stating: “From the camp of bourgeois tradition, it takes national resolve, and from the materialism of the Marxist dogma, living, creative Socialism”.[12] The Nazis were strongly inﬂuenced by the post–World War I far-right in Germany, which held common beliefs such as anti-Marxism, anti-liberalism, and antisemitism, along with nationalism, contempt towards the Treaty of Versailles, and condemnation of the Weimar Republic for signing the armistice in November 1918 that later led to their signing of the Treaty of Versailles.[13] A major inspiration for the Nazis were the far-right nationalist Freikorps, paramilitary organisations that engaged in political violence after World War I.[13] Initially, the post-World War I German far right was dominated by monarchists, but the younger generation, who were associated with Völkisch nationalism, were more radical and did not express any emphasis on the restoration of the German monarchy.[14] This younger generation desired to dismantle the Weimar Republic and create a new radical and strong state based upon a martial ruling ethic that could revive the “Spirit of 1914” that was associated with German national unity (Volksgemeinschaft).[14]

The Nazis, the far-right monarchist, reactionary German National People’s Party (DNVP), and others, such as monarchist officers of the German Army and several prominent industrialists, formed an alliance in opposition to the Weimar Republic on 11 October 1931 in Bad Harzburg; officially known as the “National Front”, [15] The Nazis alongside members of the far-right reactionary and but commonly referred to as the Harzburg Front. monarchist German National People’s Party (DNVP), during the Nazis stated the alliance was purely tactical and there brief Nazi-DNVP alliance in the Harzburg Front from 1931 to remained substantial differences with the DNVP. The 1932 Nazis described the DNVP as a bourgeois party and

198 called themselves an anti-bourgeois party.[15] After the elections in 1932, the alliance broke after the DNVP lost many of its seats in the Reichstag. The Nazis denounced them as “an insignificant heap of reactionaries”.[16] The DNVP responded by denouncing the Nazis for their socialism, their street violence, and the “economic experiments” that would take place if the Nazis rose to power.[17] Kaiser Wilhelm II, who was pressured to abdicate the throne and flee into exile amidst an attempted communist revolution in Germany, initially supported the Nazi Party. His four sons, including Prince Eitel Friedrich and Prince Oskar, became members of the Nazi Party, in hopes that in exchange for their support, the Nazis would permit the restoration of the monarchy.[18] There were factions in the Nazi Party, both conservative and radical.[19] The conservative Nazi Hermann Göring urged Hitler to conciliate with capitalists and reactionaries.[19] Other prominent conservative Nazis included Heinrich Himmler and Reinhard Heydrich.[20] The radical Nazi Joseph Goebbels hated capitalism, viewing it as having Jews at its core, and he stressed the need for the party to emphasise both a proletarian and national character. Those views were shared by Otto Strasser, who later left the Nazi Party in the belief that Hitler had betrayed the party’s socialist goals by allegedly endorsing capitalism.[19] Large segments of the Nazi Party staunchly supported its official socialist, revolutionary, and anti-capitalist positions and expected both a social and economic revolution upon the party gaining power in 1933.[21] Many of the million members of the Sturmabteilung (SA) were committed to the party’s official socialist program.[21] The leader of the SA, Ernst Röhm, pushed for a “second revolution” (the “first revolution” being the Nazis’ seizure of power) that would entrench the party’s official socialist program. Further, Röhm desired that the SA absorb the much smaller German Army into its ranks under his leadership.[21] Prior to becoming an antisemite and a Nazi, Hitler had lived a Bohemian lifestyle as a wandering watercolour artist in Austria and southern Germany, though he maintained elements of it later in life.[22] Hitler served in World War I. After the war, his battalion was absorbed by the Bavarian Soviet Republic from 1918 to 1919, where he was elected Deputy Battalion Representative. According to the historian Thomas Weber, Hitler attended the funeral of communist Kurt Eisner (a German Jew), wearing a black mourning armband on one arm and a red communist armband on the other,[23] which he took as evidence that Hitler’s political beliefs had not yet solidified.[23] In Mein Kampf, Hitler never mentioned any service with the Bavarian Soviet Republic, and stated that he became an antisemite in 1913 in Vienna. This statement has been disputed with the contention he was not an antisemite at that time.[24]

CHAPTER 16. NAZISM of Versailles of June 1919, and it was then that he became an antisemitic, German nationalist.[24] As a Nazi, Hitler had expressed opposition to capitalism, having regarded capitalism as having Jewish origins. He accused capitalism of holding nations ransom in the interests of a parasitic cosmopolitan rentier class.[25] Hitler took a pragmatic position between the conservative and radical factions of the Nazi Party, in that he accepted private property and allowed capitalist private enterprises to exist so long as they adhered to the goals of the Nazi state. However, if a capitalist private enterprise resisted Nazi goals, he sought to destroy it.[19] Upon the Nazis achieving power, Röhm’s SA began attacks against individuals deemed to be associated with conservative reaction, without Hitler’s authorisation.[26] Hitler considered Röhm’s independent actions to be violating and threatening his leadership, as well as jeopardising the regime by alienating the conservative President Paul von Hindenburg and the conservative-oriented German Army.[27] This resulted in Hitler purging Röhm and other radical members of the SA in what came to be known as the Night of the Long Knives.[27] Although he opposed communist ideology, Hitler on numerous occasions publicly praised the Soviet Union's leader Joseph Stalin and Stalinism.[28] Hitler commended Stalin for seeking to purify the Communist Party of the Soviet Union of Jewish inﬂuences, noting Stalin’s purging of Jewish communists such as Leon Trotsky, Grigory Zinoviev, Lev Kamenev, and Karl Radek.[29] While Hitler always intended to bring Germany into conﬂict against the Soviet Union to gain Lebensraum (living space), he supported a temporary strategic alliance between Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union to form a common anti-liberal front to crush liberal democracies, particularly France.[28]

16.3 Origins See also: Early timeline of Nazism

16.3.1 Völkisch nationalism

One of the most signiﬁcant ideological inﬂuences on the Nazis was the German nationalist Johann Gottlieb Fichte, whose works had served as inspiration to Hitler and other Nazi members, including Dietrich Eckart and Arnold Fanck.[30] In Speeches to the German Nation (1808), written amid Napoleonic France’s occupation of Berlin, Fichte called for a German national revolution against the French occupiers, making passionate public speeches, arming his students for battle against the French, and stressing the need for action by the German nation to free itself.[31] Fichte’s nationalism was populist and opposed to traditional elites, spoke of the need of a “PeoHitler altered his political views in response to the Treaty ple’s War” (Volkskrieg), and put forth concepts similar

16.3. ORIGINS

199 morals, denounced the destruction of the natural environment, and condemned “cosmopolitan” cultures such as Jews and Romani.[38]

During the era of Imperial Germany, Völkisch nationalism was overshadowed by both Prussian patriotism and the federalist tradition of various states therein.[39] The events of World War I, including the end of the Prussian monarchy in Germany, resulted in a surge of revolutionary Völkisch nationalism.[40] The Nazis supported such revolutionary Völkisch nationalist policies[39] and claimed that their ideology was influenced by the leadership and policies of German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck, the founder of the German Empire.[41] The Nazis declared that they were dedicated to continuing the process of creating a unified German nation state that Bismarck had begun and desired to achieve.[42] While Hitler was supportive of Bismarck’s creation of the German Empire, he was critical of Bismarck’s moderate domestic policies.[43] On the issue of Bismarck’s support of a Kleindeutschland (“Lesser Germany”, excluding Austria) versus the Pan-German Großdeutschland (“Greater GerJohann Gottlieb Fichte, considered one of the fathers of German many”) of the Nazis, Hitler stated that Bismarck’s attainment of Kleindeutschland was the “highest achievement” nationalism Bismarck could have achieved “within the limits possible of that time”.[44] In Mein Kampf (My Struggle), Hitler [44] to those the Nazis adopted.[31] Fichte promoted German presented himself as a “second Bismarck”. exceptionalism and stressed the need for the German nation to be purified (including purging the German language of French words, a policy that the Nazis undertook upon rising to power).[31] Another important figure in pre-Nazi völkisch thinking was Wilhelm Heinrich Riehl, whose work—Land und Leute (Land and People, written between 1857–1863)— collectively tied the organic German Volk to its native landscape and nature, a pairing which stood in stark opposition to the mechanical and materialistic civilization developing as a result of industrialization.[32] Geographers Friedrich Ratzel and Karl Haushofer borrowed from Riehl’s work as did Nazi ideologues Alfred Rosenberg and Paul Schultze-Naumburg; both of whom employed some of Riehl’s philosophy in arguing that “each nation-state was an organism that required a particular living space to survive”.[33] Riehl’s influence is overtly discernible in the Blut und Boden (Blood and Soil) philosophy introduced by Oswald Spengler, which the Nazi agriculturalist Walther Darré and other prominent Nazis adopted.[34][35] Völkisch nationalism denounced soulless materialism, individualism, and secularized urban industrial society, while advocating a “superior” society based on ethnic German “folk” culture and German “blood”.[36] It denounced foreigners and foreign ideas, and declared that Jews, Freemasons, and others were “traitors to the nation” and unworthy of inclusion.[37] Völkisch nationalism saw the world in terms of natural law and romanticism; it viewed societies as organic, extolling the virtues of rural life, condemning the neglect of tradition and decay of

Georg Ritter von Schönerer, a major exponent of PanGermanism

During his youth in Austria, Hitler was politically inﬂuenced by Austrian Pan-Germanist proponent Georg Ritter von Schönerer, who advocated radical German nation-

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alism, antisemitism, anti-Catholicism, anti-Slavism, and anti-Habsburg views.[45] From von Schönerer and his followers, Hitler adopted for the Nazi movement the Heil greeting, the Führer title, and the model of absolute party leadership.[45] Hitler was also impressed with the populist antisemitism and anti-liberal bourgeois agitation of Karl Lueger, who as the mayor of Vienna during Hitler’s time in the city used a rabble-rousing oratory style that appealed to the wider masses.[46] Unlike von Schönerer, however, Lueger was not a German nationalist, but a proCatholic Habsburg supporter.[46]

16.3.2

Racial theories and antisemitism

The concept of the Aryan race, which the Nazis promoted, stems from racial theories asserting that Europeans are the descendants of Indo-Iranian settlers, people of ancient India and ancient Persia.[47] Proponents of this theory based their assertion on the similarity of European words and their meaning to those of Indo-Iranian languages.[47] Johann Gottfried Herder argued that the Germanic peoples held close racial connections with the ancient Indians and ancient Persians, who he claimed were advanced peoples possessing a great capacity for wisdom, nobility, restraint, and science.[47] Contemporaries of Herder used the concept of the Aryan race to draw a distinction between what they deemed “high and noble” Aryan culture versus that of “parasitic” Semitic culture.[47] Notions of white supremacy and Aryan racial superiority combined in the 19th century, with white supremacists maintaining that certain groups of white people were members of an Aryan “master race” that is superior to other races, and particularly superior to the Semitic race, which they associated with “cultural sterility”.[47] Arthur de Gobineau, a French racial theorist and aristocrat, blamed the fall of the ancien régime in France on racial degeneracy caused by racial intermixing, which he argued destroyed the purity of the Aryan race, a term which he reserved only for Germanic people.[48][49] Gobineau’s theories, which attracted a strong following in Germany,[48] emphasised the existence of an irreconcilable polarity between Aryan (Germanic) and Jewish cultures.[47] Aryan mysticism claimed that Christianity originated in Aryan religious tradition and that Jews had usurped the legend from Aryans.[47] Houston Stewart Chamberlain, an English proponent of racial theory, supported notions of Germanic supremacy and antisemitism in Germany.[48] Chamberlain’s work, The Foundations of the Nineteenth Century (1899), praised Germanic peoples for their creativity and idealism while asserting that the Germanic spirit was threatened by a “Jewish” spirit of selﬁshness and materialism.[48] Chamberlain used his thesis to promote monarchical conservatism while denouncing democracy, liberalism, and socialism.[48] The book became popular, especially in Germany.[48]

Houston Stewart Chamberlain, whose book The Foundations would prove to be a seminal work in German nationalism

Chamberlain stressed the need of a nation to maintain racial purity in order to prevent degeneration, and argued that racial intermingling with Jews should never be permitted.[48] In 1923, Chamberlain met Hitler, whom he admired as a leader of the rebirth of the free spirit.[50] Madison Grant's work The Passing of the Great Race (1916) advocated Nordicism and proposed using a eugenic program to preserve the Nordic race. After reading the book, Hitler called it “my Bible”.[51] In Germany, the idea of Jews economically exploiting Germans became prominent upon the foundation of Germany due to the ascendance of many wealthy Jews into prominent positions upon the unification of Germany in 1871.[52] Empirical evidence demonstrates that from 1871 to the early 20th century, German Jews were overrepresented in Germany’s upper and middle classes while they were underrepresented in Germany’s lower class, particularly in the fields of work of agricultural and industrial labour.[53] German Jewish financiers and bankers played a key role in fostering Germany’s economic growth from the 1871 to 1913, and such Jewish financiers and bankers benefited enormously from this boom. In 1908, amongst the twenty-nine wealthiest German families with aggregate fortunes of up to 55 million marks at the time, five were Jewish, and the Rothschilds

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201

were the second wealthiest German family.[54] The predominance of Jews in Germany’s banking, commerce, and industry sectors in this time period was very high with consideration to Jews being estimated to have accounted for 1 percent of the population of Germany.[52] This overrepresentation of Jews in these areas created resentment by non-Jewish Germans during periods of economic crisis.[53] The 1873 stock market crash and ensuing depression resulted in a spate of attacks on alleged Jewish economic dominance in Germany and increased antisemitism.[53]

Radical Antisemitism was promoted by prominent advocates of Völkisch nationalism, including Eugen Diederichs, Paul de Lagarde, and Julius Langbehn.[38] De Lagarde called the Jews a "bacillus, the carrier of decay ... who pollute every national culture ... and destroy all faith with their materialistic liberalism”, and he called for the extermination of the Jews.[61] Langbehn called for a war of annihilation of the Jews; his genocidal policies were published by the Nazis and given to soldiers on the front during World War II.[61] One antisemitic ideologue of the period, Friedrich Lange, even used the term “naAt this time period in the 1870s, German Völkisch national socialism” to describe his own[62]anti-capitalist take on the Völkisch nationalist template. tionalism began to adopt antisemitic and racist themes and was adopted by a number of radical right political Johann Gottlieb Fichte accused Jews in Germany of havmovements.[55] ing been, and inevitably continuing to be, a “state within [31] The Protocols of the Elders of Zion (1912) was an anti- a state” that threatened German national unity. Fichte semitic forgery created by the secret service of the Rus- promoted two options to address this: the ﬁrst was the state in Palestine to impel the Jews sian Empire. Many antisemites believed it was real and creation of a Jewish [63] to leave Europe. The other option was violence against the Protocol became widely popular after World War Jews, saying that the goal would be "... to cut oﬀ all their [56] I. The Protocols claimed that there was a secret inheads in one night, and set new ones on their shoulders, [57] ternational Jewish conspiracy to take over the world. which should not contain a single Jewish idea”.[63] Hitler had been introduced to The Protocols by Alfred Rosenberg, and from 1920 onward, Hitler focused his attacks on claiming that Judaism and Marxism were directly connected, that Jews and Bolsheviks were one and the same, and that Marxism was a Jewish ideology.[58] Hitler believed that The Protocols were authentic.[59]

Prior to the Nazi ascension to power, Hitler often blamed moral degradation on Rassenschande (racial defilement), a way to assure his followers of his continuing antisemitism, which had been toned down for popular consumption.[64] Prior to the induction of the Nuremberg Race Laws in 1935 by the Nazis, many German nationalists such as Roland Freisler strongly supported laws to ban Rassenschande between Aryans and Jews as racial treason.[64] Even before the laws were officially passed, the Nazis banned sexual relations and marriages between party members and Jews.[65] Party members found guilty of Rassenschande were heavily punished; some members were even sentenced to death.[66] The Nazis claimed that Bismarck was unable to complete German national unification because of Jewish infiltration of the German parliament, and that their abolition of parliament ended the obstacle to unification.[41] Using the stab-in-the-back myth, the Nazis accused Jews—and other populaces it considered non-German— of possessing extra-national loyalties, thereby exacerbating German antisemitism about the Judenfrage (the Jewish Question), the far-right political canard popular when the ethnic Völkisch movement and their politics of Romantic nationalism for establishing a Großdeutschland were strong.[67][68]

IDEAL ARYAN INFANT: Hessy Levinsons Taft's photograph was selected by the Nazi party for the front cover of their Sonne Ins Haus publication, but Joseph Goebbels’ propaganda machine never discovered she was Jewish, 1935.[60]

Nazism’s racial policy positions may have developed from the views of important biologists of the 19th century, including French biologist Jean-Baptiste Lamarck, through Ernst Haeckel's idealist version of Lamarckism and the father of genetics, German botanist Gregor Mendel.[69] However, Haeckel’s works were later condemned and banned from bookshops and libraries by the Nazis as inappropriate for “National-Socialist formation and education in the Third Reich”. This may have been because of

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his “monist” atheistic, materialist philosophy, which the Nazis disliked.[70] Unlike Darwinian theory, Lamarckian theory oﬃcially ranked races in a hierarchy of evolution from apes while Darwinian theory did not grade races in a hierarchy of higher or lower evolution from apes, simply categorising humans as a whole of all as having progressed in evolution from apes.[69] Many Lamarckians viewed “lower” races as having been exposed to debilitating conditions for too long for any signiﬁcant “improvement” of their condition in the near future.[71] Haeckel utilised Lamarckian theory to describe the existence of interracial struggle and put races on a hierarchy of evolution, ranging from being wholly human to subhuman.[69] Mendelian inheritance, or Mendelism, was supported by the Nazis, as well as by mainstream eugenics proponents at the time. The Mendelian theory of inheritance declared that genetic traits and attributes were passed from one generation to another.[72] Proponents of eugenics used Mendelian inheritance theory to demonstrate the transfer of biological illness and impairments from parents to children, including mental disability; others also utilised Mendelian theory to demonstrate the inheritance of social traits, with racialists claiming a racial nature of certain general traits such as inventiveness or criminal behaviour.[73] Oswald Spengler, a philosopher of history

16.3.3

Response to World War I and fascism

During World War I, German sociologist Johann Plenge spoke of the rise of a “National Socialism” in Germany within what he termed the "ideas of 1914" that were a declaration of war against the “ideas of 1789” (the French Revolution).[74] According to Plenge, the “ideas of 1789” that included rights of man, democracy, individualism and liberalism were being rejected in favour of “the ideas of 1914” that included “German values” of duty, discipline, law, and order.[74] Plenge believed that ethnic solidarity (Volksgemeinschaft) would replace class division and that “racial comrades” would unite to create a socialist society in the struggle of “proletarian” Germany against “capitalist” Britain.[74] He believed that the “Spirit of 1914” manifested itself in the concept of the “People’s League of National Socialism”.[75] This National Socialism was a form of state socialism that rejected the “idea of boundless freedom” and promoted an economy that would serve the whole of Germany under the leadership of the state.[75] This National Socialism was opposed to capitalism due to the components that were against “the national interest” of Germany, but insisted that National Socialism would strive for greater eﬃciency in the economy.[75] Plenge advocated an authoritarian, rational ruling elite to develop National Socialism through a hierarchical technocratic state.[76] Plenge’s ideas formed the basis of Nazism.[74]

Oswald Spengler, a German cultural philosopher, was a major influence on Nazism, although, after 1933, Spengler became alienated from Nazism and was later condemned by the Nazis for criticising Adolf Hitler.[77] Spengler’s conception of national socialism and a number of his political views were shared by the Nazis and the Conservative Revolutionary movement.[78] Spengler’s views were also popular amongst Italian Fascists, including Benito Mussolini.[79] Spengler’s book The Decline of the West (1918) written during the final months of World War I, addressed the claim of decadence of modern European civilisation, which he claimed was caused by atomising and irreligious individualization and cosmopolitanism.[77] Spengler’s major thesis was that a law of historical development of cultures existed involving a cycle of birth, maturity, ageing, and death when it reaches its final form of civilisation.[77] Upon reaching the point of civilisation, a culture will lose its creative capacity and succumb to decadence until the emergence of "barbarians" creates a new epoch.[77] Spengler considered the Western world as having succumbed to decadence of intellect, money, cosmopolitan urban life, irreligious life, atomised individualization, and was at the end of its biological and “spiritual” fertility.[77] He believed that the “young” German nation as an imperial power would inherit the legacy of Ancient Rome, lead a restoration of value in "blood" and instinct, while the ideals of rationalism would be revealed as absurd.[77] Spengler’s notions of “Prussian socialism” as described

16.3. ORIGINS

203

in his book Preussentum und Sozialismus (“Prussiandom and Socialism”, 1919), inﬂuenced Nazism and the Conservative Revolutionary movement.[78] Spengler wrote: “The meaning of socialism is that life is controlled not by the opposition between rich and poor, but by the rank that achievement and talent bestow. That is our freedom, freedom from the economic despotism of the individual.”[78] Spengler adopted the anti-English ideas addressed by Plenge and Sombart during World War I that condemned English liberalism and English parliamentarianism while advocating a national socialism that was free from Marxism and that would connect the individual to the state through corporatist organisation.[77] Spengler claimed that socialistic Prussian characteristics existed across Germany, including creativity, discipline, concern for the greater good, productivity, and self-sacriﬁce.[80] He prescribed war as a necessity, saying “War is the eternal form of higher human existence and states exist for war: they are the expression of the will to war.”[81]

The book Das Dritte Reich (1923), translated as “The Third Reich”, by Arthur Moeller van den Bruck

The Marinebrigade Erhardt during the Kapp Putsch in Berlin, 1920.[82] The Marinebrigade Erhardt used the swastika as its symbol, as seen on their helmets and on the truck; it inspired the Nazi Party to adopt it as the movement’s symbol.

Spengler’s deﬁnition of socialism did not advocate a change to property relations.[78] He denounced Marxism for seeking to train the proletariat to “expropriate the expropriator”, the capitalist, and then to let them live a life of leisure on this expropriation.[83] He claimed that “Marxism is the capitalism of the working class” and not true socialism.[83] True socialism, according to Spengler, would be in the form of corporatism, stating that: “local corporate bodies organised according to the importance of each occupation to the people as a whole; higher representation in stages up to a supreme council of the state; mandates revocable at any time; no organised parties, no professional politicians, no periodic elections”.[84] Wilhelm Stapel, an antisemitic German intellectual, utilized Spengler’s thesis on the cultural confrontation between Jews as whom Spengler described as a Magian people versus Europeans as a Faustian people.[85] Stapel described Jews as a landless nomadic people in pursuit of an international culture whereby they can integrate into

Western civilisation.[85] As such, Stapel claims that Jews have been attracted to “international” versions of socialism, pacifism, or capitalism because as a landless people the Jews have transgressed various national cultural boundaries.[85] Arthur Moeller van den Bruck was initially the dominant figure of the Conservative Revolutionaries influenced Nazism.[86] He rejected reactionary conservatism, while proposing a new state, that he coined the “Third Reich”, which would unite all classes under authoritarian rule.[87] Van den Bruck advocated a combination of the nationalism of the right and the socialism of the left.[88] Fascism was a major influence on Nazism. The seizure of power by Italian Fascist leader Benito Mussolini in the March on Rome in 1922 drew admiration by Hitler, who less than a month later had begun to model himself and the Nazi Party upon Mussolini and the Fascists.[89] Hitler presented the Nazis as a form of German fascism.[90][91] In November 1923, the Nazis attempted a “March on Berlin”, modelled after the March on Rome, which resulted in the failed Beer Hall Putsch in Munich.[92] Other Nazis—especially those at the time associated with the party’s more radical wing such as Gregor Strasser, Joseph Goebbels, and Heinrich Himmler—rejected Italian Fascism, accusing it of being too conservative or capitalist.[93] Alfred Rosenberg condemned Italian Fas-

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Benito Mussolini (centre in suit with ﬁsts against body) along with other Fascist leader ﬁgures and Blackshirts during the March on Rome

Beginning of Lebensraum, the Nazi German expulsion of Poles from central Poland, 1939

ulation within existing conﬁned territory, and provide resources necessary to its people’s well-being.[97] Since the cism for being racially confused and having inﬂuences 1920s, the Nazi Party publicly promoted the expansion [98] from philosemitism.[94] Strasser criticised the policy of of Germany into territories held by the Soviet Union. Führerprinzip as being created by Mussolini, and consid- In his early years as the Nazi leader, Hitler had claimed ered its presence in Nazism as a foreign imported idea.[95] that he would be willing to accept friendly relations with Throughout the relationship between Nazi Germany and Russia on the tactical condition that Russia agree to reFascist Italy, a number of lower-ranking Nazis scornfully turn to the borders established by the German–Russian viewed fascism as a conservative movement that lacked a peace agreement of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk signed by full revolutionary potential.[95] Vladimir Lenin of the Russian Soviet Federated Socialist

16.4 Ideology 16.4.1

Nationalism and racialism

Further information: Nazism and race and Racial policy of Nazi Germany German Nazism emphasised German nationalism, including both irredentism and expansionism. Nazism held racial theories based upon the belief of the existence of an Aryan master race that was superior to all other races. The Nazis emphasised the existence of racial conﬂict between the Aryan race and others—particularly Jews, whom the Nazis viewed as a mixed race that had inﬁltrated multiple societies, and was responsible for exploitation and repression of the Aryan race. The Nazis also categorized Slavs as Untermensch.[96] Irredentism and expansionism The German Nazi Party supported German irredentist claims to Austria, Alsace-Lorraine, the region now known as the Czech Republic, and the territory known since 1919 as the Polish Corridor. A major policy of the German Nazi Party was Lebensraum (“living space”) for the German nation based on claims that Germany after World War I was facing an overpopulation crisis and that expansion was needed to end the country’s overpop-

Republic in 1918 which gave large territories held by Russia to German control in exchange for peace.[98] Hitler in 1921 had commended the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk as opening the possibility for restoration of relations between Germany and Russia, saying: Through the peace with Russia the sustenance of Germany as well as the provision of work were to have been secured by the acquisition of land and soil, by access to raw materials, and by friendly relations between the two lands. — Adolf Hitler, 1921[98]

Hitler from 1921 to 1922 evoked rhetoric of both the achievement of Lebensraum involving the acceptance of a territorially reduced Russia as well as supporting Russian nationals in overthrowing the Bolshevik government and establishing a new Russian government.[98] Hitler’s attitudes changed by the end of 1922, in which he then supported an alliance of Germany with Britain to destroy Russia.[98] Later Hitler declared how far he intended to expand Germany into Russia: Asia, what a disquieting reservoir of men! The safety of Europe will not be assured until we have driven Asia back behind the Urals. No organized Russian state must be allowed to exist west of that line. — Adolf Hitler[99]

16.4. IDEOLOGY

205 ern Europe in order to make living space for German settlers.[107]

Topographical map of Europe with present-day borders. The Nazi Party declared support for Drang nach Osten (expansion of Germany east to the Ural Mountains), that is shown on the upper right side of the map as a brown diagonal line.

A wagon piled high with corpses outside the crematorium in Buchenwald concentration camp

Policy for Lebensraum planned mass expansion of Germany eastwards to the Ural Mountains.[99][100] Hitler planned for the “surplus” Russian population living west of the Urals to be deported to the east of the Urals.[101] Racial theories In its racial categorisation, Nazism viewed what it called the Aryan race as the master race of the world—a race that was superior to all other races. It viewed Aryans as being in racial conflict with a mixed race people, the Jews, whom Nazis identified as a dangerous enemy of the Aryans. It also viewed a number of other peoples as dangerous to the well-being of the Aryan race. In order to preserve the perceived racial purity of the Aryan race, a set of race laws were introduced in 1935 which came to be known as the Nuremberg Laws. At first these laws only prevented sexual relations and marriages between Germans and Jews, but were later extended to the “Gypsies, Negroes, and their bastard offspring”, who were described by the Nazis as people of “alien blood”.[102][103] Such relations between Aryans (cf. Aryan certificate) and non-Aryans were now punishable under the race laws as Rassenschande or “race defilement”.[102] After the war began, the race defilement law was extended to include all foreigners (nonGermans).[104] At the bottom of the racial scale of nonAryans were Jews, Romani, and blacks.[105] To maintain the “purity and strength” of the Aryan race, the Nazis eventually sought to exterminate Jews, Romani, and the physically and mentally disabled.[106] Other groups deemed "degenerate" and "asocial" who were not targeted for extermination, but received exclusionary treatment by the Nazi state, included homosexuals, blacks, Jehovah’s Witnesses, and political opponents.[106] One of Hitler’s ambitions at the start of the war was to exterminate, expel, or enslave most or all Slavs from central and east-

Sketch plan of Treblinka extermination camp. Between the years 1942 and 1943, more than 850,000 Jews were murdered there and only 54 survived.

A “poster information” from the exhibition miracle of life in Berlin in 1935.

In Nazi Germany, the idea of creating a master race resulted in eﬀorts to “purify” the Deutsche Volk through eugenics; its culmination was compulsory sterilization or involuntary euthanasia of physically or mentally disabled people. The name given after World War II for the euthanasia programme is Action T4.[108] The ideological justiﬁcation was Adolf Hitler's view of Sparta

206 (11th century – 195 BC) as the original Völkisch state; he praised their dispassionate destruction of congenitally deformed infants in maintaining racial purity.[109][110] Some non-Aryans enlisted in Nazi organisations like the Hitler Youth and the Wehrmacht, including Germans of African descent[111] and Jewish descent.[112] The Nazis began to implement “racial hygiene” policies as soon as they came to power. The July 1933 “Law for the Prevention of Hereditarily Diseased Offspring” prescribed compulsory sterilisation for people with a range of conditions thought to be hereditary, such as schizophrenia, epilepsy, Huntington’s chorea, and "imbecility". Sterilisation was also mandated for chronic alcoholism and other forms of social deviance.[113] An estimated 360,000 people were sterilised under this law between 1933 and 1939. Although some Nazis suggested that the programme should be extended to people with physical disabilities, such ideas had to be expressed carefully, given that some Nazis had physical disabilities, one example being one of the most powerful figures of the regime, Joseph Goebbels, who had a deformed right leg.[114] Nazi racial theorist Hans F. K. Günther identified the Aryan race in Europe as having five subtype races: Nordic, Mediterranean, Dinaric, Alpine, and East Baltic.[115] Günther applied a Nordicist conception that Nordics were the highest in the racial hierarchy amongst these five Aryan subtype races.[115] In his book Rassenkunde des deutschen Volkes (1922) (“Racial Science of the German People”), Günther recognised Germans as being composed of all five Aryan subtypes, but emphasised the strong Nordic heritage amongst Germans.[116] Hitler read Rassenkunde des deutschen Volkes, which influenced his racial policy.[117]

CHAPTER 16. NAZISM cited the origins of the Jews as being the result of two migrations of the Hebrews—a people who were of Oriental racial heritage.[120] The first migration was that of the Hebrews arriving into Egypt where he claimed the Hebrews had intermixed with peoples of Negroid and Hamitic racial heritage.[121] The second migration brought the Hebrews/Israelites into Canaan where they intermixed with the Canaanites who were largely of Near Eastern racial heritage but also had some Nordic heritage.[121] He identified further intermixing between Israelites and the Near Eastern type as occurring after Babylonia exiled the Israelites.[121] He asserted that in the 6th century B.C. the standardisation of Judaism began the creation of the Jewish people, and practice of exogamy between Jews and non-Jews solidified this identity.[121] Günther stated that the most significant alteration of the racial composition of the Jews after the 6th century B.C. resulted from the mass conversion of the Khazars to Judaism in the 8th century.[121] The Khazars were deemed primarily of Near Eastern racial origin.[121] Günther identified this mass conversion of the Khazars to Judaism as creating the two major branches of the Jewish people, those of primarily Near Eastern racial heritage became the Ashkenazi Jews (that he called Eastern Jews) while those of primarily Oriental racial heritage became the Sephardic Jews (that he called Southern Jews).[122]

During World War II, the Nazis emphasised that Jews were a “race mixture” of the Near Eastern and Oriental races, but did not say that the Near Eastern and Oriental races on their own were a problem in their view; they said that, while Nazism was anti-Jewish, the term “antisemitic” was not wholly accurate, as Nazism did not have antipathy to non-Jewish Semitic peoples, but toThe Nazis described Jews as being racially-mixed group wards Jews as a racially mixed Near Eastern-Oriental[118] of primarily Near Eastern and Oriental racial types. Mediterranean people.[118] As such racial groups were concentrated outside of Europe, the Nazis claimed that Jews were “racially alien” to Hitler’s conception of the Aryan Herrenvolk (“Aryan all European peoples and did not have deep racial roots master race”) excluded the vast majority of Slavs from in Europe.[118] Furthermore, the Nazis’ assertion of Near central and eastern Europe (i.e., Poles, Russians, UkrainiEastern and Oriental racial mixture as well as other mix- ans, etc.). They were regarded as a race of men tures such as elements of the Mediterranean race made not inclined to a higher form of civilization, which Jews a hybrid race with strong non-European heritage, were under an instinctive force that reverted them back and the Nazis believed that such a population in Europe to nature. They also regarding the Slavs as havhad to be kept as low as possible.[118] ing dangerous Jewish and Asiatic, that being Mongol, [123] The Nazis because of this declared Slavs Günther empathised Jews’ Near Eastern racial influences. to be Untermenschen (subhumans).[124] Nazi anthropol[119] heritage. Günther claimed the Near Eastern type were commercially spirited and artful traders, ogists attempted to prove scientifically the historical adthat the type held strong psychological manipulation mixture of the Slavs further East. Leading Nazi racial skills that aided them in trade.[119] He claimed that theorist, Hans Günther, regarded the Slavs as being priago but over time had mixed with the Near Eastern race had been “bred not so much for marily Nordic centuries non-Nordic types.[125] There were exceptions for a small the conquest and exploitation of nature as it was for the conquest and exploitation of people”.[119] Günther percentage of Slavs who were seen to be descended from German settlers and therefore fit to be Germanised and described that European peoples had a racially-motivated [126] Hitler aversion to peoples of Near Eastern racial origin and be considered part of the Aryan master race. described Slavs as “a mass of born slaves who feel the their traits, and showed as evidence of this multiple [127] The Nazi notion of Slavs being inexamples of depictions of satanic figures with Near need of a master”. ferior served as legitimising their goal for creating Leben[120] Günther Eastern physiognomies in European art.

16.4. IDEOLOGY sraum for Germans and other Germanic people in eastern Europe, where millions of Germans and other Germanic settlers would be moved into conquered territories of Eastern Europe, while the original Slavic inhabitants were to be annihilated, removed, or enslaved.[128] Nazi Germany’s policy changed towards Slavs in response to military manpower shortages, in which it accepted Slavs to serve in its armed forces within occupied territories, in spite of them being considered subhuman.[129]

207 ﬁnancial collapse of the white collar middle-class of the 1920s ﬁgures much in their strong support of Nazism.[134] In the poor country that was the Weimar Republic of the early 1930s, the Nazi Party realised their socialist policies with food and shelter for the unemployed and the homeless—later recruited to the Brownshirt Sturmabteilung (SA – Storm Detachment).[134]

16.4.3 Sex and gender

Hitler declared that racial conflict against Jews was necessary to save Germany from suffering under them and Further information: Women in Nazi Germany dismissed concerns about such conflict being inhumane Nazi ideology advocated excluding women from poor an injustice: We may be inhumane, but if we rescue Germany we have achieved the greatest deed in the world. We may work injustice, but if we rescue Germany then we have removed the greatest injustice in the world. We may be immoral, but if our people is rescued we have opened the way for morality.[130] Nazi propagandist Joseph Goebbels frequently employed antisemitic rhetoric to underline this view: “The Jew is the enemy and destroyer of the purity of blood, the conscious destroyer of our race ... As socialists, we are op- Obligations of Polish workers in Germany, warning the death ponents of the Jews, because we see, in the Hebrews, the penalty for any sexual relations between Germans and Poles. incarnation of capitalism, of the misuse of the nation’s goods.”[131] litical involvement and confining them to the spheres of "Kinder, Küche, Kirche" (Children, Kitchen, Church).[135] Many women enthusiastically supported 16.4.2 Social class the regime but formed their own internal hierarchies.[136] Hitler’s own opinion on the matter of women in Nazi Germany was that while other eras of German history experienced the development and liberation of the female mind, the National Socialist goal was essentially singular in that they wished for them to produce a child.[137] Along this theme, Hitler once remarked of women, “with every In 1922, Adolf Hitler discredited other nationalist and child that she brings into the world, she fights her battle racialist political parties as disconnected from the mass for the nation. The man stands up for the Volk, exactly as populace, especially lower and working-class young peothe woman stands up for the family.”[138] Proto-natalist ple: programs in Nazi Germany offered favourable loans and grants to encourage newlyweds with additional incentives The racialists were not capable of drawing for the birth of offspring.[139] Contraception was discourthe practical conclusions from correct theoretiaged for racially valuable women in Nazi Germany and cal judgements, especially in the Jewish Quesabortion was forbidden through strict legal mandates, intion. In this way, the German racialist movecluding prison sentences for those seeking them and for ment developed a similar pattern to that of the doctors performing them; whereas abortion for racially 1880s and 1890s. As in those days, its leader“undesirable” persons was encouraged.[140][141] ship gradually fell into the hands of highly honWhile unmarried until the very end of the regime, Hitler ourable, but fantastically naïve men of learnoften made excuses about his busy life hindering any ing, professors, district counsellors, schoolchance for marriage.[142] Among National Socialist idemasters, and lawyers—in short a bourgeois, ologues, marriage was valued not from moral consideraidealistic, and refined class. It lacked the warm tions but because it provided an optimal breeding envibreath of the nation’s youthful vigour.[133] ronment. Reichsführer-SS Heinrich Himmler, reportedly The Nazi Party had many working-class supporters and told a confidant that when he established the Lebensborn members, and a strong appeal to the middle class. The program, an organization to dramatically increase the Nazism rejected the Marxist concept of internationalist class struggle, but supported “class struggle between nations”, and sought to resolve internal class struggle in the nation while it identified Germany as a proletarian nation fighting against plutocratic nations.[132]

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birth rate of “Aryan” children through extramarital rela- Opposition to homosexuality tions between women classiﬁed as racially pure and their male equals, he had only the purest male “conception as- Further information: Persecution of homosexuals in Nazi sistants” in mind.[143] Germany and the Holocaust After the Night of the Long Knives, Hitler proSince the Nazis at the beginning of the war extended the Rassenschande (race deﬁlement) law to all foreigners,[104] pamphlets were issued to German women to avoid sexual relations with foreign workers brought to Germany and to view them as a danger to their blood.[144] Although the law was punishable to both genders, German women were targeted more for having sexual relations with foreign forced labourers in Germany.[145] The Nazis issued the Polish decrees on 8 March 1940 which set out regulations concerning the Polish forced labourers (Zivilarbeiter) brought to Germany during World War II. One of the regulations stated that any Pole “who has sexual relations with a German man or woman, or approaches them in any other improper manner, will be punished by death”.[146] After the decrees were enacted, Himmler stated:

Fellow Germans who engage in sexual relations with male or female civil workers of the Polish nationality, commit other immoral acts or engage in love aﬀairs shall be arrested immediately.[147]

The Nazis later issued similar regulations against the Eastern Workers (Ost-Arbeiters), including the death penalty for sexual relations with a German person.[148] Heydrich issued a decree on 20 February 1942 that declared sexual intercourse between a German woman and a Russian worker or prisoner of war would result in the Russian man being punished by the death penalty.[149] A further decree issued by Himmler on 7 December 1942 stated any “unauthorized sexual intercourse” would result in the death penalty.[150] As the Law for the Protection of German Blood and German Honour did not permit capital punishment for race defilement, special courts were convened to allow the death penalty for some cases.[151] German women accused of race defilement were marched through the streets with her head shaven and a placard around her neck detailing her crime,[152] those convicted were sent to a concentration camp.[144] When Himmler reportedly asked Hitler what the punishment should be for German girls and German women who have been found guilty of race defilement with prisoners of war (POWs) he ordered “every POW who has relations with a German girl or a German would be shot” and the German woman should be publicly humiliated by “having her hair shorn and being sent to a concentration camp”.[153]

Homophobia: Berlin memorial to homosexual victims of the Holocaust: Totgeschlagen—Totgeschwiegen (Struck Dead— Hushed Up)

moted Himmler and the SS, who then zealously suppressed homosexuality, saying: “We must exterminate these people root and branch ... the homosexual must be eliminated.”[155] In 1936, Himmler established the "Reichszentrale zur Bekämpfung der Homosexualität und Abtreibung" (“Reich Central Oﬃce for the Combating of Homosexuality and Abortion”).[156] The Nazi régime incarcerated some 100,000 homosexuals during the 1930s.[157] As concentration camp prisoners, homosexual men were forced to wear pink triangle badges.[158][159] Nazi ideology still viewed German gay men as part of the Aryan master race but attempted to force them into sexual and social conformity. Gay men who would not change or feign a change in their sexual orientation were sent to concentration camps under the “Extermination Through Work” campaign.[160]

16.4.4 Religion

Further information: Religious aspects of Nazism, The League of German Girls was particularly regarded Religion in Nazi Germany, Positive Christianity, German as instructing girls to avoid race deﬁlement, which was Christians and Kreuz und Adler treated with particular importance for young females.[154] The Nazi Party Programme of 1920 guaranteed free-

16.4. IDEOLOGY

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The Nazis were initially highly hostile to Catholics because most Catholics supported the German Centre Party. Catholics opposed the Nazis’ promotion of sterilisation of those deemed inferior, and the Catholic Church forbade its members to vote for the Nazis. In 1933, extensive Nazi violence occurred against Catholics due to the their association with the Centre Party and their opposition to the Nazi regime’s sterilisation laws.[166] The Nazis demanded that Catholics declare their loyalty to the German state.[167] In propaganda, the Nazis used elements of Germany’s Catholic history, in particular the German Catholic Teutonic Knights and their campaigns in Eastern Europe. The Nazis identified them as “sentinels” in the Members of the German Christians organization celebrating East against “Slavic chaos”, though beyond that symbolLuther Day in Berlin in 1933, speech by Bishop Hossenfelder ism the influence of the Teutonic Knights on Nazism was limited.[168] Hitler also admitted that the Nazis’ night rallies were inspired by the Catholic rituals he witnessed during his Catholic upbringing.[169] The Nazis did seek official reconciliation with the Catholic Church and endorsed the creation of the pro-Nazi Catholic Kreuz und Adler organisation that supported a national Catholicism.[167] On 20 July 1933, a concordat (Reichskonkordat) was signed between Nazi Germany and the Catholic Church; in exchange for acceptance of the Catholic Church in Germany, it required German Catholics to be loyal to the German state. The Catholic Church then ended its ban on members supporting the Nazi Party.[167] Hitler with Cesare Orsenigo, the Catholic Church's nuncio to Germany, in 1935

dom for all religious denominations not hostile to the State and endorsed Positive Christianity to combat “the Jewish-materialist spirit”.[161] It was a modiﬁed version of Christianity which emphasised racial purity and nationalism.[162] The Nazis were aided by theologians, such as, Ernst Bergmann. Bergmann, in his work, Die 25 Thesen der Deutschreligion (Twenty-ﬁve Points of the German Religion), held that the Old Testament and portions of the New Testament of the Bible were inaccurate. He claimed that Jesus was not a Jew but of Aryan origin, and that Adolf Hitler was the new messiah.[162] Hitler denounced the Old Testament as “Satan’s Bible”, and utilising components of the New Testament attempted to demonstrate that Jesus was Aryan and antisemitic, such as in John 8:44 where Hitler noted that Jesus is yelling at “the Jews”, as well as Jesus saying to the Jews that “your father is the devil”, and describing Jesus’ whipping of the “Children of the Devil”.[163] Hitler claimed that the New Testament included distortions by Paul the Apostle, whom Hitler described as a “massmurderer turned saint”.[163] The Nazis utilised Protestant Martin Luther in their propaganda. They publicly displayed an original of Luther’s On the Jews and their Lies during the annual Nuremberg rallies.[164][165] The Nazis endorsed the pro-Nazi Protestant German Christians organisation.

Historian Michael Burleigh claims that Nazism used Christianity for political purposes, but such use required that “fundamental tenets were stripped out, but the remaining diffuse religious emotionality had its uses”.[169] Burleigh claims that Nazism’s conception of spirituality was “self-consciously pagan and primitive”.[169] However, historian Roger Griffin rejects the claim that Nazism was primarily pagan, noting that although there were some influential neo-paganists in the Nazi Party, such as Heinrich Himmler and Alfred Rosenberg, they represented a minority and their views did not influence Nazi ideology beyond its use for symbolism; it is noted that Hitler denounced Germanic paganism in Mein Kampf and condemned Rosenberg’s and Himmler’s paganism as “nonsense”.[170]

16.4.5 Economics Further information: Economy of Nazi Germany and Economics of fascism Generally speaking, Nazi theorists and politicians blamed Germany’s previous economic failures on political causes like the inﬂuence of Marxism on the workforce, the sinister and exploitative machinations of what they called international Jewry, and the vindictiveness of the western political leaders ‘war reparation’ demands. Instead of traditional economic incentives, the Nazis oﬀered solutions of a political nature, such as the elimination of organized labour groups, rearmament (in contravention of the Versailles Treaty), and biological

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CHAPTER 16. NAZISM inally private, but business monopoly rights were granted to marketing boards to control production and prices with a quota system.[177] The Nazis sought to gain support of workers by declaring May Day, a day celebrated by organised labour, to be a paid holiday and held celebrations on 1 May 1933 to honour German workers.[178] The Nazis stressed that Germany must honour its workers.[179] The regime believed that the only way to avoid a repeat of the disaster of 1918 was to secure workers’ support for the German government.[178] The Nazis wanted all Germans take part in the May Day celebrations in the hope that this would help break down class hostility between workers and burghers.[179] Songs in praise of labour and workers were played by state radio throughout May Day as well as ﬁreworks and an air show in Berlin.[179] Hitler spoke of workers as patriots who had built Germany’s industrial strength, had honourably served in the war and claimed that they had been oppressed under economic liberalism.[180] Berliner Morgenpost that had been strongly associated with the political left in the past praised the regime’s May Day celebrations.[180]

Deutsches Volk–Deutsche Arbeit: German People, German Work, the alliance of worker and work (1934)

politics.[171] Various work programs designed to establish full-employment for the German population were instituted once the Nazis seized full national power. Hitler encouraged nationally supported projects like the construction of the Autobahn, the introduction of an affordable people’s car (Volkswagen) and later, the Nazis bolstered the economy through the business and employment generated by military rearmament.[172] Not only did the Nazis benefit early in the regime’s existence from the first post-Depression economic upswing, their public works projects, job-procurement program, and subsidized home repair program reduced unemployment by as much as 40 percent in one year, a development which tempered the unfavourable psychological climate caused by the earlier economic crisis and encouraged Germans to march in step with the regime.[173]

The Nazis continued social welfare policies initiated by the governments of the Weimar Republic and mobilised volunteers to assist those impoverished, “racially-worthy” Germans through the National Socialist People’s Welfare organisation.[181] This organisation oversaw charitable activities, and became the largest civic organization in Nazi Germany.[181] Successful efforts were made to get middle-class women involved in social work assisting large families.[182] The Winter Relief campaigns acted as a ritual to generate public sympathy.[183] Bonfires were made of school children’s differently coloured caps as symbolic of the abolition of class differences.[182] Large celebrations and symbolism were used extensively to encourage those engaged in physical labour on behalf of Germany, with leading National Socialists often praising the 'honour of labour', which fostered a sense of community (Gemeinschaft) for the German people and promoted solidarity towards the Nazi cause.[184] Hitler believed that private ownership was useful in that it encouraged creative competition and technical innovation, but insisted that it had to conform to national interests and be “productive” rather than “parasitical”.[185] Private property rights were conditional upon the economic mode of use; if it did not advance Nazi economic goals then the state could nationalise it.[186] Although the Nazis privatised public properties and public services, they also increased economic state control.[187] Under Nazi economics, free competition and self-regulating markets diminished; nevertheless, Hitler’s social Darwinist beliefs made him reluctant to entirely disregard business competition and private property as economic engines.[188][189]

To protect the German people and currency from volatile market forces, the Nazis also promised social policies like a national labour service, state-provided health care, guaranteed pensions, and an agrarian settlement program.[174] Agrarian policies were particularly important to the Nazis since they corresponded not just to the economy but to their geopolitical conception of Lebensraum as well. For Hitler, the acquisition of Central to understanding the National Socialist governland and soil was requisite in moulding the German ment and its economic policies requires one to come to economy.[175] To tie farmers to their land, selling agricul- terms with Hitler’s basic view of the German economy as tural land was prohibited.[176] Farm ownership was nom-

16.4. IDEOLOGY an instrument of power. Hitler believed the economy was not just about creating wealth and technical progress so as to improve the quality of life for a nation’s citizenry; economic success was paramount in that, it provided the means and material foundations necessary for military conquest.[190] While economic progress generated by National Socialist programs had its role in appeasing the German people, the Nazis and Hitler in particular, did not believe that economic solutions alone were sufficient to thrust Germany onto the stage as a world power. Therefore, the Nazis sought first to secure a command economy through general economic revival accompanied by massive military spending for rearmament, especially later through the implementation of the Four Year Plan, which consolidated their rule and firmly secured a command relationship between the German arms industry and the National Socialist government.[191] Between 1933-1939, military expenditures were upwards of 82 billion Reichsmarks and represented 23 percent of Germany’s gross national product as the Nazis mobilized their people and economy for war.[192]

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16.4.6 Counter-revolution A very significant influence was the losing side in the Civil War that followed the Russian Revolution. After 1918, Tsarist exiles flooded into Munich and Berlin and spread theories about a worldwide Jewish Bolshevik conspiracy. Aufbau Vereinigung (Reconstruction Organisation) was a Munich-based counterrevolutionary conspiratorial group composed of White Russian émigrés and early German National Socialists. Michael Kellogg [200] argues that Hitler’s own antisemitism was deepened and intensified by extensive conversations with Fyodor Vinberg, a Russo-German member of this organisation. Anti-capitalism The Nazis argued that capitalism damages nations due to international finance, the economic dominance of big business, and Jewish influences.[193] Nazi propaganda posters in working class districts emphasised anticapitalism, such as one that said: “The maintenance of a rotten industrial system has nothing to do with nationalism. I can love Germany and hate capitalism.”[201]

Adolf Hitler, both in public and in private, expressed disdain for capitalism, arguing that it holds nations ransom in the interests of a parasitic cosmopolitan rentier class.[202] Historians Ian Kershaw and Joachim Fest argue that in He opposed free market capitalism’s profit-seeking impost-World War I Germany, the Nazis were one of many pulses and desired an economy in which community innationalist and fascist political parties contending for the terests would be upheld.[185] leadership of Germany’s anti-communist movement. The Hitler distrusted capitalism for being unreliable due to its Nazis claimed that communism was dangerous to the egotism, and he preferred a state-directed economy that is well-being of nations because of its intention to dis- subordinated to the interests of the Volk.[202] Hitler said solve private property, its support of class conflict, its in 1927, “We are socialists, we are enemies of today’s aggression against the middle class, its hostility towards capitalistic economic system for the exploitation of the small business, and its atheism.[193] Nazism rejected class economically weak, with its unfair salaries, with its unconflict-based socialism and economic egalitarianism, seemly evaluation of a human being according to wealth favouring instead a stratified economy with social classes and property instead of responsibility and performance, based on merit and talent, retaining private property, and and we are determined to destroy this system under all the creation of national solidarity that transcends class conditions.”[203] distinction.[194] Hitler told a party leader in 1934, “The economic system During the 1920s, Hitler urged disparate Nazi factions to of our day is the creation of the Jews.”[202] Hitler said to unite in opposition to Jewish Bolshevism.[195] Hitler asBenito Mussolini that capitalism had “run its course”.[202] serted that the “three vices” of “Jewish Marxism” were Hitler also said that the business bourgeoisie “know nothdemocracy, pacifism, and internationalism.[196] ing except their profit. 'Fatherland' is only a word for In 1930, Hitler said: “Our adopted term 'Socialist' has them.”[204] Hitler was personally disgusted with the rulnothing to do with Marxist Socialism. Marxism is anti- ing bourgeois elites of Germany during the period of property; true Socialism is not.”[197] In 1942, Hitler pri- the Weimar Republic, who he referred to as “cowardly vately said: “I absolutely insist on protecting private prop- shits”.[205] erty ... we must encourage private initiative”.[198] In Mein Kampf, Hitler effectively supported Anti-communism

During the late 1930s and the 1940s, anti-communist regimes and groups that supported Nazism included the Falange in Spain; the Vichy regime and the 33rd Waﬀen Grenadier Division of the SS Charlemagne (1st French) in France; and in Britain the Cliveden Set, Lord Halifax, the British Union of Fascists under Sir Oswald Mosley, and associates of Neville Chamberlain.[199]

mercantilism, in the belief that economic resources from their respective territories should be seized by force; he believed that the policy of Lebensraum would provide Germany with such economically valuable territories.[206] He argued that the only means to maintain economic security was to have direct control over resources rather than being forced to rely on world

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trade.[206] He claimed that war to gain such resources ganda to make them into ideological adherents, exploited was the only means to surpass the failing capitalist in bringing Nazism to life.[212] economic system.[206] While the ideologues of Nazism, much like those of StalA number of other Nazis held strong revolutionary so- inism, abhorred democratic or parliamentary governance cialist and anti-capitalist beliefs, most prominently Ernst as practiced in the U.S. or Britain, their differences are Röhm, the leader of the Sturmabteilung (SA).[207] Röhm substantial. An epistemic crisis occurs when one tries claimed that the Nazis’ rise to power constituted a na- to synthesize and contrast Nazism and Stalinism as twotional revolution, but insisted that a socialist “second rev- sides of the same coin with their similarly tyrannical olution” was required for Nazi ideology to be fulfilled.[26] leaders, state-controlled economies, and repressive police Röhm’s SA began attacks against individuals deemed structures; namely, since while they share a common theto be associated with conservative reaction.[26] Hitler matic political construction, they are entirely inimical to saw Röhm’s independent actions as violating and pos- one another in their worldviews and when more carefully sibly threatening his leadership, as well as jeopardising analyzed against one another on a one-to-one level, an “irthe regime by alienating the conservative President Paul reconcilable asymmetry” results.[213] von Hindenburg and the conservative-oriented German Army.[27] This resulted in Hitler purging Röhm and other radical members of the SA.[27] 16.5 Post-war Nazism Another radical Nazi, Propaganda Minister Joseph Goebbels had stressed the socialist character of Nazism, Main article: Neo-Nazism and claimed in his diary in the 1920s that if he were to pick between Bolshevism and capitalism, he said “in final analysis”, “it would be better for us to go down with Bol- Following Nazi Germany’s defeat in World War II and shevism than live in eternal slavery under capitalism.”[208] the end of the Holocaust, overt expressions of support for Nazi ideas were prohibited in Germany and other European countries. Nonetheless, movements that selfidentify as National Socialist or are described as adhering 16.4.7 Totalitarianism to National Socialism continue to exist on the fringes of politics in many western societies. Usually espousing a See also: Totalitarianism white supremacist ideology, many deliberately adopt the symbols of Nazi Germany.[214] Under Nazism, with its emphasis on the nation, individual needs were subordinate to those of the wider community.[209] Hitler declared that “every activity and every need of every individual will be regulated by the 16.6 See also collectivity represented by the party” and that “there are no longer any free realms in which the individual be• Political views of Adolf Hitler longs to himself”.[210] Himmler justified the establish• Consequences of German Nazism ment of a repressive police state, in which the security forces could exercise power arbitrarily, as national secu• Functionalism versus intentionalism rity and order should take precedence over the needs of [211] the individual. • Nazi occultism According to the famous philosopher and political theo• List of books about Nazi Germany rist, Hannah Arendt, the allure of Nazism as a totalitarian ideology (with its attendant mobilization of the German population), resided within the construct of helping that society deal with the cognitive dissonance resultant from 16.7 References the tragic interruption of the First World War, the economic and material suffering consequent the Depression, and brought to order the revolutionary unrest occurring 16.7.1 Notes all around them. Instead of the plurality that existed in democratic or parliamentary states, Nazism as a totali- [1] Lepage, Jean-Denis (2009), Hitler Youth, 1922-1945: An Illustrated History, McFarland, p. 9 tarian system promulgated 'clear' solutions to the historical problems faced by Germany, levied support by de[2] Gottlieb, Henrik; Morgensen, Jens Erik, eds. (2007). legitimizing the former government of Weimar, and proDictionary Visions, Research and Practice: Selected Pavided a politico-biological pathway to a better future, one pers from the 12th International Symposium on Lexicogfree from the uncertainty of the past. It was the atomraphy, Copenhagen, 2004 (illustrated ed.). Amsterdam: ized and disaffected masses that Hitler and the party elite J. Benjamins Pub. Co. p. 247. ISBN 9789027223340. Retrieved 22 October 2014. pointed in a particular direction, and using clever propa-

16.7. REFERENCES

[3] Harper, Douglas. “Nazi”. etymonline.com. Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved 22 October 2014. [4] Rabinbach, Anson; Gilman, Sander, eds. (2013). The Third Reich Sourcebook. Berkeley, Calif.: California University Press. p. 4. ISBN 9780520955141. [5] Copping, Jasper (23 October 2011). “Why Hitler hated being called a Nazi and what’s really in humble pie”. telegraph.co.uk (The Daily Telegraph). Retrieved 22 October 2014. [6] Seebold, Elmar (2002), 24th edition of Etymologisches Wörterbuch der deutschen Sprache [7] Fritzsche, Peter. Germans into Nazis, Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1998; Eatwell, Roger, Fascism, A History, Viking-Penguin, 1996. pp. xvii-xxiv, 21, 26– 31, 114–140, 352. Griﬃn, Roger, “Revolution from the Right: Fascism,” in David Parker, ed., Revolutions and the Revolutionary Tradition in the West 1560-1991, London: Routledge, 2000 [8] Oliver H. Woshinsky. Explaining Politics: Culture, Institutions, and Political Behavior. Oxon, England, UK; New York, New York, USA: Routledge, 2008. p. 156. [9] Hitler, Adolf in Domarus, Max and Patrick Romane, eds. The Essential Hitler: Speeches and Commentary, Waulconda, Illinois: Bolchazi-Carducci Publishers, Inc., 2007, p. 170. [10] Koshar, Rudy. Social Life, Local Politics, and Nazism: Marburg, 1880-1935, University of North Carolina Press, 1986. p. 190. [11] Hitler, Adolf, Mein Kampf, Bottom of the Hill Publishing, 2010. p. 287. [12] Adolf Hitler, Max Domarus. The Essential Hitler: Speeches and Commentary. pp. 171, 172–173. [13] Peukert, Detlev, The Weimar Republic. 1st paperback ed. Macmillan, 1993. ISBN 9780809015566, pp. 73–74. [14] Peukert, Detlev, The Weimar Republic. 1st paperback ed. Macmillan, 1993. ISBN 9780809015566, p. 74. [15] Beck, Hermann The Fateful Alliance: German Conservatives and Nazis in 1933: The Machtergreifung in a New Light, Berghahn Books, 2008. ISBN 9781845456801, p. 72. [16] Beck, Hermann The Fateful Alliance: German Conservatives and Nazis in 1933: The Machtergreifung in a New Light, 2008. pp. 72–75. [17] Beck, Hermann The Fateful Alliance: German Conservatives and Nazis in 1933: The Machtergreifung in a New Light, 2008. p. 84. [18] Miranda Carter. George, Nicholas and Wilhelm: Three Royal Cousins and the Road to World War I. Borzoi Book, 2009. Pp. 420. [19] Mann, Michael, Fascists, New York City: Cambridge University Press, 2004. p. 183.

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[20] Browder, George C., Foundations of the Nazi Police State: The Formation of Sipo and SD, paperback, Lexington, Kentucky, USA: Kentucky University Press, 2004. p. 202. [21] Bendersky, Joseph W., A Concise History of Nazi Germany, Lanham, Maryland, USA; Plymouth, England, UK: Rowman & Littleﬁeld Publishers, Inc., 2007. p. 96. [22] Glenn D. Walters. Lifestyle Theory: Past, Present, and Future. Nova Publishers, 2006. p. 40. [23] Weber, Thomas, Hitler’s First War: Adolf Hitler, the Men of the List Regiment, and the First World War, Oxford, England, UK: Oxford University Press, 2011. p. 251. [24] Gaab, Jeﬀrey S., Munich: Hofbräuhaus & History: Beer, Culture, & Politics, 2nd ed. New York City: Peter Lang Publishing, Inc, 2008. p. 61. [25] Overy, R.J., The Dictators: Hitler’s Germany and Stalin’s Russia, W. W. Norton & Company, Inc., 2004. pp. 399– 403. [26] Nyomarkay, Joseph, Charisma and Factionalism in the Nazi Party, Minnesota University Press, 1967. p. 130 [27] Nyomarkay, Joseph, Charisma and Factionalism in the Nazi Party, Minnesota University Press, 1967. p. 133 [28] Furet, François, Passing of an Illusion: The Idea of Communism in the Twentieth Century, Chicago, Illinois’ London, England: University of Chicago Press, 1999. ISBN 0-226-27340-7, pp. 191–192. [29] Furet, François, Passing of an Illusion: The Idea of Communism in the Twentieth Century, 1999. p. 191. [30] Ryback, Timothy W. Hitler’s Private Library: The Books That Shaped His Life, New York; Toronto: Vintage Books, 2010. pp. 129–130. [31] Ryback, Timothy W. Hitler’s Private Library: The Books That Shaped His Life, New York; Toronto: Vintage Books, 2010. p. 129 [32] George L. Mosse, The Crisis of German Ideology: Intellectual Origins of the Third Reich (New York: Grosset & Dunlap, 1964), pp. 19-23. [33] Thomas Lekan and Thomas Zeller, “Introduction: The Landscape of German Environmental History,” in Germany’s Nature: Cultural Landscapes and Environmental History, edited by Thomas Lekan and Thomas Zeller (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2005), p. 3. [34] The Nazi concept Lebensraum has connections to this idea with German farmers rooted to their soil, needing more of it for the expansion of the German Volk - whereas the Jew is precisely the opposite, nomadic and urban by nature. See: Roderick Stackelberg, The Routledge Companion to Nazi Germany (New York: Routledge, 2007), p. 259. [35] Additional evidence of Riehl’s legacy can be seen in the Riehl Prize, Die Volkskunde als Wissenschaft (Folklore as Science) which was being awarded in 1935 by the Nazis. See: George L. Mosse, The Crisis of German Ideology:

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Intellectual Origins of the Third Reich (New York: Grosset & Dunlap, 1964), p. 23. Applicants for the Riehl prize had stipulations that included only being of Aryan blood, and no evidence of membership in any Marxist parties or any organization that stood against National Socialism. See: Hermann Stroback, “Folklore and Fascism before and around 1933,” in The Naziﬁcation of an Academic Discipline: Folklore in the Third Reich, edited by James R Dow and Hannjost Lixfeld (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1994), pp. 62-63.

[50] Blamires, Cyprian and Paul Jackson, World Fascism: A Historical Encyclopedia: Volume 1, 2006. p. 126.

[36] Cyprian Blamires. World Fascism: A Historical Encyclopedia, Volume 1. Santa Barbara, California, USA: ABCCLIO, Inc., 2006. p. 542.

[52] William Brustein. Roots of Hate: Anti-Semitism in Europe Before the Holocaust. Cambridge University Press, 2003. P. 207.

[37] Keith H. Pickus. Constructing Modern Identities: Jewish University Students in Germany, 1815–1914. Detroit, Michigan, USA: Wayne State University Press, 1999. p. 86.

[53] Brustein, 2003, p. 210.

[38] Jonathan Olsen. Nature and Nationalism: Right-wing Ecology and the Politics of Identity in Contemporary Germany. New York, New York, USA: Palgrave Macmillan, 1999. p. 62. [39] Nina Witoszek, Lars Trägårdh. Culture and Crisis: The Case of Germany and Sweden. Berghahn Books, 2002. pp. 89–90. [40] Witoszek, Nina and Lars Trägårdh, Culture and Crisis: The Case of Germany and Sweden, Berghahn Books, 2002, p. 90. [41] Gerwarth, Robert, The Bismarck Myth: Weimar Germany and the Legacy of the Iron Chancellor, Oxford, England; New York, New York: Oxford University Press, p. 150. [42] Gerwarth, Robert, The Bismarck Myth: Weimar Germany and the Legacy of the Iron Chancellor, p. 149. [43] Gerwarth, Robert, The Bismarck Myth: Weimar Germany and the Legacy of the Iron Chancellor, p. 54. [44] Gerwarth, Robert, The Bismarck Myth: Weimar Germany and the Legacy of the Iron Chancellor, p. 131. [45] David Nicholls. Adolf Hitler: A Biographical Companion. Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA: University of North Carolina Press, 2000. pp. 236–237. [46] David Nicholls. Adolf Hitler: A Biographical Companion. Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA: University of North Carolina Press, 2000. pp. 159–160. [47] Blamires, Cyprian; Jackson, Paul. World Fascism: A Historical Encyclopedia: Volume 1. Santa Barbara, California, USA: ABC-CLIO, Inc, 2006. p. 62. [48] Stackelberg, Roderick; Winkle, Sally Anne. The Nazi Germany Sourcebook: An Anthology of Texts, London: Routledge, 2002. p. 11. [49] The Cambridge Companion to Tacitus, p. 294. A. J. Woodman - 2009 “The white race was deﬁned as beautiful, honourable and destined to rule; within it the Aryans are 'cette illustre famille humaine, la plus noble'.” Originally a linguistic term synonymous with Indo-European,

'Aryan' became, not least because of the Essai, the designation of a race, which Gobineau speciﬁed as 'la race germanique'

[51] Stefan Kühl (2002). Nazi Connection: Eugenics, American Racism, and German National Socialism. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195149785.

[54] William Brustein. Roots of Hate: Anti-Semitism in Europe Before the Holocaust. Cambridge University Press, 2003. P. 207, 209. [55] Nina Witoszek, Lars Trägårdh. Culture and Crisis: The Case of Germany and Sweden. Berghahn Books, 2002. p. 89. [56] Roderick Stackelberg, Sally Anne Winkle. The Nazi Germany Sourcebook: An Anthology of Texts, 2002. p. 45. [57] Ian Kershaw. Hitler, 1936-45: Nemesis. New York, New York: USA: W. W. Norton & Company Inc., 2001. p. 588. [58] David Welch. Hitler: Proﬁle of a Dictator. 2nd edition. New York, New York, USA: UCL Press, 2001. pp. 13– 14. [59] David Welch. Hitler: Proﬁle of a Dictator, 2001. p. 16. [60] Huggler, Justin (01 Jul 2014). “The Telegraph”. Nazi 'perfect Aryan' poster child was Jewish. Retrieved 16 Jan 2015. Check date values in: |date= (help) [61] Jack Fischel. The Holocaust. Westport, Connecticut, USA: Greenwood Press, 1998. p. 5. [62] Philip Rees, Biographical Dictionary of the Extreme Right Since 1890, Simon & Schuster, 1990, p. 220 [63] Ryback, Timothy W. Hitler’s Private Library: The Books That Shaped His Life. New York, Toronto: Vintage Books, 2010. p. 130. [64] Claudia Koonz (1 November 2005). The Nazi Conscience. Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0674-01842-6. [65] Richard Weikart (21 July 2009). Hitler’s Ethic. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 142. ISBN 978-0-230-62398-9. [66] Sarah Ann Gordon (1984). Hitler, Germans, and the “Jewish Question”. Princeton University Press. p. 265. ISBN 0-691-10162-0. [67] “Florida Holocaust Museum - Antisemitism - Post World War 1” (history), www.flholocaustmuseum.org, 2003, webpage: Post-WWI Antisemitism.

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[167] Robert Anthony Krieg. Catholic Theologians in Nazi Ger- [188] Barkai, Avaraham 1990. Nazi Economics: Ideology, Themany, 2004. p. 4. ory and Policy. Oxford Berg Publisher. [168] Ausma Cimdiņa, Jonathan Osmond. Power and Culture: [189] Hayes, Peter. 1987 Industry and Ideology IG Farben in the Hegemony, Interaction and Dissent. PLUS-Pisa University Nazi Era. Cambridge University Press. Press, 2006. [190] R. J. Overy, War and Economy in the Third Reich (Oxford: [169] Roger Griffin. Fascism, Totalitarianism and Political ReClarendon Press, 1995), pp. 1-30. ligion. Oxon, England, UK; New York, New York, USA: [191] Klaus Hildebrand, The Third Reich (London & New York: Routledge, 2005. p. 85. Routledge, 1986), pp. 39-48. [170] Roger Griffin. Fascism, Totalitarianism and Political Re[192] Jost Dülffer, Nazi Germany 1933-1945: Faith and Anniligion, 2005. p. 93. hilation (London: Bloomsbury, 2009), pp. 72-73. [171] R. J. Overy, War and Economy in the Third Reich (Oxford: [193] Bendersky, Joseph W. A History of Nazi Germany: 1919– Clarendon Press, 1995), pp. 1-5. 1945. 2nd ed. Burnham Publishers, 2000. p. 72. [172] R. J. Overy, War and Economy in the Third Reich (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1995), pp. 7-11. [194] Bendersky, Joseph W. A History of Nazi Germany: 1919– 1945. 2nd ed. Burnham Publishers, 2000. p. 40. [173] Richard Grunberger, The 12-Year Reich: A Social History of Nazi Germany, 1933-1945 (New York: Henry Holt & [195] “They must unite, [Hitler] said, to defeat the common enCo., 1971), p. 19. emy, Jewish Marxism.” A New Beginning, Adolf Hitler, Völkischer Beobachter. February 1925. Cited in: Toland, [174] Adam Tooze, The Wages of Destruction: The Making John (1992). Adolf Hitler. Anchor Books. p. 207. ISBN and Breaking of the Nazi Economy (New York: Penguin, 0-385-03724-4. 2006), p. 37. [196] Kershaw, Ian (2008). Hitler, the Germans, and the Fi[175] Ian Kershaw, Hitler, the Germans, and the Final Solution nal Solution. Yale University Press. p. 53. ISBN 0-300(New Haven & London: Yale University Press, 2008), pp. 12427-9. 52-53. [197] Carsten, Francis Ludwig The Rise of Fascism, 2nd ed. [176] Rafael Scheck, Germany, 1871-1945: A Concise History, University of California Press, 1982. p. 137. Quoting: p. 167. Hitler, A., Sunday Express, September 28, 1930. [177] Berman, Sheri. The Primacy of Politics: Social Democ[198] Hitler, A.; transl. Norman Cameron, R. H. Stevens; inracy and the Making of Europe’s Twentieth Century. p. tro. H. R. Trevor-Roper (2000). “March 24, 1942”. 146. ISBN 978-0521521109. Hitler’s Table Talk, 1941–1944: His Private Conversations. Enigma Books. pp. 162–163. ISBN 1-929631[178] Fritzsche, p.45. 05-7. [179] Fritzsche, p. 46. [199] Carroll Quigley, Tragedy and Hope, 1966. p. 619. [180] Fritzsche, p. 47. [200] The Russian Roots of Nazism White Émigrés and the Making of National Socialism, 1917–1945 * Michael Kel[181] Fritzsche, p. 51. logg, Cambridge 2005 [182] Richard Grunberger, The 12-Year Reich, p. 46, ISBN [201] Bendersky, Joseph W. A History of Nazi Germany: 1919003-076435-1 1945. 2nd ed. Burnham Publishers, 2000. pp. 58–59. [183] Richard Grunberger, The 12-Year Reich, p. 79, ISBN 003-076435-1 [202] Overy, R.J., The Dictators: Hitler’s Germany and Stalin’s Russia, W. W. Norton & Company, Inc., 2004. p. 399 [184] Alf Lüdtke, “The 'Honor of Labor': Industrial Workers and the Power of Symbols under National Socialism”, in [203] Toland, John (1976). Adolf Hitler. Doubleday. pp. 224– Nazism and German Society, 1933-1945, edited by David 225. ISBN 978-0385037242. F. Crew (New York: Routledge, 1994), pp. 67-109. [204] Overy, R.J., The Dictators: Hitler’s Germany and Stalin’s [185] Overy, R.J., The Dictators: Hitler’s Germany and Stalin’s Russia, W. W. Norton & Company, Inc., 2004. p. 230. Russia, W. W. Norton & Company, Inc., 2004. p. 403. [205] Kritika: explorations in Russian and Eurasian history, [186] Peter Temin (November 1991>). Economic History ReVolume 7, Issue 4. Slavica Publishers, 2006. Pp. 922. view, New Series 44 (4): 573–593. Check date values in: [206] Overy, R.J., The Dictators: Hitler’s Germany and Stalin’s |date= (help); Missing or empty |title= (help) Russia, W. W. Norton & Company, Inc., 2004. p. 402. [187] Guillebaud, Claude W. 1939. The Economic Recovery of Germany 1933-1938. London: MacMillan and Co. Lim- [207] Nyomarkay, Joseph, Charisma and Factionalism in the Nazi Party, Minnesota University Press, 1967. p. 132 ited.

16.8. EXTERNAL LINKS

[208] Read, Anthony, The Devil’s Disciples: Hitler’s Inner Circle, 1st American ed. New York, New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2004. p. 142 [209] Carolyn Birdsall. Nazi Soundscapes: Sound, Technology and Urban Space in Germany, 1933-1945. Amsterdam University Press. p. 31. [210] Fest, Joachim. Hitler. Houghton Miﬄin Harcourt. p. 418. [211] Browder, George C. Foundations of the Nazi Police State: The Formation of Sipo and SD. University Press of Kentucky. p. 240. [212] See: Hannah Arendt, The Origins of Totalitarianism (Orlando, FL: Harcourt Inc., 1973), pp. 305–459. [213] Michael Geyer and Sheila Fitzpatrick, eds., “Introduction – After Totalitarianism: Stalinism and Nazism Compared”, in Beyond Totalitarianism: Stalinism and Nazism Compared (Cambridge & New York: Cambridge University Press, 2008), pp. 20–21. [214] Ed. Blamires, Cyprian and Jackson, Paul. World Fascism: A Historical Encyclopedia, Volume 1. ABC-CLIO. pp. 459–461.

16.7.2

Bibliography

• Evans, Richard J. (2005). The Third Reich in Power. New York: Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-303790-3. • Fritzsche, Peter (1990). Rehearsals for Fascism: Populism and Political Mobilization in Weimar Germany. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-505780-5. • Goodrick-Clarke, Nicholas (2004) [1985]. The Occult Roots of Nazism: Secret Aryan Cults and Their Inﬂuence on Nazi Ideology: The Ariosophists of Austria and Germany, 1890–1935. Wellingborough, England: The Aquarian Press. ISBN 0-85030-4024 and ISBN 1-86064-973-4. • Goodrick-Clarke, Nicholas (2003) [2002]. Black Sun: Aryan Cults, Esoteric Nazism and the Politics of Identity. New York University Press. ISBN 08147-3155-4. • Klemperer, Victor (1947). LTI - Lingua Tertii Imperii. • Majer, Diemut (2003). “Non-Germans” Under the Third Reich: The Nazi Judicial and Administrative System in Germany and Occupied Eastern Europe with Special Regard to Occupied Poland, 1939-1945. JHU Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-6493-3. • McNab, Chris (2009). The Third Reich. Amber Books Ltd. ISBN 978-1-906626-51-8. • Paxton, Robert (2005). The Anatomy of Fascism. London: Penguin Books Ltd. ISBN 0-14-1014326.

219 • Peukert, Detlev (1989). Inside Nazi Germany: Conformity, Opposition, and Racism in Everyday Life. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0300-04480-5. • Redles, David (2005). Hitler’s Millennial Reich: Apocalyptic Belief and the Search for Salvation. New York: University Press. ISBN 0-8147-75241. • Steigmann-Gall, Richard (2003). The Holy Reich: Nazi Conceptions of Christianity, 1919–1945. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. • Steinweis, Alan. Studying the Jew: Scholarly Antisemitism in Nazi Germany. Harvard University Press, 2008

16.8 External links • Hitler’s National Socialist Party platform • NS-Archiv, a large collection of scanned original Nazi documents. • Exhibit on Hitler and the Germans – slideshow by The New York Times • Jonathan Meades (1994): Jerry Building – Unholy Relics of Nazi Germany on YouTube (in 4 parts)

Chapter 17

King of the Gypsies For the 1978 movie with the same title, see King of the 17.1.2 Johnne Wanne Gypsies (film). For the band Gipsy Kings, see Gipsy Kings. Son and successor of Johnnie Faa, Johnne Wanne was granted Royal authority over all “Egyptians” in Scotland The title King of the Gypsies has been claimed or given in May 1540. Records showed that by 1612 the Faa famover the centuries to many different people. It is both cul- ily had extended as far as Shetland. However, the initial turally and geographically specific. It may be inherited, tolerance of Gypsies did not last. In 1623 eight leaders of acquired by acclamation or action, or simply claimed. the Gypsies were hanged on the Burgh Muir, six of whom The extent of the power associated with the title varied; were of the Faa line. In the[2]1650s they were amongst it might be limited to a small group in a specific place, those transported to Virginia. or many people over large areas. In some cases the claim was clearly a public relations exercise. As the term Gypsy is also used in many different ways the King of the Gypsies may be someone with no connection with the Romani people. In the early 1970s, it was decided, at the First Annual Romani Meeting that the term Gypsy would nolonger be used to describe themselves. They voted for the term Roma to be used. It has also been suggested that in places where they were persecuted by local authorities the “King of the Gypsies” is an individual, usually of low standing, who places himself in the risky position of an ad hoc liaison between the Romani and the gadje (non-Romani). The arrest of such a “King” limited the harm to the Romani people.[1]

17.1 Scotland 17.1.1

John (Johnnie) Faa

Main article: John Faa Johnnie Faa of Dunbar was leader of the 'Egyptians’, or Gypsies, in Scotland. Faa was granted a letter under the Privy Seal from King James IV in February 1540, which was renewed in 1553. It was addressed to “oure louit Johnne Faw, lord and erle of Litill Egipt” establishing his authority over all Gypsies in Scotland and calling on all sheriﬀs in the country to assist him “in executione of justice upoun his company and folkis”, who were to “conforme to the lawis of Egipt”. He is resurrected in ﬁction in S. R. Crockett’s The Raiders and in Philip Pullman’s trilogy His Dark Materials.

17.1.3 William Faa II Will Faa, “King of the Gypsies”, died in Kirk Yetholm on 9 October 1847, aged 96. He was the son of William Faa I. Gypsies may have lived at Yetholm since before it became a permanent settlement, as the border location between Scotland and England made travel and avoidance of persecution easier. Settlement was encouraged when the laird built houses and a school for the Gypsy community during the 18th century. William Faa was an innkeeper (owned “The Queen”) and footballer who lived at “The Gypsy Palace” oﬀ the Green, and entertained visitors there. The “Kelso Mail” carried his obituary entitled “Death of a Gypsy King”, which said he was “always accounted a more respectable character than any of his tribe, and could boast of never having been in gaol during his life.” His house continued to be a tourist attraction, and there was reportedly an “Old Palace” on the other side of Kirk Yetholm Green. William died without issue in 1847 when the 'Crown' passed to his sister Esther’s husband Charles Blythe (1775-1861). Charles was an educated man who did much to live up to his role. On his death in 1861 there was a tussle between his many children for the right to be monarch. The role went to his daughter Esther Faa Blythe who reigned until 1883 when the gypsy culture was in serious decline. Following a gap (interregnum?) of several years in 1898 one of her sons Charles Rutherford was persuaded to accept the oﬃce and a ceremonial Gypsy Coronation was held in 1898. By this stage the role was largely an attempt to boost tourism. Charles died in 1902 and the title has not been re-established. An Edinburgh housewife is now thought to be the present 'Queen'. [3] [4] [5]

220

17.2. ENGLAND

17.1.4

221

Billy Marshall

Billy Marshall (1672–1792?) was born in Ayrshire in 1672 of Romani stock and claimed to be King of the Gypsies in south-east Scotland for most of the 18th century. He was a boxer, and served in the services, allegedly deserting from the Army seven times and from the Navy three times. He was supposed to have married 17 times and he had a huge crowd of illegitimate children (four of whom he is said to have fathered after his 100th birthday). He is also said to have been involved in murder and robbery, running a gang of Gypsies in Galloway. He was the so-called 'King of the Randies’, and having served as a soldier he was able to organise the country people who lost land when landowners built stone dykes and walls – his men went round knocking them down. Was a smuggler in Kirkcudbright. He was also reputed to be a Gypsy and robber, and Caird (Gypsy) of Burullion, the area he controlled. He was alleged to have lived to the age of 120, dying in 1792 and was buried in St Cuthbert’s Churchyard where his grave can be visited and a coin left for the next Gypsy who passes. [6][7][8][9]

17.2 England 17.2.1

Leaders Markall

identiﬁed

Jenkin Cowdiddle Was chosen by the remaining “Roberdsmen” at “their wonted place of meeting” “by general assent”. He was “a wandering rogue”, “much given to swearing, drunkenness and lechery . . . stout of stomach, audacious and ﬁerce”. He claimed a right of droit du seigneur/ right of the lord, and ordained that all beggars spent their weekly earnings in full every Saturday night. Rid says that he fought with “300 tattered knaves” in the rebellion in the South West of England against Edward IV and was killed at the Battle of Tewkesbury (1471). Unlike Roberts, who may have been a real character, this Cowdiddle seems to have been a complete ﬁction.

Martin Spising

The short book Martin Markall, Beadle of the Bridewell was published in London in 1610. The author is given as “S.R.”, who is usually identiﬁed as Samuel Rid the author of The Art of Jugling or Legerdemaine, a later book of rogue literature[10] promised in Martin Markall. The book is of dubious veracity, and large sections are taken from the works of Thomas Dekker,[11] although Frank Aydelotte, who dates the book to 1608, calls it mostly original.[12] It includes what purports to be a list of the leaders of “the regiment of rogues”, which echoed the genealogies of prominent families. It will be seen that in reality few had anything to do with Gypsies, but they are indicative of the context in which some of the Kings of the Gypsies were identiﬁed. John Mendall

vagabonds” in Kent who were joined by 400 “masterless men”. Together they joined Jack Cade and entered Southwark. After the end of Cade’s rebellion Roberts took to the woods with a small group living by theft, according to set rules of their own. After a year living like this these “Roberdsmen” dispersed throughout England, vowing to meet every three years, and joining other “commotions and rebellions”. Roberts also went “roving” and “kept his court” until he was killed in 1461.

Not deterred, the remaining “Roberdsmen” “hie them to their rendezvous . . . and there, with the full consent of the whole company, they chose one Spising to be his successor”. Spising is given no ﬁrst name. He is credited with ordering that all begging wanderers be “stalled as a rogue” by “the Chief Commander then being”, paying a fee in beer, though this was excused if his father and grandfather had been rogues. Spising joined the larger rebellion by Thomas Neville, the Bastard of Fauconberg. He led a band attacking Aldgate, and was nearly successful, until parts of his group were trapped by the fall of the portcullis. Spising is reputed to have ruled 11 years before being hanged for a murder in Wombourn, Staﬀordshire, having escaped the same fate earlier by seeking sanctuary in Westminster Abbey. There is a historical record of a Spising as leader of an Essex contingent of Neville’s uprising, but he was executed after it, and his head exhibited on Aldgate.

aka Jack Cade, aka John Mortimer, who led a rebellion of men from Kent who camped at Blackheath outside London in 1450. After his rebellion a reward was offered for Puff Dick him, and he was captured and killed in Kent. was the next elected, an expert at cheating with loaded dice, and excelled in “all manner of vice”. He repeated Bluebeard and Hugh Roberts Cowdiddle’s requirement for thieves and beggars to spend their ill-gotten gains and not save them. Rid says he Both soldiers who had served in France. Bluebeard was ruled for 8 years before dying of “the pox and Neapolitan captured and executed shortly after being made “their scurf”. Like Cowdiddle Dick seems to have been wholly captain”. Roberts then gathered about 100 “rakehells and fictional.

222

CHAPTER 17. KING OF THE GYPSIES

Laurence Crossbiter (aka Long Laurence)

Kit Callot

Laurence Crossbiter was the next elected leader, a serving man aged 50–60. His art was “crossbiting"; theft from the customers of whores. He is also reported to have died “his bowels . . . eaten out with the pox while he was yet alive”. Rid described him as cowardly and slavish for failing to come to the aid of the rebel Perkin Warbeck.

“the Queen of the Egypties” accompanied Giles Hather, according to Rid. These names were traditional; Hather is mentioned by Thomas Awdesley (1561). “Kit” and “Callot” as names can be traced back to Piers Plowman. Although Tudor government, both local and national, took a close interest in the Egyptians there is no record of the names in their records.

Richard Skelton Was one of Warbeck’s counsellors, “a noted knave”. He was next “led to the wonted place of meeting, and there solemnly stalled a rogue and made their general”. He is described as formerly having been a tailor in Taunton, Somerset “of proud and haughty disposition”, and have “lived in this new government” until 1501. A Skelton was recorded by Sir Francis Bacon as a counsellor to Warbeck, but he says nothing of his activities after the rebellion.

17.2.2 Boswells The Boswells were for centuries one of England’s largest and most important Gypsy families. The Boswell clan were a large extended family of Travellers, and in old Nottinghamshire dialect the word bos’ll was used as a term for Travellers and Romani in general. Haniel Boswell

Was the son of Francis Boswell. He baptised in London in 1583 and titled “King of the Gypsies”. His descenCock Lorel dants are reputed to include such colourful characters as “Black Jack Boswell”, “The Flaming Tinman” and “Hairy Was elected his successor “by the General Council”. Tom”.[14] Cock Lorel was “the most notorious knave that ever lived” who ruled until 1533. He professed the trade of a tinker to Jacob Rewbrey cover his thefts. Rid says that his knaveries are recorded in an old manuscript kept as “Maunders’ Hall”, giving the “Alias king of the Gypsies”, from the St Margaret’s rogue community a similar structure of that of the trade Westminster, was tried at the Old Bailey on 28 August guilds. Cock Lorel was the great mythical leader of Tudor 1700 for theft with violence and highway robbery. It rogues. His name means just that, “cock” being leader, was alleged he had robbed “one Rebecca Sellers, near the and “lorel” or losel” meaning rascal. He ﬁrst appears High way, . . . taking from her 3 Gold-rings, and 9 s. about 1500 in “Cock Lorel’s Boat”, and is mentioned in in Money” in January of that year. The Jury found him Robert Copland's The Highway to the Spitalhouse (1535). Guilty of theft, but not Robbery, as “It appeared that he He is credited with approving John Awdesley’s The Frajuggled tricked her out of it.” He was sentenced to Penal ternity of Vagabonds, (1561), in which he is given as the transportation.[15] creator of the Twenty Five Orders of Knaves, reproduced in Thomas Harman's Warning for Common Cursitors and many other works of rogue literature. There is no record James Boswell of any real individual on whom he was based. Cock Lorel is credited with having held a meeting with the leader of Is buried in Rossington, near Doncaster in Yorkshire. the Egyptians, Giles Hather, at their base at The Devils Langdale’s “Topographical Dictionary of Yorkshire” Arse Apeak in Derbyshire. Rid claims that at this meet- (1822), says: “In the church yard, was a stone, the two ing they devised a new and secret language Thieves’ Cant, ends of which are now remaining, where was interred the “to the end that their cozenings, knaveries, and villainies body of James Bosvill the King of the Gypsies, who died might not so easily be perceived and known”.[13] January 30, 1708. For a number of years, it was a custom of Gypsies from the south, to visit his tomb annually, and there perform some of their accustomed rites; Giles Hather one of which was to pour a ﬂagon of ale upon the grave.” This is similar to the ritual of “stalling the rogue” menBecame head of the regiment or fellowship of Egyptians tioned by Thomas Harman and in The Beggars Bush and in the north about 1528. These, Rid says, travelled in by Bampfylde Moore Carew. A legend says that Boswell groups of more than a hundred men and women, with lived in Sherwood Forest helping travellers and Gypsies. horses, their faces blacked, and practised legerdemain Also that his grave was opened some months after his and fortune telling by palmistry, delighting the common burial so that his black cat could be buried with him, and people with their clothes. that a ghostly cat still appears on the churchyard wall.

17.3. WALES

223

A tradition was reported of annual visits to the grave of Charles Boswell near Doncaster for more than 100 years into the 1820s, including a rite of pouring a ﬂagon of hot ale into the tomb. This may be same person.[16][17][18] the grave is situated by the main door leading to the church, shaded by a dark oak tree. It is now covered in moss, but is still readable. The words “King Of The Gypsies” will lie there for ever more, whereas the mystery of the black cat is still unsolved. – information on the grave by A. Needham – P. Needham, of St. Michaels church.

Buried at Calne

Henry Boswell

17.2.4 Matty Cooper

“King of the Gypsies” died in 1760 at the age of 90 and was buried at Ickleford near Hitchin, Hertfordshire at the church of St. Catherine, as were his wife and granddaughter. Royal National and Commercial Directory and Topography of Herts, Pigot & Co., London, 1839[19]

In the churchyard of Mary’s Parish Church Calne, Wiltshire is a tomb commemorating an unknown King of the Gypsies is set in the wall.[25]

17.2.3 Harry Burton Described as “King of the Gypsies”, died in the Workhouse in Wincanton, Somerset aged 94 in 1847.[26]

Taught the Romani language in the 1870s to Charles Godfrey Leland (1824–1903), the American folklorist and founder of the Gypsy Lore Society. Leland claimed Cooper was the King of the Gypsies in England.[27]

17.2.5 Xavier Petulengro/ Smith Edmund Mashiter Was described as the King of the Gypsies, in an account of a Romani wedding at Baildon in Yorkshire in 1937 between his son Leon Petulengro/ Smith and Illeana Smith both of Colchester Essex. According to the caption of a photograph Xavier Petulengro cut the hands of the couple to mingle their blood during the ceremony. After their wedding the couple went north to Blackpool. During the war Leon was in the RAF and Ileana (Eileen) was a staﬀ car driver for ICI. The marriage was dissolved in 1947 in Nottingham. Baildon was a famous fair and meeting place for Gypsies. Petulengro/ Smith was well known as Henry Boswell a broadcaster on Gypsy subjects. His son Leon Petulen[28] The “King of the Gypsies” died in 1824 Stamford, Lin- gro/ Smith wrote for the “Woman’s Own” magazine. [21][22] colnshire. aka “Old Honey”, died in Bolton, Lancashire in 1811 aged 90. He was reported to have been “justly entitled the King of Beggars”, having been on the road for 70 years. He was reported to have been the son of a schoolmaster, and well educated, but to have taken to the road by choice, and maintained a wandering life until he became bedridden. [20]

17.2.6 Gilderoy Scamp John Nicholl Thom Considered himself to be Lord Courtenay and “The King of the Gypsies”. The House of Commons appointed a Select Committee in 1838 “To inquire into all the circumstances connected with the discharge of John Nicholl Thom, alias Courtenay, from the Kent Lunatic Asylum”. The Committee heard evidence over 3 days covering the process of his state of mind and character, and the possible political inﬂuence on a local election. [23]

Born in Orpington, Kent early 20th century. Lived in Folkestone, Kent.[29]

17.2.7 Louis Welch

Louis Welch of Yarm was described by British media as the “King of the Gypsies”, a title given to the best bareknuckled boxer in the Romanichal - mainly from the UK, and France community, following an alleged attack by six knife-wielding men, possibly from a rival band of travellers, in Cumbria. He refused to give evidence against his attackers, saying it was “against the travellers’ code of Louis Boswell honour”, and a retrial was ordered after the jury failed to [30][31][32] Louis Boswell was buried at Eastwood church, Southend- reach a verdict. on-Sea in 1835. In the Burial Register he is described as a “Traveller aged 42” – “This man known as the King of the Gypsies was interred in the presence of a vast concourse 17.3 Wales of spectators”.[24]

224

17.3.1

CHAPTER 17. KING OF THE GYPSIES

Abram Wood

Was a reputed King of the Gypsies born before the close of the 17th century. His descendants include musicians who helped to keep alive many musical traditions that were forced underground during the Methodist Revival. One was chief harpist to Queen Victoria and another taught the famous traditional Welsh harpist, Nansi Richards. He is credited with keeping the Romani language intact “in the fastnesses of Cambria.” The Wood family was reputed to be ﬂuent in three mutually unintelligible languages: Romani, English and Welsh (Cymraeg). Children in North Wales were warned to beware “teulu Abram Wood”, the family of Abram Wood (who would like all Gypsies, steal naughty little children). An untidy house was referred to as being like the “house of Abram Wood”, (though Gypsy caravans have a reputation for being immaculately tidy and spotlessly clean).[33]

17.6.2 Florin Cioabă Florin Cioabă acquired the title “King of the Roma Everywhere” in 1997 from his father Ioan Cioabă who had claimed the title in 1992. Reports in 2003 that Cioabă, a Pentecostal Minister, had married off his own daughter at the age of 12 (or 14) caused uproar in the western media. The UN Economic and Social Council visited him in 1999 when preparing a report on Racism and Intolerance and described him as devoting himself to economic activity to support community projects, and exerting "moral authority" and having “some influence” as a councillor.[39][40][41] He died on August 18, 2013 after suffering a heart attack while on holiday in Antalya, Turkey.[42] He was succeeded as King by his son Dorin Cioabă.[43]

17.6.3 John Kyle

17.4 Norway 17.4.1

Karoli family

In the 1980s, Polykarp Karoli began styling himself “King of all Gypsies in Norway”.[34] In 1990, while most of the family was serving prison time, Polykarp’s grandson Martin Erik Karoli proclaimed himself “King of One Million Gypsies”, claiming to be slated for a hundreds of years old crowning ceremony in Central Europe.[35] After Polykarp’s death in 2001, his two sons publicly rivalled for the title “King of All Gypsies in The World”, estimating 478 million subjects throughout the world and citing various ancient ceremonies and royal registries.[36]

In 2003, according to a decree issued by Emperor Iulian, John Kyle was proclaimed “International King of the Rroma”.[44]

17.7 Hungary 17.7.1 Tamás Bolgár He was named as voivode of the “Pharaoh’s People” in 1496. He seems to have led a group of metalworkers, as he was supplying the Bishop of Pécs with cannonballs. He was almost certainly the same person granted privileges by the King of Poland and Lithuania in 1501, who also recognised the privileges of Wasili as leader of the “Cyhany”[45]

17.5 Italy 17.5.1

Scaramuccia

This “King of the Gypsies” is suggested as a possible model for “A Grotesque Head” of the sketches of human physiognomy by Leonardo da Vinci, dated to (c.150307). Giorgio Vasari reported that Leonardo had done a drawing of “the Gypsy Captain Scaramuccia” which Vasari possessed, but it is not known what happened to it.[37]

17.6 Romania 17.6.1

Iulian Rădulescu

17.8 Poland 17.8.1 Matiasz Korolewicz Was conferred the title “King of the Gypsies” by the Polish Royal Chancery in 1652, after the death of Janczy who had previously served as the head of the Roma. Later Kings of the Gypsies seem to have been appointed from the aristocracy.[46]

17.8.2 Janusz Kwiek

Was crowned as Janos I, King of the Gypsies, before thousands of people in 1937. He announced his intenIn 1993, Iulian Rădulescu proclaimed himself “Emperor tion to petition Benito Mussolini for land for a Romani settlement in East Africa.[47] of the Roma Everywhere”.[38]

17.13. REFERENCES

17.9 Bulgaria 17.9.1

Shibilis

The Gypsy King is associated with mythical powers of being able to part water with his sword, a spade, and his head, after it had been cut oﬀ, according to tales collected in 1981.[48]

225

[2] Gypsy Folk Tales Index [3] “Discover the borders”. [4] “Scottish Gypsies”. [5] ‘’Journal Gypsy Lore Soc.’’ 3rd ser.ii 370-1 quoted in ‘’English Genealogy’’ A. R. Wagner [6] Smuggling on Solway Firth and Galloway coasts, Scotland [7] “BBC”.

17.10 United States of America 17.10.1

M. H. Frank

Who had lived in Meridian, Mississippi, was chosen as King after Emil Mitchell’s death in 1942.[49][50][51][52][53]

17.10.2

Elijah George

[8] Portail d'informations Ce site est en vente! [9] Romany Routes Volume 6 No 6 March 2004 [10] “Gypsies in England”. Notes and Queries (London: George Bell). Eleventh (287): 326. April 28, 1855. [11] Mayall, David (Oct 9, 2003). Gypsy Identities 1500-2000: From Egipcyans and Moon-men to the Ethnic Romany. Routledge. p. 69. [12] Aydelotte, Frank (2013).

Elizabethan Rogues and

Vagabonds (5th ed.). Routledge. p. unnumbered. Described as king of the Gypsies at the time of the massive search for Elsie Paroubek. Mr. George was con[13] Rid, Samuel (1610). Martin Markall, the Beadle of tacted in Argyle, Wisconsin, and taken to Joliet, Illinois Bridewell. as quoted in Reynolds, Bryan (Apr 1, 2003). for questioning; but he knew nothing and was released.[54] Becoming Criminal: Transversal Performance and Cul-

17.10.3

Unidentiﬁed Romany

tural Dissidence in Early Modern England (Google eBook). JHU Press. p. unnumbered. [14] http://www.garenewing.co.uk/family/hodgkins.html

In 1953, Anaïs Nin underwent surgery for ovarian cancer in a Los Angeles hospital. In her diary, she mentions that [15] http://www.oldbaileyonline.org/html_sessions/ T17000828.html “the King of the Gypsies was having surgery at the same time” and that approximately six hundred members of his [16] Latest News and Features: Bizarre Doncaster: Ghosts and tribe were camped in or near the hospital in accordance Hauntings, on Donny Online with their law: “no amount of hospital discipline would drive them away”. She spoke with several members of [17] Brian Vesey-Fitzgerald Gypsies of Britain, The Country Book Club, 1951, quoting Edward Miller History and Anthe band, and identiﬁed them as Romani people.[55] tiquities of Doncaster

17.11 Venezuela

[18] John Wainwright, History and Antiquities of Doncaster and Consborough, Sheﬃeld, Basil Blackwell., 1829

17.11.1

[19] http://www.pjoiner.demon.co.uk/genuki/HRT/ Ickleford/index.html

Angelo Vallerugo III

[20] The Gentleman’s Magazine, 1 March 1811.

Since 1998, Angelo Vallerugo III has been accepted by the Venezuelan gypsy community as their one and only [21] Rutland & Stamford Mercury 15 October 1824 p3 column king.[56] 1 [22] Collections - Lincolnshire County Council

17.12 Further reading • Angus Fraser (1995) The Gypsies, 2nd ed., Oxford, ISBN 978-0-631-19605-1

[23] http://www.bopcris.ac.uk/bopall/ref5890.html [24] “King of Gypsies Edward Boswell”. Rromani djib. Retrieved 22 January 2011. [25] http://www.thisiswiltshire.co.uk/tiwtourism/ townsvillages/calne/

17.13 References [1] Human Rights Brief - Center for Human Rights and Humanitarian Law - Washington College of Law

[26] http://www.wincanton-online.com/wincanton.htm [27] http://www.themystica.com/mystica/articles/l/Leland_ charles_godfrey.html

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[28] http://www.scienceandsociety.co.uk/results.asp?image= 10249897&wwwflag=3&imagepos=1

[55] Anaïs Nin, Diary Of Anaïs Nin Volume 5 1947-1955: Vol. 5 (1947-1955), p. 106-107.

[29] Gilderoy Scamp – King of the Gypsies, Linda Hayward, Rromani Routes Volume 4 No 7 June 2000

[56] Caceres, Jorge (1987). “Gypsys In Venezuela”, 3rd ed., Santillana

[30] “Retrial over 'King of Gypsies’ boxer attack in Cumbria”. BBC. 2010-03-05. [31] [32] “Ignore whims of King of the Gipsies”. The Northern Echo. 2010-02-24. [33] Wales on Britannia: Facts About Wales & the Welsh [34] Aftenposten 1989.12.27: Sigøynerkongen tatt i København [35] Aftenposten 2008.04.11: Sigøynerne bløffer seg til status. [36] VG 2001.08.11: Jeg er den nye kongen! [37] Christ Church Website - Drawings [38] ro:Iulian Rădulescu [39] http://www.cidcm.umd.edu/inscr/mar/chronology.asp? groupId=36003 [40] Development in Action (Formerly Student Action India) - Development education NGO run by young people for young people [41] Twenty-first-Century Underground World [42] Childs, David (22 August 2013). “Obituary: Florin Cioaba: Activist and 'King of the Rroma'". The Independent (London: The Independent). Retrieved 27 September 2013. [43] Sara Winston; Martin Krupik (5 July 2014). “An Audience With the 'King of the Gypsies’". Vice.com. Retrieved 26 May 2015. [44] “La Mânăstirea Curtea de Argeş s-au sfinţit doar podoabele specifice rromilor”. Curierul Naţional (in Romanian). September 3, 2003. [45] http://www.amarodrom.hu/archivum/99/10/0.html [46] Resurse Patrin [47] layout [48] Kolev, Deyan; Teodora Krumova (January 14, 2002). “ROMA IN BULGARIA AND THEIR FOLKLORE”. Protecting and Popularizing Roma Culture in Central Bulgaria. Retrieved 2009-10-04. [49] Meridian Dispatch 7th February1915 [50] Meridian Star 5 August 1960 [51] Emil Mitchel Family [52] Free Moors and “Turks” in South Carolina [53] Emil Mitchell Family, page found 2011-07-29. [54] "Canal yields up body of missing Elsie Paroubek". Chicago Tribune, May 9, 1911, p. 1.

Chapter 18

Lyuli Lyuli (Russian: Люли) are a subgroup of the Dom people living in Central Asia, primarily Tajikistan, Uzbekistan and Kyrgyzstan. They speak a Lyuli dialect of the Domari language and are considered to be a branch of the Romani people.[1] The Lyuli practice Islam. They have a clan organization (the Lyuli word for ‘clan’ is tupar, the Jughi word - avlod). Division into sub-clans is also practiced. The Lyuli community is extremely closed towards non-Lyuli.[2] Traditional occupations: crafts, including jewelry, cattle trading, mendicancy and music.

18.1 Names There are several names for the Lyuli: Jughi, Multani or Luli. However, they refer to themselves as Mugat or Mughat (Persian: ‫ﻣﻐﺎن‬, derived from Old Persian magi, “ﬁre-worshipper”), as well as Ghurbat (Arabic: ‫)غربات‬, which means “lonely”. The term Multani signiﬁes a person who originates from the city of Multan (in modernday Pakistan), because some of the Lyuli emigrated from Multan around 1380 AD. According to Professor Khol Nazarov, the ancestors of the Lyuli belonged to a caste of singers, musicians and dancers. Faced with hardship in their homeland, they were forced to leave and disperse. Lyuli woman with child at the Bolaq embankment, Kazan, Russia.

18.2 Lyuli in Kyrgyzstan

18.3 Lyuli in Russia

The Lyuli live in the south of Kyrgyzstan, in Osh Province. Their living standard is extremely low due to discrimination. Many children are not educated in their mother tongue and many Lyuli have no oﬃcial documents. Lyuli society is working towards improvement of their living standards and preservation of their culture.[3]

Starting from the early 1990s, the Lyuli started migrating into Russian cities, most noticeably around railway stations and markets. At ﬁrst, Russians mistakenly identiﬁed them as Tajik refugees or ethnic Uzbeks due to their traditional Central Asian robes. Russian Roma emphasize that the Lyuli are distinct from them, however they are

227

228 considered to be a subgroup of the Romani.[2] They are a frequent target of Russian far right skinheads.[4][5]

18.4 See also • Dom people • Russian Roma

18.5 References [1] (English) Report at www.ethnologue.com [2] (Russian) Николай Бессонов. Цыгане и пресса. Эпопея о люли - Some photos of Lyulis [3] (Russian) Интернет-Журнал "Оазис" Народ без прав [4] Osborne, Andrew (29 January 2005). “Russia’s far-right on rise”. The New Zealand Herald. The Independent. Retrieved 15 October 2011. [5] Russia 2004

18.6 External links • Perceptions of Identity: Luli in Uzbekistan, a visit to a Luli community and brief summaries of interviews

CHAPTER 18. LYULI

Chapter 19

Adolf Hitler “Hitler” redirects here. (disambiguation).

For other uses, see Hitler September 1939 invaded Poland, resulting in British and French declarations of war on Germany. In June 1941, Hitler ordered an invasion of the Soviet Union. By the end Adolf Hitler (20 April 1889 – 30 April 1945) was an of 1941 German forces and the European Axis powers Austrian-born German politician who was the leader of occupied most of Europe and North Africa. Failure to the Nazi Party (NSDAP), Chancellor of Germany from defeat the Soviets and the entry of the United States into 1933 to 1945, and Führer (“leader”) of Nazi Germany the war forced Germany onto the defensive and it suffered from 1934 to 1945. He was effectively dictator of Nazi a series of escalating defeats. In the final days of the war, Germany, and was at the centre of World War II in Eu- during the Battle of Berlin in 1945, Hitler married his long-time lover, Eva Braun. On 30 April 1945, less than rope and the Holocaust. two days later, the two committed suicide to avoid capture Hitler was a decorated veteran of World War I. He by the Red Army, and their corpses were burned. joined the precursor of the NSDAP, the German Workers’ Party, in 1919 and became leader of the NSDAP in Under Hitler’s leadership and racially motivated ideol1921. In 1923 he attempted a coup in Munich to seize ogy, the Nazi regime was responsible for the genocide power. The failed coup resulted in Hitler’s imprison- of at least 5.5 million Jews and millions of other victims ment, during which time he dictated his autobiography whom he and his followers deemed Untermenschen (“suband political manifesto Mein Kampf (“My Struggle”). Af- humans”) and socially undesirable. Hitler and the Nazi ter his release in 1924, Hitler gained popular support by regime were also responsible for the killing of an estiattacking the Treaty of Versailles and promoting Pan- mated 19.3 million civilians and prisoners of war. In addition, 29 million soldiers and civilians died as a result of Germanism, anti-Semitism, and anti-communism with charismatic oratory and Nazi propaganda. Hitler fre- military action in the European Theatre of World War II. The number of civilians killed during the Second World quently denounced international capitalism and commuWar was unprecedented in warfare, and constitutes the nism as being part of a Jewish conspiracy. deadliest conflict in human history. Hitler’s Nazi Party became the largest elected party in the German Reichstag, leading to his appointment as chancellor in 1933. Following fresh elections won by his coalition, the Reichstag passed the Enabling Act, which began 19.1 Early years the process of transforming the Weimar Republic into Nazi Germany, a single-party dictatorship based on the 19.1.1 Ancestry totalitarian and autocratic ideology of National Socialism. Hitler aimed to eliminate Jews from Germany and estab- Hitler’s father Alois Hitler, Sr. (1837–1903) was the lish a New Order to counter what he saw as the injustice illegitimate child of Maria Anna Schicklgruber.[2] The of the post-World War I international order dominated by baptismal register did not show the name of his father, Britain and France. His first six years in power resulted in and Alois initially bore his mother’s surname Schicklrapid economic recovery from the Great Depression, the gruber. In 1842, Johann Georg Hiedler married Alois’s denunciation of restrictions imposed on Germany after mother Maria Anna. She died in 1847 and Johann Georg World War I, and the annexation of territories that were Hiedler died in 1856. Alois was brought up in the famhome to millions of ethnic Germans—actions which gave ily of Hiedler’s brother, Johann Nepomuk Hiedler.[3] In him significant popular support. 1876, Alois was legitimated and the baptismal register Hitler sought Lebensraum (“living space”) for the German people. His aggressive foreign policy is considered to be the primary cause of the outbreak of World War II in Europe. He directed large-scale rearmament and on 1

changed by a priest to register Johann Georg Hiedler as Alois’s father (recorded as Georg Hitler).[4][5] Alois then assumed the surname Hitler,[5] also spelled as Hiedler, Hüttler, or Huettler. The Hitler surname is probably based on “one who lives in a hut” (Standard German Hütte

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CHAPTER 19. ADOLF HITLER

for hut) or on “shepherd” (Standard German hüten for to guard); alternatively, it might be derived from the Slavic words Hidlar or Hidlarcek (small cottager or small holder).[6] Nazi oﬃcial Hans Frank suggested that Alois’s mother had been employed as a housekeeper for a Jewish family in Graz, and that the family’s 19-year-old son Leopold Frankenberger had fathered Alois.[7] No Frankenberger was registered in Graz during that period, and no record has been produced of Leopold Frankenberger’s existence,[8] so historians dismiss the claim that Alois’s father was Jewish.[9][10]

19.1.2

Childhood and education

he farmed and kept bees. Hitler attended Volksschule (a state-owned school) in nearby Fischlham.[17][18] The move to Hafeld coincided with the onset of intense father-son conflicts caused by Hitler’s refusal to conform to the strict discipline of his school.[19] Alois Hitler’s farming efforts at Hafeld ended in failure, and in 1897 the family moved to Lambach. The eight-yearold Hitler took singing lessons, sang in the church choir, and even considered becoming a priest.[20] In 1898 the family returned permanently to Leonding. The death of his younger brother Edmund, who died from measles in 1900, deeply affected Hitler. He changed from a confident, outgoing, conscientious student to a morose, detached, sullen boy who constantly fought with his father and teachers.[21]

Hitler’s mother, Klara

Hitler’s father, Alois

Adolf Hitler as an infant (c. 1889–90).

Alois had made a successful career in the customs bureau and wanted his son to follow in his footsteps.[22] Hitler later dramatised an episode from this period when his father took him to visit a customs oﬃce, depicting it as an event that gave rise to an unforgiving antagonism between father and son, who were both strong-willed.[23][24][25] Ignoring his son’s desire to attend a classical high school and become an artist, Alois sent Hitler to the Realschule in Linz in September 1900.[26] Hitler rebelled against this decision, and in Mein Kampf revealed that he intentionally did poorly in school, hoping that once his father saw “what little progress I was making at the technical school he would let me devote myself to my dream”.[27]

Adolf Hitler was born on 20 April 1889 in Braunau am Inn, a town in Austria-Hungary (in present-day Austria), close to the border with the German Empire.[11] He was the fourth of six children to Alois Hitler and Klara Pölzl (1860–1907). Hitler’s older siblings—Gustav, Ida, and Otto—died in infancy.[12] When Hitler was three, the family moved to Passau, Germany.[13] There he acquired the distinctive lower Bavarian dialect, rather than Austrian German, which marked his speech throughout his life.[14][15][16] In 1894 the family relocated to Leonding (near Linz), and in June 1895, Alois retired to a small landholding at Hafeld, near Lambach, where Like many Austrian Germans, Hitler began to develop

19.1. EARLY YEARS German nationalist ideas from a young age.[28] He expressed loyalty only to Germany, despising the declining Habsburg Monarchy and its rule over an ethnically variegated empire.[29][30] Hitler and his friends used the greeting “Heil”, and sang the "Deutschlandlied" instead of the Austrian Imperial anthem.[31]

231 fanned prejudice and played on Christian fears of being swamped by an inﬂux of eastern Jews.[42] Hostile to what he saw as “Catholic Germanophobia”, he developed an admiration for Martin Luther.[43]

After Alois’s sudden death on 3 January 1903, Hitler’s performance at school deteriorated and his mother allowed him to leave.[32] He enrolled at the Realschule in Steyr in September 1904, where his behaviour and performance showed some improvement.[33] In 1905, after passing a repeat of the ﬁnal exam, Hitler left the school without any ambitions for further education or clear plans for a career.[34]

19.1.3

Early adulthood in Vienna and Munich The Alter Hof in Munich. Watercolour by Adolf Hitler, 1914

The origin and first expression of Hitler’s anti-Semitism remain a matter of debate.[44] Hitler states in Mein Kampf that he first became an anti-Semite in Vienna.[45] His close friend, August Kubizek, claimed that Hitler was a “confirmed anti-Semite” before he left Linz.[46] Several sources provide strong evidence that Hitler had Jewish friends in his hostel and in other places in Vienna.[47][48] Historian Richard J. Evans states that “historians now generally agree that his notorious, murderous anti-Semitism emerged well after Germany’s defeat [in World War I], as a product of the paranoid “stab-in-theThe house in Leonding in Austria where Hitler spent his early back” explanation for the catastrophe”.[49] adolescence (photo taken c. 1984) Hitler received the final part of his father’s estate in From 1905, Hitler lived a bohemian life in Vienna, fi- May 1913 and moved to Munich.[50] Historians believe nanced by orphan’s benefits and support from his mother. he left Vienna to evade conscription into the Austrian He worked as a casual labourer and eventually as a army.[51] Hitler later claimed that he did not wish to painter, selling watercolours of Vienna’s sights. Vienna’s serve the Austro-Hungarian Empire because of the mixAcademy of Fine Arts rejected him in 1907 and again ture of races in its army.[50] After he was deemed unfit in 1908, citing “unfitness for painting”.[35][36] The di- for service—he failed his physical exam in Salzburg on 5 rector, sympathetic to his situation, recommended that February 1914—he returned to Munich.[52] Hitler study architecture, which was also an interest, but he lacked academic credentials as he had not finished secondary school.[37] On 21 December 1907, his 19.1.4 World War I mother died of breast cancer at the age of 47. After the academy’s second rejection, Hitler ran out of Main article: Military career of Adolf Hitler money and was forced to live in homeless shelters and At the outbreak of World War I, Hitler was living in men’s hostels.[38] At the time Hitler lived there, Vienna Munich and volunteered to serve in the Bavarian Army was a hotbed of religious prejudice and racism.[39] Fears as an Austrian citizen.[53] Posted to the Bavarian Reof being overrun by immigrants from the East were serve Infantry Regiment 16 (1st Company of the List widespread, and the populist mayor, Karl Lueger, ex- Regiment),[54][53] he served as a dispatch runner on the ploited the rhetoric of virulent anti-Semitism for political Western Front in France and Belgium,[55] spending nearly effect. German nationalism had a widespread following half his time at the regimental headquarters in Fournesin the Mariahilf district, where Hitler lived.[40] German en-Weppes, well behind the front lines.[56][57] He was nationalist Georg Ritter von Schönerer, who advocated present at the First Battle of Ypres, the Battle of the Pan-Germanism, anti-Semitism, anti-Slavism, and anti- Somme, the Battle of Arras, and the Battle of PasschenCatholicism, was one influence on Hitler.[41] Hitler read daele, and was wounded at the Somme.[58] He was decolocal newspapers, such as the Deutsches Volksblatt, that rated for bravery, receiving the Iron Cross, Second Class,

232

CHAPTER 19. ADOLF HITLER tober 1916, he was wounded in the left thigh when a shell exploded in the dispatch runners’ dugout.[62] Hitler spent almost two months in hospital at Beelitz, returning to his regiment on 5 March 1917.[63] On 15 October 1918, he was temporarily blinded in a mustard gas attack and was hospitalised in Pasewalk.[64] While there, Hitler learnt of Germany’s defeat, and—by his own account— upon receiving this news, he suﬀered a second bout of blindness.[65]

Hitler described the war as “the greatest of all experiences”, and was praised by his commanding officers for his bravery.[66] His wartime experience reinforced his German patriotism and he was shocked by Germany’s capitulation in November 1918.[67] His bitterness over the Hitler (far right, seated) with his army comrades of the Bavarian collapse of the war effort began to shape his ideology.[68] Reserve Infantry Regiment 16 (c. 1914–18) Like other German nationalists, he believed the Dolchstoßlegende (stab-in-the-back myth), which claimed that the German army, “undefeated in the field”, had been in 1914.[58] On a recommendation by Lieutenant Hugo “stabbed in the back” on the home front by civilian leaders Gutmann, Hitler’s Jewish superior, he received the Iron and Marxists, later dubbed the “November criminals”.[69] Cross, First Class on 4 August 1918, a decoration rarely awarded to one of Hitler’s Gefreiter rank.[59][60] He re- The Treaty of Versailles stipulated that Germany must relinquish several of its territories and demilitarise the ceived the Black Wound Badge on 18 May 1918.[61] Rhineland. The treaty imposed economic sanctions and levied heavy reparations on the country. Many Germans perceived the treaty—especially Article 231, which declared Germany responsible for the war—as an unjust humiliation.[70] The Versailles Treaty and the economic, social, and political conditions in Germany after the war were later exploited by Hitler for political gain.[71]

19.2 Entry into politics Main article: Political views of Adolf Hitler After World War I, Hitler returned to Munich.[72] With

A copy of Adolf Hitler’s German Workers’ Party (DAP) membership card

no formal education or career prospects, he remained in the army.[73] In July 1919 he was appointed Verbindungsmann (intelligence agent) of an Aufklärungskommando During his service at headquarters, Hitler pursued his (reconnaissance commando) of the Reichswehr, assigned artwork, drawing cartoons and instructions for an army to inﬂuence other soldiers and to inﬁltrate the German newspaper. During the Battle of the Somme in Oc- Workers’ Party (DAP). While monitoring the activities Adolf Hitler as a soldier during the First World War (1914– 1918)

19.2. ENTRY INTO POLITICS

233

of the DAP, Hitler was attracted to the founder Anton Drexler's anti-Semitic, nationalist, anti-capitalist, and anti-Marxist ideas.[74] Drexler favoured a strong active government, a non-Jewish version of socialism, and solidarity among all members of society. Impressed with Hitler’s oratorical skills, Drexler invited him to join the DAP. Hitler accepted on 12 September 1919,[75] becoming party member 555 (the party began counting membership at 500 to give the impression they were a much larger party than they actually were).[76]

he would rejoin on the condition that he would replace Drexler as party chairman, and that the party headquarters would remain in Munich.[87] The committee agreed, and he rejoined the party on 26 July as member 3,680. Even still, Hitler faced some opposition within the NSDAP: Opponents of Hitler in the leadership had Hermann Esser expelled from the party, and they printed 3,000 copies of a pamphlet attacking Hitler as a traitor to the party.[87][lower-alpha 1] In the following days, Hitler spoke to several packed houses and defended himself and Esser, to thunderous applause. His strategy proved successful, and At the DAP, Hitler met Dietrich Eckart, one of the party’s at a special party congress on 29 July, he was granted ab[77] founders and a member of the occult Thule Society. solute powers as party chairman, replacing Drexler, by a Eckart became Hitler’s mentor, exchanging ideas with [88] him and introducing him to a wide range of Munich vote of 533 to 1. society.[78] To increase its appeal, the DAP changed its Hitler’s vitriolic beer hall speeches began attracting reguname to the Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei lar audiences. He became adept at using populist themes, (National Socialist German Workers Party; NSDAP).[79] including the use of scapegoats, who were blamed for his Hitler designed the party’s banner of a swastika in a white listeners’ economic hardships.[89][90][91] Psychiatrist Carl circle on a red background.[80] Jung commented in 1938 that Hitler is the “first man to Hitler was discharged from the army on 31 March tell every German what he has been thinking and feeling fate, especially 1920 and began working full-time for the NSDAP.[81] all along in his unconscious about German [92] since the defeat in the World War”. Hitler used perThe party headquarters was in Munich, a major hotbed sonal magnetism and an understanding of crowd psycholof anti-government German nationalists determined to [93][94] ogy to advantage while engaged in public speaking. [82] crush Marxism and undermine the Weimar Republic. In February 1921—already highly effective at speak- Historians have noted the hypnotic effect of his rhetoric [95] ing to large audiences—he spoke to a crowd of over on large audiences, and of his eyes in small groups. 6,000.[83] To publicise the meeting, two truckloads of The author Alfons Heck, a former member of the Hitler party supporters drove around Munich waving swastika Youth, describes the reaction to a speech by Hitler: flags and throwing leaflets. Hitler soon gained notoriety for his rowdy polemic speeches against the Treaty of Versailles, rival politicians, and especially against Marxists and Jews.[84]

We erupted into a frenzy of nationalistic pride that bordered on hysteria. For minutes on end, we shouted at the top of our lungs, with tears streaming down our faces: Sieg Heil, Sieg Heil, Sieg Heil! From that moment on, I belonged to Adolf Hitler body and soul.[96] — Alfons Heck

Although Hitler’s oratory skills and personal traits were generally received well by large crowds and at oﬃcial events, some who met Hitler privately noted that his appearance and demeanour failed to make a lasting impression.[97][98]

Hitler poses for the camera, 1930

In June 1921, while Hitler and Eckart were on a fundraising trip to Berlin, a mutiny broke out within the NSDAP in Munich. Members of its executive committee wanted to merge with the rival German Socialist Party (DSP).[85] Hitler returned to Munich on 11 July and angrily tendered his resignation. The committee members realised that the resignation of their leading public ﬁgure and speaker would mean the end of the party.[86] Hitler announced

Early followers included Rudolf Hess, former air force ace Hermann Göring, and army captain Ernst Röhm. Röhm became head of the Nazis’ paramilitary organisation, the Sturmabteilung (SA, “Stormtroopers”), which protected meetings and attacked political opponents. A critical influence on his thinking during this period was the Aufbau Vereinigung,[99] a conspiratorial group of White Russian exiles and early National Socialists. The group, financed with funds channelled from wealthy industrialists, introduced Hitler to the idea of a Jewish conspiracy, linking international finance with Bolshevism.[100]

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19.2.1

CHAPTER 19. ADOLF HITLER

Beer Hall Putsch

Main article: Beer Hall Putsch In 1923 Hitler enlisted the help of World War I Gen-

Defendants in the Beer Hall Putsch trial. From left to right: Pernet, Weber, Frick, Kiebel, Ludendorﬀ, Hitler, Bruckner, Röhm, and Wagner.

eral Erich Ludendorff for an attempted coup known as the "Beer Hall Putsch". The NSDAP used Italian Fascism as a model for their appearance and policies. Hitler wanted to emulate Benito Mussolini's "March on Rome" of 1922 by staging his own coup in Bavaria, to be followed by a challenge to the government in Berlin. Hitler and Ludendorff sought the support of Staatskommissar (state commissioner) Gustav Ritter von Kahr, Bavaria’s de facto ruler. However, Kahr, along with Police Chief Hans Ritter von Seisser and Reichswehr General Otto von Lossow, wanted to install a nationalist dictatorship without Hitler.[101] On 8 November 1923 Hitler and the SA stormed a public meeting of 3,000 people organised by Kahr in the Bürgerbräukeller, a beer hall in Munich. Interrupting Kahr’s speech, he announced that the national revolution had begun and declared the formation of a new government with Ludendorff.[102] Retiring to a back room, Hitler, with handgun drawn, demanded and got the support of Kahr, Seisser, and Lossow.[102] Hitler’s forces initially succeeded in occupying the local Reichswehr and police headquarters, but Kahr and his cohorts quickly withdrew their support. Neither the army nor the state police joined forces with Hitler.[103] The next day, Hitler and his followers marched from the beer hall to the Bavarian War Ministry to overthrow the Bavarian government, but police dispersed them.[104] Sixteen NSDAP members and four police officers were killed in the failed coup.[105] Hitler fled to the home of Ernst Hanfstaengl and by some accounts contemplated suicide.[106] He was depressed but calm when arrested on 11 November 1923 for high treason.[107] His trial before the special People’s Court in Munich began in February 1924,[108] and Alfred Rosenberg became temporary leader of the NSDAP. On 1 April, Hitler was sentenced to five years’ imprisonment at Landsberg Prison.[109] There, he received friendly treat-

Dust jacket of Mein Kampf (1926–27)

ment from the guards, and he was allowed mail from supporters and regular visits by party comrades. Pardoned by the Bavarian Supreme Court, he was released from jail on 20 December 1924, against the state prosecutor’s objections.[110] Including time on remand, Hitler served just over one year in prison.[111] While at Landsberg, Hitler dictated most of the first volume of Mein Kampf (My Struggle; originally entitled Four and a Half Years of Struggle against Lies, Stupidity, and Cowardice) to his deputy, Rudolf Hess.[111] The book, dedicated to Thule Society member Dietrich Eckart, was an autobiography and exposition of his ideology. The book laid out Hitler’s plans for transforming German society into one based on race. Some passages implied genocide.[112] Published in two volumes in 1925 and 1926, it sold 228,000 copies between 1925 and 1932. One million copies were sold in 1933, Hitler’s first year in office.[113]

19.2.2 Rebuilding the NSDAP At the time of Hitler’s release from prison, politics in Germany had become less combative and the economy had improved, limiting Hitler’s opportunities for political agitation. As a result of the failed Beer Hall Putsch, the NSDAP and its aﬃliated organisations were banned in Bavaria. In a meeting with Prime Minister of Bavaria Heinrich Held on 4 January 1925, Hitler agreed to respect the authority of the state and promised that he would seek political power only through the democratic process. The meeting paved the way for the ban on the NSDAP to be lifted on 16 February.[114] Hitler was barred from public speaking by the Bavarian authorities, a ban that remained in place until 1927.[115][116] To advance his polit-

19.3. RISE TO POWER

235

ical ambitions in spite of the ban, Hitler appointed Gregor Strasser, Otto Strasser, and Joseph Goebbels to organise and grow the NSDAP in northern Germany. A superb organiser, Gregor Strasser steered a more independent political course, emphasising the socialist elements of the party’s programme.[117]

Hitler made a prominent appearance at the trial of two Reichswehr officers, Lieutenants Richard Scheringer and Hans Ludin, in late 1930. Both were charged with membership in the NSDAP, at that time illegal for Reichswehr personnel.[123] The prosecution argued that the NSDAP was an extremist party, prompting defence lawyer Hans [124] On 25 September The stock market in the United States crashed on 24 Frank to call on Hitler to testify. 1930, Hitler testified that his party would pursue politiOctober 1929. The impact in Germany was dire: milcal power solely through democratic elections,[125] which lions were thrown out of work and several major banks [126] collapsed. Hitler and the NSDAP prepared to take won him many supporters in the officer corps. advantage of the emergency to gain support for their Brüning’s austerity measures brought little economic imparty. They promised to repudiate the Versailles Treaty, provement and were extremely unpopular.[127] Hitler exstrengthen the economy, and provide jobs.[118] ploited this by targeting his political messages specifically at people who had been affected by the inflation of the 1920s and the Depression, such as farmers, war veterans, and the middle class.[128]

19.3 Rise to power

Hitler had formally renounced his Austrian citizenship on 7 April 1925, but at the time did not acquire GerMain article: Adolf Hitler’s rise to power man citizenship. For almost seven years he was stateless, unable to run for public office, and facing the risk of deportation.[129] On 25 February 1932, the interior minister of Brunswick, Dietrich Klagges, who was a member 19.3.1 Brüning administration of the NSDAP, appointed Hitler as administrator for the state’s delegation to the Reichsrat in Berlin, making Hitler The Great Depression provided a political opportunity for a citizen of Brunswick,[130] and thus of Germany.[131] Hitler. Germans were ambivalent to the parliamentary republic, which faced strong challenges from right- and In 1932, Hitler ran against Hindenburg in the presidential left-wing extremists. The moderate political parties were elections. The viability of his candidacy was underscored increasingly unable to stem the tide of extremism, and by a 27 January 1932 speech to the Industry Club in from many of Gerthe German referendum of 1929 helped to elevate Nazi Düsseldorf, which won him support[132] many’s most powerful industrialists. Hindenburg had ideology.[120] The elections of September 1930 resulted support from various nationalist, monarchist, Catholic, in the break-up of a grand coalition and its replaceand republican parties, and some Social Democrats. ment with a minority cabinet. Its leader, chancellor Heinrich Brüning of the Centre Party, governed through Hitler used the campaign slogan "Hitler über Deutschhis political emergency decrees from President Paul von Hindenburg. land" (“Hitler over Germany”), a reference to[133] ambitions and his campaigning by aircraft. He was Governance by decree would become the new norm and one of the first politicians to use aircraft travel for popaved the way for authoritarian forms of government.[121] [134][135] litical purposes, and utilised it effectively. Hitler The NSDAP rose from obscurity to win 18.3 per cent of came in second in both rounds of the election, garnering the vote and 107 parliamentary seats in the 1930 election, more than 35 per cent of the vote in the final election. becoming the second-largest party in parliament.[122] Although he lost to Hindenburg, this election established Hitler as a strong force in German politics.[136]

19.3.2 Appointment as chancellor The absence of an eﬀective government prompted two inﬂuential politicians, Franz von Papen and Alfred Hugenberg, along with several other industrialists and businessmen, to write a letter to Hindenburg. The signers urged Hindenburg to appoint Hitler as leader of a government “independent from parliamentary parties”, which could turn into a movement that would “enrapture millions of people”.[137][138] Hitler and NSDAP treasurer Franz Xaver Schwarz at the dedication of the renovation of the Palais Barlow on Brienner Straße in Munich into the Brown House headquarters, December 1930

Hindenburg reluctantly agreed to appoint Hitler as chancellor after two further parliamentary elections—in July and November 1932—had not resulted in the formation of a majority government. Hitler headed a short-

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CHAPTER 19. ADOLF HITLER quired the largest number of seats in parliament. Hitler’s party failed to secure an absolute majority, necessitating another coalition with the DNVP.[147]

19.3.4 Day of Potsdam and the Enabling Act Main article: Enabling Act of 1933 On 21 March 1933, the new Reichstag was constituted

Hitler, at the window of the Reich Chancellery, receives an ovation on the evening of his inauguration as chancellor, 30 January 1933

lived coalition government formed by the NSDAP and Hugenberg’s party, the German National People’s Party (DNVP). On 30 January 1933, the new cabinet was sworn in during a brief ceremony in Hindenburg’s office. The NSDAP gained three posts: Hitler was named chancellor, Wilhelm Frick Minister of the Interior, and Hermann Göring Minister of the Interior for Prussia.[139] Hitler had Paul von Hindenburg and Adolf Hitler on the Day of Potsdam, insisted on the ministerial positions as a way to gain con- 21 March 1933 trol over the police in much of Germany.[140] with an opening ceremony at the Garrison Church in Potsdam. This “Day of Potsdam” was held to demonstrate unity between the Nazi movement and the old 19.3.3 Reichstag fire and March elections Prussian elite and military. Hitler appeared in a morning [148][149] As chancellor, Hitler worked against attempts by the coat and humbly greeted Hindenburg. NSDAP’s opponents to build a majority government. Because of the political stalemate, he asked Hindenburg to again dissolve the Reichstag, and elections were scheduled for early March. On 27 February 1933, the Reichstag building was set on fire. Göring blamed a communist plot, because Dutch communist Marinus van der Lubbe was found in incriminating circumstances inside the burning building.[141] According to the British historian Sir Ian Kershaw, the consensus of nearly all historians is that van der Lubbe actually set the fire.[142] Others, including William L. Shirer and Alan Bullock, are of the opinion that the NSDAP itself was responsible.[143][144] At Hitler’s urging, Hindenburg responded with the Reichstag Fire Decree of 28 February, which suspended basic rights and allowed detention without trial. The decree was permitted under Article 48 of the Weimar Constitution, which gave the president the power to take emergency measures to protect public safety and order.[145] Activities of the German Communist Party were suppressed, and some 4,000 communist party members were arrested.[146] In addition to political campaigning, the NSDAP engaged in paramilitary violence and the spread of anticommunist propaganda in the days preceding the election. On election day, 6 March 1933, the NSDAP’s share of the vote increased to 43.9 per cent, and the party ac-

To achieve full political control despite not having an absolute majority in parliament, Hitler’s government brought the Ermächtigungsgesetz (Enabling Act) to a vote in the newly elected Reichstag. The Act—oﬃcially titled the Gesetz zur Behebung der Not von Volk und Reich (“Law to Remedy the Distress of People and Reich”)— gave Hitler’s cabinet the power to enact laws without the consent of the Reichstag for four years. These laws could (with certain exceptions) deviate from the constitution.[150] Since it would aﬀect the constitution, the Enabling Act required a two-thirds majority to pass. Leaving nothing to chance, the Nazis used the provisions of the Reichstag Fire Decree to prevent several Social Democratic deputies from attending; the Communists having already been banned.[151] On 23 March 1933, the Reichstag assembled at the Kroll Opera House under turbulent circumstances. Ranks of SA men served as guards inside the building, while large groups outside opposing the proposed legislation shouted slogans and threats towards the arriving members of parliament.[152] The position of the Centre Party, the third largest party in the Reichstag, was decisive. After Hitler verbally promised party leader Ludwig Kaas that Hindenburg would retain his power of veto, Kaas announced the Centre Party would support the Enabling Act. The Act passed by a vote of 441–84, with all

19.3. RISE TO POWER

237

parties except the Social Democrats voting in favour. The Enabling Act, along with the Reichstag Fire Decree, transformed Hitler’s government into a de facto legal dictatorship.[153]

19.3.5

Removal of remaining limits

At the risk of appearing to talk nonsense I tell you that the National Socialist movement will go on for 1,000 years! ... Don't forget how people laughed at me 15 years ago when I declared that one day I would govern Germany. They laugh now, just as foolishly, when I declare that I shall remain in power![154] — Adolf Hitler to a British correspondent in Berlin, June 1934

Having achieved full control over the legislative and executive branches of government, Hitler and his allies began to suppress the remaining opposition. The Social Democratic Party was banned and its assets seized.[155] While many trade union delegates were in Berlin for May Day activities, SA stormtroopers demolished union offices around the country. On 2 May 1933 all trade unions were forced to dissolve and their leaders were arrested. Some were sent to concentration camps.[156] The German Labour Front was formed as an umbrella organisation to represent all workers, administrators, and company owners, thus reflecting the concept of national socialism in the spirit of Hitler’s Volksgemeinschaft (“people’s community”).[157] By the end of June, the other parties had been intimidated into disbanding. This included the Nazis’ nominal coalition partner, the DNVP; with the SA’s help, Hitler forced its leader, Hugenberg, to resign on 29 June. On 14 July 1933, the NSDAP was declared the only legal political party in Germany, although the country had effectively been a one-party state since the passage of the Enabling Act four months earlier.[157][155] The demands of the SA for more political and military power caused anxiety among military, industrial, and political leaders. In response, Hitler purged the entire SA leadership in the Night of the Long Knives, which took place from 30 June to 2 July 1934.[158] Hitler targeted Ernst Röhm and other SA leaders who, along with a number of Hitler’s political adversaries (such as Gregor Strasser and former chancellor Kurt von Schleicher), were rounded up, arrested, and shot.[159] While the international community and some Germans were shocked by the murders, many in Germany believed Hitler was restoring order.[160] On 2 August 1934, Hindenburg died. The previous day, the cabinet had enacted the “Law Concerning the Highest State Office of the Reich”.[161] This law stated that upon Hindenburg’s death, the office of president would be abolished and its powers merged with those of the chancellor. Hitler thus became head of state as well as

In 1934, Hitler became Germany’s head of state with the title of Führer und Reichskanzler (leader and chancellor of the Reich).

head of government, and was formally named as Führer und Reichskanzler (leader and chancellor).[162] This law violated the Enabling Act; although it allowed Hitler to deviate from the constitution, the Act explicitly barred him from passing any law tampering with the presidency. In 1932, the constitution had been amended to make the president of the High Court of Justice, not the chancellor, acting president pending new elections. Nonetheless, no one objected.[163] With this action, Hitler eliminated the last legal remedy by which he could be removed from office.[163] As head of state, Hitler became supreme commander of the armed forces. The traditional loyalty oath of servicemen was altered to affirm loyalty to Hitler personally, by name, rather than to the office of supreme commander or the state.[164] On 19 August, the merger of the presidency with the chancellorship was approved by 90 per cent of the electorate voting in a plebiscite.[165] In early 1938, Hitler used blackmail to consolidate his hold over the military by instigating the Blomberg– Fritsch Affair. Hitler forced his War Minister, Field Marshal Werner von Blomberg, to resign by using a police dossier that showed that Blomberg’s new wife had a record for prostitution.[166][167] Army commander Colonel-General Werner von Fritsch was removed after the Schutzstaffel (SS) produced allegations that he had engaged in a homosexual relationship.[168] Both

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Hitler’s personal standard

men had fallen into disfavour because they objected to Hitler’s demand to make the Wehrmacht ready for war as early as 1938.[169] Hitler assumed Blomberg’s title of Commander-in-Chief, thus taking personal command of the armed forces. He replaced the Ministry of War with the Oberkommando der Wehrmacht (Armed Forces High Command, or OKW), headed by General Wilhelm Keitel. On the same day, sixteen generals were stripped of their commands and 44 more were transferred; all were suspected of not being suﬃciently pro-Nazi.[170] By early February 1938, twelve more generals had been removed.[171] Hitler took care to give his dictatorship the appearance of legality. Many of his decrees were explicitly based on the Reichstag Fire Decree and hence on Article 48 of the Weimar Constitution. The Reichstag renewed the Enabling Act twice, each time for a four-year period.[172] While elections to the Reichstag were still held, voters were presented with a single list of Nazis and pro-Nazi “guests” which carried with well over 90 percent of the vote.[173]

19.4 Nazi Germany Main article: Nazi Germany

19.4.1

Economy and culture

Ceremony honouring the dead (Totenehrung) on the terrace in front of the Hall of Honour (Ehrenhalle) at the Nazi party rally grounds, Nuremberg, September 1934

struction and rearmament were ﬁnanced through Mefo bills, printing money, and seizing the assets of people arrested as enemies of the State, including Jews.[175] Unemployment fell from six million in 1932 to one million in 1936.[176] Hitler oversaw one of the largest infrastructure improvement campaigns in German history, leading to the construction of dams, autobahns, railroads, and other civil works. Wages were slightly lower in the mid to late 1930s compared with wages during the Weimar Republic, while the cost of living increased by 25 per cent.[177] The average working week increased during the shift to a war economy; by 1939, the average German was working between 47 and 50 hours a week.[178] Hitler’s government sponsored architecture on an immense scale. Albert Speer, instrumental in implementing Hitler’s classicist reinterpretation of German culture, was placed in charge of the proposed architectural renovations of Berlin.[179] In 1936, Hitler opened the summer Olympic games in Berlin.

19.4.2 Rearmament and new alliances

Main article: Economy of Nazi Germany In August 1934, Hitler appointed Reichsbank President Main articles: Axis powers, Tripartite Pact and German Hjalmar Schacht as Minister of Economics, and in the re-armament following year, as Plenipotentiary for War Economy in charge of preparing the economy for war.[174] Recon- In a meeting with German military leaders on 3 Febru-

19.5. WORLD WAR II ary 1933, Hitler spoke of “conquest for Lebensraum in the East and its ruthless Germanisation" as his ultimate foreign policy objectives.[180] In March, Prince Bernhard Wilhelm von Bülow, secretary at the Auswärtiges Amt (Foreign Office), issued a statement of major foreign policy aims: Anschluss with Austria, the restoration of Germany’s national borders of 1914, rejection of military restrictions under the Treaty of Versailles, the return of the former German colonies in Africa, and a German zone of influence in Eastern Europe. Hitler found Bülow’s goals to be too modest.[181] In speeches during this period, he stressed the peaceful goals of his policies and a willingness to work within international agreements.[182] At the first meeting of his cabinet in 1933, Hitler prioritised military spending over unemployment relief.[183]

239 virtually nothing to stop it.[186][187] The Anglo-German Naval Agreement (AGNA) of 18 June allowed German tonnage to increase to 35 per cent of that of the British navy. Hitler called the signing of the AGNA “the happiest day of his life”, believing that the agreement marked the beginning of the Anglo-German alliance he had predicted in Mein Kampf.[188] France and Italy were not consulted before the signing, directly undermining the League of Nations and setting the Treaty of Versailles on the path towards irrelevance.[189] Germany reoccupied the demilitarised zone in the Rhineland in March 1936, in violation of the Versailles Treaty. Hitler also sent troops to Spain to support General Franco after receiving an appeal for help in July 1936. At the same time, Hitler continued his eﬀorts to create an Anglo-German alliance.[190] In August 1936, in response to a growing economic crisis caused by his rearmament eﬀorts, Hitler ordered Göring to implement a Four Year Plan to prepare Germany for war within the next four years.[191] The plan envisaged an all-out struggle between “Judeo-Bolshevism” and German national socialism, which in Hitler’s view required a committed effort of rearmament regardless of the economic costs.[192]

Count Galeazzo Ciano, foreign minister of Mussolini’s government, declared an axis between Germany and Italy, and on 25 November, Germany signed the AntiComintern Pact with Japan. Britain, China, Italy, and Poland were also invited to join the Anti-Comintern Pact, but only Italy signed in 1937. Hitler abandoned his plan of an Anglo-German alliance, blaming “inadequate” British leadership.[193] At a meeting in the Reich Chancellery with his foreign ministers and military chiefs that November, Hitler restated his intention of acquiring Lebensraum for the German people. He ordered preparations for war in the East, to begin as early as 1938 and no later than 1943. In the event of his death, the conference minutes, recorded as the Hossbach Memorandum, were to be regarded as his “political testament”.[194] He felt that a severe decline in living standards in Germany as a result of the economic crisis could only be stopped by military aggression aimed at seizing Austria and Czechoslovakia.[195][196] Hitler urged quick action before Britain and France gained a permanent lead in the arms race.[195] In early 1938, in the wake of On 25 October 1936, an axis was declared between Italy and the Blomberg–Fritsch Aﬀair, Hitler asserted control of Germany. the military-foreign policy apparatus, dismissing Neurath as foreign minister and appointing himself Oberster BeGermany withdrew from the League of Nations and the fehlshaber der Wehrmacht (supreme commander of the World Disarmament Conference in October 1933.[184] armed forces).[191] From early 1938 onwards, Hitler was In January 1935, over 90 per cent of the people of carrying out a foreign policy ultimately aimed at war.[197] the Saarland, then under League of Nations administration, voted to unite with Germany.[185] That March, Hitler announced an expansion of the Wehrmacht to 600,000 members—six times the number permitted by 19.5 World War II the Versailles Treaty—including development of an air force (Luftwaﬀe) and an increase in the size of the navy (Kriegsmarine). Britain, France, Italy, and the League of 19.5.1 Early diplomatic successes Nations condemned these violations of the Treaty, but did

240 Alliance with Japan See also: Germany–Japan relations In February 1938, on the advice of his newly appointed

CHAPTER 19. ADOLF HITLER Czechoslovakia quickly”.[203] In private, Hitler considered the Sudeten issue unimportant; his real intention was a war of conquest against Czechoslovakia.[204]

Hitler and the Japanese foreign minister, Yōsuke Matsuoka, at a meeting in Berlin in March 1941. In the background is Joachim von Ribbentrop.

foreign minister, the strongly pro-Japanese Joachim von Ribbentrop, Hitler ended the Sino-German alliance with the Republic of China to instead enter into an alliance with the more modern and powerful Japan. Hitler announced German recognition of Manchukuo, the Japanese-occupied state in Manchuria, and renounced German claims to their former colonies in the Paciﬁc held by Japan.[198] Hitler ordered an end to arms shipments to China and recalled all German oﬃcers working with the Chinese Army.[198] In retaliation, Chinese General Chiang Kai-shek cancelled all Sino-German economic agreements, depriving the Germans of many Chinese raw materials.[199]

October 1938: Hitler (standing in the Mercedes) drives through the crowd in Cheb (German: Eger), part of the Germanpopulated Sudetenland region of Czechoslovakia, which was annexed to Nazi Germany because of the Munich Agreement

In April Hitler ordered the OKW to prepare for Fall Grün (“Case Green”), the code name for an invasion of Czechoslovakia.[205] As a result of intense French and British diplomatic pressure, on 5 September Czechoslovakian President Edvard Beneš unveiled the “Fourth Austria and Czechoslovakia Plan” for constitutional reorganisation of his country, to most of Henlein’s demands for Sudeten On 12 March 1938, Hitler declared unification of Austria which agreed autonomy.[206] Henlein’s Heimfront responded to Beneš' [200][201] with Nazi Germany in the Anschluss. Hitler then turned his attention to the ethnic German population of offer by instigating a series of violent clashes with the Czechoslovakian police that led to the declaration of marthe Sudetenland region of Czechoslovakia.[202] tial law in certain Sudeten districts.[207][208] On 28–29 March 1938, Hitler held a series of secret meetings in Berlin with Konrad Henlein of the Sudeten Germany was dependent on imported oil; a confrontaHeimfront (Home Front), the largest of the ethnic Ger- tion with Britain over the Czechoslovakian dispute could call man parties of the Sudetenland. The men agreed that curtail Germany’s oil supplies. This forced Hitler to [209] off Fall Grün, originally planned for 1 October 1938. Henlein would demand increased autonomy for Sudeten Germans from the Czechoslovakian government, thus On 29 September Hitler, Neville Chamberlain, Édouard providing a pretext for German military action against Daladier, and Mussolini attended a one-day conference in which handed Czechoslovakia. In April 1938 Henlein told the foreign Munich that led to the Munich Agreement, [210][211] over the Sudetenland districts to Germany. minister of Hungary that “whatever the Czech government might offer, he would always raise still higher de- Chamberlain was satisfied with the Munich conference, mands ... he wanted to sabotage an understanding by calling the outcome "peace for our time", while Hitler any means because this was the only method to blow up was angered about the missed opportunity for war in

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1938;[212][213] he expressed his disappointment in a speech on 9 October in Saarbrücken.[214] In Hitler’s view, the British-brokered peace, although favourable to the ostensible German demands, was a diplomatic defeat which spurred his intent of limiting British power to pave the way for the eastern expansion of Germany.[215][216] As a result of the summit, Hitler was selected Time magazine’s Man of the Year for 1938.[217] In late 1938 and early 1939, the continuing economic crisis caused by rearmament forced Hitler to make major defence cuts.[218] In his “Export or die” speech of 30 January 1939, he called for an economic oﬀensive to increase German foreign exchange holdings to pay for raw materials such as high-grade iron needed for military weapons.[218] On 15 March 1939, in violation of the Munich accord and possibly as a result of the deepening economic crisis requiring additional assets,[219] Hitler ordered the Wehrmacht to invade Prague, and from Prague Castle he proclaimed Bohemia and Moravia a German protectorate.[220]

19.5.2

Start of World War II

In private discussions in 1939, Hitler declared Britain the main enemy to be defeated and that Poland’s obliteration was a necessary prelude for that goal. The eastern flank would be secured and land would be added to Germany’s Lebensraum.[221] Offended by the British “guarantee” on 31 March 1939 of Polish independence, he said, “I shall brew them a devil’s drink”.[222] In a speech in Wilhelmshaven for the launch of the battleship Tirpitz on 1 April, he threatened to denounce the Anglo-German Naval Agreement if the British continued to guarantee Polish independence, which he perceived as an “encirclement” policy.[222] Poland was to either become a German satellite state or be neutralised to secure the Reich’s eastern flank and to prevent a possible British blockade.[223] Hitler initially favoured the idea of a satellite state, but upon its rejection by the Polish government, he decided to invade and made this the main foreign policy goal of 1939.[224] On 3 April, Hitler ordered the military to prepare for Fall Weiss (“Case White”), the plan for invading Poland on 25 August.[224] In a Reichstag speech on 28 April, he renounced both the Anglo-German Naval Agreement and the German– Polish Non-Aggression Pact. In August, Hitler told his generals that his original plan for 1939 was to “establish an acceptable relationship with Poland in order to fight against the West”.[225] Historians such as William Carr, Gerhard Weinberg, and Kershaw have argued that one reason for Hitler’s rush to war was his fear of an early death.[226][227][228]

Hitler portrayed on a 42 pfennig stamp from 1944. The term Grossdeutsches Reich (Greater German Reich) was ﬁrst used in 1943 for the expanded Germany under his rule.

don, Joachim von Ribbentrop, assured him that neither Britain nor France would honour their commitments to Poland.[230][231] Accordingly, on 22 August 1939 Hitler ordered a military mobilisation against Poland.[232] This plan required tacit Soviet support,[233] and the nonaggression pact (the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact) between Germany and the Soviet Union, led by Joseph Stalin, included a secret agreement to partition Poland between the two countries.[234] Contrary to Ribbentrop’s prediction that Britain would sever Anglo-Polish ties, Britain and Poland signed the Anglo-Polish alliance on 25 August 1939. This, along with news from Italy that Mussolini would not honour the Pact of Steel, prompted Hitler to postpone the attack on Poland from 25 August to 1 September.[235] Hitler unsuccessfully tried to manoeuvre the British into neutrality by oﬀering them a nonaggression guarantee on 25 August; he then instructed Ribbentrop to present a last-minute peace plan with an impossibly short time limit in an eﬀort to blame the imminent war on British and Polish inaction.[236][237]

Despite his concerns over a British intervention, Hitler continued to pursue the planned invasion of Poland.[238] On 1 September 1939, Germany invaded western Poland under the pretext of having been denied claims to the Free City of Danzig and the right to extraterritorial roads across the Polish Corridor, which Germany had ceded under the Versailles Treaty.[239] In response, Britain and France declared war on Germany on 3 September, surHitler was concerned that a military attack against Poland prising Hitler and prompting him to angrily ask Ribbencould result in a premature war with Britain.[223][229] trop, “Now what?"[240] France and Britain did not act on Hitler’s foreign minister and former Ambassador to Lon- their declarations immediately, and on 17 September, So-

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viet forces invaded eastern Poland.[241]

Hitler reviews troops on the march during the campaign against Poland. September 1939

The fall of Poland was followed by what contemporary journalists dubbed the "Phoney War" or Sitzkrieg (“sitting war”). Hitler instructed the two newly appointed Gauleiters of north-western Poland, Albert Forster of Reichsgau Danzig-West Prussia and Arthur Greiser of Reichsgau Wartheland, to Germanise their areas, with “no questions asked” about how this was accomplished.[242] Whereas Polish citizens in Forster’s area merely had to sign forms stating that they had German blood,[243] Greiser carried out a brutal ethnic cleansing campaign on the Polish population in his purview.[242] Greiser complained that Forster was allowing thousands of Poles to be accepted as “racial” Germans and thus endangered German “racial purity”. Hitler refrained from getting involved.[242] This inaction has been advanced as an example of the theory of “working towards the Führer": Hitler issued vague instructions and expected his subordinates to work out policies on their own. Another dispute pitched one side represented by Himmler and Greiser, who championed ethnic cleansing in Poland, against another represented by Göring and Hans Frank, governor-general of the General Government territory of occupied Poland, who called for turning Poland into the “granary” of the Reich.[244] On 12 February 1940, the dispute was initially settled in favour of the Göring–Frank view, which ended the economically disruptive mass expulsions.[244] On 15 May 1940, Himmler issued a memo entitled “Some Thoughts on the Treatment of Alien Population in the East”, calling for the expulsion of the entire Jewish population of Europe into Africa and reducing the Polish population to a “leaderless class of labourers”.[244] Hitler called Himmler’s memo “good and correct”,[244] and, ignoring Göring and Frank, implemented the Himmler–Greiser policy in Poland.

Hitler visits Paris with architect Albert Speer (left) and sculptor Arno Breker (right), 23 June 1940

a “racially pure” polity under German leadership.[245] In May 1940, Germany attacked France, and conquered Luxembourg, the Netherlands, and Belgium. These victories prompted Mussolini to have Italy join forces with Hitler on 10 June. France and Germany signed an armistice on 22 June.[246] Kershaw notes that Hitler’s popularity within Germany—and German support for the war— reached its peak when he returned to Berlin on 6 July from his tour of Paris.[247] Following the unexpected swift victory, Hitler promoted twelve generals to the rank of ﬁeld marshal during the 1940 Field Marshal Ceremony.[248][249]

Britain, whose troops were forced to evacuate France by sea from Dunkirk,[250] continued to ﬁght alongside other British dominions in the Battle of the Atlantic. Hitler made peace overtures to the new British leader, Winston Churchill, and upon their rejection he ordered a series of aerial attacks on Royal Air Force airbases and radar stations in South-East England. The German Luftwaﬀe failed to defeat the Royal Air Force in what became known as the Battle of Britain.[251] By the end of October, Hitler realised that air superiority for the invasion of Britain—in Operation Sea Lion—could not be achieved, cities, including Hitler began a military build-up on Germany’s west- and he ordered nightly air raids on British [252] London, Plymouth, and Coventry. ern border, and in April 1940, German forces invaded Denmark and Norway. On 9 April, Hitler proclaimed On 27 September 1940, the Tripartite Pact was signed in the birth of the Greater Germanic Reich, his vision of a Berlin by Saburō Kurusu of Imperial Japan, Hitler, and united empire of the Germanic nations of Europe, where Italian foreign minister Ciano,[253] and later expanded to the Dutch, Flemish, and Scandinavians were joined into include Hungary, Romania, and Bulgaria, thus yielding

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243

the Axis powers. Hitler’s attempt to integrate the Soviet Union into the anti-British bloc failed after inconclusive talks between Hitler and Molotov in Berlin in November, and he ordered preparations for a full-scale invasion of the Soviet Union.[254]

to do with the Jews of Russia?", to which Hitler replied, “als Partisanen auszurotten” (“exterminate them as partisans”).[264] Israeli historian Yehuda Bauer has commented that the remark is probably as close as historians will ever get to a definitive order from Hitler for [264] In the Spring of 1941, German forces were deployed the genocide carried out during the Holocaust. to North Africa, the Balkans, and the Middle East. In late 1942, German forces were defeated in the second In February, German forces arrived in Libya to bol- battle of El Alamein,[265] thwarting Hitler’s plans to seize ster the Italian presence. In April, Hitler launched the the Suez Canal and the Middle East. Overconfident in invasion of Yugoslavia, quickly followed by the invasion his own military expertise following the earlier victoof Greece.[255] In May, German forces were sent to sup- ries in 1940, Hitler became distrustful of his Army High port Iraqi rebel forces fighting against the British and to Command and began to interfere in military and tactical invade Crete.[256] planning with damaging consequences.[266] In December 1942 and January 1943, Hitler’s repeated refusal to allow their withdrawal at the Battle of Stalingrad led to the 19.5.3 Path to defeat almost total destruction of the 6th Army. Over 200,000 Axis soldiers were killed and 235,000 were taken prisOn 22 June 1941, contravening the Hitler–Stalin Non- oner. Of the estimated 91,000 German soldiers captured Aggression Pact of 1939, 4–5 million Axis troops at- in the city itself, only around 6,000 survived captivity and tacked the Soviet Union.[257] This large-scale offen- returned to Germany after the war.[267] Thereafter came sive (codenamed Operation Barbarossa) was intended a decisive strategic defeat at the Battle of Kursk.[268] to destroy the Soviet Union and seize its natural re- Hitler’s military judgement became increasingly erratic, sources for subsequent aggression against the Western and Germany’s military and economic position deteriopowers.[258][259] The invasion conquered a huge area, in- rated along with Hitler’s health.[269] cluding the Baltic republics, Belarus, and West Ukraine. After the successful Battle of Smolensk, Hitler ordered Army Group Centre to halt its advance to Moscow and temporarily diverted its Panzer groups north and south to aid in the encirclement of Leningrad and Kiev.[260] His generals disagreed with this change of targets, and his decision caused a major crisis among the military leadership.[261][262] The pause provided the Red Army with an opportunity to mobilise fresh reserves; historian Russel Stolfi considers it to be one of the major factors that caused the failure of the Moscow offensive, which was resumed only in October 1941 and ended disastrously in December.[260] The destroyed map room at the Wolf’s Lair after the 20 July plot

Hitler, announcing the declaration of war against the United States to the Reichstag, on 11 December 1941

Following the allied invasion of Sicily in 1943, Mussolini was removed from power by Victor Emmanuel III after a vote of no conﬁdence of the Grand Council. Marshal Pietro Badoglio, placed in charge of the government, soon surrendered to the Allies.[270] Throughout 1943 and 1944, the Soviet Union steadily forced Hitler’s armies into retreat along the Eastern Front. On 6 June 1944, the Western Allied armies landed in northern France in what was one of the largest amphibious operations in history, Operation Overlord.[271] As a result of these significant setbacks for the German army, many of its oﬃcers concluded that defeat was inevitable and that Hitler’s misjudgement or denial would drag out the war and result in the complete destruction of the country.[272]

On 7 December 1941, Japan attacked the American ﬂeet Between 1939 and 1945, there were many plans to based at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii. Four days later, Hitler assassinate Hitler, some of which proceeded to signiﬁformally declared war against the United States.[263] cant degrees.[273] The most well known came from within On 18 December 1941, Himmler asked Hitler, “What Germany and was at least partly driven by the increasing

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prospect of a German defeat in the war.[274] In July 1944, in the 20 July plot, part of Operation Valkyrie, Claus von Stauffenberg planted a bomb in one of Hitler’s headquarters, the Wolf’s Lair at Rastenburg. Hitler narrowly survived because staff officer Heinz Brandt moved the briefcase containing the bomb behind a leg of the heavy conference table. When the bomb exploded, the table deflected much of the blast away. It was also lessened by the open windows. Later, Hitler ordered savage reprisals resulting in the execution of more than 4,900 people.[275] Hitler on 25 April 1945 in his last public appearance, in the garden of the Reich Chancellery, five days before he and Eva Braun committed suicide.

19.5.4

Defeat and death

Main article: Death of Adolf Hitler By late 1944, both the Red Army and the Western Allies were advancing into Germany. Recognising the strength and determination of the Red Army, Hitler decided to use his remaining mobile reserves against the American and British troops, which he perceived as far weaker.[276] On 16 December, he launched an offensive in the Ardennes to incite disunity among the Western Allies and perhaps convince them to join his fight against the Soviets.[277] The offensive failed after some initial but temporary successes.[278] With much of Germany in ruins in January 1945, Hitler spoke on the radio to say: “However grave as the crisis may be at this moment, it will, despite everything, be mastered by our unalterable will.”[279] Hitler’s hope to negotiate peace with the United States and Britain was encouraged by the death of Franklin D. Roosevelt on 12 April 1945, but contrary to his expectations, this caused no rift among the Allies.[277][280] Acting on his view that Germany’s military failures had forfeited its right to survive as a nation, Hitler ordered the destruction of all German industrial infrastructure before it could fall into Allied hands.[281] Minister for Armaments Albert Speer was entrusted with executing this scorched earth policy, but he secretly disobeyed the order.[281][282] On 20 April, his 56th birthday, Hitler made his last trip from the Führerbunker (“Führer’s shelter”) to the surface. In the ruined garden of the Reich Chancellery, he awarded Iron Crosses to boy soldiers of the Hitler Youth, who were now fighting the Red Army at the front near Berlin.[283] By 21 April, Georgy Zhukov's 1st Belorussian Front had broken through the defences of General Gotthard Heinrici's Army Group Vistula during the Battle of the Seelow Heights and advanced to the outskirts of Berlin.[284] In denial about the dire situation, Hitler placed his hopes on the undermanned and under-equipped Armeeabteilung Steiner (Army Detachment Steiner), commanded by Waffen SS General Felix Steiner. Hitler ordered Steiner to attack the northern flank of the salient, while the German Ninth Army was ordered to attack northward in a pincer attack.[285]

Front page of the US Armed Forces newspaper, Stars and Stripes, 2 May 1945, announcing Hitler’s death During a military conference on 22 April, Hitler asked about Steiner’s oﬀensive. He was told that the attack had not been launched and that the Soviets had entered Berlin. Hitler asked everyone except Wilhelm Keitel, Alfred Jodl, Hans Krebs, and Wilhelm Burgdorf to leave the room,[286] then launched into a tirade against the treachery and incompetence of his commanders, culminating in his declaration—for the ﬁrst time—that “everything was lost”.[257] He announced that he would stay in Berlin until the end and then shoot himself.[287] By 23 April the Red Army had completely surrounded Berlin,[288] and Goebbels made a proclamation urging its citizens to defend the city.[286] That same day, Göring sent a telegram from Berchtesgaden, arguing that since Hitler was isolated in Berlin, Göring should assume leadership of Germany. Göring set a deadline after which he would consider Hitler incapacitated.[289] Hitler responded by having Göring arrested, and in his last will and testament, written on 29 April, he removed Göring from all government positions.[290][291] On 28 April Hitler discovered that Himmler, who had left Berlin on 20 April, was trying to discuss surrender terms with the Western Allies.[292][293] He ordered Himmler’s arrest and had Hermann Fegelein (Himmler’s SS representative at Hitler’s HQ in Berlin) shot.[294] After midnight on 29 April, Hitler married Eva Braun

19.5. WORLD WAR II

245

in a small civil ceremony in the Führerbunker. After a modest wedding breakfast with his new wife, Hitler took secretary Traudl Junge to another room and dictated his will.[295][lower-alpha 2] The event was witnessed and documents signed by Krebs, Burgdorf, Goebbels, and Bormann.[296] Later that afternoon, Hitler was informed of the execution of Mussolini, which presumably increased his determination to avoid capture.[297] On 30 April 1945, after intense street-to-street combat, when Soviet troops were within a block or two of the Reich Chancellery, Hitler shot himself and Braun bit into a cyanide capsule.[298][299] Their bodies were carried up the stairs and through the bunker’s emergency exit to the bombed-out garden behind the Reich Chancellery, where they were placed in a bomb crater and doused with petrol.[300] The corpses were set on fire as the Red Army shelling continued.[301][302] Grand Admiral Karl Dönitz and Joseph Goebbels assumed Hitler’s roles as head of state and chancellor respectively.[303] Berlin surrendered on 2 May. Records in the Soviet archives, obtained after the fall of the Soviet Union, state that the remains of Hitler, Braun, Joseph and Magda Goebbels, the six Goebbels children, General Hans Krebs, and Hitler’s dogs were repeatedly buried and exhumed.[304] On 4 April 1970, a Soviet KGB team used detailed burial charts to exhume five wooden boxes at the SMERSH facility in Magdeburg. The remains from the boxes were burned, crushed, and scattered into the Biederitz river, a tributary of the nearby Elbe.[305] According to Kershaw the corpses of Braun and Hitler were fully burned when the Red Army found them, and only a lower jaw with dental work could be identified as Hitler’s remains.[306]

19.5.5

A wagon piled high with corpses outside the crematorium in the liberated Buchenwald concentration camp (April 1945)

Plan East”) called for deporting the population of occupied Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union to West Siberia, for use as slave labour or to be murdered;[309] the conquered territories were to be colonised by German or “Germanised” settlers.[310] The goal was to implement this plan after the conquest of the Soviet Union, but when this failed, Hitler moved the plans forward.[309][311] By January 1942, it had been decided to kill the Jews, Slavs, and other deportees considered undesirable.[312][lower-alpha 3]

The Holocaust

Main article: The Holocaust

If the international Jewish ﬁnanciers in and outside Europe should succeed in plunging the nations once more into a world war, then the result will not be the Bolshevisation of the earth, and thus the victory of Jewry, but the annihilation of the Jewish race in Europe![307] — Adolf Hitler addressing the German Reichstag, 30 January 1939

The Holocaust and Germany’s war in the East was based on Hitler’s long-standing view that the Jews were the great enemy of the German people and that Lebensraum was needed for the expansion of Germany. He focused on Eastern Europe for this expansion, aiming to defeat Poland and the Soviet Union and on removing or killing the Jews and Slavs.[308] The Generalplan Ost (“General

Hitler’s order for Action T4, dated 1 September 1939

The Holocaust (also known as the "Endlösung der Judenfrage" or “Final Solution of the Jewish Question”) was ordered by Hitler and organised and executed by Heinrich

246 Himmler and Reinhard Heydrich. The records of the Wannsee Conference, held on 20 January 1942 and led by Heydrich, with fifteen senior Nazi officials participating, provide the clearest evidence of systematic planning for the Holocaust. On 22 February, Hitler was recorded saying, “we shall regain our health only by eliminating the Jews”.[313] Although no direct order from Hitler authorising the mass killings has surfaced,[314] his public speeches, orders to his generals, and the diaries of Nazi officials demonstrate that he conceived and authorised the extermination of European Jewry.[315][316] He approved the Einsatzgruppen—killing squads that followed the German army through Poland, the Baltic, and the Soviet Union[317] —and he was well informed about their activities.[315][318] By summer 1942, Auschwitz concentration camp was rapidly expanded to accommodate large numbers of deportees for killing or enslavement.[319] Scores of other concentration camps and satellite camps were set up throughout Europe, with several camps devoted exclusively to extermination.[320] Between 1939 and 1945, the Schutzstaffel (SS), assisted by collaborationist governments and recruits from occupied countries, was responsible for the deaths of at least eleven million people,[321][309] including 5.5 to 6 million Jews (representing two-thirds of the Jewish population of Europe),[322][323] and between 200,000 and 1,500,000 Romani people.[324][323] Deaths took place in concentration and extermination camps, ghettos, and through mass executions. Many victims of the Holocaust were gassed to death, whereas others died of starvation or disease or while working as slave labourers.[325] In addition to eliminating Jews, the Nazis also planned to reduce the population of the conquered territories by 30 million people through starvation in an action called the Hunger Plan. Food supplies would be diverted to the German army and German civilians. Cities would be razed and the land allowed to return to forest or resettled by German colonists.[326] Together, the Hunger Plan and Generalplan Ost would have led to the starvation of 80 million people in the Soviet Union.[327] These partially fulfilled plans resulted in the democidal deaths of an estimated 19.3 million civilians and prisoners of war.[328] Hitler’s policies also resulted in the killing of nearly two million Poles,[329] over three million Soviet prisoners of war,[330] communists and other political opponents, homosexuals, the physically and mentally disabled,[331][332] Jehovah’s Witnesses, Adventists, and trade unionists. Hitler did not speak publicly about the killings, and seems never to have visited the concentration camps.[333] The Nazis also embraced the concept of racial hygiene. On 15 September 1935, Hitler presented two laws—known as the Nuremberg Laws—to the Reichstag. The laws banned sexual relations and marriages between Aryans and Jews and were later extended to include “Gypsies, Negroes or their bastard offspring”.[334] The laws also stripped all non-Aryans of their German citizenship and forbade the employment of non-Jewish women

CHAPTER 19. ADOLF HITLER under the age of 45 in Jewish households.[335] Hitler’s early eugenic policies targeted children with physical and developmental disabilities in a programme dubbed Action Brandt, and later authorised a euthanasia programme for adults with serious mental and physical disabilities, now referred to as Action T4.[336]

19.6 Leadership style Hitler ruled the NSDAP autocratically by asserting the Führerprinzip (“Leader principle”). The principle relied on absolute obedience of all subordinates to their superiors; thus he viewed the government structure as a pyramid, with himself—the infallible leader—at the apex. Rank in the party was not determined by elections— positions were filled through appointment by those of higher rank, who demanded unquestioning obedience to the will of the leader.[337] Hitler’s leadership style was to give contradictory orders to his subordinates and to place them into positions where their duties and responsibilities overlapped with those of others, to have “the stronger one [do] the job”.[338] In this way, Hitler fostered distrust, competition, and infighting among his subordinates to consolidate and maximise his own power. His cabinet never met after 1938, and he discouraged his ministers from meeting independently.[339][340] Hitler typically did not give written orders; instead he communicated them verbally, or had them conveyed through his close associate, Martin Bormann.[341] He entrusted Bormann with his paperwork, appointments, and personal finances; Bormann used his position to control the flow of information and access to Hitler.[342] Hitler dominated his country’s war effort during World War II to a greater extent than any other national leader. He assumed the role of supreme commander of the armed forces during 1938, and subsequently made all major decisions regarding Germany’s military strategy. His decision to mount a risky series of offensives against Norway, France and the Low Countries in 1940 against the advice of the military proved successful, though the diplomatic and military strategies he employed in attempts to force the United Kingdom out of the war ended in failure.[343] Hitler deepened his involvement in the war effort by appointing himself commander-in-chief of the Army in December 1941; from this point forward he personally directed the war against the Soviet Union, while his military commanders facing the Western Allies retained a degree of autonomy.[344] Hitler’s leadership became increasingly disconnected from reality as the war turned against Germany, with the military’s defensive strategies often hindered by his slow decision making and frequent directives to hold untenable positions. Nevertheless, he continued to believe that only his leadership could deliver victory.[343] In the final months of the war Hitler refused to consider peace negotiations, regarding the complete destruction of Germany as preferable to surrender.[345]

19.8. VIEWS ON RELIGION

247

The military did not challenge Hitler’s dominance of the millions more grieving their lost ones ...”.[352] The towar effort, and senior officers generally supported and tal number of civilians killed during the Second World enacted his decisions.[346] War was an unprecedented development in the history of warfare.[355] Historians, philosophers, and politicians often use the word "evil" to describe the Nazi regime.[356] Many European countries have criminalised both the pro19.7 Legacy motion of Nazism and Holocaust denial.[357] Further information: Consequences of Nazism and Neo- Historian Friedrich Meinecke described Hitler as “one of the great examples of the singular and incalculable Nazism [358] English hisHitler’s suicide was likened by contemporaries to a power of personality in historical life”. torian Hugh Trevor-Roper saw him as “among the 'terrible simplifiers’ of history, the most systematic, the most historical, the most philosophical, and yet the coarsest, cruelest, least magnanimous conqueror the world has ever known”.[359] For the historian John M. Roberts, Hitler’s defeat marked the end of a phase of European history dominated by Germany.[360] In its place emerged the Cold War, a global confrontation between the Western Bloc, dominated by the United States and other NATO nations, and the Eastern Bloc, dominated by the Soviet Union.[361] Historian Sebastian Haffner avers that without Hitler and the displacement of the Jews, the modern nation state of Israel would not exist. He contends that without Hitler, the de-colonisation of former European spheres of influence would not have occurred as quickly [362] Further, Haffner Outside the building in Braunau am Inn, Austria, where Hitler and would have been postponed. claims that other than Alexander the Great, Hitler had was born, is a memorial stone placed as a reminder of the a more significant impact than any other comparable hishorrors of World War II. The inscription translates as: torical figure, in that he too caused a wide range of worldFor peace, freedom wide changes in a relatively short time span.[363] and democracy never again fascism millions of dead remind [us]

“spell” being broken.[347][348] Public support for Hitler had collapsed by the time of his death and few Germans mourned his passing; Kershaw argues that most civilians and military personnel were too busy adjusting to the collapse of the country or fleeing from the fighting to take any interest.[349] According to historian John Toland, National Socialism “burst like a bubble” without its leader.[350] Hitler’s actions and Nazi ideology are almost universally regarded as gravely immoral;[351] according to Kershaw, “Never in history has such ruination—physical and moral—been associated with the name of one man”.[352] Hitler’s political programme brought about a world war, leaving behind a devastated and impoverished Eastern and Central Europe. Germany itself suffered wholesale destruction, characterised as "Zero Hour".[353] Hitler’s policies inflicted human suffering on an unprecedented scale;[354] according to R.J. Rummel, the Nazi regime was responsible for the democidal killing of an estimated 19.3 million civilians and prisoners of war.[321] In addition, 29 million soldiers and civilians died as a result of military action in the European Theatre of World War II,[321] and Hitler’s role has been described as "... the main author of a war leaving over 50 million dead and

19.8 Views on religion Main article: Religious views of Adolf Hitler Hitler was born to a practising Catholic mother and an anticlerical father; after leaving home Hitler never again attended Mass or received the sacraments.[364][365][366] Speer states that Hitler made harsh pronouncements against the church to his political associates and though he never officially left it, he had no attachment to it.[367] He adds that Hitler felt that in the absence of the church the faithful would turn to mysticism, which he considered a step backwards.[367] According to Speer, Hitler believed that either Japanese religious beliefs or Islam would have been a more suitable religion for the Germans than Christianity, with its “meekness and flabbiness”.[368] Historian John S. Conway states that Hitler was fundamentally opposed to the Christian churches.[369] According to Bullock, Hitler did not believe in God, was anticlerical, and held Christian ethics in contempt because they contravened his preferred view of "survival of the fittest".[370] He favoured aspects of Protestantism that suited his own views, and adopted some elements of the Catholic Church’s hierarchical organisation, liturgy, and

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phraseology in his politics.[371] Hitler viewed the church as an important politically conservative inﬂuence on society,[372] and he adopted a strategic relationship with it that “suited his immediate political purposes”.[369] In public, Hitler often praised Christian heritage and German Christian culture, though professing a belief in an “Aryan Jesus”, one who fought against the Jews.[373] Any pro-Christian public rhetoric was at variance with his personal beliefs, which described Christianity as “absurdity”[374] and nonsense founded on lies.[375]

sometimes gave graphic accounts of the slaughter of animals in an effort to make his dinner guests shun meat.[392] Bormann had a greenhouse constructed near the Berghof (near Berchtesgaden) to ensure a steady supply of fresh fruit and vegetables for Hitler throughout the war.[393] Hitler publicly avoided alcohol. He occasionally drank beer and wine in private, but gave up drinking because of weight gain in 1943.[394] He was a non-smoker for most of his life, but smoked heavily in his youth (25 to 40 cigarettes a day). He eventually quit, calling the habit “a waste of money”.[395] He encouraged his close associates to quit by offering a gold watch to any who were able to break the habit.[396] Hitler began using amphetamine occasionally after 1937 and became addicted to it in late 1942.[397] Speer linked this use of amphetamine to Hitler’s increasingly inflexible decision making (for example, rarely allowing military retreats).[398]

According to a U.S. Office of Strategic Services report, “The Nazi Master Plan”, Hitler planned to destroy the influence of Christian churches within the Reich.[376][377] His eventual goal was the total elimination of Christianity.[378] This goal informed Hitler’s movement very early on, but he saw it as inexpedient to express this extreme position publicly.[379] According to Bullock, Prescribed 90 medications during the war years, Hitler day for chronic stomach problems Hitler wanted to wait until after the war before executing took many pills each [399] and other ailments. He suffered ruptured eardrums [380] this plan. as a result of the 20 July plot bomb blast in 1944, and Speer wrote that Hitler had a negative view of Himm- 200 wood splinters had to be removed from his legs.[400] ler’s and Alfred Rosenberg's mystical notions and Himm- Newsreel footage of Hitler shows tremors of his hand ler’s attempt to mythologise the SS. Hitler was more and a shuffling walk, which began before the war and pragmatic, and his ambitions centred on more practical worsened towards the end of his life. Hitler’s personal concerns.[381][382] physician, Theodor Morell, treated Hitler with a drug that was commonly prescribed in 1945 for Parkinson’s disease. Ernst-Günther Schenck and several other doctors who met Hitler in the last weeks of his life also formed a 19.9 Health diagnosis of Parkinson’s disease.[399][401][257] See also: Psychopathography of Adolf Hitler Researchers have variously suggested that Hitler suffered from irritable bowel syndrome, skin lesions, irregular heartbeat, coronary sclerosis,[383] Parkinson’s disease,[269][384] syphilis,[384] and tinnitus.[385] In a report prepared for the Office of Strategic Services in 1943, Walter C. Langer of Harvard University described Hitler as a “neurotic psychopath".[386] In his 1977 book The Psychopathic God: Adolf Hitler, historian Robert G. L. Waite proposes that Hitler suffered from borderline personality disorder.[387] Historians Henrik Eberle and HansJoachim Neumann consider that while Hitler suffered from a number of illnesses including Parkinson’s disease, he did not experience pathological delusions and was always fully aware of, and therefore responsible for, the decisions he was making.[388][257] Theories about Hitler’s medical condition are difficult to prove, and placing too much weight on them may have the effect of attributing many of the events and consequences of Nazi Germany to the possibly impaired physical health of one individual.[389] Kershaw feels that it is better to take a broader view of German history by examining what social forces led to the Nazi dictatorship and its policies rather than to pursue narrow explanations for the Holocaust and World War II based on only one person.[390] Hitler followed a vegetarian diet.[391]

19.10 Family Main articles: Hitler family and Sexuality of Adolf Hitler Hitler created a public image as a celibate man without

Hitler in 1942 with his long-time lover, Eva Braun, whom he married on 29 April 1945

a domestic life, dedicated entirely to his political mission and the nation.[129][402] He met his lover, Eva Braun, in 1929,[403] and married her in April 1945.[404] In SeptemAt social events he ber 1931, his half-niece, Geli Raubal, committed suicide

19.13. NOTES with Hitler’s gun in his Munich apartment. It was rumoured among contemporaries that Geli was in a romantic relationship with him, and her death was a source of deep, lasting pain.[405] Paula Hitler, the last living member of his immediate family, died in 1960.[406]

249 • Karl Wilhelm Krause – personal valet • List of books by or about Adolf Hitler • Mein Kampf (online versions) • Streets named after Adolf Hitler

19.11 In propaganda ﬁlms See also: Adolf Hitler in popular culture and List of speeches given by Adolf Hitler Hitler exploited documentary ﬁlms and newsreels to in-

• Toothbrush moustache – also known as a 'Hitler moustache', a style of facial hair

19.13 Notes [1] Hitler also won settlement from a libel suit against the socialist paper the Münchener Post, which had questioned his lifestyle and income. Kershaw 2008, p. 99. [2] MI5, Hitler’s Last Days: “Hitler’s will and marriage” on the website of MI5, using the sources available to TrevorRoper (a World War II MI5 agent and historian/author of The Last Days of Hitler), records the marriage as taking place after Hitler had dictated his last will and testament. [3] For a summary of recent scholarship on Hitler’s central role in the Holocaust, see McMillan 2012.

19.14 References Film of Hitler at Berchtesgaden (c. 1941)

spire a cult of personality. He was involved and appeared in a series of propaganda ﬁlms throughout his political career—such as Der Sieg des Glaubens and Triumph des Willens—made by Leni Riefenstahl, regarded as a pioneer of modern ﬁlmmaking.[407]

19.11.1

List of propaganda and ﬁlm appearances

19.14.1 Citations [1] NS-Archiv, 7 April 1925. [2] Bullock 1999, p. 24. [3] Maser 1973, p. 4. [4] Maser 1973, p. 15. [5] Kershaw 1999, p. 5.

• Der Sieg des Glaubens (Victory of Faith, 1933)

[6] Jetzinger 1976, p. 32.

• Triumph des Willens (Triumph of the Will, 1935)

[7] Rosenbaum 1999.

• Tag der Freiheit: Unsere Wehrmacht (Day of Freedom: Our Armed Forces, 1935)

[8] Hamann 2010, p. 50.

• Olympia (1938)

[9] Toland 1992, pp. 246–247. [10] Kershaw 1999, pp. 8–9. [11] House of Responsibility.

19.12 See also

[12] Shirer 1960, pp. 6–9.

• Führermuseum

[13] Rosmus 2004, p. 33.

• List of Adolf Hitler’s personal staﬀ

[14] Keller 2010, p. 15.

• Hitler and Mannerheim recording

[15] Hamann 2010, pp. 7–8.

• Julius Schaub – chief aide • Karl Mayr – Hitler’s superior in army Intelligence 1919–1920

[16] Kubizek 2006, p. 37. [17] Kubizek 2006, p. 92. [18] Hitler 1999, p. 6.

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[19] Fromm 1977, pp. 493–498.

[57] Weber 2010, p. 100.

[20] Shirer 1960, pp. 10–11.

[58] Shirer 1960, p. 30.

[21] Payne 1990, p. 22.

[59] Kershaw 2008, p. 59.

[22] Kershaw 2008, p. 9.

[60] Weber 2010a.

[23] Hitler 1999, p. 8.

[61] Steiner 1976, p. 392.

[24] Keller 2010, pp. 33–34.

[62] Kershaw 2008, p. 57.

[25] Fest 1977, p. 32.

[63] Kershaw 2008, p. 58.

[26] Kershaw 2008, p. 8.

[64] Kershaw 2008, pp. 59, 60.

[27] Hitler 1999, p. 10.

[65] Kershaw 1999, pp. 97, 102.

[28] Evans 2003, pp. 163–164.

[66] Keegan 1987, pp. 238–240.

[29] Bendersky 2000, p. 26.

[67] Bullock 1962, p. 60.

[30] Ryschka 2008, p. 35.

[68] Kershaw 2008, pp. 61, 62.

[31] Hamann 2010, p. 13.

[69] Kershaw 2008, pp. 61–63.

[32] Kershaw 2008, p. 10.

[70] Kershaw 2008, p. 96.

[33] Kershaw 1999, p. 19.

[71] Kershaw 2008, pp. 80, 90, 92.

[34] Kershaw 1999, p. 20.

[72] Bullock 1999, p. 61.

[35] Hitler 1999, p. 20.

[73] Kershaw 1999, p. 109.

[36] Bullock 1962, pp. 30–31.

[74] Kershaw 2008, p. 82.

[37] Bullock 1962, p. 31.

[75] Stackelberg 2007, p. 9.

[38] Bullock 1999, pp. 30–33.

[76] Mitcham 1996, p. 67.

[39] Shirer 1960, p. 26.

[77] Fest 1970, p. 21.

[40] Hamann 2010, pp. 243–246.

[78] Kershaw 2008, pp. 94, 95, 100.

[41] Nicholls 2000, pp. 236–237.

[79] Kershaw 2008, p. 87.

[42] Hamann 2010, pp. 341–345.

[80] Kershaw 2008, p. 88.

[43] Hamann 2010, p. 350.

[81] Kershaw 2008, p. 93.

[44] Kershaw 1999, pp. 60–67.

[82] Kershaw 2008, p. 81.

[45] Hitler 1999, p. 52.

[83] Kershaw 2008, p. 89.

[46] Shirer 1960, p. 25.

[84] Kershaw 2008, pp. 89–92.

[47] Hamann 2010, pp. 347–359.

[85] Kershaw 2008, pp. 100, 101.

[48] Kershaw 1999, p. 64.

[86] Kershaw 2008, p. 102.

[49] Evans 2011.

[87] Kershaw 2008, p. 103.

[50] Shirer 1960, p. 27.

[88] Kershaw 2008, pp. 83, 103.

[51] Weber 2010, p. 13.

[89] Bullock 1999, p. 376.

[52] Shirer 1960, p. 27, footnote.

[90] Frauenfeld 1937.

[53] Kershaw 1999, p. 90.

[91] Goebbels 1936.

[54] Weber 2010, pp. 12–13.

[92] Knickerbocker 1941, p. 46.

[55] Kershaw 2008, p. 53.

[93] Kershaw 2008, pp. 105–106.

[56] Kershaw 2008, p. 54.

[94] Bullock 1999, p. 377.

19.14. REFERENCES

251

[95] Kressel 2002, p. 121.

[133] Bullock 1962, p. 201.

[96] Heck 2001, p. 23.

[134] Hoﬀman 1989.

[97] Larson 2011, p. 157.

[135] Kershaw 2008, p. 227.

[98] Kershaw 1999, p. 367.

[136] Halperin 1965, pp. 477–479.

[99] Kellogg 2005, p. 275.

[137] Letter to Hindenburg, 1932.

[100] Kellogg 2005, p. 203.

[138] Fox News, 2003.

[101] Kershaw 2008, p. 126.

[139] Shirer 1960, p. 184.

[102] Kershaw 2008, p. 128.

[140] Evans 2003, p. 307.

[103] Kershaw 2008, p. 129.

[141] Bullock 1962, p. 262.

[104] Kershaw 2008, pp. 130–131.

[142] Kershaw 1999, pp. 456–458, 731–732.

[105] Shirer 1960, pp. 73–74.

[143] Shirer 1960, p. 192.

[106] Kershaw 2008, p. 132.

[144] Bullock 1999, p. 262.

[107] Kershaw 2008, p. 131.

[145] Shirer 1960, p. 194, 274.

[108] Munich Court, 1924.

[146] Shirer 1960, p. 194.

[109] Fulda 2009, pp. 68–69.

[147] Bullock 1962, p. 265.

[110] Kershaw 1999, p. 239.

[148] City of Potsdam.

[111] Bullock 1962, p. 121.

[149] Shirer 1960, pp. 196–197.

[112] Kershaw 2008, pp. 148–149.

[150] Shirer 1960, p. 198.

[113] Shirer 1960, pp. 80–81.

[151] Shirer 1960, p. 196.

[114] Kershaw 2008, pp. 158, 161, 162.

[152] Bullock 1999, p. 269.

[115] Kershaw 2008, pp. 162, 166.

[153] Shirer 1960, p. 199.

[116] Shirer 1960, p. 129.

[154] Time, 1934.

[117] Kershaw 2008, pp. 166, 167.

[155] Shirer 1960, p. 201.

[118] Shirer 1960, pp. 136–137.

[156] Shirer 1960, p. 202.

[119] Kolb 2005, pp. 224–225.

[157] Evans 2003, pp. 350–374.

[120] Kolb 1988, p. 105.

[158] Kershaw 2008, pp. 309–314.

[121] Halperin 1965, p. 403 et. seq.

[159] Tames 2008, pp. 4–5.

[122] Halperin 1965, pp. 434–446 et. seq.

[160] Kershaw 2008, pp. 313–315.

[123] Wheeler-Bennett 1967, p. 218.

[161] Overy 2005, p. 63.

[124] Wheeler-Bennett 1967, p. 216.

[162] Shirer 1960, pp. 226–227.

[125] Wheeler-Bennett 1967, pp. 218–219.

[163] Shirer 1960, p. 229.

[126] Wheeler-Bennett 1967, p. 222.

[164] Bullock 1962, p. 309.

[127] Halperin 1965, p. 449 et. seq.

[165] Shirer 1960, p. 230.

[128] Halperin 1965, pp. 434–436, 471.

[166] Kershaw 2008, pp. 392, 393.

[129] Shirer 1960, p. 130.

[167] Shirer 1960, p. 312.

[130] Hinrichs 2007.

[168] Kershaw 2008, pp. 393–397.

[131] Halperin 1965, p. 476.

[169] Shirer 1960, p. 308.

[132] Halperin 1965, pp. 468–471.

[170] Shirer 1960, pp. 318–319.

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[171] Kershaw 2008, pp. 397–398.

[209] Murray 1984, pp. 256–260.

[172] Shirer 1960, p. 274.

[210] Bullock 1962, p. 469.

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• Speer, Albert (1971) [1969]. Inside the Third Reich. New York: Avon. ISBN 978-0-380-00071-5. • Stackelberg, Roderick (2007). The Routledge Companion to Nazi Germany. New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-30860-1. • Steigmann-Gall, Richard (2003). The Holy Reich: Nazi Conceptions of Christianity, 1919–1945. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.2277/978-0-521-82371-5. ISBN 978-0-521-82371-5. • Steinberg, Jonathan (June 1995). “The Third Reich Reﬂected: German Civil Administration in the Occupied Soviet Union, 1941-4”. The English Historical Review 110 (437): 620–651. doi:10.1093/ehr/CX.437.620. OCLC 83655937. • Steiner, John Michael (1976). Power Politics and Social Change in National Socialist Germany: A Process of Escalation into Mass Destruction. The Hague: Mouton. ISBN 978-90-279-7651-2.

• Robertson, E. M. (1985). “Hitler Planning for War and the Response of the Great Powers”. In H.W, Koch. Aspects of the Third Reich. London: Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-312-05726-8.

• Stolﬁ, Russel (March 1982). “Barbarossa Revisited: A Critical Reappraisal of the Opening Stages of the Russo-German Campaign (June–December 1941)". The Journal of Modern History 54 (1): 27– 46. doi:10.1086/244076.

• Rosenbaum, Ron (1999). Explaining Hitler: The Search for the Origins of His Evil. Harper Perennial. ISBN 978-0-06-095339-3.

• Tames, Richard (2008). Dictatorship. Chicago: Heinemann Library. ISBN 978-1-4329-0234-6.

• Rosmus, Anna Elisabeth (2004). Out of Passau: Leaving a City Hitler Called Home. Columbia, S.C: University of South Carolina Press. ISBN 978-157003-508-1.

• Le Tissier, Tony (2010) [1999]. Race for the Reichstag. Pen & Sword. ISBN 978-1-84884-230-4. • Toland, John (1992) [1976]. Adolf Hitler. New York: Anchor Books. ISBN 978-0-385-42053-2.

19.14. REFERENCES • Vinogradov, V. K. (2005). Hitler’s Death: Russia’s Last Great Secret from the Files of the KGB. Chaucer Press. ISBN 978-1-904449-13-3. • Waite, Robert G. L. (1993) [1977]. The Psychopathic God: Adolf Hitler. New York: Da Capo Press. ISBN 0-306-80514-6. • Weber, Thomas (2010). Hitler’s First War: Adolf Hitler, The Men of the List Regiment, and the First World War. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-923320-5. • Weinberg, Gerhard (December 1955). “Hitler’s Private Testament of 2 May 1938”. The Journal of Modern History 27 (4): 415–419. doi:10.1086/237831. OCLC 482752575. • Weinberg, Gerhard (December 1964). “Hitler’s Image of the United States”. The American Historical Review 69 (4): 1006–1021. doi:10.2307/1842933. JSTOR 1842933. • Weinberg, Gerhard (1970). The Foreign Policy of Hitler’s Germany Diplomatic Revolution in Europe 1933–1936. Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-88509-4. • Weinberg, Gerhard (1980). The Foreign Policy of Hitler’s Germany Starting World War II. Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 9780-226-88511-7. • Weinberg, Gerhard (1995). “Hitler and England, 1933–1945: Pretense and Reality”. Germany, Hitler, and World War II: Essays in Modern German and World History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-47407-8. • Welch, David (2001). Hitler: Proﬁle of a Dictator. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-25075-7. • Wheeler-Bennett, John (1967). The Nemesis of Power. London: Macmillan. ISBN 978-1-40391812-3. • Wilt, Alan (December 1981). “Hitler’s Late Summer Pause in 1941”. Military Aﬀairs 45 (4): 187– 191. doi:10.2307/1987464. JSTOR 1987464. • Winkler, Heinrich August (2007). Germany: The Long Road West. Vol. 2, 1933–1990. Sager, Alexander (trans.). New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-926598-5. • Ziemke, Earl F. (1969). Battle for Berlin: End of the Third Reich. Ballantine’s Illustrated History of World War II. Battle Book #6. Ballantine Books. OCLC 23899. Online

259 • “1933 – Day of Potsdam”. City of Potsdam. Retrieved 13 June 2011. • Bazyler, Michael J. (25 December 2006). “Holocaust Denial Laws and Other Legislation Criminalizing Promotion of Nazism” (PDF). Yad Vashem. Retrieved 7 January 2013. • “Der Hitler-Prozeß vor dem Volksgericht in München” [The Hitler Trial Before the People’s Court in Munich] (in German). 1924. • “Documents: Bush’s Grandfather Directed Bank Tied to Man Who Funded Hitler”. Fox News. 17 October 2003. Retrieved 1 December 2014. • “Eingabe der Industriellen an Hindenburg vom November 1932” [Letter of the industrialists to Hindenburg, November 1932]. Glasnost–Archiv. Retrieved 16 October 2011. • Evans, Richard J. (22 June 2011). “How the First World War shaped Hitler”. The Globe and Mail (Phillip Crawley). Retrieved 23 September 2012. • Frauenfeld, A. E (August 1937). “The Power of Speech”. Calvin College. Retrieved 1 December 2014. • “Germany: Second Revolution?". Time Magazine (Time). 2 July 1934. Archived from the original on 17 April 2008. Retrieved 15 April 2013. • Glantz, David (11 October 2001). “The Soviet‐German War 1941–45: Myths and Realities: A Survey Essay” (PDF). Clemson, SC: Strom Thurmond Institute of Government and Public Affairs, Clemson University. Retrieved 12 December 2012. • Goebbels, Joseph (1936). “The Führer as a Speaker”. Calvin College. Retrieved 1 December 2014. • Gunkel, Christoph (4 February 2010). “Medicating a Madman: A Sober Look at Hitler’s Health”. Spiegel Online International. Retrieved 12 December 2013. • Hinrichs, Per (10 March 2007). “Des Führers Pass: Hitlers Einbürgerung” [The Führer’s Passport: Hitler’s Naturalisation] (in German). Spiegel Online. Retrieved 1 December 2014. • “Hitler ersucht um Entlassung aus der österreichischen Staatsangehörigkeit” [Hitler’s official application to end his Austrian citizenship] (in German). NS-Archiv. 7 April 1925. Retrieved 13 April 2012. • “Hitler’s Last Days”. mi5.gov.uk. MI5 Security Service. Retrieved 5 January 2012. • Hoffman, David (creator, writer) (1989). How Hitler Lost the War (television documentary). US: Varied Directions. Retrieved 27 August 2014.

260 • “Introduction to the Holocaust”. United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Retrieved 1 December 2014. • Jones, Bill (creator, director) (1989). The Fatal Attraction of Adolf Hitler (television documentary). England: BBC. Retrieved 6 June 2014. • Kotanko, Florian. “House of Responsibility”. HRB News. Retrieved 8 January 2013. • “Leni Riefenstahl”. The Daily Telegraph (London: TMG). 10 September 2003. ISSN 0307-1235. OCLC 49632006. Retrieved 10 May 2013. • Longerich, Heinz Peter (2003). “Hitler’s Role in the Persecution of the Jews by the Nazi Regime”. Atlanta: Emory University. 15. Hitler and the Mass Shootings of Jews During the War Against Russia. Archived from the original on 22 July 2012. Retrieved 31 July 2013. • Longerich, Heinz Peter (2003). “Hitler’s Role in the Persecution of the Jews by the Nazi Regime”. Atlanta: Emory University. 17. Radicalisation of the Persecution of the Jews by Hitler at the Turn of the Year 1941–1942. Archived from the original on 9 July 2009. Retrieved 31 July 2013. • “Man of the Year”. Time Magazine (Time). 2 January 1939. Archived from the original on 7 June 2008. Retrieved 22 May 2008. • Martin, Jonathan (creator, writer) (2008). World War II In HD Colour (television documentary). US: World Media Rights. Retrieved 27 August 2014. • McMillan, Dan (October 2012). “Review of Fritz, Stephen G., Ostkrieg: Hitler’s War of Extermination in the East". H-Genocide, H-Net Reviews. Retrieved 16 October 2012. • Oﬃce of Strategic Services (1945). “The Nazi Master Plan: The Persecution of the Christian Churches”. Rutgers Journal of Law and Religion (Ithaca, NY: Cornell Law Library): 6–7. OCLC 320083040. • “Parkinson’s part in Hitler’s downfall”. BBC News. 29 July 1999. Retrieved 13 June 2011. • Phayer, Michael (2000). “The Response of the Catholic Church to National Socialism” (PDF). The Churches and Nazi Persecution. Yad Vashem. • “Poles: Victims of the Nazi Era: The Invasion and Occupation of Poland”. ushmm.org. United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Archived from the original on 3 March 2013. Retrieved 1 December 2014.

CHAPTER 19. ADOLF HITLER • Rees, Laurence (writer, director) Kershaw, Ian (writer, consultant) (2012). The Dark Charisma of Adolf Hitler (television documentary). UK: BBC. Retrieved 6 September 2014. • Sharkey, Joe (13 January 2002). “Word for Word/The Case Against the Nazis; How Hitler’s Forces Planned To Destroy German Christianity”. The New York Times. Retrieved 7 June 2011. • Weber, Thomas (2010a). “New Evidence Uncovers Hitler’s Real First World War Story”. Immediate Media Company. UK: BBC History Magazine. Retrieved 27 August 2014. • Wilson, Bee (9 October 1998). “Mein Diat – Adolf Hitler’s diet”. New Statesman. UK: Questia. Archived from the original on 13 December 2013. Retrieved 22 May 2008. (subscription required)

19.15 External links • Works by or about Adolf Hitler at Internet Archive • Adolf Hitler at the Internet Movie Database – real life footage in documentaries • Adolf Hitler (Character) at the Internet Movie Database – as portrayed in ﬁlm and TV • “Adolf Hitler”. The Vault. FBI Records. • “Hitler and his oﬃcers”. World War II Movies in Color. WW2inColor.

Chapter 20

Nuremberg Laws For the set of guidelines for determining what constitutes a war crime, see Nuremberg principles. For the set of research ethics principles for human experimentation, see Nuremberg Code.

Jews and Germans and the employment of German females under 45 in Jewish households, and the Reich Citizenship Law, which declared that only those of German or related blood were eligible to be Reich citizens; the remainder were classed as state subjects, without citizenship rights. A supplementary decree outlining the deﬁnition of who was Jewish was passed on 14 November, and the Reich Citizenship Law oﬃcially came into force on that date. The laws were expanded on 26 November to include Romani people and Black people. Out of foreign policy concerns, prosecutions under the two laws did not commence until after the 1936 Summer Olympics, held in Berlin. After they seized power in 1933, the Nazis began to implement their policies, which included the formation of a Volksgemeinschaft (people’s community) based on race. Chancellor and Führer (leader) Adolf Hitler declared a national boycott of Jewish businesses on 1 April 1933, and the Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service, passed on 7 April, excluded most Jews from the legal profession and civil service. Books considered un-German, including those by Jewish authors, were destroyed in a nationwide book burning on 10 May. Jewish citizens were harassed and subjected to violent attacks. They were actively suppressed, stripped of their citizenship and civil rights, and eventually completely removed from German society.

Title page of RGB I No. 100 proclaiming the laws, issued 16 September 1935

The Nuremberg Laws (German: Nürnberger Gesetze) were antisemitic laws in Nazi Germany. They were introduced on 15 September 1935 by the Reichstag at a special meeting convened at the annual Nuremberg Rally of the Nazi Party (NSDAP). The two laws were the Law for the Protection of German Blood and German Honour, which forbade marriages and extramarital intercourse between

The Nuremberg laws had a serious economic and social impact on the Jewish community. Persons convicted of violating the marriage laws were imprisoned, and (subsequent to 8 March 1938) upon completing their sentences were re-arrested by the Gestapo and sent to Nazi concentration camps. Non-Jews gradually stopped socialising with Jews or shopping in Jewish-owned stores, many of which closed due to lack of customers. As Jews were no longer permitted to work in the civil service or government-regulated professions such as medicine and education, many middle class, business owners, and professionals were forced to take menial employment. Emigration was problematic, as Jews were required to remit up to 90 per cent of their wealth as a tax upon leaving the country. By 1938 it was almost impossible for potential Jewish emigrants to ﬁnd a country willing to take them. Mass deportation schemes such as the Madagascar Plan

261

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he characterized as an inferior and dangerous group.[11] The two-volume book Foundations of Human Hereditary Teaching and Racial Hygiene (1920–21) by Eugen Fischer, Erwin Baur, and Fritz Lenz, used pseudoscientiﬁc studies to conclude that the Germans were superior to the Jews intellectually and physically, and recommended eugenics as a solution.[12] Madison Grant's work The Passing of the Great Race (1916) advocated Nordicism and proposed using a eugenic program to preserve the Nordic race. After reading the book, Hitler called it “my 20.1 Background Bible”.[13] The Nazis embraced the concept of Nordicism and wished for the Nordic race to dominate Germany, but Prior to the formation of the German Empire in 1871, they did not discriminate against Aryans who did not have the legal status of Jews varied from place to place within Nordic physical characteristics.[14] the German Confederation and the Kingdom of Prussia.[1] Jews became equal citizens with the creation of the While imprisoned in 1924 after the failed Beer Hall Hitler dictated Mein Kampf to his deputy, Rudolf new constitution that soon followed.[2] However, they still Putsch, [15] Hess. The book is an autobiography and exposition of faced discrimination and antisemitism. Nationalist senHitler’s ideology in which he laid out his plans for transtiments and the idea of Germans as a separate race took forming German society into one based on race. In it hold at the beginning of the 20th century. Jews, with their he outlined his belief in Jewish Bolshevism, a conspiracy diﬀerent culture and ancestry, were viewed (particularly theory that posited the existence of an international Jewby proponents of the Völkisch movement) as being mem[3] ish conspiracy for world domination in which the Jews bers of a separate and inferior race. Several nationalwere the mortal enemy of the German people. Throughistic and antisemitic groups (some with memberships of out his life Hitler never wavered in his world view as exhundreds of thousands of people) formed after the First [16] pounded in Mein Kampf. The NSDAP advocated the World War. These groups committed acts of violence concept of a Volksgemeinschaft (“people’s community”) against Jews and lobbied for their disenfranchisement and [4] with the aim of uniting all Germans as national comrades, removal from German society. whilst excluding those deemed either to be community The National Socialist German Workers’ Party (NSDAP; aliens or of a foreign race (Fremdvölkische).[17] Nazi Party) was one of several far-right political parties active in Germany at the time.[5] The party platform included removal of the Weimar Republic, rejec20.2 Nazi Germany tion of the terms of the Treaty of Versailles, radical antisemitism, and anti-Bolshevism.[6] They promised a strong central government, increased Lebensraum (living space) for Germanic peoples, formation of a 'Volksgemeinschaft (people’s community) based on race, and racial cleansing via the active suppression of Jews, who would be stripped of their citizenship and civil rights.[7] The Nazis proposed national and cultural renewal based upon the Völkisch movement.[8] proved to be impossible for the Nazis to carry out, and sometime around December 1941, Hitler resolved that the Jews of Europe were to be exterminated. The total number of Jews murdered during the resulting Holocaust is estimated at 5.5 to 6 million people, and estimates of the number of Romani killed in the Porajmos range from 220,000 to 1.5 million.

20.1.1

Nazi eugenics and racial belief

Main articles: Nazi eugenics and Nazism and race Nazi racial beliefs arose from earlier proponents of a supremacist conception of race such as Arthur de Gobineau, who published a four-volume work titled An Essay on the Inequality of the Human Races (translated into German in 1897).[9] In it, de Gobineau proposed that the Aryan race was superior, and urged the preservation of its cultural and racial purity.[10] Houston Stewart Chamberlain's work The Foundations of the Nineteenth Century (1900), one of the ﬁrst to combine Social Darwinism with antisemitism, describes history as a struggle for survival between the Germanic peoples and the Jews, whom

Members of the SA picket in front of a Jewish place of business during the Nazi boycott of Jewish businesses, 1 April 1933

Discrimination against Jews intensiﬁed after the NSDAP seized power; following a month-long series of attacks by members of the Sturmabteilung (SA; paramilitary wing of the NSDAP) on Jewish businesses, synagogues, and members of the legal profession, on 1 April 1933 Hitler declared a national boycott of Jewish businesses.[18] By 1933, many people who were not NSDAP members advocated segregating Jews from the rest of German society.[19] The Law for the Restoration of the

20.2. NAZI GERMANY Professional Civil Service, passed on 7 April 1933, forced all non-Aryans to retire from the legal profession and civil service.[20] Similar legislation soon deprived Jewish members of other professions of their right to practise.[20] In 1934, the NSDAP published a pamphlet titled “Warum Arierparagraph?" (“Why the Aryan Law?"), which summarized the perceived need for the law.[21] As part of the drive to remove Jewish inﬂuence from cultural life, members of the National Socialist Student League removed from libraries any books considered un-German, and a nationwide book burning was held on 10 May.[22] Violence and economic pressure were used by the regime to encourage Jews to voluntarily leave the country.[23] Legislation passed in July 1933 stripped naturalised German Jews of their citizenship, creating a legal basis for recent immigrants (particularly Eastern European Jews) to be deported.[20] Many towns posted signs forbidding entry to Jews.[24] Throughout 1933 and 1934, Jewish businesses were denied access to markets, forbidden to advertise in newspapers, and deprived of access to government contracts. Citizens were harassed and subjected to violent attacks.[25]

263 port from early 1935 stated that the rank and ﬁle of the NSDAP would set in motion a solution to the "Jewish problem ... from below that the government would then have to follow”.[30] Assaults, vandalism, and boycotts against Jews, which the Nazi government had temporarily curbed in 1934, increased again in 1935 amidst a propaganda campaign authorised at the highest levels of government.[30] Most non-party members ignored the boycotts and objected to the violence out of concern for their own safety.[31] The Israeli historian Otto Dov Kulka argues that there was a disparity between the views of the Alte Kämpfer (longtime party members) and the general public, but that even those Germans who were not politically active favoured bringing in tougher new antisemitic laws in 1935.[32] The matter was raised to the forefront of the state agenda as a result of this antisemitic agitation.[33]

The Interior Minister Wilhelm Frick announced on 25 July that a law forbidding marriages between Jews and non-Jews would shortly be promulgated, and recommended that registrars should avoid issuing licenses for such marriages for the time being. The draft law also called for a ban on marriage for persons with hereditary Laws promulgated in this period that were not aimed illnesses.[34] directly at Jews included the Law for the Prevention Dr. Hjalmar Schacht, the Economics Minister and of Hereditarily Diseased Offspring (passed on 14 July Reichsbank president, criticised the violent behaviour of 1933), which called for the compulsory sterilisation of the Alte Kämpfer and SA because of its negative impeople with a range of hereditary, physical, and mental pact on the economy.[33] The violence also had a negaillnesses.[26] Under the Law against Dangerous Habitual tive impact on Germany’s reputation in the international Criminals (passed 24 November 1935), habitual crimi- community.[35] For these reasons, Hitler ordered a stop nals were forced to undergo sterilisation as well.[27] This to “individual actions” against German Jews on 8 August law was also used to force the incarceration in prison or 1935, and the Interior Minister Wilhelm Frick threatened Nazi concentration camps of “social misfits” such as the to take legal action against Party members who ignored chronically unemployed, prostitutes, beggars, alcoholics, the order.[33] From Hitler’s perspective, it was imperative homeless vagrants, and Romani people.[28] to quickly bring in new antisemitic laws to appease the radical elements in the NSDAP who persisted in attempting to remove the Jews from German society by violent 20.2.1 “The Jewish problem” means.[35] A conference of ministers was held on 20 August 1935 to discuss the question. Hitler argued against violent methods because of the damage being done to the economy, and insisted the matter must be settled through legislation.[36] The focus of the new laws would be marriage laws to prevent “racial defilement”, stripping Jews of their German citizenship, and laws to prevent Jews from participating freely in the economy.[37]

20.2.2 Events at Nuremberg

The SA had nearly three million members at the start of 1934.[29]

Disenchanted with the unfulﬁlled promise of the NSDAP to eliminate Jews from German society, SA members were eager to lash out against the Jewish minority as a way of expressing their frustrations. A Gestapo re-

The seventh annual Nazi Party Rally, held in Nuremberg from 10–16 September 1935, featured the only Reichstag session held outside Berlin during the Nazi regime.[38] Hitler decided that the rally would be a good opportunity to introduce the long-awaited anti-Jewish laws.[39] In a speech on 12 September, leading Nazi physician Gerhard Wagner announced that the government would soon introduce a “law for the protection of German blood”.[40] The next day, Hitler summoned the Reichstag to meet in session at Nuremberg on 15 September, the last day of the

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NSDAP dignitaries at the 1935 Nuremberg Rally

rally.[39] Franz Albrecht Medicus and Bernhard Lösener of the Interior Ministry were summoned to Nuremberg and directed to start preparing a draft of a law forbidding sexual relations or marriages between Jews and nonJews. The two men arrived on 14 September.[41] That evening, Hitler ordered them to also have ready by morning a draft of the Reich citizenship law.[37] Hitler found the initial drafts of the Blood Law to be too lenient, so at around midnight Frick brought him four new drafts that differed mainly in the severity of the penalties they imposed. Hitler chose the most lenient version, but left vague the definition of who was a Jew.[42] Hitler stated at the rally that the laws were “an attempt at the legal settlement of a problem, which, if this proved a failure, would have to be entrusted by law to the National Socialist Party for a definitive solution.”[43] Propaganda Minister Joseph Goebbels had the radio broadcast of the passing of the laws cut short, and ordered the German media to not mention them until a decision was made as to how they would be implemented.[44]

20.3 Text of the laws Nuremberg Race Laws

Law for the Protection of German Blood and German Honour The two Nuremberg Laws were unanimously passed by the Reichstag on 15 September 1935.[45] The Law for the Protection of German Blood and German Honour prohibited marriages and extramarital intercourse between Jews and Germans, and forbade the employment of German females under 45 in Jewish households. The Reich Citizenship Law declared that only those of German or related blood were eligible to be Reich citizens; the remainder were classed as state subjects, without citizenship rights.[46] The wording in the Citizenship Law that a person must prove “by his conduct that he is willing and ﬁt to faithfully serve the German people and Reich” meant that political opponents could also be stripped of their German citizenship.[45] Over the coming years, an additional 13 supplementary laws were promulgated that further marginalised the Jewish community in Germany.[24]

20.3.1 Law for the Protection of German Blood and German Honour Moved by the understanding that purity of German blood is the essential condition for the continued existence of the German people, and inspired by the inﬂexible determination to ensure the existence of the German nation for all time, the Reichstag has unanimously adopted the following law, which is promulgated herewith: Article 1 1. Marriages between Jews and subjects of the state of German or related blood are forbidden. Marriages nevertheless concluded are invalid, even if concluded abroad to circumvent this law. 2. Annulment proceedings can be initiated only by the state prosecutor.[47]

Reich Citizenship Law

Article 2

20.4. CLASSIFICATIONS UNDER THE LAWS Extramarital relations between Jews and subjects of the state of German or related blood are forbidden.[47]

265 2. The status of subject of the state is acquired in accordance with the provisions of the Reich and the Reich Citizenship Law.[47]

Article 3 Article 2 Jews may not employ in their households female subjects of the state of German or related blood who are under 45 years old.[47] Article 4 1. Jews are forbidden to ﬂy the Reich or national ﬂag or display Reich colours.

1. A Reich citizen is a subject of the state who is of German or related blood, and proves by his conduct that he is willing and ﬁt to faithfully serve the German people and Reich. 2. Reich citizenship is acquired through the granting of a Reich citizenship certiﬁcate.

3. The Reich citizen is the sole bearer of full political 2. They are, on the other hand, permitted to display rights in accordance with the law.[47] the Jewish colours. The exercise of this right is protected by the state.[47] Article 3 Article 5

The Reich Minister of the Interior, in co-ordination with the Deputy of the Führer, will issue the legal and admin1. Any person who violates the prohibition under Ar- istrative orders required to implement and complete this ticle 1 will be punished with prison with hard labour law.[47] [Zuchthaus]. 2. A male who violates the prohibition under Article 2 will be punished with prison [Gefängnis] or prison with hard labour.

20.4 Classiﬁcations under the laws

3. Any person violating the provisions under Articles 3 20.5 Impact or 4 will be punished with prison with hard labour for up to one year and a ﬁne, or with one or the other See also: Anti-Jewish legislation in prewar Nazi Germany of these penalties.[47] While both the Interior Ministry and the NSDAP agreed Article 6 The Reich Minister of the Interior, in co-ordination with the Deputy of the Führer and the Reich Minister of Justice, will issue the legal and administrative regulations required to implement and complete this law.[47] Article 7 The law takes eﬀect on the day following promulgation, except for Article 3, which goes into force on 1 January 1936.[47]

20.3.2

Reich Citizenship Law

1935 chart shows racial classiﬁcations under the Nuremberg Laws: German, Mischlinge, and Jew

that persons with three or more Jewish grandparents The Reichstag has unanimously enacted the following would be classed as being Jewish and those with only law, which is promulgated herewith: one (Mischlinge of the second degree) would not, a debate arose as to the status of persons with two Jewish Article 1 grandparents (Mischlinge of the first degree).[49] The NSDAP, especially its more radical elements, wanted the 1. A subject of the state is a person who enjoys the laws to apply to Mischlinge of both the first and second protection of the German Reich and who in conse- degree.[50] For this reason Hitler continued to stall, and did not make a decision until early November 1935. His quence has specific obligations toward it.

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final ruling was that persons with three Jewish grandparents were classed as Jewish; those with two Jewish grandparents would be considered Jewish only if they practised the faith or had a Jewish spouse.[51] The supplementary decree outlining the definition of who was Jewish was passed on 14 November, and the Reich Citizenship Law came into force on that date. Jews were no longer German citizens and did not have the right to vote.[52] Civil servants who had been granted an exemption to the Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service because of their status as war veterans were forced out of their jobs on this date.[52] A supplementary decree issued on 21 December ordered the dismissal of Jewish veterans from other state-regulated professions such as medicine and education.[52] While Frick’s suggestion that a citizenship tribunal before which every German would have to prove that they were Aryan was not acted upon, proving one’s racial heritage became a necessary part of daily life.[50][53] Nongovernment employers were authorised to include in their statutes an Aryan paragraph excluding both Mischlinge and Jews from employment.[54] Proof of Aryan descent was achieved by obtaining an Aryan certificate. One form was to acquire an Ahnenpass, which could be obtained by providing birth or baptismal certificates that all four grandparents were of Aryan descent.[55] The Ahnenpass Beginning in 1941, Jews were required by law to self-identify by could also be acquired by citizens of other countries, as wearing a yellow badge on their clothing.[59] long as they were of “German or related blood”.[56] Under the Law for the Protection of German Blood and German Honour (15 September 1935), marriages were forbidden between Jews and Germans; between Mischlinge of the first degree and Germans; between Jews and Mischlinge of the second degree; and between two Mischlinge of the second degree. Mischlinge of the first degree were permitted to marry Jews, but they would henceforth be classed as Jewish themselves. All marriages undertaken between half-Jews and Germans required the approval of a Committee for the Protection of German Blood. Few such permissions were granted.[54] A supplementary decree issued on 26 November 1935 extended the law to “Gypsies, Negroes, and their bastards.”[57] Estimates of the death toll of Romani people in the Porajmos range from 220,000 to 1,500,000.[58] Persons suspected of having sexual relations with nonAryans were charged with Rassenschande (racial defilement) and tried in the regular courts. Evidence provided to the Gestapo for such cases was largely provided by ordinary citizens such as neighbours, co-workers, or other informants.[60] Persons accused of race defilement were publicly humiliated by being paraded through the streets with a placard around their necks detailing their crime.[61] Those convicted were typically sentenced to prison terms, and (subsequent to 8 March 1938) upon completing their sentences were re-arrested by the Gestapo and sent to Nazi concentration camps.[60] As the law did not permit capital punishment for racial defilement, special courts

were convened to allow the death penalty for some cases.[62] From the end of 1935 through 1940, 1,911 people were convicted of Rassenschande. Over time, the law was extended to include non-sexual forms of physical contact such as greeting someone with a kiss or an embrace.[60] For the most part, Germans accepted the Nuremberg Laws, partly because Nazi propaganda had successfully swayed public opinion towards the general belief that Jews were a separate race, but also because to oppose the regime meant leaving oneself open to harassment or arrest by the Gestapo.[63][64] Citizens were relieved that the antisemitic violence ceased after the laws were passed.[65] Non-Jews gradually stopped socialising with Jews or shopping in Jewish-owned stores.[66] Wholesalers who continued to serve Jewish merchants were marched through the streets with placards around their necks proclaiming them as traitors.[67] The Communist party and some elements of the Catholic Church were critical of the laws.[57] Concerned that international opinion would be adversely swayed by the new laws, the Interior Ministry did not actively enforce them until after the 1936 Summer Olympics, held in Berlin that August.[35][63] The Interior Ministry estimated there were 750,000 Mischlinge as of April 1935 (studies done after the war put the number of Mischlinge at around 200,000).[57] As Jews became more and more excluded from German society, they organised social events, schools, and activities

20.7. EXISTING COPIES of their own.[68] Economic problems were not so easily solved, however; many Jewish firms went out of business due to lack of customers. This was part of the ongoing Aryanization process (the transfer of Jewish firms to non-Jewish owners, usually at prices far below market value) that the regime had initiated in 1933, which intensified after the Nuremberg laws were passed.[69] Former middle-class or wealthy business owners were forced to take employment in menial jobs to support their families, and many were unable to find work at all.[70] Although a stated goal of the Nazis was that all Jews should leave the country, emigration was problematic, as Jews were required to remit up to 90 per cent of their wealth as a tax upon leaving the country.[71] Anyone caught transferring their money overseas were sentenced to lengthy terms in prison as “economic saboteurs”.[72] An exception was money sent to Palestine under the terms of the Haavara Agreement, whereby Jews could transfer their wealth and emigrate to that country. Around 52,000 Jews emigrated to Palestine under the terms of this agreement between 1933 and 1939.[73] By the start of the Second World War in 1939, around 250,000 of Germany’s 437,000 Jews had emigrated to the United States, Palestine, Great Britain, and other countries.[74][75] By 1938 it was becoming almost impossible for potential Jewish emigrants to find a country that would take them.[76] After the 1936–39 Arab revolt, the British were disinclined to accept any more Jews into Palestine for fear it would further destabilize the region.[77] Nationalistic and xenophobic people in other countries pressured their governments not to accept waves of Jewish immigrants, especially poverty-stricken ones.[78] The Madagascar Plan, a proposed mass deportation of European Jews to Madagascar, proved to be impossible to carry out.[79] Sometime around the German failure in the Battle of Moscow in December 1941, Hitler resolved that the Jews of Europe were to be exterminated immediately.[80] The total number of Jews murdered during the resulting Holocaust is estimated at 5.5 to 6 million people.[81]

267 tion of the Nation,[86] and in 1941 the Ustasha in Croatia passed legislation deﬁning who was a Jew and restricting contact with them.[87] Imperial Japan did not draft or pass any such legislation.

20.7 Existing copies An original typescript of the laws signed by Hitler was found by the US Army’s Counter-Intelligence Corps in 1945. It ended up in the possession of General George S. Patton, who kept it, in violation of orders that such ﬁnds should be turned over to the government. During a visit to Los Angeles, he handed it over to the Huntington Library, where it was stored in a bomb-proof vault. The library revealed the existence of the document in 1999, and sent it on permanent loan to the Skirball Cultural Center, which placed it on public display. The document was transferred to the National Archives and Records Administration in Washington in August 2010.[88][89]

20.8 See also • Nazism and race • Wannsee Conference

20.9 References [1] Aly 2014, p. 14. [2] Gordon 1984, p. 7. [3] Longerich 2010, p. 12. [4] Longerich 2010, pp. 13–14. [5] Evans 2003, pp. 170–171. [6] Goldhagen 1996, p. 85. [7] Evans 2003, pp. 179–180.

20.6 Legislation in other countries Some of the allies of the Nazis passed their own versions of the Nuremberg laws. In 1938, Fascist Italy passed the Italian Racial Laws, which stripped Jews of their citizenship and forbade marriages between Jewish and non-Jewish Italians.[82] Hungary passed laws on 28 May 1938 and 5 May 1939 banning Jews from various professions. A third law, added in August 1941, deﬁned Jews as anyone with at least two Jewish grandparents, and forbade sexual relations or marriages between Jews and non-Jews.[83] In 1940 the ruling Iron Guard in Romania passed the Law Deﬁning the Legal Status of Romanian Jews,[84] in 1941 the Codex Judaicus was enacted in Slovakia,[85] in 1941 Bulgaria passed the Law for Protec-

[8] Kershaw 2008, p. 81. [9] Aly 2014, p. 154. [10] Evans 2003, p. 33. [11] Evans 2003, pp. 33–34. [12] Aly 2014, p. 157. [13] Kühl 2002, p. 85. [14] Stellrecht 1938. [15] Bullock 1962, p. 121. [16] Kershaw 2008, pp. 148–150. [17] Wildt 2012, pp. 96-97.

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[18] Shirer 1960, p. 203.

[56] Scheil 2012.

[19] Evans 2005, p. 539.

[57] Friedländer 2009, p. 51.

[20] Longerich 2010, p. 40. [21] Schulz & Frercks 1934.

[58] Hancock 2005. [59] Longerich 2010, p. 217.

[22] Longerich 2010, p. 39. [60] Evans 2005, p. 551. [23] Longerich 2010, pp. 67–69. [24] Shirer 1960, p. 233. [25] Longerich 2010, p. 41.

[61] Evans 2005, p. 540. [62] Majer 2003, pp. 331–332.

[26] Evans 2005, p. 507.

[63] Evans 2005, p. 548.

[27] Evans 2005, p. 511.

[64] Gordon 1984, p. 180.

[28] Longerich 2010, p. 49.

[65] Gordon 1984, p. 172.

[29] Evans 2005, p. 22.

[66] Evans 2005, pp. 548, 553.

[30] Kershaw 2008, p. 340. [31] Kershaw 2008, p. 341.

[67] Gellately 1991, p. 105. [68] Friedländer 2009, p. 55.

[32] Marrus 2000, pp. 92–93. [33] Kershaw 2008, p. 342. [34] Longerich 2010, pp. 57–58.

[69] Longerich 2010, pp. 65–66. [70] Longerich 2010, p. 86.

[35] Gordon 1984, p. 122.

[71] Longerich 2010, pp. 64, 66.

[36] Kershaw 2008, p. 343.

[72] Longerich 2010, p. 66.

[37] Longerich 2010, p. 59.

[73] Evans 2005, pp. 556–557.

[38] Friedländer 2009, p. 45.

[74] Longerich 2010, p. 127.

[39] Evans 2005, p. 543. [40] Kershaw 2008, p. 344.

[75] Evans 2005, p. 555. [76] Longerich 2010, p. 67.

[41] Kershaw 2008, pp. 344–345. [42] Kershaw 2008, pp. 345–346. [43] Longerich 2010, p. 60.

[77] Friedländer 2009, p. 57. [78] Evans 2005, pp. 560, 601.

[44] Mommsen 1989, p. 225.

[79] Longerich 2010, pp. 162–164.

[45] Evans 2005, p. 544.

[80] Longerich 2000, p. 2.

[46] Kershaw 2008, p. 345.

[81] Evans 2008, p. 318.

[47] US Holocaust Memorial Museum.

[82] Rodogno 2006, p. 65.

[48] Nuremberg Laws 1935. [49] Friedländer 2009, p. 49.

[83] Frojimovics 2012, pp. 250–251. [84] Fischer 2012, p. 279.

[50] Mommsen 1989, p. 224. [85] Matić 2002, p. 174. [51] Kershaw 2008, p. 347. [52] Friedländer 2009, p. 50. [53] Friedländer 2009, p. 52.

[86] Dikovski 2000. [87] Cohen 1999, p. 90.

[54] Evans 2005, p. 547.

[88] Allen 2010.

[55] Ehrenreich 2007, p. 68.

[89] Bradsher 2010.

20.10. SOURCES

20.10 Sources • Allen, Nick (26 August 2010). “Nuremberg Laws handed over to US National Archives”. Daily Telegraph. Retrieved 7 March 2015. • Aly, Götz (2014). Why the Germans? Why the Jews? Envy, Race Hatred, and the Prehistory of the Holocaust. New York: Metropolitan. ISBN 978-08050-9700-9. • Bradsher, Greg (Winter 2010). “The Nuremberg Laws: Archives Receives Original Nazi Documents That “Legalized” Persecution of Jews”. Prologue Magazine (National Archives and Records Administration) 42 (4). Retrieved 7 March 2015. • Bullock, Alan (1962) [1952]. Hitler: A Study in Tyranny. London: Penguin Books. ISBN 978-014-013564-0. • Cohen, Philip J. (1999) [1996]. Serbia’s Secret War: Propaganda and the Deceit of History. College Station: Texas A&M University Press. ISBN 0-89096688-5. • Dikovski, Antoinette (19 July 2000). "България само администрираше "новите земи"". Демокрация (in Bulgarian). Archived from the original on 17 July 2011. Retrieved 11 March 2015. • Ehrenreich, Eric (2007). The Nazi Ancestral Proof: Genealogy, Racial Science, and the Final Solution. Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-116871. • Evans, Richard J. (2003). The Coming of the Third Reich. New York: Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14303469-8. • Evans, Richard J. (2005). The Third Reich in Power. New York: Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-303790-3. • Evans, Richard J. (2008). The Third Reich at War. New York: Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-311671-4. • Fischer, Ronit (2012) [2011]. “Transnistria: The Holocaust in Romania”. In Friedman, Jonathan C. Routledge History of the Holocaust. Abingdon; New York: Routledge. pp. 277–290. ISBN 978-0-41552087-4. • Friedländer, Saul (2009). Nazi Germany and the Jews, 1933–1945. New York: HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-06-1350276. • Frojimovics, Kinga (2012) [2011]. “Special Characteristics of the Holocaust in Hungary, 1938–45”. In Friedman, Jonathan C. Routledge History of the Holocaust. Abingdon; New York: Routledge. pp. 248–263. ISBN 978-0-415-52087-4.

269 • Gellately, Robert (1991). The Gestapo and German Society: Enforcing Racial Policy, 1933–1945. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 0-19-820297-0. • Goldhagen, Daniel (1996). Hitler’s Willing Executioners: Ordinary Germans and the Holocaust. New York: Knopf. ISBN 978-0-679-44695-8. • Gordon, Sarah (1984). Hitler, Germans, and the 'Jewish Question'. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-05412-6. • Kershaw, Ian (2008). Hitler: A Biography. New York: W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0393-06757-6. • Kühl, Stefan (2002). Nazi Connection: Eugenics, American Racism, and German National Socialism. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195149785. • Longerich, Peter (2000). “The Wannsee Conference in the Development of the 'Final Solution'" (PDF). Holocaust Educational Trust Research Papers (London: The Holocaust Educational Trust) 1 (2). ISBN 0-9516166-5-X. Retrieved 11 March 2015. • Longerich, Peter (2010). Holocaust: The Nazi Persecution and Murder of the Jews. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19280436-5. • Majer, Diemut (2003). “Non-Germans” under the Third Reich: The Nazi Judicial and Administrative System in Germany and Occupied Eastern Europe, with Special Regard to Occupied Poland, 1939– 1945. Baltimore; London: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0-8018-6493-3. • Marrus, Michael (2000). The Holocaust and History: The Known, the Unknown, the Disputed, and the Reexamined. Toronto: Key Porter. • Matić, Igor-Philip (2002). Edmund Veesenmayer: Agent und Diplomat der nationalsozialistischen Expansionspolitik (in German). München: Oldenbourg Verlag. ISBN 978-3-486-56677-2. • Hancock, Ian (2005), “True Romanies and the Holocaust: A Re-evaluation and an overview”, The Historiography of the Holocaust, Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 383–396, ISBN 1-4039-9927-9. • Mommsen, Hans (1989). “The Realization of the Unthinkable: The 'Final Solution of the Jewish Question'". In Marrus, Michael. The “Final Solution": The Implementation of Mass Murder. The Nazi Holocaust, Part 3 1. Westport, CT: Meckler. pp. 217–264. ISBN 0-88736-255-9. • “Reichsbürgergesetz und Gesetz zum Schutze des deutschen Blutes und der deutschen Ehre

270

CHAPTER 20. NUREMBERG LAWS ["Nürnberger Gesetze"]" (in German). FriedrichAlexander Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg. 14 November 1935.

• Rodogno, David (2006). Fascism’s European Empire: Italian Occupation During the Second World War. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521-84515-1.

• Margaliot, Abraham (1977). “The Reaction of the Jewish Public in Germany to the Nuremberg Laws”. Yad Vashem Studies (Jerusalem: Yad Vashem) 12: 193–229. • Schleunes, Karl (1970). The Twisted Road to Auschwitz: Nazi Policy towards German Jews, 1933–1939. Urbana: University of Illinois Press. ISBN 978-0-252-00092-8.

• Scheil, Stefan (11 March 2012). “Arier”. Junge Freiheit (in German). Retrieved 11 March 2015. • Schulz, Edgar Hans; Frercks, Rudolf (1934). Warum Arierparagraph? Ein Beitrag zur Judenfrage [Why the Aryan Law? A Contribution to the Jewish Question] (in German). Berlin: NSDAP Oﬃce of Racial Policy. OCLC 802537. • Shirer, William L. (1960). The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-0-671-62420-0. • Stellrecht, Helmut (1938). Glauben und Handeln. Ein Bekenntnis der jungen Nation [Faith and Action] (in German). Berlin: Zentralverlag der NSDAP. OCLC 459689851. • Wildt, Michael (2012). Hitler’s Volksgemeinschaftand the Dynamics of Racial Exclusion: Violence Against Jews in Provincial Germany, 1919–1939. Berghahn Books. ISBN 085745322X. • “Translation: Nuremberg Race Laws”. Holocaust Encyclopedia. United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Retrieved 6 March 2015.

20.11 Further reading • Bankier, David (1984). “In Nation and History: Studies in the History of the Jewish People; Based on the Papers Delivered at the Eight World Congress of Jewish Studies”. In Ettinger, Samuel. The 'Jewish Question' as a Focus of Conﬂict Between Trends of Institutionalization and Radicalization in the Third Reich, 1934–1935 2. Jerusalem. pp. 357–371. • Bankier, David (1990). Gutman, Israel, ed. Encyclopedia of the Holocaust 3. New York: Macmillan. pp. 1076–1077. ISBN 0-02-8645278. • Gruchmann, Lothar (July 1983). "'Blutschutzgestz' und Justiz: Zur Entstehung und Auswirkung des Nürnberger Gesetzes von 15 September 1935”. Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte (in German) (München: Oldenbourg Wissenschaftsverlag GmbH) 31: 418–442. JSTOR 30196462.(subscription required)

20.12 External links • Rise of the Nazis and Beginning of Persecution on the Yad Vashem website • Images of a 1938 German “J” Jewish passport

Chapter 21

Sinti For the Thracian people of antiquity, see Sintians.

Sinti and Roma people, 1941

The Sinti (also Sinta or Sinte; masc. sing. Sinto fem. Sinti and Roma architecture in Harsova sing. Sintesa) are a Romani people of Central Europe.[1] Traditionally itinerant, today only a small percentage of the group remains unsettled. In earlier times, they frequently lived on the outskirts of communities. The Sinti of Central Europe are closely related to the group known as Manouche in France. They speak the Sinti-Manouche variety of Romani, which exhibits strong German inﬂuence.

21.1 Name “Sinti” may be derived from "Sindhi", the name of a Deportation of Sinti and Roma in Asperg, 22 May 1940 people of the Sindh region in Pakistan, a notion popular among the Sinti themselves, although the vast majority of scholars and anthropologists have claimed that there is no splitting into two groups: Eftavagarja (“the Seven Caravans”) and Estraxarja (“from Austria”). They arrived basis for the comparison.[2] in Germany at least before 1540.[4] The two groups expanded, the Eftavagarja into France, Portugal and Brazil, where they are called “Manouches”, and the Estraxarja 21.2 History into Italy and Central Europe, mainly what are now Croatia, Slovenia, Hungary, Romania, the Czech ReThe Sinti arrived in Germany and Austria in the Late public and Slovakia, eventually adopting various regional Middle Ages along with Romani from India,[3] eventually names. In Italy they are present mainly in Piedmont 271

272

CHAPTER 21. SINTI

Memorial for murdered Sinti in Düsseldorf-Lierenfeld

Johann Trollmann, a German Sinti boxer

Ravensburg, Memorial for Sinti murdered in Auschwitz

rior (see Nazism and Race), Sinti and Roma were persecuted throughout Germany during the Nazi period – the Nuremberg Laws of 1935 often being interpreted to apply to them as well as the Jews. Adolf Eichmann recommended that the “Gypsy Question” be “solved” simultaneously with the Jewish Question, resulting in the deportation of the Sinti to clear room to build homes for ethnic Germans.[5] Some were sent to Poland, or elsewhere (including some deported to Yugoslavia by the Hamburg Police in 1939[6] ), others were conﬁned to designated areas, and many were eventually gassed.

In concentration camps, the Sinti were forced to wear region (where in Piedmontese they are called Sinto, al- either a black triangle, indicating their classiﬁcation as though the word for Gypsies is sìngher, as the Italian zin- 'asocial',[7] or a brown triangle, speciﬁcally reserved for garo), with some communities in Veneto and Emilia Ro- Romani people. magna as well.

21.2.1

The Holocaust

Main article: Porajmos Sinti and Roma had migrated to Germany in the late 15th century and converted to Christianity. Nonetheless, they were still generally accused of being beggars and thieves, and by 1899, the police kept a central register on Gypsies. Considered by the National Socialists to be racially infe-

21.3 Notable Sinti Perhaps the most famous (and inﬂuential) Sinti musician is the guitar virtuoso Django Reinhardt, who fused traditional dance hall musettes with American jazz of the day (1930s and '40s) and, along with Stéphane Grappelli and the other members of the Quintette du Hot Club de France, founded the style of music known as "Gypsy Jazz".

21.6. BIBLIOGRAPHY Other notable Sinti musicians include Draﬁ Deutscher and the jazz guitarists Jimmy Rosenberg and Paulus Schäfer. The Sinto Häns’che Weis produced a record in Germany in the 1970s in which he sang about the Poraimos (Romani Holocaust) in his own language. Many younger Germans ﬁrst learned about this part of Holocaust history as a result of this recording. Titi Winterstein and several members of Reinhardt’s clan still play traditional and modern Gypsy jazz all over Europe. The jazz keyboardist Joe Zawinul was also of Sinti descent. Marianne Rosenberg, a very popular Sinti/RomaGerman singer, is considered the “Cher” of Germany. She is the daughter of Auschwitz survivor Otto Rosenberg who was placed in a concentration camp in 1936 aged nine where his father, his grandmother all his siblings were murdered by the Nazis. Marianne has had pop hits from the early 70s at 14 throughout 2011 with her latest CD. She sings mainly in German but has sung in English, French, Italian and the Sinti language. She placed 10th at the German preselection for the Eurovision Song Contest 1975 with “Er gehört zu mir”. Her biography book Kokolores is a best seller in Europe. Oto Pestner is a notable Slovenian Sinti singer. He is known for his involvement with the New Swing Quartet, which sang mostly jazz and swing classics. Pestner also sings gospel and Slovenian folk music. Sintis notable for their sporting achievements include Johann Trollmann, the 1933 boxing champion of Germany, who was murdered in a German concentration camp in 1943.[8]

273

[6] Michael Burleigh and Wolfgang Wipperman, The Racial State: Germany 1933–1945 (Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 2002), 117. [7] Shapiro, Paul A.; Ehrenreich, Robert M. (2002). Roma and Sinti: under-studied victims of Nazism : symposium proceedings. United States Holocaust Memorial Museum,: Center for Advanced Holocaust Studies. p. 24. Retrieved 2010-06-26. [8] “A Fight for Memory –Monument Honors Sinti Boxer Murdered by the Nazis”. Der Spiegel International. 30 June 2010. Retrieved 26 February 2011.

21.6 Bibliography • Susan Tebbutt,, Nicholas Saul; Tebbutt, Susan (2004). The role of the Romanies : images and counter-images of 'Gypsies’/Romanies in European cultures. Liverpool: Liverpool Univ. Press. ISBN 9780853236795.

21.7 Further reading • Walter Winter, Struan Robertson (Translator). Winter Time: Memoirs of a German who Survived Auschwitz. Hertfordshire Publications, (2004), ISBN 1-902806-38-7. • Reviewed by Emma Brockes "We had the same pain" in The Guardian November 29, 2004.

21.4 See also • Romani people by country • History of the Romani people • Sindhis • Sindhi diaspora

21.5 Notes [1] Martha Verdorfer: Sinti & Roma (German) [2] Yaron Matras, 'The Role of Language in Mystifying and Demystifying Gypsy Identity' in: Nicholas Saul, Susan Tebbutt, The Role of the Romanies: Images and Counterimages of “Gypsies"/Romanies in European Cultures, Liverpool University Press (2004), ISBN 978-0-85323-6795, p. 70. [3] “Europe invented 'gypsies,' says German author”. Deutsche Welle. Retrieved 15 March 2014. [4] Nicholas Saul, Susan Tebbutt, p.182 [5] Burleigh, The Racial State, p122.

21.8 External links • Non-Jewish Victims of Persecution in Nazi Germany on the Yad Vashem website • Wege nach Ravensbrück (Ravensbrück concentration camp: Memories of surviving female Sinti) (German) • F. N. Finck, Lehrbuch des Dialekts der deutschen Zigeuner (1903) on Internet Archive (German)

Chapter 22

World Romani Congress of attendees; as a result, the International Gypsy Committee (founded in 1965) was renamed the Komiteto Lumniako Romano (International Rom Committee).[3]

22.2 Second World Congress

Romani

The second Congress in April 1978, was held in Geneva, Switzerland and attended by 120 delegates from 26 countries. Attendees helped transform the International Rom Committee into the International Romani Union.[3]

Flag of the Romani people

The World Romani Congress is a series of forums for discussion of issues relating to Roma people around the world. There have been eight World Romani Congresses to date. Among the chief goals of these congresses have been the standardization of the Romany language, improvements in civil rights and education, preservation of the Roma culture, reparations from World War II, and international recognition of the Roma as a national minority of Indian origin.

22.1 First World Romani Congress The first World Romani Congress was organized in 1971 in Orpington near London, England, United Kingdom, funded in part by the World Council of Churches and the Government of India. It was attended by 23 representatives from nine nations (Czechoslovakia, Finland, Norway, France, Great Britain, Germany, Hungary, Ireland, Spain and Yugoslavia) and observers from Belgium, Canada, India and the United States.[1] Five subcommissions were created to examine social affairs, education, war crimes, language, and culture. At the congress, the green and blue flag from the 1933 conference of the General Association of the Gypsies of Romania,[2] embellished with the red, sixteen-spoked chakra, was reaffirmed as the national emblem of the Roma people, and the song "Gelem, Gelem" was adopted as the Roma anthem. Usage of the word “Roma” (rather than variants of “gypsy”) was also accepted by a majority

22.3 Third World Congress

Romani

The third Congress was held in Göttingen, West Germany in May 1981, with 600 delegates and observers from 28 diﬀerent countries. Attendees supported the call for Roma to be recognized as a national minority of Indian origin. The Porajmos was a major topic of discussion.[3]

22.4 Fourth World Congress

Romani

In 1990, the fourth Congress was held in Serock, Poland with 250 delegates attending. Discussion topics included World War II reparations, education, culture, public relations, language, and a Romani language encyclopedia.[3] The International Day of the Roma was also oﬃcially declared as April 8, in honour of the ﬁrst World Romani Congress meeting in 1971.

22.5 Fifth World Romani Congress The ﬁfth World Romani Congress was held in Prague, Czech Republic in July, 2000. Emil Ščuka was elected as president of the International Romani Union. The

274

22.9. REFERENCES

275

Congress produced the oﬃcial Declaration of the Romany non-territorial nation.

22.6 Sixth World Congress

Romani

The sixth Congress was held in Lanciano, Italy on October 8 & 9, 2004, with participation from over 200 delegates from 39 countries of world. Delegates chose a new president for the International Romani Union (Stanisław Stankiewicz of Poland) and a new president of the World Parliament of the IRU (Dragan Jevremovic of Austria). A new committee was set up to examine issues surrounding women, families and children.

22.7 Seventh Congress

World

Romani

The seventh Congress was held in Zagreb, Croatia in October 2008. Almost 300 delegates from 28 diﬀerent countries attended the meeting, which released The Roma Nation Building Action Plan, a document which outlined plans for the development of Romani nationalism and representation. Esma Redžepova (stage name “The Queen of the Gypsies”) performed the Romani anthem.

22.8 Eighth World Congress

Romani

The eighth Congress was held in Sibiu, Romania in April 2013. Approximately 250 delegates from 34 diﬀerent countries attended the meeting. Florin Cioabǎ was elected as the new president of the International Romani Union.[4]

22.9 References [1] Kenrick, Donald (1971), “The World Romani Congress April 1971”, Journal of the Gypsy Lore Society, 50, parts 3-4: 101–108 [2] Saul, Nicholas; Tebbutt, Susan (2004). The role of the Romanies: images and counter-images of “Gypsies"/Romanies in European cultures. Liverpool University Press. p. 221, fn.2. ISBN 978-0-85323-679-5. [3] Timeline of Romani History - Patrin [4] Congress Report

Chapter 23

Numerology Numerology is any belief in divine, mystical relationship between a number and one or more coinciding events.[1] It is often associated with the paranormal, alongside astrology and similar divinatory arts.[2]

Some alchemical theories were closely related to numerology. For example, Persian alchemist Jabir ibn Hayyan framed his experiments in an elaborate numerology based on the names of substances in the Arabic language.

There is no supporting evidence for the modern practice of numerology in modern science. Numerology is prominent in Sir Thomas Browne's 1658 Despite the long history of numerological ideas, the word literary Discourse The Garden of Cyrus. Throughout its “numerology” is not recorded in English before c.1907.[3] pages the author attempts to demonstrate that the number five and the related Quincunx pattern can be found The term numerologist can be used for those who place throughout the arts, in design, and in nature – particularly faith in numerical patterns and draw pseudo-scientific in- botany. ferences from them, even if those people do not practice traditional numerology. For example, in his 1997 book Modern numerology has various antecedents. Ruth Numerology: Or What Pythagoras Wrought, mathemati- A. Drayer’s book, Numerology, The Power in Numbers cian Underwood Dudley uses the term to discuss practi- (Square One Publishers) says that around the turn of the tioners of the Elliott wave principle of stock market anal- century (from 1800 to 1900 A.D.) Mrs. L. Dow Balliett combined Pythagoras’ work with Biblical reference. ysis. Then on Oct 23, 1972, Balliett’s student, Dr. Juno Jordan, changed Numerology further and helped it to become the system known today under the title “Pythagorean”, al23.1 History though Pythagoras himself had nothing to do with the system. Dr. Jordan’s work “The Romance in Your Name” Pythagoras and other philosophers of the time believed provided a system for identifying what he called key nuthat because mathematical concepts were more “practi- merological influences in one’s name and birth date and cal” (easier to regulate and classify) than physical ones, remains used today. Subsequent 'numerologists’ includthey had greater actuality. St. Augustine of Hippo (A.D. ing Florence Campbell (1931),[6] Lynn Buess (1978), 354–430) wrote “Numbers are the Universal language of- Mark Gruner (1979), Kathleen Roquemore (1985) exfered by the deity to humans as confirmation of the truth.” panded on the use of numerology for assessing personSimilar to Pythagoras, he too believed that everything had ality or events. These different schools of numerology numerical relationships and it was up to the mind to seek give various, and sometimes conflicting, definitions for and investigate the secrets of these relationships or have the meaning of specific digits. them revealed by divine grace. See Numerology and the Australian philosopher David Stove pointed out differChurch Fathers for early Christian beliefs on the subject. ent pseudoscientific beliefs, for example numerology and In 325 AD, following the First Council of Nicaea, departures from the beliefs of the state church were classified as civil violations within the Roman Empire. Numerology had not found favor with the Christian authority of the day and was assigned to the field of unapproved beliefs along with astrology and other forms of divination and “magic”. Despite this religious purging, the spiritual significance assigned to the heretofore “sacred” numbers had not disappeared; several numbers, such as the "Jesus number" have been commented and analyzed by Dorotheus of Gaza and numerology still is used at least in conservative Greek Orthodox circles.[4][5]

astrology, may be pathological in different ways. When critiquing such pseudoscientific beliefs, philosophers and scientists should take into account that the fallacies that give rise to the “particular awfulness” of one pseudoscientific belief may not be applicable to another.[7]

23.2 Skepticism Skeptics argue that numbers have no occult signiﬁcance and cannot by themselves inﬂuence a person’s life. Skep-

276

23.4. CHINESE NUMEROLOGY tics therefore regard numerology as a superstition and a pseudoscience that uses numbers to give the subject a veneer of scientiﬁc authority.[1] Two studies have been done investigating numerological claims, both producing negative results. One in the UK in 1993[8] and one in 2012 in Israel. The experiment in Israel involved a professional numerologist and 200 participants. The experiment was repeated twice and still produced negative results.[9]

23.3 Methods

277 • 3,48910 = 66418 → 6 + 6 + 4 + 1 = 218 → 2 + 1 = 38 = 310

23.3.2 Abjad system The Arabic system of numerology is known as Abjad notation or Abjad numerals. In this system each letter of Arabic alphabet has a numerical value. This system is the foundation of ilm-ul-cipher, the Science of Cipher, and ilm-ul-huroof, the Science of Alphabet: =‫ط‬9=‫ ح‬8=‫ ز‬7=‫ و‬6=‫ ه‬5=‫ د‬4=‫ ج‬3=‫ ب‬2=‫ أ‬1 =‫ص‬90=‫ ف‬80=‫ ع‬70=‫ س‬60=‫ ن‬50=‫ م‬40=‫ ل‬30=‫ ك‬20=‫ ي‬10

23.3.1

Alphabetic systems

=‫ظ‬900=‫ ض‬800=‫ ذ‬700=‫ خ‬600=‫ ث‬500=‫ ت‬400=‫ ش‬300 =‫ر‬200=‫ ق‬100

There are various numerology systems which assign numerical value to the letters of an alphabet. Examples in- =‫غ‬1000 clude the Abjad numerals in Arabic, the Hebrew numerals, Armenian numerals, and Greek numerals. The practice within Jewish tradition of assigning mystical meaning 23.4 Chinese numerology to words based on their numerical values, and on connections between words of equal value, is known as gematria. Main article: Numbers in Chinese culture For example, numbers are assigned to letters as follows: • 1 = a, j, s • 2 = b, k, t, • 3 = c, l, u, • 4 = d, m, v, • 5 = e, n, w, • 6 = f, o, x, • 7 = g, p, y, • 8 = h, q, z,

Some Chinese assign a different set of meanings to the numbers and certain number combinations are considered luckier than others. In general, even numbers are considered lucky, since it is believed that good luck comes in pairs. Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM), and its associated fields such as acupuncture, base their system on mystical numerical associations, such as the “12 vessels circulating blood and air corresponding to the 12 rivers flowing toward the Central Kingdom; and 365 parts of the body, one for each day of the year” being the basis of locating acupuncture points.[10]

• 9 = i, r, .....and then summed. Examples: • 3,489 → 3 + 4 + 8 + 9 = 24 → 2 + 4 = 6 • Hello → 8 + 5 + 3 + 3 + 6 = 25 → 2 + 5 = 7 A quicker way to arrive at a single-digit summation (the digital root) is simply to take the value modulo 9, substituting a 0 result with 9 itself. Different methods of calculation exist, including Chaldean, Pythagorean, Hebraic, Helyn Hitchcock's method, Phonetic, Japanese, Arabic and Indian. The examples above are calculated using decimal (base 10) arithmetic. Other number systems exist, such as binary, octal, hexadecimal and vigesimal; summing digits in these bases yields different results. The first example, shown above, appears thus when rendered in octal (base 8):

23.4.1 Chinese number deﬁnitions Cantonese frequently associate numbers with the following connotations (based on its sound), which may diﬀer in other varieties of Chinese: 1.

[jɐ́ t] – sure

[ji̭ː] – easy

[ji̭ː]

[sáːm] – live [sáːŋ] but it can also be seen as a halved eight when using Arabic numerals (3) (8) and so considered unlucky.

[sēi] – considered unlucky since 4 is a homophone with the word for death or suﬀering [sěi], yet in the Shanghainese, it is a homophone of water ( )and is considered lucky since water is associated with money.

278 5.

CHAPTER 23. NUMEROLOGY [ŋ̬] – the self, me, myself [ŋ̭], nothing, never [ŋ, m] in the Shanghainese, it is a homophone of ﬁsh ( )

[lùːk] – easy and smooth, all the way

[tsʰɐ́ t] – a slang/vulgar word in Cantonese.

[pāːt] – sudden fortune, prosperity

[fāːt]

[kɐ̌ u] – long in time [kɐ̌ u], enough [kɐ̄ u] or a slang/vulgar word derived from dog [kɐ̌ u] in Cantonese

Some “lucky number” combinations include: • 99 – doubly long in time, hence eternal; used in the name of a popular Chinese American supermarket chain, 99 Ranch Market.

23.6 Other uses of the term 23.6.1 To describe questionable concepts based on possibly coincidental numerical patterns Scientific theories are sometimes labeled “numerology” if their primary inspiration appears to be a set of patterns rather than scientific observations. This colloquial use of the term is quite common within the scientific community and it is mostly used to dismiss a theory as questionable science. The best known example of “numerology” in science involves the coincidental resemblance of certain large numbers that intrigued such eminent men as mathematical physicist Paul Dirac, mathematician Hermann Weyl and astronomer Arthur Stanley Eddington. These numerical coincidences refer to such quantities as the ratio of the age of the universe to the atomic unit of time, the number of electrons in the universe, and the difference in strengths between gravity and the electric force for the electron and proton. (“Is the Universe Fine Tuned for Us?", Stenger, V.J., page 3[11] ).

• 168 – many premium-pay telephone numbers in China begin with this number, which is considered lucky. It is also the name of a motel chain in China The discovery of atomic triads (dealing with elements pri(Motel 168). marily in the same group or column of the periodic table) • 888 – Three times the prosperity, means “wealthy was considered a form of numerology, and yet ultimately led to the construction of the periodic table. Here the wealthy wealthy”. atomic weight of the lightest element and the heaviest are summed, and averaged, and the average is found to be very close to that of the intermediate weight element. 23.5 Indian numerology This didn't work with every triplet in the same group, but worked often enough to allow later workers to create genIn South India, mostly Tamil Nadu, the numbers assigned eralizations. See Döbereiner’s triads to English alphabets is diﬀerent. The list is shown below: Large number co-incidences continue to fascinate many mathematical physicists. For instance, James G. Gilson has constructed a “Quantum Theory of Gravity” based • 1 = A, I, J, Q, Y loosely on Dirac’s large number hypothesis.[12] • 2 = B, K, R • 3 = C, G, L, S • 4 = D, M, T • 5 = E, H, N, X • 6 = U, V, W • 7 = O, Z • 8 = F, P There is no assignment for the number 9. Numerologists analyze double-digit numbers from 10 to 99. Ex: Number 29 is supposed to be the worst numbered-name a person can have.

Wolfgang Pauli was also fascinated by the appearance of certain numbers, including 137, in physics.[13] British mathematician I. J. Good wrote: There have been a few examples of numerology that have led to theories that transformed society: see the mention of Kirchhoﬀ and Balmer in Good (1962, p. 316) ... and one can well include Kepler on account of his third law. It would be fair enough to say that numerology was the origin of the theories of electromagnetism, quantum mechanics, gravitation.... So I intend no disparagement when I describe a formula as numerological. When a numerological formula is proposed, then we may ask whether it is correct. ... I think an appropriate deﬁnition of correctness is that the formula has a good explanation, in a Platonic sense, that is, the explanation could

23.9. NOTES be based on a good theory that is not yet known but ‘exists’ in the universe of possible reasonable ideas. — I. J. Good[14]

279

23.9 Notes [1] “The Skeptic’s Dictionary: numerology”. Skepdic.com. Retrieved 2012-08-31. [2] Lynne Kelly (2004). The Skeptic’s Guide To The Paranormal. Allen & Unwin. ISBN 1-74114-059-5.

23.6.2

Attempts by gamblers to see patterns in random chance

Some players apply methods that are sometimes called numerological in games which involve numbers but no skill, such as bingo, roulette, keno, or lotteries. Although no strategy can be applied to increase odds in such games, players may employ "lucky numbers" to ﬁnd what they think will help them. There is no evidence that any such “numerological strategy” yields a better outcome than pure chance, but the methods are sometimes encouraged, e.g. by casino owners.[15]

23.7 In popular culture Numerology is a popular plot device in ﬁction. Sometimes it is a casual element used for comic eﬀect, such as in an episode titled “The Séance” of the 1950s TV sitcom I Love Lucy, where Lucy dabbles in numerology. Sometimes it is a central motif of the storyline, such as the movie π, in which the protagonist meets a numerologist searching for hidden numerical patterns in the Torah; the TV show Touch which focuses almost entirely on the role of numerology in the events and coincidences of any person’s life; and the movie The Number 23 was based on claimed mysteries of the number 23.

23.8 See also • Abjad • Al-Jafr (book) • Al-Jamia (scroll) • Biblical numerology • List of topics characterized as pseudoscience • Number of the Beast • Numbers in Chinese culture • Numbers in Egyptian mythology

[3] “numerology, n.”. OED Online. September 2012. Oxford University Press. http://oed.com/view/Entry/ 129129?redirectedFrom=numerology& (accessed November 23, 2012). [4] Η Ελληνική γλώσσα, ο Πλάτων, ο Αριστοτέλης και η Ορθοδοξία (in Greek). Acrobase.gr. Retrieved 2012-0831. [5] Αγαπητέ Πέτρο, Χρόνια Πολλά και ευλογημένα από Τον Κύριο Ημών Ιησού Χριστό (in Greek). Users.otenet.gr. Retrieved 2012-08-31. [6] Campbell, Florence (1931). Your Days Are Numbered: A Manual of Numerology for Everybody. DeVorss & Company. ISBN 0-87-516422-6. [7] “It is the same story even beyond the pale. For example, no one actually knows, even, what is wrong with numerology. Philosophers, of course, use numerology as a stock example of thought gone hopelessly wrong, and they are right to do so; still, they cannot tell you what it is that is wrong with it. If you ask a philosopher this, the best he will be able to come up with is a bit of Positivism about unverifiability, or a bit of Popperism about unfalsifiability: answers which the philosopher himself will know to be unsatisfactory on various grounds, but which have in addition this defect, that they put numerology in the same boat as, for example, astrology. But numerology is actually quite as different from astrology as astrology is from astronomy. Philosophers do not know this, because, while they often look at the astrological parts of newspapers for fun, they never read a book of numerology. If they did, they would soon find out that the peculiar awfulness of numerology, while clearly quite different from that of astrology, is utterly elusive in itself.” David Stove, "What Is Wrong With Our Thoughts?", chapter 7 of Stove’s The Plato Cult and Other Philosophical Follies (Blackwell, 1991). [8] http://www.assap.ac.uk/newsite/articles/Numerology. html [9] http://translate.google.com/translate?hl=en&sl= &tl=en&u=http%3A%2F%2Fsharp-thinking.com% 2Fcategory%2F%25D7%2599%25D7%25A2%25D7% 2595%25D7%25A5-%25D7%2595%25D7%2597% 25D7%2599%25D7%2596%25D7%2595%25D7% 2599-%25D7%259E%25D7%2599%25D7%25A1% 25D7%2598%25D7%2599%2F%25D7%25A0% 25D7%2595%25D7%259E%25D7%25A8%25D7% 2595%25D7%259C%25D7%2595%25D7%2592% 25D7%2599%25D7%2594%2F

• Numbers in Norse mythology

[10] ”Seeing the Body: The Divergence of Ancient Chinese and Western Medical Illustration”, Camillia Matuk, Northwestern University,

• Signiﬁcance of numbers in Judaism

[11] “Colorado University” (PDF). Retrieved 2012-08-31.

280

[12] “ﬁne-structure-constant.org”. ﬁne-structure-constant.org. Retrieved 2012-08-31. [13] Cosmic numbers: Pauli and Jung’s love of numerology, by Dan Falk, Magazine issue 2705, 24 April 2009 – New Scientist [14] I. J. Good (1990). “A Quantal Hypothesis for Hadrons and the Judging of Physical Numerology.” in G. R. Grimmett (Editor), D. J. A. Welsh (Editor). Disorder in Physical Systems. Oxford University Press. p. 141. ISBN 978-0198532156. [15] “Number Symbolism – Myth or Reality?". CasinoObserver.com. Retrieved 2013-03-06.

23.10 References • Schimmel, Annemarie (1993). The Mystery of Numbers. New York, USA: Oxford University Press. p. 314. ISBN 0-87-516422-6.; a scholarly compendium of the connotations and associations of numbers in historical cultures • Pandey, Aaadietya. (2006). Numerology: The number game • Pochat Wilfrid & Pirmaïer Michel, (2011). The Unveiled Numerology – vol. 1 – You do not necessarily carry the name you think • Dudley, U. (1997). Numerology: Or, What Pythagoras Wrought. Mathematical Association of America. – a skeptical survey of the ﬁeld through history • Nagy, Andras M. (2007). The Secret of Pythagoras (DVD). ASIN B000VPTFT6 • E. W. Bullinger (1921). Number in Scripture. Eyre & Spottiswoode (Bible Warehouse) Ltd. • Drayer, R.A. (2002) Numerology, The Power in Numbers, A Right & Left Brain Approach. ISBN 0-9640321-3-9 • Book of the Masters of the Secret House • Campbell, Florence (1931). Your Days Are Numbered: A Manual of Numerology for Everybody. DeVorss & Company. ISBN 0-87-516422-6.

23.11 External links • Number symbolism on Encyclopædia Britannica

CHAPTER 23. NUMEROLOGY

Chapter 24

Zott For the dairy company see Zott (dairy company) Zott (singular Zottī ) is the Arabic term for gypsies. The Zott were musicians who migrated in great numbers from Pakistan and India to Middle East about 1000 years ago. Their name was later applied to any itinerant entertainer of Indian origin, and came to be the common name of the Dom people in the Middle East, as English gypsy or tinker with contemptuous connotations. The Al-Qamus Al-Muhit glosses the term as equivalent to Nawar (singular Nawarī ).

24.1 See also • Nawar • Romani

24.2 References • M. J. de Goeie, A Contribution to the History of the Gypsies, Amsterdam (1875, 2007 reprint)

281

282

CHAPTER 24. ZOTT

24.3 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses 24.3.1

Text

• Conspiracy theory Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conspiracy_theory?oldid=690697354 Contributors: Damian Yerrick, The Cunctator, Sodium, Eloquence, Vicki Rosenzweig, Mav, Bryan Derksen, The Anome, Stephen Gilbert, Malcolm Farmer, RK, Khendon, Jkominek, Hari, Gianfranco, Fubar Obfusco, Miguel~enwiki, SimonP, Maury Markowitz, Robert Foley, Mswake, Rcingham, Heron, Hotlorp, Ryguasu, Montrealais, R Lowry, Sfdan, Modemac, Bignose, KF, Hephaestos, Juan M. Gonzalez, Cwitty, Olivier, Bobdobbs1723, Chris Q, Ericd, AntonioMartin, Stevertigo, DennisDaniels, Boud, Michael Hardy, Pit~enwiki, Cprompt, DopefishJustin, Ronincyberpunk, Jtdirl, Nixdorf, Karl, Liftarn, MartinHarper, Sam Francis, Cyde, Tgeorgescu, Shoaler, GTBacchus, Karada, Minesweeper, Tregoweth, CesarB, Ihcoyc, Ellywa, Ahoerstemeier, Cyp, Moriarty, Ronz, Jan Pedersen, Neudorf~enwiki, TUF-KAT, Susan Mason, TUF-KAT, Angela, Yaronf, Darkwind, Ireneshusband, Julesd, Cgs, Bogdangiusca, Vzbs34, Cimon Avaro, GCarty, Rl, Lancevortex, Rob Hooft, Pizza Puzzle, Hieronymous, Vodex, Uriber, Timwi, Dino, Harris7, Reddi, Ww, Michaeln, Rvolz, Silpol, WhisperToMe, Wik, Zoicon5, Timc, DJ Clayworth, Furrykef, Martinphi, SEWilco, Lord Emsworth, Kwantus, Mackensen, Jecar, Stormie, Raul654, Scott Sanchez, Pakaran, Proteus, Banno, Finlay McWalter, UninvitedCompany, Francs2000, Night Stalker, PuzzletChung, Ben Hateva, 2toise, Robbot, Frank A, Popageorgio, Dale Arnett, MrJones, Phisite, Astronautics~enwiki, ChrisO~enwiki, ChrisG, Iwpg, Lbs6380, RedWolf, E0N, Altenmann, Bkalafut, Greudin, Nurg, Modulatum, Sam Spade, Babbage, Rfc1394, KellyCoinGuy, Meelar, Gidonb, Humus sapiens, DHN, Millosh, Jsonitsac, Wereon, Benc, Dhodges, Mushroom, Ruakh, HaeB, Dmn, SpellBott, Pablo-flores, Alan Liefting, David Gerard, Adhib, Wjbeaty, TOO, Sjc196, Gwalla, Dbenbenn, JamesMLane, Kbahey, Djinn112, Philwelch, Tom harrison, Ferkelparade, Fastfission, Dimi juve, Wwoods, Everyking, Snowdog, Jacob1207, Henry Flower, Gamaliel, Niteowlneils, DO'Neil, Beta m, Guanaco, FrYGuY, Mboverload, Invisible man, SWAdair, 47b, JRR Trollkien, Sesel, Wmahan, Bacchiad, Chowbok, Gadfium, Mackeriv, Sonjaaa, Dissent, Gzuckier, Quadell, Antandrus, Mustafaa, Beland, Onco p53, Loremaster, Watcher, Cberlet, Gamin000, Noirum, Andrew Kanaber, DragonflySixtyseven, Maximaximax, Tothebarricades.tk, Heirpixel, GeoGreg, Zfr, Sam Hocevar, Iantresman, Creidieki, Neutrality, Urhixidur, Herschelkrustofsky, Tromatic, Cab88, Kisama, DMG413, Flex, Lacrimosus, Eep², Lucidish, Jayjg, Rfl, N328KF, Eyrian, Spiko-carpediem~enwiki, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Rhobite, Guanabot, Zen-master, Izwalito~enwiki, Bishonen, Max Terry, User2004, Draugen, Abelson, Berkut, Captain Q, Trey Stone, WegianWarrior, AndrewMcQ, Bender235, ZeroOne, Kbh3rd, Pedant, Yasis, MBisanz, Walden, Ryantrask, Vinsci, Marcok, Aude, Susvolans, RoyBoy, Phiwum, Leif, Etimbo, Lunaverse, Dustinasby, Deathawk, Rhysn, Walkiped, Davidruben, Muusst.... 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Reeek!!!, Britomart, I9Q79oL78KiL0QTFHgyc, Rje, Troels Nybo~enwiki, Riddhill, MPerel, GatesPlusPlus, Jumbuck, Zachlipton, Honeycake, Mickeyreiss, Spanky-, Eleland, Surlethe, FaustX, Lokicarbis, Mr Adequate, John Quiggin, Davenbelle, Ashley Pomeroy, Jnothman, AzaToth, Yamla, Great Scott, Calton, Edeans, SlimVirgin, Hu, Andreala, DreamGuy, Snowolf, Dado~enwiki, Wtmitchell, Wintceas, BrandonYusufToropov, JUSTtheFACTS, Staeiou, Cal 1234, AquaDoctorBob, Star General, VoluntarySlave, GabrielF, Versageek, Sleigh, Holodoctor1, Kazvorpal, Dan100, Ceyockey, Dismas, Zaphodzuk~enwiki, Stephen, Gmaxwell, OleMaster, Angr, Richard Arthur Norton (1958- ), Kelly Martin, Woohookitty, Temuler, Swamp Ig, StradivariusTV, FrankA, Madchester, Ilario, Bonus Onus, Pol098, Fbriere, JakeInJoisey (usurped), Dmol, Easyas12c, Wikiklrsc, Alchemistoxford, Striver, KevinOKeeffe, Bluemoose, GregorB, Faethon, Wayward, Matthew Platts, Prashanthns, Radiant!, DaveApter, Eastpaw, Graham87, Deltabeignet, Cuchullain, BD2412, Qwertyus, RxS, Canderson7, Rjwilmsi, Nightscream, Koavf, Jake Wartenberg, Astronaut, Devijvers, Carbonite, Wahkeenah, TheRingess, Tocath, Oblivious, NeonMerlin, Wingover, Bubba73, The wub, Bogusstory, Rbeas, KAM, Yuber, JohnnoShadbolt, GregAsche, Sango123, A Man In Black, FlaBot, Ian Pitchford, Mirror Vax, Eldamorie, Ground Zero, PinkDeoxys, Doc glasgow, Djrobgordon, Margosbot~enwiki, Nihiltres, Nivix, Rbonvall, RexNL, Bennie Noakes, Redwolf24, Pcj, Orborde, Ernie1241, Noitall, Reediewes, Gareth E Kegg, BMF81, Lord Patrick, Sharkface217, GangofOne, Bgwhite, Agamemnon2, Gwernol, Strecken, Wasted Time R, YurikBot, Wavelength, RobotE, Koveras, Sceptre, Erachima, Hornplease, Teekno, Bhny, Pigman, SabrebIade, Raquel Baranow, Devahn58, Akamad, Stephenb, Gaius Cornelius, Kyorosuke, Wimt, DonaldDuck, Adaxl, BewickCurry, Garrick92, Rjensen, Seegoon, Irishguy, Nick, Inhighspeed, Dmoss, Larry laptop, RL0919, Truthdowser, Zwobot, Ospalh, Syrthiss, Adreamsoul, Rwalker, DeadEyeArrow, Bota47, Nescio, Nlu, Franz-kafka, Avraham, Lehmberg, Pawyilee, FF2010, DieWeisseRose, Mveric, Zzuuzz, Maphisto86, Hobotraveler.com, Davidizer13, Thnidu, Closedmouth, Arthur Rubin, Fang Aili, Endomion, Jmackaerospace, Zorgrian, Sean Whitton, Petri Krohn, JoanneB, CWenger, Sambc, Natgoo, Ilmari Karonen, Jack Upland, Kungfuadam, RGG, Kuzain, AMHR285, Pisceswoman87, Veinor, Remiel, SmackBot, Elonka, Mangoe, Simon Beavis, Reedy, Ikip, Jacek Kendysz, Pokipsy76, RobPreece, Clpo13, Anastrophe, Hardyplants, Canthusus, Kintetsubuffalo, Lowzeewee, Harald88, Edgar181, HalfShadow, Mauls, VoteForDemocrats, Commander Keane bot, Marktreut, Gilliam, XDev, Ohnoitsjamie, Hmains, Choalbaton, Skizzik, Chaojoker, Drknexus, Macanckor, PJTraill, Amatulic, Brandonjkelley, Timbouctou, Jprg1966, Fuzzform, Deuxhero, Colonies Chris, Chr.K., Mladifilozof, Bov, Chendy, Lenin and McCarthy, Quaque, Famspear, Peter McConaughey, JoelWhy, Jaro.p~enwiki, Eschbaumer, Writtenright, Spearmind, JonHarder, Rrburke, Morton devonshire, Quokkapox, Huon, Fuhghettaboutit, MilitaryTarget, MichaelBillington, Someoneisatthedoor, Richard001, RandomP, Nrcprm2026, Tomtom9041, Valwen, BullRangifer, Weregerbil, EyesAllMine, DMacks, Giancarlo Rossi, Pen of bushido, Richard0612, Bejnar, FerzenR, SkeenaR, Number 77, Will Beback, Byelf2007, Pinktulip, ChrisLaurel, Olaan, Mukadderat, ArglebargleIV, LtPowers, Acebrock, Fifty7, Rklawton, Giovanni33, JzG, John, Adagio Cantabile, Tenebrous, Tazmaniacs, Jettparmer, Tony Corsini, Nygdan, Joffeloff, NYCJosh, NongBot~enwiki, Aleenf1, Wikipediatrist, Doctor Nicetan, 16@r, MarkSutton, Verklempt, Sfaustin3, Cxk271, Meco, TastyPoutine, Michael J Swassing, Midnightblueowl, Babak 91, MTSbot~enwiki, El magnifico, Webucation, Dl2000, Keahapana, DabMachine, Quaeler, Gillie17, Daedalus71, Asklepiades, Dan Gluck, E3323, Michaelbusch, Joseph Solis in Australia, Sibadd, JoeBot, ChrisSlade, TheBreeze, Pimlottc, Lenoxus, Matt714, CapitalR, Raze78, AGK, Civil Engineer III, ScierGuy, Chovain, Tawkerbot2, George100, DKqwerty, BruceGrubb, Cesar Tort, TORR, Adam Keller, Punisher777, Alhidell, TheHerbalGerbil, Scohoust, Makeemlighter, BeenAroundAWhile, Mystylplx, Ennerk, ShelfSkewed, Dbernstein, Neelix, Tim Howells, Location, Unmitigated Success, Gregbard, ProfessorPaul, Doctormatt, Cydebot, Korky Day, DCAnderson, Poeticbent, Warhorus, PJMweb, Peterdjones, UncleBubba, Hollow are the Ori, Gogo Dodo, Indiana Don, Tspeaker, Thirsty1975, Nolatime, Daniel J. 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Ric, Barek, Eric blair, Skomorokh, Smulthaup, Sophie means wisdom, RoKeMo, Dscotese, Hut 8.5, Sjmurray, PhilKnight, Yahel Guhan, Achero, MaxPont, Magioladitis, VoABot II, Acedea9, MastCell, Trnj2000, Adam keller, JNW, Yandman, Yakushima, Nalencer, Brewhaha@edmc.net, Mtiffany71, Mrparanormal, ***Ria777, XSentinelx, Euhedral, Jatkins, Twsx, Avicennasis, Snowded, Bubba hotep, Trap Hazzard, Catgut, Cliomouson, JLMadrigal, Umeboshi, Cgingold, Bleazy, Hamiltonstone, A3nm, LoneFox, Kams912, Ludvikus, Theragman, Glen, JaGa, Edward321, Wowest, WLU, .V., Locewtus, Gwern, Gjd001, Stephenchou0722, FisherQueen, 99th Percentile, MartinBot, Darkbreed, Grandia01, Cfrydj, Andrew Clarkson, NAHID, Poeloq, NuclearUmpf, James Rees, Keith D, MrBronson, Patar

24.3. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

283

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CHAPTER 24. ZOTT

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Anderson, Martin451, AllGloryToTheHypnotoad, LeaveSleaves, PhilyG, Amog, Alec Jenkins-White, Cremepuff222, StillTrill, CO, Madhero88, RandomXYZb, The Seventh Taylor, Falcon8765, Evilphil77, SpikeZOM, Blubel, The Devil’s Advocate, Blocsoiree, Edwardjacobs123, Ceranthor, Rolo555, Anotherwikifan, Munci, Steake100, Isis07, Zenfull, Kate M65, SieBot, Mikemoral, Kwork, Sonicology, Spartan, Kromsson, Ravensfire, Crash Underride, Aarhead, Evilpineapple, Keilana, Rjbonacolta, Jvs, Albertrothschild, Oxymoron83, Faradayplank, Polbot, The Exiled Fighter, Angielaj, Peoples Fernandes, Bert Schlossberg, Ballstatic, DISGUISTIPATED, ConanBaltar, JmalcolmG, Hamiltondaniel, Rabend, Mr. Stradivarius, Eshalis, MMAfan2007, Micov, Justintree, HairyWombat, Corleonebrother, DaddyWarlock, XMattCasx, Explicit, HMSOL, Eddy23, Veriter, Dukered, Ratemonth, Jiminezwaldorf, Elassint, ClueBot, Xomoxnyc, Cnsimon, Binksternet, Leatherstocking, CiudadanoGlobal, Fishbulb928, The Thing That Should Not Be, Sparkyone, Teardrop inthewater, Rjd0060, EoGuy, Nicholasradford, Arakunem, Consuelo D'Guiche, Darkwizard1992, CenterofGravity, Wikitam331, Kathleen.wright5, DanielDeibler, Blue bear sd, Jozsefs, Lordbecket, Blanchardb, Fallenfromthesky, Jojo.jojo1977, Piledhigheranddeeper, Trivialist, Multipole~enwiki, Cirt, Unikron2001, Dhbanes, Sirius85, DanielT..Kim, Jusdafax, Ottre, John Nevard, 12 Noon, AmericanGhoul, Gwguffey, Kperfekt722, NuclearWarfare, Eternal-Entropy, PeterWiseman, Antodav2007, Steelmate, Hilarius bogbinder, Gundersen53, Mlaffs, Audionaut, Bald Zebra, J Kossowan, Thingg, Nibi, Aitias, Horselover Frost, Shawshankhank, Dance With The Devil, Versus22, Cnanninga, Mcrazychick, Burner0718, Riversider2008, Ace Fool, DumZiBoT, Korkorkor, Nvsonic7, Against the current, XLinkBot, Fastily, Dethala, DelphiExpert, Andrews Palop, Burningview, Anti-Gorgias, Botpankonin, Feinoha, Johnwalker316, Tazryl, Mifter, Sarasco, Alexius08, WikiDao, GTH1, Mikearion, Zainboy, T.M.M. Dowd, HexaChord, Corath, Aceleo, Addbot, SixVryl, Ave Caesar, Learna United Kingdom, Friginator, AMERICAN MIGHT, NoChipsForMe, PatrickFlaherty, Marx01, Fieldday-sunday, Hunchentoot, Wikipedian314, Gizziiusa, Dustin Chambers, Tomtom2008, AnotherObserver, Chzz, Debresser, Kyle1278, Nemysys, Evadinggrid, Tassedethe, Dayewalker, Tide rolls, Verbal, Lightbot, Khawar.nehal, Aviados, Bartledan, MissAlyx, Hyperdimensionalentity, Serivatti, Whowasi, Yobot, Dzhastin, HabsMTL, Senator Palpatine, Legobot II, Freedomjusticepeace, Tweekjones, Mmxx, QueenCake, AmeliorationBot, Scholastic Opponent, Farsight001, Againme, Car Falling Into the Water, AnomieBOT, Dmachlis, Warhead57, Cicero in utero, Message From Xenu, Piano non troppo, Nick000bristow, Kingpin13, Yachtsman1, Powerzilla, FactCheck150, CrazyChinaGal, Stickybombs, Dark verdant, Citation bot, Sakfranco, Elm-39, Sadrettin, GB fan, ArthurBot, Clark89, LilHelpa, Apjohns54, S h i v a (Visnu), Cureden, Addihockey10, Capricorn42, Drilnoth, Bihco, 4twenty42o, Spartensky, Xhisheroisgone, Newworldorder466072, S0aasdf2sf, Measles, Nwoissatan123, Nightcock, Madmaxoftherails, Frosted14, Barnsoldat91, Alumnum, ProtectionTaggingBot, Omnipaedista, Jezhotwells, Earlypsychosis, A Quest For Knowledge, RussGrim, Voice of cp, Chaheel Riens, Future101, Prezbo, Nantucketnoon, Onewithears, BoomerAB, Legobot III, FrescoBot, Zero Douji, Tiramisoo, Pendula, Pergamino, Cosmo Notch, Jcher89, USWGO, Xhaoz, SCFilm29, Citation bot 1, Witt E Pseudonym, Tom.Reding, Dazedbythebell, Thewatchdog2012, Nodar Kherkheulidze, JamesGrimshaw, Full-date unlinking bot, PhuckTheSystem, LucasW, Utility Monster, HennaJayNavArjun, Sindrefj, DriveMySol, Mannershoeft, Lotje, MrTruth1234, Thirdworldassassin, DieScreamie, Jeremystalked, Capt. James T. Kirk, Jnewsom38, Tbhotch, Jadenef, Minimac, MeSoStupid, Wikistk, Dj6ual, Andrea105, RjwilmsiBot, TzouvanI, Lung salad, 6969organic, Evilbob616, Wkp123, Colin669, FetchcommsAWB, CatJar, WildBot, Motorbase, Almusaddik, EmausBot, Acather96, Xvampyricx, Nuujinn, AbbaIkea2010, GoingBatty, RenamedUser01302013, John Shandy`, Dwehrly, Thargor Orlando, Pan Brerus, H3llBot, Amish 01, Karthikndr, Gabrirodenas, Liaritchie1, L Kensington, WARRIORWALES, Llevihcanyad, Laincoubert~enwiki, Bigshirley, Gtdisciple, Actjay1998, Graylandertagger, TheTimesAreAChanging, Autodidact1, ClueBot NG, WalkingInTheLight2, K1eyboard, Anmccaff, BakuninGoldmanKropotkin, RJFF, Goldblooded, Icantwait, CopperSquare, Anupmehra, Sören Koopmann, Helpful Pixie Bot, Risukarhi, Wbm1058, Lowercase sigmabot, Gluonman, BG19bot, WikiTryHardDieHard, John xero, UGlyZoe, CitationCleanerBot, Mimzy89, Harizotoh9, MrBill3, 23W, Dontreader, BattyBot, Pottinger’s cats, MadGuy7023, Charlie22712, Magnunath, LeaderforEarth1, BillNyeDeScienceGuy, Cara22, Madreterra, Tentinator, Hendrick 99, Dustin V. S., Goldenaster, Josh Joaquin, Itc editor2, Sol1, LahmacunKebab, Jonas Vinther, Icarus4, Zumoarirodoka, P-123, GinAndChronically, Bokareis, Theedgarallensmoke, Setareh1990, Prinsgezinde, Nøkkenbuer, ChouxMonster, ImHere2015 and Anonymous: 1306 • Illuminati Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illuminati?oldid=690923250 Contributors: Tobias Hoevekamp, The Epopt, Eloquence, Timo Honkasalo, The Anome, Vignaux, Christian List, Shii, Sfdan, Olivier, Leandrod, Frecklefoot, Tubby, Paul Barlow, Kwertii, Nixdorf, MartinHarper, Sam Francis, Ixfd64, Lquilter, Theanthrope, CesarB, Ronabop, William M. Connolley, Templar~enwiki, Angela, Mark Foskey, Julesd, Ugen64, Whkoh, Netsnipe, John K, JidGom, Alex S, Nohat, Boson, Daniel Quinlan, ThomasStrohmann~enwiki, Tpbradbury, Jake Nelson, Itai, VeryVerily, JonathanDP81, Joy, Khranus, Stormie, AnonMoos, Wetman, Bjørn, Altenmann, Mr Noodles, Psi36, Samrolken, Illuminati, Texture, Hadal, Mushroom, Neckro, Lonefox, David Gerard, Gwalla, Gtrmp, TOttenville8, Luis Dantas, Lethe, Tom harrison, Everyking, Curps, Beta m, Yekrats, SWAdair, Evanluxzenburg, Alsampaio, Wmahan, Chowbok, Keith Edkins, Uranographer, Popefauvexxiii, SarekOfVulcan, Slowking Man, Joshuamcgee, MisfitToys, Am088, Rdsmith4, Pmanderson, Zfr, DenisMoskowitz, Yossarian, Sam Hocevar, Cynical, HeartBurn Kid, TonyW, Joyous!, Mubor, Chmod007, Bhugh, Trevor MacInnis, Arminius, Jimaginator, Eep²,

24.3. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

285

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Brown, Hairy Dude, 999~enwiki, Sjacinth, Pigman, Lobsterkins, Hydrargyrum, Teemujazz~enwiki, CambridgeBayWeather, Rsrikanth05, NawlinWiki, DavidConrad, Mixvio, Wiki alf, Mike Halterman, Vanished user 1029384756, Rjensen, Nick Roberts, Taco325i, Howcheng, Haranoh, JDoorjam, Irishguy, Shinmawa, PhilipO, Chal7ds, Saberwyn, MSJapan, GeorgeC, Adreamsoul, Mddake, Empty2005, Igiffin, Tetracube, WAS 4.250, Deville, Itake, Adamkolson, J. 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Goldenrowley, Cinnamon42, OberMegaTrans, Leuqarte, Kaini, Ingolfson, Res2216firestar, JAnDbot, Goodoldave, Gcm, Wizardboy777, Gerash77, Sovietbot, Britcom, LongBay, Ikanreed, Igodard, Jimmy, Burntnickel, TheEditrix2, Grimelab, Acroterion, Parsecboy, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, JNW, Yandman, Slayerment, JasterM, Petee326, Cartoon Boy, Memloss, Duggy 1138, X-factor, Rosencomet, Catgut, Simonxag, Virginia Dutch, Tgpedersen, Glisteningsquid, Loonymonkey, Nat, JAltman752, Memphisdan, Aliendude5300, MartinBot, Master20817, BDAWG48, Beccag, Padillah, AlexiusHoratius, Gunkarta, Yrgh, Msvolk, J.delanoy, Pharaoh of the Wizards, Conspiractor10, Trusilver, Nigholith, Ian.thomson, Vanished user 342562, S7155, Partyrobot, McSly, Clerks, Ignatzmice, Mhorak, Veriss1, Pyrospirit, HiLo48, SmilesALot, Cherok~enwiki, Phatius McBluff, Ninjawong, Juliancolton, STBotD, Equazcion, Nihongeorge, Gwen Gale, Munsterdevil, OsirisV, Bonadea, Doctoroxenbriery, Andy Marchbanks, Useight, C.Knarf, Jefferson Anderson, Quentin Stark, Ingram, Cactus Guru, Dimanovski, Moonfall, Jeffrey S, Aeqea, Jeff G., Jmrowland, Soliloquial, Fences and windows, Dominics Fire, Tpaulin, TXiKiBoT, BackMaun, Jomasecu, Rubylady, Thaddeus Slamp, Pwnage8, Miranda, XeloEspada, Agnosticus, Primpella, IPSOS, Qxz, Austass, Gekritzl, Martin451, Metasailor, THC Loadee, LeaveSleaves, BotKung, StillTrill, Chuck02, Liberal Classic, C-M, TheRealDabid, Tdragon86, Mjh47, Alchemist173, BlueMoney101, Feudonym, Graymornings, Thomack, GlassFET, Bittlec, Symphonic1872, HeirloomGardener, NurembergWS, Zx-man, AlleborgoBot, Illvminatvs, Logan, Ilvminati, Lojah, Peerdomatlas, Cosprings, AusJeb, Joigga, SieBot, Coffee, Hiram816, Ttony21, PeterCanthropus, Bachcell, VVVBot, Gerakibot, Caltas, Matthew Yeager, PolocDoc, Triwbe, CurranH, Wiki 99 user life, Bz0ne, Srushe, Sp4rt4n, FightForFreedom, Baphomet58, RucasHost, Toddst1, Flyer22 Reborn, Tiptoety, Radon210, Yosemite1967, Tyler74~enwiki, Avnjay, Joe194444, Radicalzkid, AnonGuy, TimMorley, Esau Laubscher, Southsidney, OKBot, Pharaoh602, TX55, MegaBrutal, Ldud, Garth of the Forest, Mygerardromance, JustMe1776, Dabomb87, Jh553738, 7macaw, Bigbellend, Truesalomon, Veriter, TwisterAce, Ratemonth, Wfgh66, ClueBot, SirEditALot, Rumping, Binksternet, NewWorldOrder205, Snigbrook, 3toe, PokeHomsar, Arkalochori, Pi zero, Taroaldo, Saddhiyama, Scanners13, Godgg, Master115~enwiki, Bwjs, Drmies, JediMooCow, CounterVandalismBot, Blanchardb, Dylan620, Goldkingtut5, Neverquick, PMDrive1061, Sirius85, Prodigalsunburn, Excirial, Canis Lupus, Alexbot, Luckstev, C881play, Arjayay, Veggiehead, Whatiswrongwitmaywood, Bremerenator, Tnxman307, Truthfullyreal, Dekisugi, Lupi666, Curious Blue, Scolbert11, Polly, BOTarate, Rui Gabriel Correia, Amsaim, Patrickwongworshipfulmaster, Thingg, Aitias, Jamesjpn, Mcanguscu, DJ Sturm, SoxBot III, Editor2020, Abdullah al Askari, Bücherwürmlein, Glacier Wolf, Welshoop, Bearsona, BarretB, XLinkBot, Jirwin4394, BodhisattvaBot, Ost316, Nepenthes, Little Mountain 5, 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Hammer, Xanchester, Tvashtar87, ClueBot NG, Mvdejong, CocuBot, Joefromrandb, Bped1985, DonaldRichardSands, Petey Parrot, Go Phigh-

286

CHAPTER 24. ZOTT

tins!, Chitt66, Lukewarm revenge, Garry12334242424314, Kellykell, Melonatti, Sören Koopmann, Helpful Pixie Bot, Jeremy1000000, Lowercase sigmabot, BG19bot, Jmwikiacc, Vagobot, TCN7JM, Northamerica1000, Jibu8, AvocatoBot, Stelpa, AwamerT, Tom Pippens, Nidhigandhi, DrizzyDrakeFan, RJR3333, Yerevantsi, CitationCleanerBot, Aranea Mortem, Jacksokol, The Almightey Drill, North911, Meatsgains, Sparthorse, McLennonSon, Cky2250, Klilidiplomus, TheGoodBadWorst, Fiddlersmouth, Eduardofeld, Dexbot, LightandDark2000, Chicbyaccident, TwoTwoHello, MarshalRight, Chawz37, Alexschmidt711, Chickenhead777, Joncat123, TRGUY, Provacitu74, Josh Joaquin, EJM86, LahmacunKebab, Eric Corbett, JustBerry, NottNott, GreatTruth123, Jackmcbarn, Avaagaa, Theduinoelegy, Anarcham, Callumtg, Bilorv, Monkbot, P-123, Mlnhther, BrayLockBoy, Bokareis, Shahanshah26, Connor.allers, MarkFilgerleskiWiki, Editor201503, Vladimir2341, Bismarqui, Nøkkenbuer, Equivocasmannus, KasparBot, Maxman123, MMXVI, Jimmybruze, Illuminatieye 25, Voodoothenoob, Lolololol weed, Deznoots, Hoooodini, Jacoq and Anonymous: 1245 • Age of Enlightenment Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment?oldid=691112538 Contributors: The Cunctator, The Anome, RK, William Avery, Roadrunner, SimonP, Nonenmac, Heron, Sfdan, KF, Nknight, Elian, Stevertigo, Edward, Bdesham, Michael Hardy, Jahsonic, Gdarin, Lousyd, Menchi, 172, ArnoLagrange, Mkweise, Ahoerstemeier, Chorrocks, Snoyes, Angela, JWSchmidt, Kingturtle, Julesd, Bogdangiusca, LouI, Poor Yorick, Big iron, Evercat, Transaspie, TonyClarke, Raven in Orbit, Pizza Puzzle, Norwikian, Adam Conover, Peter Damian (original account), Charles Matthews, Timwi, AWhiteC, Selket, CBDunkerson, Tpbradbury, Itai, Paul-L~enwiki, Kkawohl, HarryHenryGebel, Opus33, Wetman, Jerzy, Francs2000, Bearcat, Robbot, AlainV, Altaar, JeMa, RedWolf, Naddy, Lowellian, Mayooranathan, COGDEN, PedroPVZ, Academic Challenger, Puckly, Cholling, A.R. Mamdoohi, Hadal, Wikibot, Ianml, Cautious, Diberri, Jooler, Snobot, Stirling Newberry, Ancheta Wis, Giftlite, Jacoplane, Gtrmp, Barbara Shack, Nat Krause, Tom harrison, Martijn faassen, HangingCurve, Counsell, Wilfried Derksen, Everyking, Snowdog, Lussmu~enwiki, WHEELER, Chinasaur, DO'Neil, Iota, Raekwon, Eequor, JillandJack, Gzornenplatz, Boothinator, Just Another Dan, Bobblewik, Wildt~enwiki, Sesel, Gadfium, SoWhy, Pgan002, Joaotg~enwiki, DavidBrooks, Alexf, Mineminemine, Antandrus, Beland, Loremaster, Piotrus, Nlmarco, Am088, Fred Stober, Jossi, Exigentsky, Mikko Paananen, OwenBlacker, Icairns, Morgan695, Gscshoyru, Logocentric, Jcw69, Peter bertok, Neale Monks, Wyllium, Avihu, Trevor MacInnis, Lacrimosus, Esperant, David Sneek, Freakofnurture, DanielCD, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Cfailde, Vsmith, Francis Schonken, Dbachmann, Gronky, Stbalbach, WegianWarrior, Bender235, ESkog, Kaisershatner, Violetriga, Eric Forste, CanisRufus, MBisanz, Zenohockey, Easyer, QuartierLatin1968, Koenige, Aude, Shanes, Art LaPella, Rory77, Femto, Diaz~enwiki, Causa sui, Gyll, DJD, Sole Soul, Bobo192, Cretog8, Stesmo, Sentience, Jacquelinezr, Smalljim, Nectarflowed, Blakkandekka, Elipongo, Langelgjm, Tmh, Man vyi, Jojit fb, Samadam, Douglasr007, Krellis, Nsaa, Ommnomnomgulp, Jumbuck, Storm Rider, Alansohn, Thebeginning, Arthena, Ricky81682, Craigy144, Ronline, Logologist, Wikidea, MarkGallagher, Echuck215, Lightdarkness, Mac Davis, Olaf Simons, Jvano~enwiki, Cdc, Hu, Malo, Hohum, Snowolf, RPellessier, Velella, Benson85, Fordan, Yuckfoo, Jobe6, Sciurinæ, Deathphoenix, Itsmine, SteinbDJ, Ghirlandajo, Ceyockey, Notcarlos, Ogambear, Tariqabjotu, Daranz, Roland2~enwiki, Thryduulf, Angr, Velho, Shankark, OwenX, Woohookitty, Camw, Daniel Case, Brunnock, StradivariusTV, Uncle G, Bonus Onus, Pol098, WadeSimMiser, Raith, MONGO, Bkwillwm, Schzmo, SCEhardt, Tutmosis, Wayward, Eluchil, Dysepsion, Mandarax, Fbkintanar, JEB90, Graham87, Sparkit, BD2412, Qwertyus, Kbdank71, RxS, Pentawing, Sjakkalle, Rjwilmsi, KYPark, Jake Wartenberg, Mick gold, KamasamaK, JHMM13, Sdornan, HappyCamper, Ligulem, Bubba73, Durin, Brighterorange, Bensin, Matt Deres, Sango123, MWAK, Leithp, Ludovic Sesim~enwiki, FlaBot, Moskvax, Ian Pitchford, Kureido, Nihiltres, Woozle, Msridhar, Numa, Amyloo, RexNL, Gurch, Alexjohnc3, Pete.Hurd, Alphachimp, R160K, Chobot, DVdm, Gdrbot, Bgwhite, Gwernol, The Rambling Man, YurikBot, Sceptre, Tznkai, Phantomsteve, RussBot, Fabartus, Muchness, Hornplease, Kazikameuk, Splash, Pigman, Limulus, SpuriousQ, DE, Dantheox, Stephenb, Rintrah, Gaius Cornelius, Chaos, Rsrikanth05, KSchutte, Wimt, NawlinWiki, Robertvan1, LiniShu, Jaxl, Tailpig, Rjensen, Shaun F, Dureo, Bmdavll, JDoorjam, Irishguy, Isolani, Moe Epsilon, Sfnhltb, Historymike, Wangi, DeadEyeArrow, Kewp, Jpeob, Wknight94, AnnaKucsma, Donbert, Iamvered, Bhumiya, Nikkimaria, Theda, Closedmouth, Arthur Rubin, E Wing, ASmartKid, GraemeL, DGaw, Barbatus, CWenger, Fram, Peter, Palthrow, Mais oui!, Caco de vidro, Verylongnile, Allens, Kungfuadam, Warriorpoet, Jonathan.s.kt, NeilN, Linkminer, DVD R W, Sardanaphalus, MartinGugino, KnightRider~enwiki, SmackBot, Amcbride, Tlozano, Bayardo, InverseHypercube, Hydrogen Iodide, CopperMurdoch, C.Fred, Bomac, Jacek Kendysz, Patrickneil, Arcan~enwiki, Jab843, Frymaster, ProveIt, Edgar181, Wittylama, HalfShadow, Cupcake86eg, Sebesta, Gilliam, Portillo, Hmains, Betacommand, Skizzik, Lindosland, Chris the speller, TimBentley, Small black sun, Audacity, Dahn, Jabbi, Aidan Croft, JDCMAN, Master of Puppets, Blueskiesfalling, Anchoress, MalafayaBot, Hibernian, XLittleP, JoeBlogsDord, Deli nk, Jerome Charles Potts, Willardo, Jonolumb, Colonies Chris, Darth Panda, Mikker, Zachorious, Mladifilozof, Scwlong, Royboycrashfan, PeRshGo, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Sholto Maud, TheRaven7, Shalom Yechiel, Cplakidas, Onorem, KaiserbBot, Snowmanradio, Yorick8080, EvelinaB, Matchups, Rrburke, Parent5446, Blueboar, Stevenmitchell, Krich, Iapetus, Simonapro, Nakon, Dreadstar, Richard001, RandomP, Hgilbert, Umbrellaparty, Jon Awbrey, Wisco, Hammer1980, Twoheadeddog, Jklin, DMacks, Metamagician3000, ALR, Nmpenguin, Bidabadi~enwiki, Ck lostsword, Kukini, Michael Rogers, Ceoil, SashatoBot, Lambiam, Yonderboy~enwiki, JMejia7704, Nishkid64, Visium, ArglebargleIV, Vriullop, Fran loyd~enwiki, Rklawton, Anlace, JzG, UberCryxic, Lapaz, Gobonobo, Sir Nicholas de Mimsy-Porpington, Perfectblue97, Linnell, Belsebubben~enwiki, Hartbc, NongBot~enwiki, IronGargoyle, DerSucherDerWahrheit, Buckeye1921, Ckatz, Stoa, Dbloys, Tacodave, A. Parrot, Nbatra, Yms, EddieVanZant, Mr Stephen, Rizome~enwiki, Fedallah, Waggers, Battem, Unnamed01, Midnightblueowl, Ttlxxx, PaulGS, BranStark, Iridescent, WGee, TwistOfCain, Birdoman, Lakers, Antonio Prates, Shoeofdeath, J Di, Casull, Shoreranger, Courcelles, Tawkerbot2, Filelakeshoe, Chetvorno, Chris55, UBJAMMINN2, AllOuttaAngst, JForget, Peter1c, VoxLuna, CmdrObot, Ale jrb, Amalas, Makeemlighter, MFlet1, Moreschi, Flatfish, Ken Gallager, Nnp, Aakira009, Gregbard, FilipeS, Equendil, Slazenger, Cydebot, Grahamec, MC10, Mato, Gogo Dodo, BurtonM, Corpx, Studerby, Jonas Kölker, Odie5533, Verdy p, Doug Weller, DumbBOT, Bleckb, Abtract, AVIosad, Mulac28, Mamalujo, Sinkpoint~enwiki, Epbr123, Bot-maru, Settembrini~enwiki, Mojo Hand, Headbomb, Jojan, Marek69, James086, Esquierman, Itsmejudith, Java13690, Wildthing61476, Tlaurer, RFerreira, Oddeivind, CharlotteWebb, Nick Number, Lithpiperpilot, SusanLesch, Escarbot, Hires an editor, AntiVandalBot, Crabula, Jgrocho, Mackan79, D. Webb, Modernist, North Shoreman, Gdo01, Jcipc2004, Storkk, Lklundin, Edwardtbabinski, Sluzzelin, JAnDbot, Cyoung66, Cantabwarrior, MER-C, The Transhumanist, Matthew Fennell, Janejellyroll, Nwe, Ingvarr2000, Hamsterlopithecus, TAnthony, AOL account, Rothorpe, Taksen, LittleOldMe, Twospoonfuls, .anacondabot, Acroterion, Wasell, Braxas, FaerieInGrey, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, JNW, Tito-, Ling.Nut, Doug Coldwell, Tedickey, Jim Douglas, Rich257, WODUP, Ccarroll, L Trezise, KConWiki, Catgut, Lx Rogue, Afaprof01, Invisible Flying Mangoes, Gomm, Anrie, Exiledone, Rwb001, F Gholson, DerHexer, Rxtreme, Rolf Schmidt, Manne marak, Noodle chump99, DGG, SquidSK, Excesses, NatureA16, Grz77, FisherQueen, MartinBot, Anne97432, Billsoderlund, Jimmilu, Arjun01, Anarchia, Rettetast, Wkoeh87, Anaxial, Penguinsrock4575, AlexiusHoratius, EverSince, Fconaway, Meredithsara, Tompage1, Mike.frontier, El0i, J.delanoy, Sasajid, Nev1, Filll, HKL47, Trusilver, Qwanqwa, TamCaP, Abby, Uncle Dick, Maurice Carbonaro, Ginsengbomb, Athaenara, Tjvhigh09, DD2K, TomS TDotO, REveritt, Aqwis, Katalaveno, McSly, Dskluz, JayJasper, Zachmanw, (jarbarf), Girl2k, Ghindo, Alexb102072, SteveMacIntyre, NewEnglandYankee, SJP, LeighvsOptimvsMaximvs, Largoplazo, Akirchner, Juliancolton, Ledenierhomme, Tiggerjay, Stymphal, Action Jackson IV, Jevansen, Dcouzin, Natl1, Invictus42, Ja 62, Jarry1250, Andy Marchbanks, Useight, Xiahou, Idioma-bot, Sthenel, Wikieditor06, VolkovBot, ABF, Christophenstein, Brando130, Alexandria, Jadair0, Bsroiaadn, Philip Trueman, Drunkenmonkey, TXiKiBoT, Oshwah, LabFox, Lynxmb, Bargainfluger, FitzColinGerald, Tomsega, J789, Jazzwick, Dchall1, I789~enwiki, Dj thegreat, Rei-bot, Funkychunky, Anonymous Dissident, Janahan, SteveStrummer,

24.3. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

287

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ClueBot, Kgunn66, Binksternet, Morfal, Otolemur crassicaudatus, Trivialist, Wikistoriographer, Jack-A-Roe, Thingg, Versus22, Kamots, Adamfinmo, Wkboonec, Tthheeppaarrttyy, Aunt Entropy, Addbot, Glassworks45, LaaknorBot, OlEnglish, Yobot, Senator Palpatine, Angel ivanov angelov, AnomieBOT, Dwayne, UriNoble, Flewis, Spidern, Ukufwakfgr, Spindocter123, Xhaoz, SCFilm29, Pink Bull, Jeremystalked, Brzb4yo1948, RjwilmsiBot, Perspeculum, EmausBot, Bob the cookie, RA0808, Janelle Audrey, Dpenn89, Rcsprinter123, Usb10, Rwauthor1, ClueBot NG, Sören Koopmann, Helpful Pixie Bot, Gob Lofa, Aranea Mortem, YodaRULZ, Glacialfox, Trichometetrahydron, DietFoodstamp, Kodiologist, PAGAN FREEMASON, IanChris948, JaconaFrere, Monkbot, Zumoarirodoka, TropicAces, Faizaisanuloo, W.B chris hoover, BarnieHauck, Andrew Stepanovich Gongadze-Kolokowsky, Random user-hobo and Anonymous: 145 • Ashkali and Balkan Egyptians Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashkali_and_Balkan_Egyptians?oldid=690038684 Contributors: Uriber, Joy, AnonMoos, Carlossuarez46, Henrygb, Varlaam, RScheiber, BigHaz, Avala, Running, Florian Blaschke, Xezbeth, Forbsey, Dbachmann, Bender235, Dcabrilo, Aecis, Kwamikagami, QuartierLatin1968, Grutness, Hadžija, Bobrayner, PANONIAN, Woohookitty, Hipi Zhdripi~enwiki, Jeff3000, Meeso, Bluemoose, Kbdank71, Dpv, Behemoth, Tintazul, Ev, Kedadi, Benlisquare, YurikBot, Conscious, DanMS, Thiseye, Gadget850, Asterion, Ajdebre, Sardanaphalus, SmackBot, Zerida, Adammathias, Kintetsubuffalo, Taz Manchester, Desiphral, Chris the speller, TimBentley, Evlekis, SashatoBot, Lambiam, Dr.K., Themightyquill, Cydebot, Nadirali, Olahus, Vanjagenije, Matthew Fennell, TAnthony, R'n'B, HiLo48, STBotD, VolkovBot, Jamie M Hayes, TXiKiBoT, Kenshin, AlleborgoBot, Balkantropolis, AngelOfSadness, Wanpe, ClueBot, RashersTierney, Parkwells, 718 Bot, Dn9ahx, IJA, Local hero, CorreiaPM, Addbot, Mohamed Ouda, CanadianLinuxUser, CUSENZA Mario, Luckas-bot, TaBOT-zerem, Amirobot, AnomieBOT, Piano non troppo, Obersachsebot, J04n, ArkinAardvark, WALTHAM2, Spand, FrescoBot, Kwiki, Cupiii, Gimelthedog, John of Reading, Optional field, Kovac09, Bensen.daniel, Mcc1789, Zoupan, BG19bot, Ali-al-Bakuvi, Samudrakula, Medvegja, Bardhi i bardhe, Pahlavan Qahremani, Manaviko, Monkbot, Ejja90, Qenim, K. Solin and Anonymous: 51 • Judeo-Masonic conspiracy theory Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judeo-Masonic_conspiracy_theory?oldid=683590401 Contributors: Fubar Obfusco, Edward, Error, JASpencer, Secretlondon, Tom harrison, Gracefool, Loremaster, Jayjg, WegianWarrior, Pharos, Ogress, Woohookitty, Toussaint, Koavf, Ground Zero, Atrix20, Ecemaml, RussBot, Pigman, Gaius Cornelius, Neilbeach, DonaldDuck, MSJapan, BOT-Superzerocool, SmackBot, Kintetsubuffalo, Portillo, Hmains, Blueboar, Threeafterthree, Mitrius, Lute88, Ohconfucius, Will Beback, Robofish, Midnightblueowl, Muéro, Twas Now, CmdrObot, Cydebot, Galassi, Jayen466, Doug Weller, Mamalujo, Biruitorul, Marek69, DanTD, Volodymir k~enwiki, Carolmooredc, Meredyth, Dinkytown, DadaNeem, Fernando Estel, Hugo999, Toddy1, Runewiki777, SieBot, WereSpielChequers, Vexorg, The Four Deuces, Asocall, Gr8opinionater, Alexbot, Yorkshirian, BOTarate, Addbot, Mac Dreamstate, MPowerDrive, Yobot, Negrojimenes, Angel ivanov angelov, AnomieBOT, Xufanc, Shoneen, LilHelpa, Xqbot, Estlandia~enwiki, TechBot, RibotBOT, Marowmerowmer, LucienBOT, Lothar von Richthofen, Brmull, Aroniel2, Lotje, Enesquest, EmausBot, John of Reading, Nikkolo, Lokalkosmopolit, Jnast1, Terraflorin, ClueBot NG, Yambaram, Helpful Pixie Bot, BG19bot, Ramesh Ramaiah, WikiTryHardDieHard, LoneWolf1992, Fiddlersmouth, ArmbrustBot, Thadbrandon and Anonymous: 38 • Catholic Church Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catholic_Church?oldid=690964099 Contributors: Eloquence, Taw, Manning Bartlett, Ed Poor, Rmhermen, SJK, SimonP, Mkmcconn, Stevertigo, Edward, Michael Hardy, Isomorphic, Dante Alighieri, Gabbe, Chris Horvath, IZAK, Shoaler, GTBacchus, Goatasaur, Ihcoyc, Ahoerstemeier, Theresa knott, JWSchmidt, Darkwind, Julesd, Glenn, Error, Ciphergoth, Netsnipe, Kwekubo, Andres, JamesReyes, John K, Csernica, Mxn, Vargenau, JASpencer, Stephenw32768, Jengod, Emperorbma, Disdero, Charles Matthews, Adam Bishop, Rob.derosa, Harris7, Choster, JCarriker, Jwrosenzweig, Fuzheado, Andrewman327, Tb, WhisperToMe, DJ Clayworth, Krithin, Tpbradbury, Tempshill, Dogface, MiLo28, Nricardo, Christopher Sundita, Lord Emsworth, Mackensen, Kenatipo, Raul654, AnonMoos, Johnleemk, Finlay McWalter, Shafei, Pollinator, Carlossuarez46, Branddobbe, Gentgeen, Rossnixon, Moriori, Chris 73, Xiaopo, RedWolf, Moncrief, ZimZalaBim, Romanm, Mintchocicecream, Sam Spade, Mayooranathan, Enceladus, Mirv, Henrygb, Academic Challenger, Anglican1, Rholton, Hemanshu, TMLutas, Texture, Roscoe x, Timrollpickering, Halibutt, Caknuck, Sunray, Baloo rch, Hadal, UtherSRG, Wereon, Kent Wang, Xanzzibar, Cyrius, Dina, Alan Liefting, Albatross2147, Dominick, Rbushlow, DocWatson42, Barbara Shack, Nunh-huh, Tom harrison, Fastfission, Samuel J. Howard, Peruvianllama, Everyking, P.T. Aufrette, Lussmu~enwiki, Curps, Michael Devore, Gamaliel, Aoi, Malbear, Rookkey, Semorrison, Patrickdavidson, Kpalion, Mboverload, Falcon Kirtaran, Iceberg3k, Adam McMaster, Jackol, SWAdair, Bobblewik, Jurema Oliveira, SonicAD, Jastrow, Alanl, Gugganij, Stevietheman, Kennethduncan, Xavierlafleur, Andycjp, Nova77, Geni, Dvavasour, SarekOfVulcan, Quadell, Blankfaze, Antandrus, Williamb, BozMo, Drue, Beland, OverlordQ, Piotrus, Kaldari, PDH, Nick-in-South-Africa, Jossi, MacGyverMagic, Phil Sandifer, Rdsmith4, Xandar, One Salient Oversight, Bumm13, Kevin B12, Husnock, Bodnotbod, Pmanderson, DanielDemaret, Icairns, Zfr, Histrion, Trc, Arcturus, Gscshoyru, Creidieki, Gary D, Neutrality, Gerald Farinas, Marcus2, Joyous!, Imjustmatthew, Ukexpat, Aknorals, Fg2, Trilobite, M1ss1ontomars2k4, Adashiel, Acsenray, Lacrimosus, Gazpacho, Mike Rosoft, Oskar Sigvardsson, O'Dea, Monkeyman, Pmadrid, Ham II, DanielCD, Haruo, Kathar, Alexrexpvt, RossPatterson, Discospinster, Dsurber, ElTyrant, Rich Farmbrough, Rhobite, Luvcraft, Quodlibetarian, Amicuspublilius, Rsanchezsaez, Vsmith, Silence, HeikoEvermann, Bishonen, Cjrs 79, Mjpieters, Antaeus Feldspar, Kadett, Dbachmann, Wadewitz, Stereotek, Dmr2, Stbalbach, Bender235, ESkog, Swid, Jnestorius, Wis~enwiki, Brian0918, El C, Cherry blossom tree, DS1953, QuartierLatin1968, Surachit, Gilgamesh he, Rahga, Aude, Shanes, Dapper Dan, Lima, Sietse Snel, Art LaPella, Bookofjude, Euyyn, Wareh, MPS, Erauch, Causa sui, Bobo192, Stesmo, Longhair, Smalljim, BrokenSegue, Shenme, Viriditas, FroggyMoore, Teaperson, CrimsonFury, Giraffedata, Jojit fb, Trecord, Hesperian, Jonathunder, Supersexyspacemonkey, Jakew, Ogress, Jez, Knucmo2, Storm Rider, Red Winged Duck, Stephen G. Brown, Patsw, Danski14, Alansohn, Gary, JYolkowski, Alphaboi867, QVanillaQ, Duffman~enwiki, SnowFire, Polarscribe, Free Bear, C960657, Dcclark, Mfloersh, Gwyndon, Cjthellama, AzaToth, Lectonar, Phiddipus, SlimVirgin, Echuck215, Lightdarkness, Njesson, Malo, Katefan0, Mbimmler, GeorgeStepanek, Wtmitchell, Velella, BaronLarf, ClockworkSoul, Georgius~enwiki, TaintedMustard, Gdavidp, EKMichigan, Garzo, Vcelloho, Evil Monkey, Watersrw, Jheald, Grenavitar, TenOfAllTrades, Cheyinka, Rbifan, Henry W. Schmitt, Bsadowski1, Joshbrez, T3gah, Alai, Iustinus, Netkinetic, David1776, KTC, Jakes18, TerminalPreppie, RyanGerbil10, TShilo12, Brookie, Preost, Nautical Mongoose, Ron Ritzman, Mosesroth, Geneviève, Bobrayner, Theguythere, Jgofborg, Angr, Velho, Boothy443, Apollomelos, Firsfron, GaelicWizard, TSP, Woohookitty, TigerShark, LOL, MamaGeek, PoccilScript, Rocastelo, Spiritllama, Bonus Onus, ANMoreno, Falcon90, Pol098, Rimmeraj, Lochok, WadeSimMiser, Jeff3000, Eleassar777, Tabletop, CiTrusD, Howabout1, Kelisi, IrishHermit, Huhsunqu, Thesquire, JRHorse, Osric, Skywriter, Rchamberlain, AnmaFinotera, Romihaitza, Brendanconway, Prashanthns, Essjay, G.W., KJJ, Halcatalyst, Rjecina, KHM03, Dysepsion, LeoO3, King of Hearts (old account 2), RichardWeiss, Ashmoo, Raguks, Lawrence King, Graham87, Marskell, WBardwin, Deltabeignet, Cuchullain, BD2412, Monk, BGordon, FreplySpang, JIP, Island, RxS, Dpr, Shortenfs, Search4Lancer, Solace098, Stmoose, Mikeneko~enwiki, Sjakkalle, Rjwilmsi, Mayumashu, Angusmclellan, Coemgenus, Koavf, Jquarry, NatusRoma, Commander, Vary, Eeamoscopolecrushuva~enwiki, Lugnad, Hiberniantears, MZMcBride, Jango8899, Vegaswikian, InFairness, Alveolate, Theodork, Durin, Brighterorange, Mm35173, Afterwriting, The wub, Jlschaefer, Notorious4life, Malachias111, Schaengel89~enwiki, MikeJ9919, Ucucha, Sango123, Yamamoto Ichiro, Kyle.Mullaney, FayssalF, Titoxd, Marax, Lafem, G Clark, Eldamorie, Rabadur, Ground Zero, Wikipedia Is Communism, Musical Linguist, Wikipedia is Communism, Shultzc, Cooldoug111, Nihiltres, Trekkie4christ, Who, Spirit2112, Nivix, Rmpfu89, Paul foord, RexNL, Gurch, RobyWayne, Str1977, President Rhapsody, Vilcxjo, Enon, Gravy Table, Ben-w, MKers06, Salvadorjo~enwiki, TeaDrinker, Wikipedia Admin,

24.3. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

289

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CHAPTER 24. ZOTT

Clariosophic, Dividing, Urzadek, Christopherkholmes, Crak*fizzle, SJP, Anietor, Ragnarokmephy, Greeves, Student7, Fforeignlegion, Doomsday28, Safari companion, Redblock, Blckavnger, Fjbfour, Cmichael, Juliancolton, Cometstyles, Erosonog, Jamesontai, ACBest, Jon Doh, Treisijs, Pastordavid, Doctoroxenbriery, Wogaboo, MishaPan, Lazer john, Shalhevet, IceDragon64, Andy Marchbanks, JavierMC, HighKing, Useight, Ronbo76, Mastahcheeph, CardinalDan, TraceyR, Idioma-bot, Pietru, Funandtrvl, Spellcast, Irashtar~enwiki, Pope Benidict XVI, Xcountry99, Wmquinlan, LatencyRemixed, Lights, Kyro 1989, Hammersoft, Morenooso, Melchizedekjesus, Andanto1, John Smithwick2000, Mlbphanatic, Parishsoft, Jeff G., Brando130, Jmrowland, Firstorm, Censusdata, Young Kreisler, Alexandria, Bacchus87, EastmeetsWest, Majoreditor, Soliloquial, AMAPO, Katydidit, Phil Franco, Ryan032, Alex71va, R.rizzi9015, Philip Trueman, Cheeseguy ed, TXiKiBoT, Hecman111, Oshwah, APAULCH, Cicero Is A Dog, Hti143, JesseOjala, Technopat, Naruto fan 111, Anonymous Dissident, ElinorD, Dictouray, Aymatth2, Qxz, Someguy1221, Vanished user ikijeirw34iuaeolaseriffic, FRM SYD, Hotelgreg11, Giancinto, Anna Lincoln, Steven J. Anderson, John Carter, Dizzam, Mjs072, Dendodge, Corvus cornix, Naruto123456, Fizzackerly, IronMaidenRocks, Hyperfreak497, Brian Eisley, Aclaw, Bob-dole13, Jackfork, LeaveSleaves, HuskyHuskie, Drex15, Guldenat, Raymondwinn, PDFbot, Justinfr, Crònica~enwiki, Kosmkrmr, Varoon Arya, Cremepuff222, BotKung, Geometry guy, Wikiisawesome, Luuva, Waycool27, Kleinbell, Maxim, ARUNKUMAR P.R, Malus Catulus, അച്ചായൻ, Madhero88, Suriel1981, Blurpeace, Synthebot, Tommyglenn, Opuscalgary, Falcon8765, VanishedUserABC, Enviroboy, BaronGrackle, Turgan, Ivain, AjitPD, Burntsauce, Syrion, Grislydan, Fanturmandos, Mr. Philosophy, Insanity Incarnate, Peculiar Light, Truthanado, J35u5chr157, HiDrNick, Jew-Claw, Michaelquantum, Bluedenim, Climie.ca, Quantpole, Logan, Torpezz14, WindyCityRider, Jdegi~enwiki, Imperfection, IndulgentReader, NHRHS2010, SplingyRanger, Marylawton~enwiki, Srhagerman, Hrafn, Hello415, Thw1309, Bfpage, SieBot, Niko226, Madman, Dusti, Ttony21, Calliopejen1, Restre419, AS, Graham Beards, WereSpielChequers, Eternal dragon, PirateNinja69, Lynch1989, Plinkit, Rockstone35, Dawn Bard, Jbmurray, Viskonsas, Wikiedia is for nerds, Caltas, Matthew Yeager, Victorcoutin, Thrazakul, Volkovoi, Nathan, RJaguar3, Triwbe, Troylake, Mseliw, Araignee, Albanman, Peep-scarf, Mr Taz, Lachrie, Minneapolis Zack, Havul Anigav, Edwuncler, Taylorocity, Lutherlayman, Keilana, Anglicanus, Aillema, Happysailor, Flyer22 Reborn, Oldfaith123, Bwatson37, Ulricbrown, Mooshpitmatt, Oda Mari, Ventur, Cicero Puppet, Soccergeek43, Babsthechicken, Dellhouse, Trackstar12, Wombatcat, Allmightyduck, Mimihitam, CaelumArisen, Littlesiya10, GFSummoner, Oxymoron83, Demack, Joey callejas1975, Ptolemy Caesarion, Avnjay, Jc3schmi, Tawniz, AishunBao, Bagatelle, Totonaco, Jensen627, Theevilbob, Rob043055, Lightmouse, Tombomp, Brittany Wilson P.H.D., Ealdgyth, Mk32, DeathToThePapistGestapo, Wonderpet, Aowpr, Fratrep, Macy, Emperor Azure, A E Francis, Anakin101, Cholchester1221, Supt. of Printing, Carthusian hermit, Konob-my-a$$, Vanished user ewfisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, Mojoworker, StaticGull, Alexisrios1976, Bepimela, Colonialmail, Jacob.jose, GodofOsiris, HighInBC, Sean.hoyland, Randomblue, Motthoangwehuong, SanLewy, Maralia, Nwjerseyliz, Altzinn, Nn123645, Thomas Michael Methuselah Dowd, Felizdenovo, Struway2, The.helping.people.tick, Denisarona, Mumble45, Into The Fray, Canglesea, Jobas, Randy Kryn, Nothing444, Saint-Louis, Lloydbaltazar, Dmitri1999, Troy 07, Squash Racket, Gr8opinionater, ImageRemovalBot, Benkenobi18, WikipedianMarlith, JRosine, ChristianScholar94, Loren.wilton, Sfan00 IMG, Soidi, Elassint, ClueBot, Mgrfin, Knightrunner, Dmgeo, Artichoker, UniQue tree, Hollow Cost, The Thing That Should Not Be, NancyHeise, Helenabella, Postmortemjapan, Rjd0060, Gorgezz gal, Janetteheffernan, Mazeau, Jswimmer, Amy231187, RashersTierney, BoBoMisiu, Enthusiast01, Nerd101010, Alexma63, Dataproducts, XBuffxSabres48x, Arakunem, WhyDoIBother, Bwjs, Drmies, Eab969, ManicBrit, Xavier Cazin, Uncle Milty, Bfaulty, Boing! said Zebedee, Drackox, Sdavis8888, CounterVandalismBot, LearnTogether, Jazzbird77, Niceguyedc, Patt001, Peanut4, Dalton123, Blanchardb, Stylteralmaldo, LizardJr8, Macha Panta, Iamstupido, Muscovite99~enwiki, Viking80, Leadwind, Bob bobato, The 888th Avatar, Hellrasingdoom, Phenylalanine, Cirt, BlueAmethyst, Kensplanet, Gakusha, Dac092, Maxn919, Ktr101, Excirial, CohesionBot, Admiralzzyx, Alexbot, Jusdafax, Goodone121, Javascap, Mjtanton, Joseph777, Wikitumnus, Tam 66 7, Editedit1, Yemal, BobKawanaka, Queensland1655, Muenda, Americania, Fugu Alienking, Lartoven, Yorkshirian, Sjsully07, Infestedsmith, Professorvp, ProudPapa5, BossPeeWeeHerman, Pjedlover, NuclearWarfare, Jemmmmmmey, Mmorg8, Powerflt, Cenarium, Arjayay, Gavster malone, Jonjames1986, Brianboulton, M.O.X, Eustress, Morel, Razorflame, Spiderman123456789, Elizium23, Broncoboy0, Xjbkelly, Ltwin, V3n0w, Belgianatheist, JDrake51, Lolololpee, N. Plante, Luciantodoran~enwiki, BOTarate, Kakofonous, La Pianista, Galaxy250, Thingg, Haplorrhine, LtlePointeDancer, Seanstickywiki, DerBorg, Venera 7, Versus22, Omirocksthisworld, Kurtmsk, Sumaterana, MelonBot, SoxBot III, Editor2020, TheDeac, Vanished user uih38riiw4hjlsd, Indopug, NERIC-Security, A ntv, Ultimatebeatlemaniac, Crazy Boris with a red beard, Editorofthewiki, Ambrosius007, CaptainVideo890, Helixweb, XLinkBot, AgnosticPreachersKid, Forbes72, Orthodoxpharoah, Pichpich, Biscuit1258, Dark Mage, BodhisattvaBot, Theone827, Jovianeye, Gerhardvalentin, Laser brain, Paulmnguyen, Divius, Avoided, Deliciousorange, Rreagan007, Skarebo, Protectthehuman, Dvatel, Banditezs, Mm40, Tameamseo, WikiDao, JinJian, ZooFari, MystBot, Pookes95, Good Olfactory, Lemmey, RWReagan, Floridanum1, Eurofox77, Thatguyflint, Buzzard74, Franz weber, Patiencekindnessgoodness, T.M.M. Dowd, HexaChord, Zolstijers, The Smoking Nun, Xp54321, Deusveritasest, K kokkinos, Yousou, Elemented9, C6541, Manuel Trujillo Berges, Prattlement, Tcncv, Non-dropframe, Captain-tucker, Giants2008, La Fuente, Ronhjones, FreeHeathen, Davrosuk, Fieldday-sunday, Laurinavicius, Romanpone, Geheh, Shirtwaist, Vishnava, CanadianLinuxUser, Leszek Jańczuk, Elijah1979, Jcampos70~enwiki, Cst17, Download, Protonk, Proxima Centauri, OmegaElitist, Megmerrigan, Thom443, Catholicus~enwiki, Gbouck, EdgarMCMLXXXI, Ccacsmss, Kookookaka, Brittydee303, Lihaas, Meow2568, Michaelwuzthere, Epzcaw, Benabomb11, Domiy, Debresser, KGBarnett, Favonian, Doniago, Greek-God29, LinkFA-Bot, 5 albert square, Rodeo90, Nanzilla, Equine-man, Thefactis, Tassedethe, Ackillez, Numbo3-bot, Tide rolls, Benjaminleebrackman, Fermatd, Taketa, Jan eissfeldt, Dr Zimbu, Phreed100, Apteva, ‫ماني‬, QuadrivialMind, David0811, Arbitrarily0, Catholic priests rape boys, CountryBot, Ret.Prof, Isolation booth, Megaman en m, Cody7777777, Ben Ben, Legobot, Albertus teolog, Luckas-bot, Chicagoisforlovers, Yobot, WikiDan61, Granpuff, Jeffde92, 2D, Kartano, CM Kev, Julia W, Rsquire3, Deven101, Kan8eDie, Kooolioa, Fenrir-of-the-Shadows, Victoriaearle, EnochBethany, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, Loreena McKilkenny, KamikazeBot, Defteri, SwisterTwister, Apptas, Bliduta, Risserata, Theology10101, Architecturefan, IW.HG, Demon665.9, Nosrettap, Farsight001, Alessio.aguirre, Eric-Wester, ContributorPoland, 13dev, AnomieBOT, Andrewrp, Mnewhous, Nick3232, Plannatas, DemocraticLuntz, Marauder40, Master of Pies, WP Is C!!, 1exec1, Bobbins11, Thetrevor123, Emmywemmy, Killiondude, Jim1138, IRP, Galoubet, Hadrian89, Taam, Shoneen, Rangasyd, AdjustShift, Rejedef, Kingpin13, Heqwm2, Ulric1313, Zivac, RandomAct, Flewis, Materialscientist, OLine84, Jason deano, MichealCleaver, Citation bot, Sgillette, Brightgalrs, Irek Biernat, ArthurBot, LovesMacs, Shoruit, LilHelpa, Legion1212, Profanatas, Xqbot, Jayarathina, Lopesdacosta, Jakeyag12, Thestudent411, Spiretas, Wassup69, Calcio33, S h i v a (Visnu), Kilfeno, St.nerol, M4niluvzm4ni, Victory’s Spear, Melmann, Raphyortanez, Techdecisions, Capricorn42, Poetaris, Jubileeclipman, A455bcd9, Nasnema, ITSENJOYABLE, Lord Simmons 909, XZeroBot, The Land Surveyor, Hobostd, Curlyguts, YBG, Farmchick95, Waldo333, Jmundo, Julia-The-Little-Lady, Star rocker, Srich32977, Thermoproteus, Millelacs, Anon.american2, Taydan101, Zannatasmells, 0tom23, Frosted14, Lam-ang, Amqui, Adaltaredei1, Wiki1010101, Foreverprovence, Earlypsychosis, LittleQ2, Lenomatic1, Kasison, Cresix, Sayerslle, Platia, Beadleflake Agdangan, Badgery, Episcolad, Shortman9394, S p ming, Mi Young, Gordonrox24, EtonLibrarian, My000000, DSnow101, Milek80, Ejsorum, AlimanRuna, Hornymanatee, Moby-Dick3000, Prezbo, Chadleycb, Thehelpfulbot, Haldraper, Harmakheru, Saepe, Tktru, Munkeydunk, Louis Querbes, Anirishwoman, FrescoBot, Penguin1021, Djcam, AtomsOrSystems, Labrinth08, Podunk’s Moral Shears Rated PG45, Tobby72, ‫תומר א‬., Financial Officer, Recognizance, Skaterj, Spike Pecan, Ppjuice, HJ Mitchell, Connolly15, Craig Pemberton, Outback the koala, Jpuligan 12, Juno, Jersey92, Eagle4000, TC Murphy, Eng1301, HamburgerRadio, Circulationsys, Terinmartini, Petra Book, Lakingsfn, Jdoggy123, Quod-

24.3. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

291

vultdeus, DrilBot, Guyhihello, Pinethicket, I dream of horses, HRoestBot, Arctic Night, Tommy-g-98, Jonesey95, GWST11, Saintbridget, Moryak, Fsm7861, Rudy Waltz, Nillurcheier, Mwahahacat, Bmclaughlin9, RedBot, Btilm, Ukmaddnes1, Serols, Chubehoaky, Michiganois, ‫הסיסמא‬123, Monkeymanman, FavreIsGood, TedderBot, Shanmugamp7, Shelhabiron, Americanman095, Reconsider the static, Ozhistory, SW3 5DL, GoofyG, FERNANDO MEDAU, NimbusWeb, Kelseafultz, Gerda Arendt, FoxBot, TobeBot, Trappist the monk, Zhernovoi, Erbce, Verygoodinput, Dingerooz, Yunshui, Throwaway85, ItsZippy, Griit, Lotje, A Man from Poland, Callanecc, BonifaciusVIII, Shekinah1956, Vrenator, The Catholic Knight, Coquidragon, Cigarettesmokingman21, He Died For Your Evil Sins, SeoMac, Kath090, Manuelcorpas, Palio News, Reaper Eternal, Tediouspedant, ‫בן גרשון‬, Barlza, Jackgarcia49, Vanished user aoiowaiuyr894isdik43, RomanCatholicos, Jrod939393, Marco allen, Goro87, Suffusion of Yellow, Tbhotch, MaxwellHse, Bubba Hawkins, TitusAmbrosius, Dreary Steeples, HermaniscusVII, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Andrea105, Rike237, Stratshaw, Whisky drinker, Hilariousme, Diggit03, JI Hawkins, Mean as custard, Earl Hawkins, RjwilmsiBot, Richardatf, Peanut farmer 1, IANVS, The Manager Hawkins, Smartiger, Frozenpoonce, Regancy42, LT. 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Hauser, Djodjo666, Leo Ozwald, Go Phightins!, WikiPuppies, Cognate247, Newyorkadam, Ryan Vesey, Nobletripe, Twmerrigan, North Atlanticist Usonian, Helpful Pixie Bot, YborCityJohn, Gracielaguerrero729, Electriccatfish2, Breckham101, Calabe1992, Ricerca, Gob Lofa, Ramaksoud2000, Backslang, Lowercase sigmabot, BG19bot, DrJimothyCatface, ProtoplasmaKid, Wasbeer, Kvnbalderrama, George Ponderevo, Northamerica1000, HGK745, JohnChrysostom, MusikAnimal, Mark Arsten, Travelour, EmadIV, Cadiomals, Supernerd11, Clement Harrold, Chronichamster, Woodenspoon321, Benlakebbxc, Writ Keeper, WikiCatholicIndiana, Lewiszuzu, Snow Blizzard, LeftAire, Ernio48, Bustsal, Siluria592, Nheyob, Der Bosewicht, 12profeAerielle, Sahsman, Annamolly22, Zoroarkissueregion, Glacialfox, Jamie5123, Oct13, TBrandley, Chekov454, Matthew David González, Shisty, Achowat, Youreallycan, Quarrel, Wer900, Raddocks, Cjrasse, Anbu121, 1dada1, Carliitaeliza, Schnibbles, Staunley Baldwin, Staunley Baxter, BattyBot, LordKitchener16, 69happy, Travelay, Ehr1Ros2, LoveforMary, Several Pending, SupernovaExplosion, OochemoshoO, Mrtaco545, Toscafraser, Walterhhackett3, Richyrich8778, Bugsbenjie, Irene31, Tonyxc600, Monozigote, Wiki Omar, Bzweebl, ChrisGualtieri, Dookx100, Valerie Duval, Violin2, John from Idegon, Saxophilist, Nick.mon, Hoff9918, Joolius54, ScienceLion, Iansagstettersoccer, Ducknish, MadGuy7023, Puccinko, JYBot, Winkelvi, AthanasiusOfAlex, Shish 13, Querty55, G35driver, Burritobear1, Rapidolatigo, Dexbot, Robert Laymont, Zip34532, Trollingaroundallday, FreeSpiceLoco, Usehisname, Matxjos, ArnoldTrotter, Daniel110141, Webclient101, Chicbyaccident, Girlmom3, Iamtherealjesus, NicolasAndrewBegley, ScitDei, Tobaifo, Cerabot~enwiki, Christendom3, TopazStar, Pelthais, Tomlin87721, AleksanderVatov, Kovieb, Lugia2453, QvisDevs, John D. 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Cordoba-Bahle, MeropeRiddle, Scientific Adviser, Ontross, RastaNazi69, Luthien22, McNaldi, Corrrectorguy, YahwehIsMyRock, Redhandulster1690, Piggytato, Ulster132000, Ign christian, Angry unikitty, Lorex24, Jessicadelijani, Pbyfield01, Gfrdsa, KikyoC, Neudabei, GoldCoastPrior, Xxxsuperman68xx, Sundayclose, BurninRubber, Babymanel, Wailbinds7,8, Futurepresident11, Deunanknute, Rafitaztec, Kayman2016, Whoisdat, ExperiencedArticleFixer, Roachet, Arsnelfan, Bjd1213, Lady.Champion.Clara, Alias12515, KasparBot, WikiPh09, Mathman314159, Smeelmansingles, Toygamepoo, Jzsj, What Can I Say Im A Nerd, Nightingalemike, Ejra04, JoeyTheGreat23, Hofstederesearch, Quantum Particles, Wikipedia12345678900000000000000000, Amedseok, Rock PhreakzZ, Ternohovha, JBazChicago, Anonymoushomes, Odlosk, SICDAMNOME, WorkingWik, M.starnberg, Joyful Carmelbird, Negrumps, Mother Gota, Matt1999cl18 and Anonymous: 3449 • The Protocols of the Elders of Zion Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Protocols_of_the_Elders_of_Zion?oldid=690371307 Contributors: Dan~enwiki, William Avery, SimonP, Shii, Zoe, Mintguy, Sfdan, Modemac, Kchishol1970, Paul Barlow, Isomorphic, Jtdirl, Liftarn, Gabbe, Cyde, IZAK, Yann, DropDeadGorgias, Lukobe, Nikola Smolenski, JidGom, Reddi, Random832, WhisperToMe, Peregrine981, Tpbradbury, Itai, Zero0000, Ann O'nyme, Floydian, McKay, Ccady, Raul654, Owen, Carlossuarez46, Huangdi, Robbot, Rossnixon, Dale Arnett, ChrisO~enwiki, RedWolf, Jmabel, Altenmann, Sam Spade, Mirv, Amgine, Rfc1394, Auric, Humus sapiens, Caknuck, Andrew Levine, Jeroen, Hadal, Saforrest, Phthoggos, Jpbrenna, Cecropia, GreatWhiteNortherner, Jooler, David Gerard, Peterklevy, Dominick, Jacoplane, Barbara Shack, Tom harrison, Obli, Everyking, Qaramazov, Curps, Michael Devore, Naufana, Bobblewik, Wmahan, SarekOfVulcan, Gzuckier, Quadell, Ran, Antandrus, Mustafaa, Loremaster, Piotrus, Cberlet, Kaldari, Jossi, DNewhall, Mzajac, Rlquall, Thincat, Bodnotbod, Yossarian, Sam Hocevar, Neutrality, Deeceevoice, Pinnerup, D6, Jayjg, Cool Cow, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, KillerChihuahua, Rhobite, Guanabot, Hadi nili, Eitheladar, Florian Blaschke, Smyth, User2004, Antaeus Feldspar, MarkS, SpookyMulder, Bender235, Rubicon, ESkog, Flapdragon, Cyclopia, Lou Crazy, Kaisershatner, BACbKA, Pedant, Wolfman, Brian0918, Dpotter, CanisRufus, Yasis, Shrike, RoyBoy, Mentatus, Pablo X, Jpgordon, Rpresser, Bobo192, Bontenbal, John Vandenberg, .:Ajvol:., Elipongo, Redquark, Razula, Sukiari, DCEdwards1966, MPerel, Polylerus, Vanished user azby388723i8jfjh32, ADM, Zachlipton, Anthony Appleyard, Sherurcij, Philip Cross, Babajobu, Hipocrite, Ricky81682, Calton, SlimVirgin, Goodoldpolonius2, Avenue, Metron4, BrandonYusufToropov, Huerlisi, Amorymeltzer, HackJandy, Axeman89, Dryman, Richard Weil, BerserkerBen, TShilo12, Angr, Mel

292

CHAPTER 24. ZOTT

Etitis, Woohookitty, Kupos, RHaworth, ScottDavis, PoccilScript, Daniel Case, Jeff3000, Miss Madeline, Clemmy, Dmol, Jnik, Tickle me, Akira625, Rchamberlain, Junes, Wayward, Cedrus-Libani, Stefanomione, Gerbrant, Marudubshinki, Paxsimius, Gettingtoit, Ashmoo, A Train, Cuchullain, Erikvanthienen, Ketiltrout, Behemoth, Rjwilmsi, Koavf, Quale, Ian Page, Carl Logan, PinchasC, Jtpaladin, Ligulem, Jehochman, Brighterorange, The wub, Yamamoto Ichiro, Leithp, Yellowmellow45, FuelWagon, Ian Pitchford, CalJW, Doc glasgow, Kerowyn, RexNL, Revolving Bugbear, Str1977, Atrix20, Narvalo, Metropolitan90, Bgwhite, Whosasking, Bartleby, EamonnPKeane, Slasher600, YurikBot, Wavelength, SeanMcG, Sceptre, A.S. Brown, Osomec, Antoin, RussBot, Crazytales, Fabartus, Red Slash, Hornplease, Sideswipe091976, Briaboru, Pigman, Netscott, Linguist~enwiki, BillMasen, Hydrargyrum, Gaius Cornelius, CambridgeBayWeather, Alex Bakharev, Cryptic, Wimt, GeeJo, Ryusacerdos, DonaldDuck, GunnarRene, NawlinWiki, Seanlavelle, Thesobrietysrule, Toredid, Leutha, Saccharomyces, Robertvan1, Grafen, Joel7687, Eliot Stearns, Jndrline, Nutiketaiel, Yoninah, Seegoon, Irishguy, Nick, Vizjim, Ideru, Xdenizen, FourthAve, LeaNder, Szalas, Formeruser-82, Tony1, Mieciu K, Bota47, Elysianfields, Ms2ger, Avraham, Pegship, Fallout boy, As286, Jkelly, Scott Adler, Georgewilliamherbert, Sandstein, Jcrook1987, Deville, Maphisto86, Closedmouth, BorgQueen, Dcb1995, MrBook, Carabinieri, Kryzadmz, Leeannedy, ArielGold, Curpsbot-unicodify, Kungfuadam, Vanished User 378492789, StarryEyes, Groyolo, DVD R W, Yoshm, A bit iffy, Scolaire, SmackBot, FocalPoint, YellowMonkey, Avengerx, MARussellPESE, Mangoe, Prodego, InverseHypercube, LeeZ, Big Adamsky, Stephensuleeman, AndreasJS, Scifiintel, Eaglizard, Delldot, Eskimbot, Cf1, HeartofaDog, Gilliam, Portillo, Hmains, GwydionM, Squiddy, Scaife, Timbouctou, Simon123, Agateller, Kaliz, Jprg1966, Raymond arritt, Apeloverage, Roscelese, Sobolyu, Silent SAM, Ralhazzaa~enwiki, Colonies Chris, Emurphy42, Jeff Fenstermacher, JohnWhitlock, Fjmustak, Scwlong, Mike hayes, Zsinj, JoelWhy, DLand, Clarinetplayer, Shunpiker, Azumanga1, Clinkophonist, LeContexte, Grover cleveland, Krich, PiPhD, Hateless, Шизомби, Mmeinhart, Savidan, Caniago, Rida1990, VegaDark, Shamir1, Dreadstar, Saltyseaweed, LoveMonkey, Whatif, Kendrick7, Xiutwel, Thorsen, Where, Curly Turkey, Ohconfucius, Will Beback, Deepred6502, Jojojigamobo, Mukadderat, Eliyak, Rory096, Swatjester, Gloriamarie, Harryboyles, LLBBooks, John, KenFehling, Trevor W. McKeown, Ian Spackman, Tazmaniacs, JoshuaZ, Chodorkovskiy, Number36, Nagle, Seadog365, The Man in Question, A. Parrot, JHunterJ, Yms, Makyen, Tasc, Martian.knight, Samhook, Midnightblueowl, Manifestation, Noleander, ThuranX, Dunlevyd, Iridescent, Lucio Di Madaura, Onefinalstep, Jedi238, Beno1000, Ryan4, JLCA, Tawkerbot2, Eltharian, Chris55, UBJAMMINN2, Hohns3, Vaughan Pratt, CRGreathouse, Mattcomp, Geremia, TruthBot, Whiteknight7o1, I Like To Club Seals, The Al Gore Killer, Qital murtad, TJ4Ever, LongLiveTJ, Jibal, ClarenceCM3, WeggeBot, Moreschi, Richard Keatinge, Penbat, John S Moore, Hemlock Martinis, Joshua BishopRoby, Cydebot, Galassi, Treybien, Bellerophon5685, Denghu, Benjiboi, Doug Weller, Mike1942f, After Midnight, Iss246, Mamalujo, Ne0bi0~enwiki, Qwyrxian, ScottAdler, Steve Dufour, Lopakhin, Edwardx, PierceG, HelenKMarks, Merbabu, Brrryan, Citizensmith, Nick Number, CarbonX, X06, Uruiamme, Natalie Erin, Northumbrian, DewiMorgan, Weaponbb7, AntiVandalBot, Slavne, RobotG, Valyer, Carolmooredc, Marokwitz, Vic226, Superzohar, Marquess, Alphachimpbot, Rico402, Arx Fortis, Canadian-Bacon, Harryzilber, MER-C, Skomorokh, Epeefleche, Mmemarian, Livefastdieold, Gazilion, Meeowow, Who is like God?, AlmostReadytoFly, Maias, .anacondabot, Acroterion, MartinDK, RBBrittain, J-A-V-A, QuizzicalBee, Mengde, Feeeshboy, Froid, Avicennasis, Lutzv, Kruel, Cgingold, SSZ, Bryanpeterson, Peteryamakuh, Stewart.mccullough, Greg Grahame, LorenzoB, Fray Pentaro, SlamDiego, Spellmaster, Jacobko, Ludvikus, GuelphGryphon98, Caranorn, ZenVortex, Goldsztajn, Nf3, Pugg1979, JosephCampisi, ExplicitImplicity, Nandt1, Anas Emad, Mermaid from the Baltic Sea, Comperr, Mike8848, Juansidious, Lahaun, Padillah, R'n'B, Verdatum, Beit Or, BGOATDoughnut, J.delanoy, Fiachra10003, Terrek, Decaheximal, Ian.thomson, PC78, Ownage2214, RoyBatty42, Dispenser, Gidado, Bot-Schafter, Gidadological, Son of More, Pyrospirit, Plasticup, Colchicum, Arms & Hearts, NewEnglandYankee, Sugarbat, Flatterworld, Msft watch, Lebob, Treisijs, Buddha379, Jfor78, Hashomer, The Behnam, CardinalDan, Idioma-bot, Spellcast, UnicornTapestry, VolkovBot, Rayis, Azmatic, Ntuohy, Toddy1, GimmeBot, Tovojolo, Plezplez, Pwnage8, Fredrick day, Charlesdrakew, Steven J. Anderson, Corvus cornix, Room429, Seb az86556, PDFbot, Snowonweb, Edlic, S. M. Sullivan, DeltaT, Dick Kimball, Billinghurst, Malick78, Michaeldsuarez, Gillyweed, Marijuanarchy, Cuts28, RaseaC, Anwarqureshi, Sardaka, For Truth’s Sake!, Frjohnwhiteford, Sdkenned, Terroni, SieBot, StAnselm, Tresiden, YonaBot, Scarian, BotMultichill, Jimbo online, Vexorg, Legion fi, ConfuciusOrnis, Triwbe, Bibikoff, Joeames, Vanished user skj3ioo3jwifjsek35y, Crash Underride, Shantiq, Berserkerus, Lightmouse, Polbot, SimonTrew, Sanya3, JohnSawyer, Neil8r, Tdp1001, Maralia, Iraniboy, Escape Orbit, Telaviv1, Puark, ImageRemovalBot, Beeblebrox, Ecjmartin, ClueBot, Boodlesthecat, Icriosphinx, Thegoyim, Fyyer, Ialkarn~enwiki, Jpom22, Ignorance is strength, CasualObserver'48, Drmies, Mild Bill Hiccup, Boing! said Zebedee, Eggplant6547, Vitilsky, Harland1, Parkwells, Trivialist, JamesB57, Lobojo, Gwyka, Aieff, Winston365, Gwguffey, Rhododendrites, Technobadger, Chefallen, Antodav2007, ChrisHodgesUK, Ginbot86, DumZiBoT, Canadian Monkey, Aaron north, Rror, Awaisqarni, Aunt Entropy, Good Olfactory, Felix Folio Secundus, Addbot, Yousou, Zagrebzoe, C6541, Arkanthos, Older and ... well older, Wingspeed, CanadianLinuxUser, Callmeace2001, LaaknorBot, Saturnwolf, Stokaji, LinkFA-Bot, Tassedethe, Numbo3-bot, Ourben, Al3xil, Neapoli, Jarble, Ak5271, Сергей Олегович, PlankBot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Legobot II, Amirobot, Nowonmai, Angel ivanov angelov, Mongoletsi, Bility, AnomieBOT, DoctorJoeE, FactCheck150, Materialscientist, Citation bot, E2eamon, ArthurBot, LilHelpa, Xqbot, Gilo1969, Tyrol5, Hrystiv, Anonymous from the 21st century, GrouchoBot, TheAceXtra, Ute in DC, Mario777Zelda, Kybalion from Wind, 2fletch, GorgeCustersSabre, ThyCantabrigde, RibotBOT, Jalapenos do exist, Ajnem, Prezbo, Us441, FrescoBot, Staccatoque, Danielhill1990, D'ohBot, HJ Mitchell, Endofskull, Jack Bornholm, Stolengood, SCFilm29, Wireless Keyboard, Citation bot 1, PigFlu Oink, Finn Froding, Mizanthrop, Pekayer11, Vicenarian, Degen Earthfast, Fulldate unlinking bot, Kgrad, Trappist the monk, Lotje, Prust, Begoon, Visite fortuitement prolongée, Ncpie, Thodef, Tbhotch, RjwilmsiBot, Phlegat, Nesrinekhaled, EmausBot, John of Reading, WikitanvirBot, GoingBatty, NotAnonymous0, The Mysterious El Willstro, Foswiki, Wikipelli, ZéroBot, John Cline, PBS-AWB, Galerita, Redhanker, AvicAWB, Cobaltcigs, Wayne Slam, Ego White Tray, Jnast1, Judahbenisrael, Teleutomyrmex, Treemen, Arielfuchs, Hippothebluemanonsea, ClueBot NG, Yambaram, Araujojoan96, Zammann, Ypnypn, Justlettersandnumbers, Preston North End Dan, Hon-3s-T, Reg porter, Igottheconch, Secondat of Orange, Explodingdaisies, Helpful Pixie Bot, VanishedUser hjgjktyjhddgf, Lejeunej, BG19bot, Sterling.M.Archer, WikiTryHardDieHard, Blake Burba, Dred05m, Jozoisis, ObservingEgo, FeralOink, Shoshie8, Fr Pavel, Fiddlersmouth, Justincheng12345-bot, Castizo, Ruthirwin1, Ria23, Padenton, Jethro B, JYBot, The apostolica, Dexbot, Michael A Bekoff, LonelyBoy2012, TheRealJoeWiki, GranChi, Rupert loup, Lgfcd, Jonney2000, JewishAngle2013, American In Brazil, Everymorning, Backendgaming, Froglich, Steeletrap, OccultZone, Aszilagyi, Bad Dryer, Monkbot, Zumoarirodoka, Zebrpenguin, Nøkkenbuer, KasparBot, Vinukin, 7uperWkipedan and Anonymous: 547 • Judaism Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judaism?oldid=689937233 Contributors: AxelBoldt, The Epopt, Brion VIBBER, Mav, Wesley, Uriyan, The Anome, Slrubenstein, Ffaker, DanKeshet, RK, Andre Engels, Scipius, Danny, PierreAbbat, SimonP, Sumware, Sfdan, KF, Soulpatch, Olivier, Rickyrab, Mkmcconn, Stevertigo, Steverapaport, Michael Hardy, Paul Barlow, Booyabazooka, Ezra Wax, Oliver Pereira, Kku, BoNoMoJo (old), Liftarn, Stephen C. Carlson, Ixfd64, 172, IZAK, Delirium, Goatasaur, Looxix~enwiki, Ahoerstemeier, Haakon, Stevenj, Snoyes, Kaplan~enwiki, Suisui, Angela, Ijon, Александър, Glenn, Cyan, Uri~enwiki, BenKovitz, Nikai, Netsnipe, Kwekubo, Evercat, TonyClarke, Mxn, AshtonBRSC, Dwo, Jengod, Bemoeial, Reddi, Dysprosia, Fuzheado, WhisperToMe, DJ Clayworth, Tpbradbury, Saltine, Ed g2s, Samsara, Shizhao, Topbanana, Jecar, Fvw, Wetman, Gakrivas, Zestauferov, Jusjih, Flockmeal, PuzzletChung, Phil Boswell, Gromlakh, Nufy8, Robbot, Rossnixon, Jesus Saves!, RichiH, MrJones, The Phoenix, JeMa, ChrisO~enwiki, Chris 73, Moncrief, Jmabel, Altenmann, Psychonaut, Yelyos, Ajd, Naddy, Modulatum, Sam Spade, Chacham, Mirv, Stewartadcock, Zabek, Texture, Auric, Gidonb, Humus sapiens, Halibutt, Caknuck, Hadal, UtherSRG, Stay cool~enwiki, Michael Snow, JerryFriedman, SoLando, Cyrius,

24.3. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

293

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Malinaccier, Davehi1, Java7837, Mittyman13, ElinorD, Donatus, Saleemzohaib, IPSOS, Evilbob30, Jacobhenrytucker, Cfinn06, Steven J. 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Drmies, Bobisbob, Brinlong, Kittyloves, RafaAzevedo, Qman155, MosheEmes, Daniel4sw, Puchiko, SamuelTheGhost, Mike0001, Jordan9, Jacob decamillis, Vegetarianbchris419, Sirius85, DragonBot, Rubbelbarney, Jusdafax, Goodone121, Agdaman4life, RPSM, Abrech, Vivio Testarossa, Ryucloud, Drag0000n, Sun Creator, NuclearWarfare, Arjayay, Jotterbot, Brauchi, M.O.X, Jbabrams2, Itsabouttime, EGMichaels, Thick Smog, Joshman62, Jack-A-Roe, Light show, Awesome93, Vegetator, Aitias, Singularity42, RabbiBrooklyn, Faramarz.M, Avigdorim, Editor2020, Leon1948, Nafsadh, Alloranleon, DumZiBoT, Recombobulator, Hunteryankees, HesterP, Dulcymell, Berkleyboy23, Jytdog, Stickee, WikiloverInAmerica, Mishgifmaker, S1moneau, Feinoha, Avoided, Strizzle, WikHead, Hermit214, Tripsalso, Lemmey, Ronosen, Wikismartass, MatthewVanitas, DXCha, Addbot, Cxz111, Chizkiyahuavraham, AmitMeir, Arabinights, Andrewsthistle, Mechelzidek, Imeriki al-Shimoni, Keyed In, Yoenit, Crazydog246, Happy08, C3young, Imagemonths, Eomalle1, Imageusa, Darimore, Shadow00play, David Kaminsky, CarsracBot, Deinocheirus, Glass Sword, AndersBot, Debresser, Favonian, LinkFA-Bot, West.andrew.g, HonorTheKing, 5 albert square, Meieimatai, Numbo3-bot, Tide rolls, Lightbot, Jarble, Enthusiast10, David Klompas, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Pink!Teen, Legobot II, Raphael26, Caleb Rentpayer, MacTire02, Ravyehoshuadavid, AnomieBOT, Quangbao, Galoubet, Victor9876, JackieBot, MindscapesGraphicDesign, Jharrell0102, NickK, Csigabi, Citation bot, QaBobAllah, La comadreja, Eumolpo, GB fan, ArthurBot, Cliftonian, LilHelpa, LFajardo, Xqbot, Tilamdong, TechBot, Jeffrey Mall, Hullo exclamation mark, Tad Lincoln, अभय नातू, Almabot, Hi878, GrouchoBot, Nayvik, Mcoupal, Omnipaedista, Clammybells, RibotBOT, Alexandru Stanoi, Trafford09, RavShimon, Ellenois, Legobot III, Algebra101, FrescoBot, Mockmit, Thecomputer40, Goldmanboys, Mr. Comodor, Kolm H, Jamie6superstar, Cs32en, Kwiki, I.love.words2006, Citation bot 1, Rgcrgcrgc, I dream of horses, HRoestBot, Skyerise, 95j, Murderdan537, MastiBot, Yehoshuapinto, Île flottante, Phoenix7777, Statr, Koakhtzvigad, Steve2011, Tim1357, Gryllida, FoxBot, TobeBot, Islaosh, Retired user 0001, Beaukarpo, DixonDBot, Zoeperkoe, Genealogykid82, Vrenator, Raidon Kane, IRISZOOM, Satdeep Gill, Tbhotch, Chappez, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Difu Wu, The Utahraptor, Beanjow, MShabazz, Smartiger, DHooke1973, Salvio giuliano, CalicoCatLover, DASHBot, EmausBot, WikitanvirBot, Jiglojay, Mcurry91, Drewvols80, Griswaldo, RA0808, Marco Guzman, Jr, Tommy2010, Winner 42, Evanh2008, Remark47, Dmalveaux, AvicBot, NearTheZoo, The Madras, ZéroBot, Fæ, Moodswingster, Oncenawhile, Yehudi92, Fatrick, InternetGoomba, A930913, H3llBot, Greyshark09, AManWithNoPlan, Christina Silverman, Zap Rowsdower, Shmilyshy, Wayne Slam, Alevel1, Dedust57, Brandmeister, MichiganY, L Kensington, Dante8, Sojabr, Moreh405, Georgianisis, Stevenisawesome, Monteitho, Iowa25, Sunshine4921, Zyradyl, Thedivinedecree, Miss Hot Chick, LeatheryD, Zoth12, TYelliot, DASHBotAV, Meowmix12345, Potatoepoptarts, Holly-bell, Hbenjy, Dirtyd8912, Nubbyface, Eercc, GoGeo, ClueBot NG, Yambaram, Ypnypn, Adamrce, Magister Scienta, Sherryon, Rabroy, Qwerasdfzxcv1234, North Atlanticist Usonian, Helpful Pixie Bot, Finestsolidus, Electriccatfish2, BG19bot, Dalai lama ding dong, Keivan.f, Frze, AvocatoBot, Compfreak7, Henryweiss, Tylerdurden73, Toccata quarta, Hafniensis, Drewrau, VanEman, Thomas woon, Jbslaya, REfreakk55, Metsfreak2121, Justincheng12345-bot, Naamatt2, Triggerhippie4, Arr4, Cyberbot II, Religionista, A114112836, Khazar2, JYBot, Tahc, Dexbot, Armanjafari, PretoriaTravel, GranChi, Ywende, Jonney2000, Murpletv, Johnleeds1, DavidLeighEllis, Yazd786, Monochrome Monitor, Motique, Davidbena, Daylight15, Infantom, Man of Steel 85, Thewillsterr, TheG3NERAL John 3:16, Monkbot, Septate, Adamreinman, Somethingwong, Contributor613, Knowledgebattle, Theredheifer, Jilfi, DaoXan, Afwaaja, Belson 303, ‫גור אריה יהודה‬, Prinsgezinde, KasparBot, PaulBustion88, Vitifer, Anentai, AddMore der Zweite, Moise.nedjar, Oeuvres du Mahj, Johnmcintyre1959 and Anonymous: 1202 • Freemasonry Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freemasonry?oldid=689225966 Contributors: MichaelTinkler, Brion VIBBER, Mav, Bryan Derksen, Tarquin, Stephen Gilbert, Slrubenstein, Ted Longstaffe, Moly, Matusz, Fubar Obfusco, Branden, Ortolan88, Stepnwolf, Fredb, Erwan~enwiki, Branko, Ewen, Hephaestos, Olivier, AntonioMartin, Stevertigo, Clintp, Rbrwr, Jdlh, Edward, D, Michael Hardy, Rhorn, Kroose, Isomorphic, Nixdorf, BoNoMoJo (old), Gabbe, Menchi, Bcrowell, Sannse, Karada, Delirium, Arpingstone, Minesweeper, CesarB, Ihcoyc, Ahoerstemeier, William M. Connolley, Snoyes, 5ko, Angela, AllanR~enwiki, Ping, Andrewa, Julesd, Error, Whkoh, Bogdangiusca, Cyan, LouI, Andres, Cimon Avaro, Evercat, John K, Harry Potter, JASpencer, Charles Matthews, PaulinSaudi, Viajero, Visorstuff, Daniel Quinlan, WhisperToMe, Timc, Haukurth, Patrick0Moran, Tpbradbury, Furrykef, Taxman, Val42, Ed g2s, Morven, Bjarki S, Geraki, Fvw, Kenatipo, Raul654, Pakaran, Adam Carr, David.Monniaux, Pollinator, Carlossuarez46, Rick Davis, Denelson83, Jni, Sjorford, Opponent, Nufy8, Robbot, Murray Langton, Astronautics~enwiki, Earl Andrew, Moriori, RedWolf, Donreed, Moncrief, Moondyne, Altenmann, Romanm, Modulatum, Sam Spade, COGDEN, Wjhonson, Chiramabi, Auric, Sunray, Bkell, Hadal, JesseW, JackofOz, SpellBott, Finlander, Adam78, Alan Liefting, David Gerard, Matthew Stannard, Gershom, Centrx, Smjg, DocWatson42, Hbrockett, Bogdanb, Nat Krause, Gruesome~enwiki, Tom harrison, Doovinator, Lupin, Samuel J. Howard, Zigger, Bfinn, Bradeos Graphon, Everyking, Bkonrad, Curps, Michael Devore, Cantus, Guanaco, Mboverload, Rchandra, JillandJack, ElfMage, Matt Crypto, Darrien, Ojl, Just Another Dan, Bobblewik, Tagishsimon, Sexyfoxboy, Peter Ellis, Infinitysnake, Neilc, Stevietheman, Db7178, Pinnecco, Mu, SoWhy, Pamri, Geni, Popefauvexxiii, SarekOfVulcan, Pm356, Quadell, Antandrus, AntiJew, Loremaster, MisfitToys, Cjewell, Jfliu, Cberlet, Jdl32579, Paddyez, Jossi, CaribDigita, Rdsmith4, Mista-X, Secfan, Tothebarricades.tk, Thincat, Pmanderson, Necrothesp, Icairns, Eranb, Clarknova, Soman, Beginning, SecondCurator, Pitchka, Scout32, Starfoxy, Jvedral, Adashiel, Lacrimosus, Mike Rosoft, CountZero, Jayjg, Freakofnurture, Ham II, Felix Wiemann, Chris j wood, Discospinster, ElTyrant, Solitude, Rich Farmbrough, KillerChihuahua, Rhobite, Guanabot, Leibniz, Supercoop, Cjoshuav, Ffirehorse, Hydrox, Amicuspublilius, WGFinley, Cnyborg, Autiger, User2004, Antaeus Feldspar, Kadett, Mani1, Martpol, WegianWarrior, Bender235, ESkog, Sc147, Sunborn, Kaisershatner, Jarsyl, Ben Standeven, Scott.graham, Violetriga, Billlion, Brian0918, CanisRufus, Rsvargas, El C, Hayabusa future, Marcok, Kross, Shanes, Tom, Susvolans, Rsmelt, Orlady, Perfecto, Prsephone1674, Spinboy, Bobo192, Bsktcase, John Vandenberg, Viriditas, Cmdrjameson, AllyUnion, Elipongo, Cwolfsheep, Eo, VBGFscJUn3, Snacky, BenM, Maebmij, MPerel, Sam Korn, Aesha, C-squared, Jumbuck, Gary, JYolkowski, KingRichard, Anthony Appleyard, Belgarath TS, Karlthegreat, Free Bear, FaustX, Theaterfreak64, Mu5ti, Spikemill, Uogl, Atlant, Keolah, Hipocrite, Craigy144, AdamBradley, Ronline, Cjthellama, Sade, Axl, Mailer diablo, Pmeisel, Jvano~enwiki, Mysdaao, Hu, DreamGuy, Melaen, Keepsleeping, Stephan Leeds, Docboat, MikeEstes, Tony Sidaway, Lapinmies, Jon Cates, RainbowOfLight, LFaraone, Dominic, VoluntarySlave, Computerjoe, Ianblair23, Alai, Instantnood, PullUpYourSocks, Phi beta, Notcarlos, Dismas, Tom.k, Dtobias, Vitruvius~enwiki, Stephen, Moodeyes113, Hq3473, Joriki, Jeffrey O. Gustafson, Roboshed, Gabereal, Bellhalla, Blumpkin, Scriberius, Temuler, Alex Kennedy, Sesmith, Uncle G, Mark K. Jensen, JiriPragman, Jacobolus, Pol098, Before My Ken, Commander Keane, WadeSimMiser, JeremyA, Trödel, Sdgjake, Mpatel, Lapsed Pacifist, Kelisi, Uris, NormanEinstein, Wikiklrsc, Damicatz, Bobbyciraldo, J M Rice, Junes, Toussaint, EmilioSilva~enwiki, Prashanthns, Pmlunn, Loki33, Horatio86, Mrbartjens, Ashmoo, Graham87, Ryoung122, Qwertyus, Tradnor, Dilvie, Haikupoet, OMouse, RxS, Xorkl000, JFPerry, Search4Lancer, Canderson7, Gryffindor, Apesbrain, Vary, Ikh, Toddas, ChadJK, Hiberniantears, Josiah Rowe,

24.3. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

295

Linuxbeak, Tangotango, Arisa, Vegaswikian, Funnyhat, Kazrak, HappyCamper, Ligulem, Wingover, Chtirrell, Lairor, Muj0, Lehk, Nandesuka, BirdbrainedPhoenix, Sango123, Ptdecker, A Man In Black, Bubamara (usurped), FayssalF, Franzeska, FlaBot, Ian Pitchford, DDerby, Ground Zero, Old Moonraker, Mark83, Hackloon, Rune.welsh, Elmer Clark, RexNL, Gurch, Bloomfield, BjKa, Quuxplusone, Brendan Moody, Avador, Magicalpath, BitterMilton, Alphachimp, Faustus37, Alexmb, Exe, Vidkun, Darby~enwiki, Bedford, Scott Mingus, Scimitar, Chobot, Jdhowens90, Benlisquare, Jawr256, Zef, Commander Nemet, Bdelisle, Adoniscik, Gwernol, Amaurea, Touseefliaqat, Banaticus, Wasted Time R, Satanael, YurikBot, RobotE, Mhocker, Kinneyboy90, Hairy Dude, Jachin, Kafziel, StuffOfInterest, 999~enwiki, Jwm2004, RussBot, Jtkiefer, Warshy, Diliff, KamuiShirou, Splash, Pigman, Xastic, Netscott, Worenklein, Stormbay, FDR, Samuel Curtis, Yamara, BlueTemplar13, Stephenb, Rintrah, Shell Kinney, Gaius Cornelius, CambridgeBayWeather, Chaos, Revmaj, Pseudomonas, Neilbeach, Wimt, Claunia, NawlinWiki, Nahallac Silverwinds, Shreshth91, Wiki alf, Ytcracker, Eduardo Cuellar, Iani, Jonathan Webley, Leutha, Meekrob, NickBush24, Logawi, Johann Wolfgang, Trovatore, DavidH, Proyster, Twin Bird, Justin Eiler, Rjensen, Ondenc, Foreigner, Thiseye, Lexicon, JDoorjam, Anetode, Dppowell, Brian Crawford, Cholmes75, CecilWard, Jmh123, Benne, Ђорђе Д. 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McKeown, Blue Square, Scientizzle, Wtwilson3, Crazyfurf, Eshafoshaf, Sir Nicholas de Mimsy-Porpington, Edwy, F1r3r41n, Nygdan, Accurizer, Joffeloff, Baphin, Needlenose, AsaRoast, Partyboyj911, CJames745, Helloelan, MarkSutton, Jimmy James, Slakr, Dozing, Werdan7, Santa Sangre, LRJones, Vinyltrash, WaynaQhapaq, Ima User, Mets501, TastyPoutine, Trandoshan Slaver, Jason Gortician, RG~enwiki, Big Smooth, Bugwit, Drigg, Citicat, MTSbot~enwiki, Larry660, PM GL PA, Sunday Service, Dl2000, Gremial, Iridescent, Xinyu, Peter M Dodge, Wfgiuliano, JoeBot, Lottamiata, MikeJohnJames9456, Funetikahl, Gregory Benoit, JHP, StephenBuxton, Cbrown1023, Aperiodic, Nap1815, Anderson12, Crocodilicus, The Letter J, ChronicallyUninspired, Chris55, Bohica1971, Holyrollerjim, MightyWarrior, Amniarix, Lanternshine, Ratman9999, Cassavau, JForget, Keystrokes, Healthy eating, Vaughan Pratt, CmdrObot, Escaper7, PGNormand, Leopheard, Morganfitzp, Reddog7712, Fossick, StarlitGlitter, Fyodor Dos, CWY2190, Bolognaking, Highgamma, Jcoffland, M Faulks, Liberal Freemason, Joelholdsworth, Avillia, Adam bones, Zoide, Pail~enwiki, Jowan2005, Phatom87, Md84419, Joshua BishopRoby, Cydebot, Aodhdubh, SAWgunner, Jros83, Perfect Proposal, Steel, Tooltroll, UncleBubba, Aanderson@amherst.edu, ST47, VQHernandez, Jeremy68, JustinH, Jayen466, Sloth monkey, Synergy, B, Shirulashem, DumbBOT, Chrislk02, Telex, Nabokov, Vashx14, Inform ation, Surturz, Jake the wiki, Btharper1221, JodyB, Fantabulosa time of your life, Mamalujo, Ermorse, Nosig638, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Barticus88, Biruitorul, Steve Dufour, Ambanmba, Mojo Hand, Anupam, Juanvillalobos, Marek69, Smile a While, Secretsqurl, MesserWoland, Unidiode, Grahamdubya, Comason, Assianir, Leon7, Hardcore legend, Dfrg.msc, Highvoltage81, AlysWiki, Marsman57, Natalie Erin, Scaper8, Escarbot, Hmrox, KrakatoaKatie, AntiVandalBot, Frater Xyzzy, Shada nai, Luna Santin, Psomax, Maltos, Centrepull, Gmacnay, Augusta2, HairyDan, Quintote, Smith2006, Fashionslide, Thunderbird15, Goldenrowley, Dr who1975, Jj137, Bridgeplayer, Farosdaughter, Chill doubt, Specialthings, Alphachimpbot, Cml 1976, Deltascribe, Etr52, Myanw, Geoffkirby, Genuem, Bigjimr, JAnDbot, Mousescribe, Areopagiticus, MER-C, Matthewrobinson, Stagehand, Struthious Bandersnatch, Hut 8.5, Rick.Wicks, East718, WikiWoo, Xact, .anacondabot, Bdhook, Magioladitis, Literaryagent, VoABot II, AuburnPilot, MJD86, -Kerplunk-, SHCarter, Aquizard, Farquaadhnchmn, Andrea Allais, Argusol, Nyttend, GazMan7, Asaa00, Shabeky, Cartoon Boy, Mr.troughton, Generic Character, Catgut, Theroadislong, Zelator, Animum, Cgingold, Jsanstella, Daarznieks, JaGa, The Blaque, Black-Snow, Pietre-stones, Valerius Tygart, Pax:Vobiscum, Balazs.varadi, Jdorwin, Dryfoo, Wikianon, Rickard Vogelberg, Gwern, Gjd001, Pvosta, Alexfoley, Jaguar2898, Flaxmoore, Youkai no unmei, Nykofade, Denis tarasov, BMRR, Hdt83, MartinBot, Zsh, Phantomsnake, Grandia01, Church of emacs, CalefTex, Tirral, Reddan, RFM57, Agnellous, R'n'B, AlexiusHoratius, PrestonH, Boston, Dinkytown, J.delanoy, Fred.e, JohnPritchard, Ciotog, Maurice Carbonaro, Athaenara, Mycroft~enwiki, Extransit, Caferato, Whitebox, Chrisfow, The Truthish, Ian.thomson, Jokerst44, JNShutt, Iordanis 777, LightningOffense, Kekartopolis, Katalaveno, McSly, Nlegault, Notreallydavid, Skier Dude, Anthonyebert, Bilbobee, RenniePet, Jasonwilkes42, 4B54L0M, Bucinka, SJP, Anietor, Ryan1810, Olegwiki, Han Solar de Harmonics, MetsFan76, Juliancolton, Cometstyles, SirJibby, Whiteandnerdy52, DH85868993, Mrpatx, Dwbro1, DoubleEagle32, Andy Marchbanks, AndrewJFulker, Phr0gor, Panzertank, Goyston, Spellcast, Starwars10, Lcenter, Jaaschutz, Lights, Deor, Gbickford, VolkovBot, CWii, Rwcwalter, ABF, Jlaramee, Dave Andrew, Indubitably, Ataxerxes, Davidwr, SexyBern, Philip Trueman, Fredf5, Mike Cline, TXiKiBoT, SeanNovack, DakotaDocMartin, Gifts of knowledge, Martin.ebon, Jaques Lafraische, Rei-bot, Freimaurer32, Ucypanp, John Carter, Jake1982, Altimaro, Jeff Herman, Seisakusho, Brian0814, Intuition24, Martin451, Oskoreien, LeaveSleaves, Wassermann~enwiki, Cremepuff222, BudJJ, Geometry guy, StillTrill, Wandering canadian, Lcg.wda, Alpha376, Maxim, RiverStyx23, MistrOrnge, Nikosgreencookie, Doug, Another account, MerlynWiki, Fharper, Rockpiper, Burntsauce, GlassFET, Bruce Condell, Insanity Incarnate, Sardaka, Brianga, Laval, Devaigergely, Trautmann, Tvinh, Roland zh, JJKotalik, Maengpong, EmxBot, Rknasc, Deconstructhis, Evergreen1056, Nstott, Glst2, SieBot, StAnselm, Grumpyrob, Brenont, Gravis187, Prakash Nadkarni, Sparrowman980, Robbor, BotMultichill, Ilikebakedziti, NB-NB, Ori, Mwalbert, Expositor of truth, Jacotto, Xymmax, Boooooom, Mrpearcee, ThriceGreat, Brandonstefanik, Keilana, Vabniru, RucasHost, Clionescu, Tiptoety, Exert, Salvatorelli, Luis215, Hntimmerman~enwiki, Oxymoron83, Hzan~enwiki, Jack1956, Byebyeviking, Faradayplank, AngelOfSadness, LapisExCoelis, Steven Crossin, Lightmouse, Takuta-Nui, UNBESIEGBAR, EnduranceRace, JohnSawyer, Wiki-maann, Maelgwnbot, Retew Boy, NormanBro, Alatari, Anchor Link Bot, Sean.hoyland, Ltkaffee, Onomonopod, Baldrick’s Mum, Targetonmyback, Pre1mjr, Ptr123, MMAfan2007, Pinkadelica, Geminidog, Madotobunchi, JL-Bot, Magisteriu, Bee Cliff River Slob, PsyberS, Lestervee, Llywelyn2000, Faithlessthewonderboy, Joeraybray, Loren.wilton, Millenn, Wfgh66, Elassint, ClueBot, QueenofBattle, Cederlund, Jackollie, Motlpots, Anus Goblin, Vacio, Kylers, Dankelol, Cygnis insignis, Lmateo002, Silkccut, Meekywiki, Peter Harding-Roberts,

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CHAPTER 24. ZOTT

The murray, Yamakiri, Al kirtley, CounterVandalismBot, JJIG, Blanchardb, Sonoiome, Forestgarden, Parkwells, Internette~enwiki, Dimitrakopulos, SSJ4Buster, Neverquick, ChandlerMapBot, W3y2ohott, No such user, Newyorkchk, H2onE2, Bjrothschild7, Joshiscool94, Zpearson, Hugh shakespeare, Shamesean, OregonMason, Blogbby, H64, Yorkshirian, ParisianBlade, Vkutah, Leonardo212, NuclearWarfare, Beyahhaahaha, Angelicusmaximus, Terra Xin, Iohannes Animosus, RayquazaDialgaWeird2210, Eric Beer, Photomy, La Pianista, MikeOrrJ, Light show, Thingg, Aitias, JDPhD, Katanada, Myland, Limonns, Rasmr1013, Editor2020, ZepherG, DumZiBoT, Saucy626, Apsenoj, Not050, Visorman, XLinkBot, Rror, Ost316, Skarebo, Bwt757171, Noctibus, MarmadukePercy, Artaxerxes, Oldpossumgunnar, WikiDao, Vianello, MystBot, Medupin, UnknownForEver, Ahawaiiguy, RyanCross, Devildave, Noname32, John61vermont, OhSoOrdinary, Randomperson101, Asrghasrhiojadrhr, Addbot, Twaz, Mick Lynn BCL, Davinciscode, Ambrosia274, Pigeon33, Mrasdf, Kingstonp, Quokly, Alex AITM, Abdunnafi, Laurinavicius, Orinoco-w, Leszek Jańczuk, GraceCourt, Jeff Darby, Skyezx, Poppyfurkin, Proxima Centauri, Glane23, Lihaas, Talha, AnotherObserver, Jgrosay~enwiki, AnnaFrance, Favonian, Dushant, Lucian Sunday, LinkFA-Bot, Tassedethe, Howardisshort496, Myheartinchile, Tyranno324, OlEnglish, Ergo-Nord, 50blues, Yodamaster1, Sueverner, Folklore1, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Granpuff, 2D, Ptbotgourou, Cflm001, Downzero, Rsoutram, Philistineembassy, Nallimbot, Naipicnirp, P-nice, Rodondo1, Unclefester89, Bility, Frenchmason, AnomieBOT, Jsp91470, Johnyemes, Rubinbot, Tazio Ratnayeke, Jeni, Fanoftheworld, Савелий В А, Sz-iwbot, Jo3sampl, Citation bot, Bob Burkhardt, Toblerone flyte, Dan Murphy, Orhan94, Quebec99, Christopher754, Tannalein, Oedipus X, Xqbot, Anders Torlind, Spidern, Drilnoth, Gigemag76, Kai9er, Anna Frodesiak, Garkeith, Socrates42, GrouchoBot, Jnorbett, Egospoon, RibotBOT, Mvaldemar, Cresix, Carrite, Multixfer, Mattis, Wolfpeaceful, Tktru, FrescoBot, Canton Viaduct, Paine Ellsworth, Daknightfall, Tobby72, RicHard-59, YOKOTA Kuniteru, Haeinous, ElijahBosley, SCFilm29, Citation bot 1, Toolboks, Marixist101, Tvst28, Anibar E, R Católico, JordanITP, Calmer Waters, Lars Washington, UnreferencedPOV, Wlush2, Elekhh, VMHman, Pollinosisss, Lotje, Schnittlauch, Ansumang, Skakkle, , Midhart90, Esoglou, EmausBot, Cricobr, John of Reading, Santamoly, Mambo Bananapatch, CanaryIslands, Triton Rocker, ZéroBot, PBS-AWB, CanonLawJunkie, Hirumon, RaymondSutanto, H3llBot, Wayne Slam, Rcsprinter123, MeriwetherLewis, Ihardlythinkso, Brigade Piron, Bowness, Autodidact1, Cc21002, Joefromrandb, Lm 997, Kazemita1, Philadelphia 2009, Erik Ulevik, North Atlanticist Usonian, Sören Koopmann, Helpful Pixie Bot, Dlw20070716, MarilynConant, BG19bot, Sahara4u, Ibrahim.ID, DadrianT,Esq, The Traditionalist, Traveller360, Fiddlersmouth, Liam987, Bengsig, ChrisGualtieri, GoShow, Wjcw, Dexbot, Indiasummer95, BroadcastDonkey, Truther2012, Mogism, Chicbyaccident, Albertpirck, Spirit Tune, Camyoung54, Sharialaw1, Dr.Sosteric, Berengaria, Jb423, Eric Corbett, Foleo, Uhbooh, JanZdreantza, Elaqueate, Carlos Rojas77, Monkbot, Zumoarirodoka, Jaronie, Chelm261, Capistranese, Cirflow, The Average Wikipedian, KasparBot, SundayRequiem and Anonymous: 1309 • Great Gypsy Round-up Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Gypsy_Round-up?oldid=654595828 Contributors: Error, Varlaam, Bender235, Pigman, Srnec, Sadads, Chymicus, Cydebot, Mariolina, Hugo999, Solar-Wind, Baroque1700, Addbot, Download, Debresser, Luckas-bot, Yobot, LittleWink, Lredfi, Grampion76, Grobbley, Rococo1700, Mogism, S. Fight, Pikina1, GH342, Trogginated and Anonymous: 5 • Gypsy Lore Society Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gypsy_Lore_Society?oldid=596266357 Contributors: Bryan Derksen, Wetman, Henry Flower, Hooperbloob, Kbdank71, Vegaswikian, Oliver Chettle, Paul foord, Leutha, Dialectric, Deville, Desiphral, on ☸!, Andrew Dalby, Amalas, Themightyquill, Cydebot, AdamMorton, R'n'B, Zalktis, Solar-Wind, Heljane81, Addbot, CanadianLinuxUser, Lightbot, Isolation booth, Ulric1313, J04n, Helpful Pixie Bot, Agnes07 2010 and Anonymous: 6 • Zionism Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zionism?oldid=688660149 Contributors: Peter Winnberg, Archibald Fitzchesterfield, Mav, Uriyan, Zundark, The Anome, Slrubenstein, DanKeshet, Ed Poor, RK, Jtnelson, Eclecticology, Danny, Christian List, William Avery, SimonP, DavidLevinson, Ant, Hefaistos, Zoe, Quasar~enwiki, LK~enwiki, Galizia, Q~enwiki, Montrealais, Elian, Stevertigo, Edward, Dwmyers, Elmeyer, Ezra Wax, Fred Bauder, Jtdirl, DIG~enwiki, Liftarn, MartinHarper, Wapcaplet, Ixfd64, Haisam, IZAK, Tzaquiel, Pcb21, Ronabop, Ams80, Ahoerstemeier, Theresa knott, Snoyes, Notheruser, Nahum, Александър, Ericross, Error, Cyan, Nikai, Andres, Jiang, Cema, Evercat, Sethmahoney, GCarty, Efghij, Pizza Puzzle, PhatJew, Uriber, Malbi, Charles Matthews, Guaka, Gymnos, RickK, JCarriker, Dysprosia, David costanzo, Kbk, Fuzheado, DJ Clayworth, Maximus Rex, Zero0000, Spikey, Topbanana, Joy, Jecar, Fvw, Raul654, Pir, Flockmeal, Adam Carr, Finlay McWalter, AnthonyQBachler, JorgeGG, Klaassart, Robbot, Astronautics~enwiki, JeMa, Chris 73, Benwing, Jmabel, Penta~enwiki, Sparky, Modulatum, Enceladus, Mirv, Ashley Y, Kielsky, TMLutas, Wonderer, Humus sapiens, Leumi, Tranquileye, Hadal, Michael Snow, Zw, Lancemurdoch, Lupo, JerryFriedman, OneVoice, Cyrius, David Gerard, Adhib, Morley Harper, Centrx, Mshonle~enwiki, Nikodemos, Sj, TOttenville8, Seabhcan, Tom harrison, Meursault2004, MathKnight, Samuel J. Howard, Peruvianllama, Everyking, Lode Runner, Curps, FeloniousMonk, Jfdwolff, H-2-O, Andris, Guanaco, Skagedal, Nathan Hamblen, ElfMage, Bobblewik, Yoshiah ap, Masterhomer, Chowbok, Gadfium, Pgan002, Dunk, Toytoy, Geni, Gdr, Formeruser-81, Gzuckier, Antandrus, Mustafaa, Beland, Robert Brockway, Vanished user 1234567890, Jossi, SethTisue, MacGyverMagic, Phil Sandifer, IYY, AlexanderWinston, Rdsmith4, CJCurrie, Al-Andalus, Raistlin~enwiki, Tothebarricades.tk, Chaizzilla, Ezra~enwiki, Mustaafaa, Bk0, Karl-Henner, Sam Hocevar, Doug Danner, Gscshoyru, Neutrality, Joyous!, Jewbacca, Cab88, Pinnerup, Trevor MacInnis, Canterbury Tail, Kate, Powerpleb, D6, Jayjg, Freakofnurture, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Guanabot, Wclark, Schuetzm, Silence, Style, User2004, Nvj, Altmany, Bender235, Slyguy135, Kaisershatner, Ignignot, CanisRufus, Aecis, Killerdark, Zscout370, El C, Shrike, Lycurgus, Cedders, Lankiveil, Summer Song, Aude, Susvolans, Xed, Jpgordon, Rrreese, Bobo192, Longhair, Ypacaraí, Defrosted, Viriditas, Nomist, HistoryBuffEr, Alberuni, Urthogie, Pschemp, Unused000701, MPerel, Haham hanuka, Pharos, Leifern, Nsaa, Orangemarlin, ADM, Jumbuck, Googuse, Kuratowski’s Ghost, Alansohn, Gary, JYolkowski, Eleland, Walter Görlitz, Jeltz, Craigy144, Mceder, Alexander Fischer, Minority Report, Anittas, Jnothman, AzaToth, Ahruman, Lectonar, Calton, SlimVirgin, Lightdarkness, Fritzpoll, Goodoldpolonius2, Ynhockey, NTK, AnthonyWS, Zsero, Velella, BrandonYusufToropov, Jheald, Tony Sidaway, Mikeo, Guy Montag, Jguk, GabrielF, Arthur Warrington Thomas, HaleakalAri, Bookandcoffee, Tariqabjotu, CONFIQ, Sheynhertz-Unbayg, Angr, Reinoutr, OwenX, Woohookitty, Borderer, Molloy, Yansa, Venice, PatGallacher, Josephf, Munificent, Maryna Ravioli, Briangotts, GeorgeOrr, Lapsed Pacifist, Garywbush, Cbdorsett, Firien, OneGay, OneGoy, OneGvy, 0neguy, One-Guy, Striver, Tickle me, Jrcagle, SeventyThree, Toussaint, Gimboid13, Class316, Essjay, Cybbe, Paxsimius, Mandarax, Tslocum, Oboler, Graham87, BD2412, Galwhaa, Trachys, MC MasterChef, FreplySpang, Nlsanand, Ciroa, Rjwilmsi, Jake Wartenberg, Leon Trotsky, Harry491, Amire80, MZMcBride, Gadig, Bhadani, Klonimus, DickClarkMises, Jbamb, Sango123, Daderot, Dogtag, Ian Pitchford, Kyle543, Ahasuerus, Ground Zero, Danny Ng, Unlessimwrong, BriteHumer, Chanting Fox, John Z, RexNL, Gurch, OrbitOne, Alphachimp, Bmicomp, Srleffler, Silversmith, King of Hearts, It’s-is-not-a-genitive, Mmx1, Korg, Bgwhite, Digitalme, Amibidhrohi, Gwernol, UkPaolo, Jim Ellis, TSO1D, Jlittlet, Gayjig, RussBot, Briaboru, Trotula, Pigman, Ramallite, Netscott, SpuriousQ, Lucinos~enwiki, Hydrargyrum, Chensiyuan, Emmanuelm, Gaius Cornelius, Wgungfu, Kyorosuke, Alex Bakharev, Bovineone, Nis81, Shanel, NawlinWiki, Ozzykhan, Wiki alf, Msikma, Astral, Grafen, Siddiqui, Jaxl, Rjensen, NYScholar, Nick, Deodar~enwiki, Retired username, Bestofmed, Banes, JoergenG, Joergg, GHcool, Number 57, Tony1, Alex43223, Yusufk, Aaron Schulz, Kyle Barbour, Dacian~enwiki, Karl Meier, DRosenbach, Smith120bh, Delos~enwiki, Brisvegas, GOER, Pintele Yid, Knolls, Avraham, Jkelly, DieWeisseRose, Tanet, Jcrook1987, Adam Holland, Heartbrand, Sam@mysite.com.my, MEF101, Jules.LT, Poldy Bloom, Saranghae honey, Closedmouth, Rajanr imposter, Jwissick, DanianCheong, 123Contact, Brian Tvedt, Ehouk1, Petri Krohn, GraemeL, Colin chee, Shyam, Yodakii, Daniel575, Marsden, Garion96, Alibadawi, Canadianism, RG2, Thomas Blomberg, Huldra, Serendipodous, D Monack,

24.3. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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valled, Poppy321, Poppy890, The emmeli, Hans Adler, Esimal, Redthoreau, Deena91, SchreiberBike, Gennarous, Kas124, Kakofonous, Obsidi, Moose2345, Something X, Editor2020, Peachcream, Ostinato2, Glover10, DumZiBoT, Boleyn, InternetMeme, Carrey~enwiki, Emmette Hernandez Coleman, MichiganLake, Rror, Feinoha, Rehsok, WikHead, UNSC Trooper, Feierabend, The Rationalist, Good Olfactory, Chalms89, RyanCross, Sisera, Addbot, Napoleonic, Syrecc, Surfin simo, Blechnic, Mootros, Royblaan, TutterMouse, B1b1b1b2345, Wh33lman 003, BecauseWhy?, Mnmazur, Download, Proxima Centauri, Amerul, FerrousTigrus, Souviens, Andyahaziz, Glane23, Lihaas, Michaelwuzthere, Jomunro, Favonian, Alternocrat, LinkFA-Bot, Jerkstar36933, Papapoupa, Numbo3-bot, Tide rolls, Captain Obvious and his crime-fighting dog, Sindinero, Samuel Pepys, CYBORGchimpish, Organon1m, Jewelthewiki, Suwa, PlankBot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Gurduloo, Scruffy35, I'm Smarter, Jason Recliner, Esq., Darx9url, Happy Happy Happy Guy, Hadjm, SKANKSTERONER, Cimicifugia, Reenem, Paul Siebert, CodytheHun, Eduen, AlexLevyOne, Vrinan, AnomieBOT, VanishedUser sdu9aya9fasdsopa, Quangbao, LeobenConoy, Madridrealy, Jim1138, Galoubet, Victor9876, Frankie ro24, Valois bourbon, OpenFuture, Xufanc, Bobisbob2, LlywelynII, Materialscientist, Citation bot, Williamsburgland, Quebec99, LilHelpa, Xqbot, 4I7.4I7, Phthinosuchusisanancestor, IsleofPlan, NHL09addict, JamesAnderson86, TracyMcClark, Mnnlaxer, ChildofMidnight, Marcus19771107, Dr. Yingst, Nohair123, J04n, Omnipaedista, Smurdah, JordanPereira, RibotBOT, Mvaldemar, Nickidewbear, A Quest For Knowledge, WebCiteBOT, Introman, Bluehotel, VasOling, Ubberflubber, DeNoel, Tktru, Velblod, Olehal09, FreeKnowledgeCreator, FrescoBot, Surv1v4l1st, Joep01, Shipnerd62962, Kierzek, Tobby72, Lothar von Richthofen, Karl E Marx, Npovshark, ReneVenegas95, MathFacts, Trust Is All You Need, Kwiki, OgreBot, Citation bot 1, VOBO, MLobanova, Pinethicket, I dream of horses, Bejinhan, Indy766, A8UDI, Bmclaughlin9, Holyfonz, Yatzhek, Jamescooly, Motorizer, Angloguy, Cramyourspam, Somsack, CrowzRSA, Jflycn, Dert45, TobeBot, MustaphaMond, Throwaway85, Quinch100, Gaius Octavius Princeps, Jonkerz, Kaiser Taylor, Ef80, A p3rson, Diannaa, MyMoloboaccount, Tbhotch, Commissarusa, RjwilmsiBot, Bento00, NameIsRon, Bossanoven, VernoWhitney, Lnegro, Barbula, NerdyScienceDude, Salvio giuliano, Mandolinface, EmausBot, John of Reading, Dolescum, Santamoly, Surlyduff50, Gfoley4, Ahen1020, Look2See1, Dewritech, Finners01, Rabbabodrool, Tommy2010, Mmeijeri, Wikipelli, Superbopper, Bryonmorrigan, AlejoM, AvicBot, JSquish, 15turnsm, Liquidmetalrob, Ianriban, Redhanker, The Nut, Herp Derp, AvicAWB, A930913, Leandro LV, H3llBot, Unreal7, Gniniv, Monterey Bay, Frigotoni, Komrad Komar, Demiurge1000, JoeSperrazza, TyA, Mr Jack Boot, Morgan Hauser, IGeMiNix, Gorge payne, Goto65, Sir Linky, Glubnuts, Mayur, Ego White Tray, Tijfo098, GermanJoe, Pierlot, LikeLakers2, TYelliot, Teapeat, Wikiwind, Tentontunic, Jason108, Liuthar, Markg17, ClueBot NG, Weeviator123, NapoleonX, Iloveredhair, Somedifferentstuff, Ryan kutschke, CocuBot, LittleJerry, HighNoon USA, Movses-bot, Baseball Watcher, Jdcollins13, Itsthegoldenratio, RJFF, Gef05, Twillisjr, Hazhk, Kim Traynor, Rezabot, Transcendent28, Cyrrk, North Atlanticist Usonian, Helpful Pixie Bot, TotalFailure, Gob Lofa, Kinaro, BG19bot, Wiki13, Alf.laylah.wa.laylah, Frze, AvocatoBot, Sapere aude22, User1961914, DrPepper47, OttawaAC, The Almightey Drill, Toccata quarta, MJJ509, Schmooble, Sparthorse, Snow Blizzard, Digital2011, Getstabbed, Jordan pope, Ammanlikeswaffles, Antiliberalpatriot, Mosterguygirl, Lamps5, Lovas.balazs, Pedobear12345678910, TruthprophetsA+, Ethan Goethal, LUOF, PwilliamQ99, Krimin killr21, WebTV3, Wheeke, BattyBot, Boeing720, RacoTacoSurpreme, Ethanmets, Mfhiller, Fred2012, W.D., Rolandrlj, Celtisch, Ocnerosti, Khazar2, SNAAAAKE!!, AMS351996, Esszet, SubaruImpreza2.0, Stumink, EagerToddler39, Dexbot, Apathy in disguise, ScottyNolan, CrabCo., FluffyBunnyCarroty, Yawhateveridowhatiwant, Michael A Bekoff, Leojones1, Suckmahball, Mogism, Yiddi, Drtywmn, Agonyiconi, Cheerioswithmilk, Adithyasriram, Peterzor, Depakin, Malerooster, HarveyHenkelmann, Ben-Yeudith, Howicus, Obenritter, Merlinsscience, Precision123, Dustin V. S., Samrong01, ArmbrustBot, Jb423, SJ Defender, Capitalist Christian, Smashton Pumpkin, Nick Mitchell 98, HYH.124, Windows66, Astraw5016, Zozs, Meemo16, Lukecaltech, ShawntheGod, Filedelinkerbot, Sigehelmus, Hashi0707, Nøkkenbuer, KasparBot, Anentai, Aardwolf A380, Mr. K. Kowalski, SpringbokSam and Anonymous: 1424 • King of the Gypsies Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_of_the_Gypsies?oldid=690960338 Contributors: D, Skysmith, Docu, Bogdangiusca, Rossami, Charles Matthews, IceKarma, Topbanana, Phil Boswell, FredR, Varlaam, Bluejay Young, Jackol, StaticShock, Mike Rosoft, YUL89YYZ, Narsil, Kostja, Xezbeth, ESkog, DS1953, Hesperian, Alansohn, Gargaj, Ronline, Saga City, RJFJR, Crosbiesmith, PANONIAN, Woohookitty, Tabletop, Torqueing, GregorB, Mendaliv, SimonBrooke, Rjwilmsi, Angusmclellan, Ground Zero, CarolGray, Choess, Volunteer Marek, Jlittlet, Phantomsteve, RussBot, Gaius Cornelius, Theelf29, Rsrikanth05, Welsh, Doktor Waterhouse, SmackBot, Yamaguchi , Gilliam, Hmains, Desiphral, Chris the speller, Bluebot, GBH, Colonies Chris, JesseRafe, Addshore, Kendrick7, Nareek, JzG, Gnevin, Hu12, Ken Gallager, Richard Keatinge, Gregbard, Cydebot, Perfect Proposal, BetacommandBot, Barticus88, Biruitorul, Kbthompson, Ghmyrtle, DuncanHill, Schumi555, Daemonic Kangaroo, MerryXIV, Tgeairn, Adavidb, SirJibby, Bacchus87, Chienlit, LeilaniLad, Greengreenspider, Noformation, Kenshin, Wikiisawesome, Msw1002, Work permit, Vanished User 8a9b4725f8376, Zalktis, Cameron, CarbonLifeForm, Mayalld, Alex.muller, Mid-devonian, Stuart.Jamieson, Gr8opinionater, RashersTierney, P0mbal, Solar-Wind, Fasttimes68, Arjayay, Diamonddannyboy, Mlaffs, Aitias, Dana boomer, Wnt, DumZiBoT, XLinkBot, Dthomsen8, Thatguyflint, Nomád Terv, Felix Folio Secundus, Addbot, Metagraph, CanadianLinuxUser, Lightbot, Yobot, ThaddeusB, Solemnknight, Materialscientist, LilHelpa, Xqbot, Dona46, Tiller54, J04n, Mechla, Kurtdriver, Thumpers den, FrescoBot, LittleWink, A8UDI, MastiBot, Iwmarshall, Wingman625, The Utahraptor, RjwilmsiBot, Moonward joyce, JosephWeston, Wuhubluh, John of Reading, GoingBatty, Josve05a, H3llBot, Ivor Stoughton, Uthican, ClueBot NG, Piast93, Chester Markel, Widr, Helpful Pixie Bot, Grobbley, Uniqueorn23, Zeromaker, Verbcatcher, Pratyya Ghosh, Eurovisa, Frosty, Monkbot, Gypo2000 and Anonymous: 112 • Lyuli Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyuli?oldid=677386582 Contributors: Paul Barlow, Menchi, Nv8200pa, Sdedeo, Untifler, O'Dea, Dbachmann, Ghirlandajo, Woohookitty, Jeff3000, Behemoth, Rjwilmsi, XLerate, Sborsody, Gaius Cornelius, SmackBot, Desiphral, OrphanBot, Khoikhoi, Themightyquill, Cydebot, Spylab, DBaba, Scythian1, Tukes, Gabriel Kielland, Ebizur, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, Mausy5043, Hayden5650, Nouri Hindi, Enigmaman, DanSSwing, RomanyChaj, RashersTierney, Solar-Wind, Olybrius, Addbot, Lightbot, Contributor777, Yobot, J04n, FrescoBot, ZéroBot, Grampion76, BlevintronBot, Abrahamic Faiths, BolshoyDom, Quackriot and Anonymous: 15 • Adolf Hitler Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adolf_Hitler?oldid=691076995 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Derek Ross, WojPob, Brion VIBBER, Eloquence, Mav, Wesley, Bryan Derksen, Robert Merkel, The Anome, Tarquin, Taw, Slrubenstein, Jeronimo, Malcolm Farmer, Sjc, Gareth Owen, DanKeshet, Andre Engels, Fnielsen, Danny, Vignaux, Gsl, Fredbauder, Yooden, Rmhermen, Aldie, Novalis, Oliverkroll, Roadrunner, SimonP, Ben-Zin~enwiki, Zoe, Zadcat, Heron, Camembert, Mintguy, Dwheeler, Montrealais, Zippy, Modemac, KF, Tzartzam, Hephaestos, Atlan, Olivier, Someone else, Rickyrab, Citizenzero, Ericd, Mkmcconn, Stevertigo, Mrwojo, Nevilley, Spiff~enwiki, Edward, Lir, Patrick, Kchishol1970, Infrogmation, HollyAm, JohnOwens, Michael Hardy, Tim Starling, Paul Barlow, Zocky, Ezra Wax, EvanProdromou, Kwertii, Stormwriter, Modster, Fred Bauder, Dante Alighieri, Jtdirl, Norm, Liftarn, MartinHarper, Gabbe, Stewacide, Tannin, Mic, Ixfd64, Zeno Gantner, Zanimum, Cyde, 172, IZAK, Sannse, AlexR, Paul Benjamin Austin, Shoaler, Delirium, Dori, Iluvcapra, SebastianHelm, Davejenk1ns, Minesweeper, Kosebamse, Goatasaur, Tregoweth, Egil, 168..., Ihcoyc, Ronabop, Mkweise, Ellywa, Ahoerstemeier, Jimfbleak, Arwel Parry, Docu, Muriel Gottrop~enwiki, Samuelsen, Theresa knott, G-Man, Snoyes, Angela, Nanobug, JWSchmidt, Jdforrester, Kingturtle, Александър, Ugen64, Cgs, Djmutex, Whkoh, Bogdangiusca, Ciphergoth, Cyan, Aragorn2, Vzbs34, Chrysalis, TraxPlayer, Cadr, Susurrus, Kwekubo, Jiang, Deisenbe, Evercat, Panoramix, GCarty, John K, Ril~enwiki, Palmpilot900, Lukobe, Kaysov, Mxn, Pjbeef, JASpencer, Rami Neudorfer, Schneelocke, Ehn, Dyss, Emperorbma, Smith03, Karl Schalike, Ec5618,

24.3. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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Wayward, , Jon Harald Søby, MechBrowman, Gimboid13, Vital Component, Salocin, Liface, Shanedidona, Ae7flux, Mimiian, Norway Boy, Justinmo, Karam.Anthony.K, Rusty2005, Ambar, Asdfdsa, Dynamax, Prisk, A3r0, Stevey7788, Emerson7, Paxsimius, Christopher Crossley, Plushpuffin, RichardWeiss, Ashmoo, SS88, Lawrence King, Graham87, Alienus, Deltabeignet, Magister Mathematicae, Jobnikon, BD2412, Bandislife, Deadcorpse, Fleisher, MC MasterChef, David Levy, Kbdank71, FreplySpang, JIP, Plau, Island, WikiFan~enwiki, Dave Cohoe, RxS, Amorrow, Nahabedere, BorgHunter, Miss Pippa, Jhskg7843hjskdyg7843ythiul43h, Casey Abell, Canderson7, Dubkiller, Sjakkalle, Wikix, Rjwilmsi, Mayumashu, Tim!, Poul818, Markkawika, Airosche, Koavf, Rogerd, Fwend, Syndicate, Phileas, Adolf, DeadlyAssassin, NekoFever, Alf74, Lockley, Demonesque, Commander, Vary, MarSch, Bill37212, PinchasC, Hiberniantears, Linuxbeak, Carbonite, Tangotango, Sdornan, Harro5, Bruce1ee, Sieger~enwiki, Gioueeoi, Jmcc150, Babie Gurl, Feydey, MZMcBride, Tawker, Pabix, SMC, Salleman, Kaptain Kornelius, Vegaswikian, Hitler wasnt a bad guy, Dstopping, DonSiano, ABot, Merrilee, Frenchman113, Sarkozy~enwiki, Durin, Afterwriting, The wub, Bhadani, Monger, DoubleBlue, Noon, Ttwaring, Ravik, Olessi, MarnetteD, Klonimus, Keimzelle, TrojanMan, Schaengel89~enwiki, Bratch, Stopsineman, Ucucha, GregAsche, Sango123, PuNk1, Yamamoto Ichiro, John Pollock, AtticusRyan, A Man In Black, N0YKG, Leithp, Bash, Exeunt, FayssalF, FuelWagon, Titoxd, FlaBot, Ud terrorist, Cacafuego95, CAPS LOCK, G Clark, RobertG, Ground Zero, Wikidgood, McPhail, Stoph, CalJW, Musical Linguist, Petruchi41, LeahR, Doc glasgow, Winhunter, Ysangkok, Nihiltres, Crazycomputers, Chanting Fox, Isotope23, LevelCheck, Hottentot, Themanwithoutapast, JYOuyang, SuperDude115, Celestianpower, Mordur, Flowerparty, Pathoschild, RexNL, Samothrakis, Gurch, Spanish lullaby, Otets, Redwolf24, Revolving Bugbear, Wars, Tijuana Brass, RobyWayne, Alexjohnc3, Hawk123, Hansamurai, Egthegreat, Str1977, Quuxplusone, Vonspringer, President Rhapsody, Jimbo Donal Wales, OrbitOne, Davi~enwiki, Diskadia, ViriiK, Eifeldude, Natalina smpf, Hinschelwood, Atrix20, Codex Sinaiticus, EronMain, Mattman00000, Alphachimp, Bmicomp, Bgully, Dragon’s Light, Gurubrahma, Synchrite, Dalta~enwiki, Mallocks, Gareth E Kegg, Schandi, Snailwalker, Theaznlaw, Hibana, Cause of death, Valentinian, Technogiddo, Knoma Tsujmai, Mstroeck, Stormscape, Zachie, Chobot, Grgrfgf, SFrank85, Fourdee, Jonath Qui, Pathogen1014, Umpa-Lumpa, Parallel or Together?, MisterSpooky, Bornhj, Soyweiser, Jared Preston, DVdm, Citizen Premier, 10qwerty, The One True Fred, VolatileChemical, Hunter11, Cactus.man, Hall Monitor, Digitalme, Dresdnhope, Clinton Boys, Belowzero, Hustler4, Noble Skuld the Legend Killer, EvilZak, Gwernol, Geg, Flcelloguy, Bartleby, Banaticus, Bish.dk, UkPaolo, Vjz666, YurikBot, Wavelength, Chanlyn, Mushin, Angus Lepper, MaxLewy, Spaceriqui, Stinkaap, RobotE, Tommyt, Crotalus horridus, Vuvar1, Kinneyboy90, TiffanyC, Sceptre, Blightsoot, A.S. Brown, Stan2525, GBMorris, Fg444, Jimp, Mahahahaneapneap, Brandmeister (old), Mithotyn, Anglius, Gregalodon, Adam1213, RussBot, UnknownJohn, Moronoman, Nintendorulez, SeanEvans, Kauffner, Arado, Red Slash, Jtkiefer, John Quincy Adding Machine, WritersCramp, PaulBrooks747, Anonymous editor, Loom91, Splash, Richjkl, Pigman, Kurt Leyman, Anders.Warga, Jengelh, Danbarnesdavies, ScottMainwaring, SpuriousQ, Chaser, Fabricationary, Newmac, GusF, BillMasen, Buffbob333, FDR, Akamad, Stephenb, Gaius Cornelius, Speermeister, Spanier~enwiki, Dalek~enwiki, Kyorosuke, Alex Bakharev, Philopedia, Kimchi.sg, Chouby, Salsb, Wimt, GeeJo, ML, Manxruler, Royalbroil, Marcus Cyron, Nis81, Ben Bulben, Terra Green, Lilath, Shanel, NawlinWiki, Edinborgarstefan, EWS23, Grandad, Ethan, Union~enwiki, Wiki alf, Ytcracker, Famekeeper, Markwiki, Anguruso, Robertvan1, Metromoxie, Dogboy369, Veledan, Grafen, Thatdog, Escheffel, Badagnani, Deskana, Kingjeff, WAS, Jaxl, Own3dripy, Dijxtra, Johann Wolfgang, Jimmy D Wales, CJK, Justin Eiler, Carajou, Rjensen, Chunky Rice, Hergiswi, Howcheng, Adamn, Endurance, Robchurch, Barberio, Toya, LiamE, Arima, Daanschr, SCZenz, TmanMrT, Lord God, JDoorjam, Cahier, Irishguy, Saoshyant, Madison3, Johndarrington, Aaron Brenneman, Rbarreira, PrologFan, Anetode, Shinmawa, Trer, Banes, Espantajo, Krakatoa, Kingpomba, Blu Aardvark, Bengalski, PhilipO, The Filmaker, Szalas, Ergbert, Raven4x4x, Emilio floris, Krrr, Moe Epsilon, Ezeu, Johnkershaw, Scs, Sfnhltb, Vivaldi, Zechs Merquise, Huslter4, Misza13, Grafikm fr, My Cat inn, Crocc, CKHideki, Ragzouken, Emersoni, Bumhole, Nate1481, MakeChooChooGoNow, DGJM, Max Powers~enwiki, Aaron Schulz, EEMIV, Snarius, Deckiller, Lockesdonkey, Cerejota, Kyle Barbour, Samir, BOT-Superzerocool, PrimeCupEevee, Wangi, DeadEyeArrow, Psy guy, Graham Jones, Jeremy Visser, Barnabypage, ColinFine, Phoenix Song, Private Butcher, DRosenbach, Hosterweis, Elkman, CLW, Acetic Acid, Jpeob, Stoopid322, Abnormally, Tekana, Speedoflight, Phenz, Vermifuge, Bantosh, Nlu, Dna-webmaster, Wknight94, Franz-kafka, Ms2ger, TransUtopian, Searchme, Eurosong, Crisco 1492, Raistlin8r, Tuckerresearch, Jkelly, Mattsuh, Blacksand, Saric, FF2010, Newagelink, Osama bin Hitler, Sandstein, Klokeid, Polydor, Waryklingon, Deville, KingKane, Itake, Zzuuzz, Manticore126, StuRat, Lord Cancer, Lt-wiki-bot, Pikay234, Encephalon, Bhumiya, Coey, Nin10dude, Nikkimaria, CoolHitlerFan, Theda, Closedmouth, Forestflyer, Jwissick, Gslin, Spondoolicks, Mike Selinker, Assyria 90, Fang Aili, E Wing, Pb30, SoulCandy, Th1rt3en, Toddgee, JQF, Skullfission, La Pizza11, Rhallanger, Petri Krohn, TheImpossibleMan, GraemeL, JoanneB, Peyna, Cazemier, Rethought, Red Jay, Huss4in, Diddims, Sariberi, Chez37, LitMatch, PeskyAtheist, Shawnc, Grahamroese, LeonardoRob0t, Clair de Lune, VodkaJazz, Trueblues, Eeee, Jochen777, Cursa, Guillom, Sicilybob, Reject, GinaDana, Devuu, RenamedUser jaskldjslak904, Leistung, Caspianrex, Miguelin, SuperJumbo, Garion96, Willrobbo, David Biddulph, Jack Upland, RunOrDie, Whouk, Kungfuadam, Pfistermeister, Jeffreymcmanus, Jonathan.s.kt, Vegasjon, Captain Proton, RG2, Shtove, NeilN, Carlosguitar, Lawyer2b, Philip Stevens, Tyomitch, Airconswitch, NorthWestIan, SkerHawx, Vermesan, Elliskev, Nick-D, Sam Weber, Wallie, Selmo, DVD R W, Saikiri, One, Eenu, Kf4bdy, Ruairidi, Borisbaran, Nosyteikm, Swpmre, That Guy, From That Show!, Narkstraws, The Minister of War, Canadiancofee, Alynder, Psoe, Johnmarkh, Sfmartin, The Wookieepedian, SG, Sardanaphalus, Attilios, Crystallina, ThePaper, Sarah, KnightRider~enwiki, A bit iffy, SmackBot, Britannicus, YellowMonkey, Zeq, Aim Here, Janawar, Ashenai, World war two buff, Historian932, Janhunt, NSLE, David Kernow, Arjunm, Estoy Aquí, Tarret, Postbagboy, Bravo-Alpha, Prodego, Hanchi, KnowledgeOfSelf, ChrisRed, K-UNIT, Bjelleklang, Еdit, Deathlibrarian, Bigbluefish, J7, Kimon, Pgk, Frasor, C.Fred, Ultrac, Ramdrake, Delmontejuicebox, Hadan, Rrius, Michael Diederich, Jacek Kendysz, KZF, Chairman S., ScaldingHotSoup, Kanakorocks, Scifiintel, Sertoglu, Michael Dorosh, Delldot, Popejoe, Alephh, Stilfehler, Goldball103, Mdd4696, Timeshifter, Frymaster, Brossow, Arniep, Xantion, Vilerage, Kaptfox, Doofe, Kintetsubuffalo, K8TEK, Nil Einne, Schnitzi, Sam Pointon, Btwied, Edgar181, MelancholieBot, HalfShadow, Typhoonchaser, Blade Runner, Doing A Runner, Antidote, DCno10, Sebesta, TantalumTelluride, Jkp1187, Gaff, T-Bone, Commander Keane bot, Xaosflux, Aksi great, Mre5765, Gilliam, Finduilas 09, Mbadley, Dniemall, Ohnoitsjamie, Wlmg, Hmains, The Gnome, Ingsoc, Betacommand, Supergenius1945, Richfife, Canuck85, Nfgii, Andy M. Wang, Stuart mcmillen, Squiddy, Serminigo, Kappus, Cowman109, Alias777, The monkeyhate, Chainlinking2005, Poulsen, Kaiserb, MrSatan, GothicKrow, Saros136, Izehar, KD5TVI, Master Jay, Bluebot, MCheezy89, Kurykh, Smurg, Keegan, WikiNewbie, Kultron, Timbouctou, Dahn, Johnskrb2, Philosopher, SlimJim, Lucky foot, BlueEyedGal, Persian Poet Gal, Sejanus, Rex Germanus, Stimpy9337, Glynnmania, Ian13, GCap Media Employee 101, MK8, Bjmullan, Ksenon, Udansk, Gl1201, Jprg1966, Stubblyhead, Jordanhurley, Alan smithee, Shabad, Wikigeek~enwiki, Gamemanica, Jgera5, EffK, BoroughJohn, ViolinGirl, Mattythewhite, MalafayaBot, Adam Clark, SotY, Greatgavini, Silly rabbit, Papa November, Einsidler56, Moshe Constantine Hassan Al-Silverburg, Lesadistic, Lordbob, Sdubois, Stantom01, Tigerhawkvok, CaptainMiller, Shady Sk8ta, Parkyk219, Dlohcierekim’s sock, Leoni2, Viewfinder, Mark7-2, Jfsamper, JavaJake, JONJONAUG, Ctbolt, Kungming2, Delta Tango, Baa, Baronnet, DHN-bot~enwiki, Da Vynci, The Moose, Colonies Chris, ACupOfCoffee, Bobobobobobo, J.Bogdanov, Konstable, CSD-bot, Nap~enwiki, Rlevse, AKMask, Lightspeedchick, Sunholm, Panoramic Views, FoxFM is funky!, Emurphy42, Tim buckley, Joiful77, Heretix, Dburwebby, Royboycrashfan, Philc 0780, Lenin and McCarthy, Macphisto, Zsinj, Camillus McElhinney, Bara0014, Famspear, ArthritisCritic, Ed in Chapel Hill, Muboshgu, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Bdevoe, Greglongisland, Eliezg, Ajaxkroon, Friendy12@hotmail.com, Chile, Mulder416, Shalom Yechiel, No Parking, ComradeRyan, Cplakidas, Battlefield, Writtenright, The Placebo Effect, Carnot~enwiki, Chlewbot, Zone46, OrphanBot, NickDupree,

24.3. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

303

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304

CHAPTER 24. ZOTT

Amitrox, Samyevans, Simbafan34, Ellissound, †††, CONRO, Fruddxface, Ranieldule, Gökhan, Canadian-Bacon, Spiderman 2099, Sfgiants23, Ingolfson, DCincarnate, Mwprods, Tomertomer, Dman727, Kurps-Bot 1, HanzoHattori, JAnDbot, Nmaster93, BigglesTh9, Domdom~enwiki, Martinkamau, Adidasboy710, Shinbou, Arifsaha, Porky Pig, Bosoni, Darthrevan33, MER-C, Skomorokh, ElComandanteChe, Clowns~enwiki, Arjun dabomb1, Wizlop, Dd 8630, Avaya1, TheFudgePacker69, Big “A”, Mikefitzhistorian, Kujawapowwa, Ericoides, Angleterre, Vitaopus, Supertheman, LinkinPark, Cviner, Trebor trouble, Michig, Ants army 001, MB1972, Nicholas Tan, Howdoustop85, VeronicaPR, Ipoellet, Pozcircuitboy, Dcooper, Hut 8.5, J-stan, Ijontichy, Jc1033, Flying tiger, Freddys, Rentaferret, J Greb, Russeltarr, PhilKnight, ResurgamII, Wilson44, Helge Skjeveland, Mauricio Maluff, Felix116, Snesfm~enwiki, Rothorpe, Rollred15, Y2kcrazyjoker4, LittleOldMe, Slogankid, SalmonPChase, .anacondabot, Yahel Guhan, Repku, Carp3, Wildhartlivie, Bencherlite, RobbieC., Aekbal, Coffee2theorems, Arvik, Fornost, Majinvegeta, Meeples, Ksofen666, Detective 27, Yunipo, Frankly speaking, Stubbleboy, Pseudothyrum, Magioladitis, Oohaahcantona88, Connormah, WolfmanSF, Billmckern, Vahu, Cooldud7, Parsecboy, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, Hb2019, Jonwillig, Daytrivia, Lord-Insidious, Jj11, Omgmagiccheese, Agnewjamie, Ponnaluri, Okaj, Dreadpiratebible, Newbound, Dominikholter, Norden1990, Anthonyramos1, JamesBWatson, Antientropic, Frip1000, Alexander Domanda, JackTheSk8r, Zeekyman, Romper, Will is the truth, Supersonickim, Kim Dent-Brown, Kajasudhakarababu, The archangel, Jaryohem063, Father Goose, IronCrow, Leeous, Xtakeitbackx, Lsdasdadd, Puddhe, What123, Boogyman1, Cityglitter, Keeferbeefer, Rathbunp, Rivertorch, Dritermius, Gabe1972, The Enlightened, Mechanical Man, Eorlingas~enwiki, Stevejames, Mortal Disaster, Fantzipants, Beefin, Dinosaur puppy, Thesharpeexperience, Vikrant A Phadkay, Steven Walling, TarMartel, Jack Burner, Galifardeu, Nyttend, Nickan93, Reverend Will B. Dunn, Metonic, Brusegadi, WallyFromColumbia, Caesarjbsquitti, SparrowsWing, Cory217, Avicennasis, Anti Nazi, 1337 m00, JHYT, Ahadland1234, Domingo Portales, Markkapcic, Bormon, KConWiki, Stoky, Bleh999, TheOriginalKLR, Parmapoop, PenguinJockey, Lonewolf BC, Cgingold, RHLinuxGUY, Tuncrypt, Sugarcaddy, Genevak, Zetterberg40, Alphabet Soup, Axzion, Iwantedthedudebutitwasgone, Threatdown, Chiefalotacoke, Leftnut, Stewart.mccullough, NYMoogle, Abednigo, 28421u2232nfenfcenc, M1tCh, Sesesq, Gurthang, Nirvalica, Be-nice:-), $yD!, Bobby H. Heffley, Mendax666, Cpl Syx, Anit.pimple, Spellmaster, ChickenDoodoo, QoD, JDBalgores, Ludvikus, DerHexer, JaGa, Max Thayer, Grimgerde, Esanchez7587, EJ220, Mtracy9, Linkxtreme, Khalid Mahmood, Daemonic Kangaroo, Arnold Reisman, NescioNomen, Pax:Vobiscum, Cawill01, DIEXEL, Icarus999, Bobblehead81, Eat-the-kids, Patstuart, White Guard, Spespatriae, Welshleprechaun, Unify~enwiki, Jamesmoggy, Dirtybutclean, Scrollriter, Dinohunter999, Jager88, Bree113, Gjd001, Stephenchou0722, Mrd52787, Kaijucole, Dr. Morbius, Toffnick, ArtRex1, Labronk, Xtreme racer, Fuseau, Hdt83, Darkbreed, Grandia01, CliffC, Sp0, EyeSerene, Insipidone, Vozas, Kovrov, AcheronsBane, Marineman400, Dan390, Tb0702, Arjun01, NAHID, Ed411, Paracel63, Thursdayschild, Kindlyhandmethebread, Ustye, Dinogamer04, Asterix*~enwiki, Berf~enwiki, Ultraviolet scissor flame, Snowybeagle, Sarah Williams, Keith D, Lovelaughterlife, Dapi89, Thriller stephen, Hlwarrior, Speedy91, Xanon, Heckhgs, R'n'B, GeniusMan, CommonsDelinker, Brothejr, Azer Red, Irisheagle, KTo288, Challiyan, JChurchman-Davies, Ash, Fjord3, Samcewan, Lilac Soul, Dekthep, Zephyr21, Dinkytown, RockMFR, Calstanhope, Master of Tofu, AlphaEta, Matt57, J.delanoy, LinuxPhreak, Belaslav, Junggoo, Pharaoh of the Wizards, Seanqtx, Damian Wieczorek, DrKay, Rgoodermote, Intergr8, Mew Lp, Theguythatiscool, Johnw 2k, Sgreddin, Cabm92, Ettiennewarner, MegaZega93, Chuck 444, Pointlessforest, JoDonHo, Zack1111, Logster, Wtimrock, J intela, Rnringostarrnr, KramerNL, Jasmerrin, Nigholith, Marcd30319, Ichibani, Jonpro, Freddymcconnel, TrueCRaysball, Foober, Pkivimak, Zach3 3, Apad, Pajfarmor, CyminX, Amdrummer90, Bbbbennnn, Ian.thomson, OttoMäkelä, Xero910, Antjames29, Tdadamemd, Octopus-Hands, Atb 43, Kudpung, Drummerboy101, Keesiewonder, Eskimospy, VBK103, Josh1966 94, Shorty5220, Beans 6113, Zachschwartz, Taruru, TheChrisD, Brrk.3001, Black glowsticks, Dispenser, YaXaxY, Bot-Schafter, Shawn in Montreal, Andrewtechhelp, KingLay, Cannonmc, Prekabreki, Viper98, LordAnubisBOT, Herzog31, SpigotMap, Hondo11008, I do things, Peblairman, Hargon10, Moviekid007, Seantrac, Findago, Grosscha, P4k, Gavinthesavage, Notreallydavid, Lim3Lit1, Rembecki, Jon Ascton, Memestream, Gurchzilla, Epoe, Mohrchen, ReignMan27, Cheesezilla, Johnhardcastle, SchirmerPower, Lizzie Harrison, Mrg3105, Gamenac, (jarbarf), Snake bgd, Floaterfluss, Pol2ns7al2, HiLo48, Chiswick Chap, TrevorDubya, Vanished User 4517, Knight of BAAWA, Takedashingen620, Alexb102072, Mangwanani, Londo06, Jamsterlavery, Knulclunk, Cyblue, Thijzer, DadaNeem, Intooblv, Grahamtargett, Ko Soi IX, Lizmichael, Abysspell, MKoltnow, Jim Craigie, Evan jovanovic, Sugarbat, Themoodyblue, T3hllama, Alnokta, TheCerrofilliac, Edson88888, From other users, Tascha96, Ziing, Nick Sbr, Chaporto, FJPB, Pmunic, MisterBee1966, Smitty, NBCBS, Sungai pelek guy, Wightwick, Cpl mitchell, Jrcla2, Domojr77, Bekind, Prhartcom, BrettAllen, Revenge king, Ronwheeezley, Morningtrip, Juliancolton, Cometstyles, M.allen.uk, Leemyster, Corms, CommunistStyle?, Tiggerjay, Equazcion, Zara1709, Gidonshaviv, Ivazir, Lakeman23, Gwen Gale, Shunt110, Richard Hollins, Jonthesmith, Xyl 54, ACV777, Xjlktqmu, Matteroniandcheese, Zpickle7, Tiwonk, Upthera23, JoKeRsArMy86, Mr. Desiato, 10nn, Robertknyc, Jeppe1208, Gtg204y, Cena41294, Inter16, Parallel33, Saturnv7890, Muokkis, FrankEldonDixon, Carrico4g, Alan012, James P Twomey, Ja 62, Yotyuh, Adsomvilay, Andy Marchbanks, Dorftrottel, Straw Cat, NicksTheMan, Patmagroin1289, HighKing, Alex:D, Hanny ronny assal, StoptheDatabaseState, Dheppens, RjCan, Spikey123mikey, Bonniequeenie, Exyled, Turkeyham, Aaqqq, Booksbooksbooks, Thismightbezach, Evanston~enwiki, Fbarton, Smeebob, Conte di Cavour, Idioma-bot, Flyerskid9, Kevinjaychow, Funandtrvl, Ausmitch, Spellcast, WWGB, Mr. big914, Wahooredskin13, Foundby, Zimbobway69, Britian101, Babsbabsbabs, Eagle88, Coolug, ACSE, Teammandog, Todd kozlowski, RacingPhun, Fist666, Former user 17, Spartand117, Nickydab, Sam Blacketer, Bnynms, PeaceNT, Conleyer, Malik Shabazz, RRapatalo, Deor, Zoola~enwiki, Pzzp, VolkovBot, Brewstehr, Joeoettinger, Iosef, Dr Steven Plunkett, Douglas Bradford Oliver, Xspiritdannyx, Firelordazulon, Headphonos, Cyclone88, Indubitably, TheQuandry, Nburden, Lovemetalrockr, Alfietucker, Vacant Stare, Bennjaming, Alexandria, Butwhatdoiknow, Flyboy03191, Scyker, Keelan1993, Papongza, Pilotbob, Hjncfkdnmhbjk, Katydidit, Chrislynch94, 8thstar, Neontuner42, Gab.popp, JoshuL, Monkeyinaspasm, Alexveit, Jangles5150, Speedy3702, Dominics Fire, Seamonky72, Meggy-Eggy-Head, BlazeTheMovieFan, Rwestera, Neuralblaze, Aesopos, LeilaniLad, Barneca, Savine, Hinomaru10, SexyBern, Sześćsetsześćdziesiątsześć, Sloppy diplomat, Sven 2, Philip Trueman, Hurieydc, Director, Feeblezak, Mkcmkc, Scrazen, TXiKiBoT, Amphlett7, Lmaoitzu, Pacman444, EditorGuy07, Le Scarlet Douche, Narikii, ArtGriggs, Lollipop Lady, Armycadet127, Dagari, Jacob Lundberg, Paddling bear, Planetlinks, Java7837, Jeremy221, Curiouscdngeorge, Osama bin dipesh, Wetmackeral, Jczicker, JesseOjala, Jakesywong, Blaineeee, Joemommasllama, Rory2259, Malljaja, Chapandoosh, Tititi~enwiki, Uch, Miranda, Hayden5650, Dchall1, Dj thegreat, Recato, Fiery-bond, Daniel adjaye, MRTmatt, Shimnaa, Brianluciano, Agent452, Scotchorama, Quine, Ajota, ElinorD, ConDissenter, Magnius, Rexroad, Tedmanj24, Qxz, Someguy1221, Lililol2, TRFA, Krsj, Radicaljoe, Dp128, Blahaccountblah, Wjvanb, MahargJG, Jacobhenrytucker, HansMair, Ajota2, Kim sux, Jsbhavsar, Naelecht, Jackokcaj, Jtgerman, Adityakistampally, Steven J. Anderson, Tip123, Themungoman, Tsmall2231, Beyond silence, Seraphim, Melsaran, Bitsko, Grimne, Danielc192, Padoli, Joemama3000, Duke spoko, Eric.H.Lin, JhsBot, Skublum, Masterspartacus, Whiteboy4life, Johaven, Kirsten07734, Deepshadowstorm, Dgmoran, Jammi568, ^demonBot2, Mc luczynski, Mkpumphrey, Wassermann~enwiki, Feeagle, SGT141, Airu8Sama, Cinaclov, Seb az86556, Ekips Takemi, Molkhal, Domitius, Gunn2k7, JApsey, Joshuas88, Vgranucci, Dude018219293, Smeghead2007, Christopher Connor, Pericles899, GeorgeFormby1, Ian410, Wily wonka, StillTrill, Ciarok, Rockeeteer, Johan Bewegingsorganisatie, Thomas419ca, Windja2, Robert1947, Marcisimo, Luuva, Tomas16, Roughrider111, Lhtema, Redsox04, Maracana, Ssj4david, Rumiton, Loch rannoch, Tfrost2221, Albundlesz, Shyko, Bobbysags, CayceG, Meldenham, S.B. Squires, Flux66, RR1991, Madhero88, Beaver3t, Blackhc1087, Commander Sergei Bjarkhov, Billymacy, Greswik, Easybois, Evan575, Bibbledebobblede, Jack909, Arcticdawg, Lerdthenerd, Mcattell, Tj84, Hellcat fighter, Proper use123, AronR, Sack46, Y, SSlan, They cool dudes, Azndipstick, Dee Mac Con Uladh, Wassamatta, Synthe-

24.3. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

305

bot, Historygypsy, Easyaspie, Moerd~enwiki, Benua, Deep1989, SmileToday, Tomaxer, Momoney135, Billybhoy1888, Wino911, KennyM6643, Tom3344, Lotrtkdchic, Akumpf, Gundy103, Sora089, Kikiller, Dooneybebe, GTAfanSam, Ryan061091, Jaymarcos, Grsz11, Ndumbunsungu, Jreynoldsme, DL79OL, Dwitysh, Superhockeyman, Nodyarg, Redsoxfan5820, Sesshomaru, Omnitrix17, Scottvn, Dolphin07, Herut, Wumplecomb, Sardaka, Pombob, Voteforeminem, Dmcq, K10wnsta, Gilby321, Sealman, Supadupaduck, Spentt, TheCoolMagpie, Prison, Freiwilliger, Mcbf111, Dick Shane, Ericeee10, Wikipedian64, Gamsbart, Myak~enwiki, Doc James, Vinhtantran, AlleborgoBot, Michael Frind, Quantpole, Suncloud, Logan, Mpippin0002, Unknown Unknowns, Pyro4122, Abc4567891011, Ellomate, Sanjeev450, Hiwhispers, Ishboyfay, Sfmammamia, Asserghozlan, Memo232, Jamehz, Brandon97, Kristaangus, JRGregory, Patrickbarrett22, Runewiki777, Grapeapple, EmxBot, Webmc~enwiki, Adudethatpwns, Thermalrock666, AltShiftTheL337, Airsurfer210, Cjc13, Dlynch343, Maralex334, Andypp123, 193orlando, Berumentherapist, Boboy Sta.olaya, Sn328202, Vibsir2, Echodelta, RichieDude93, Patman21, Linkman3331, Buchanan700, Creature190, Wot the jott, Juanmantoya, Royaljared, Mr.Keever, Britzingen, SieBot, StAnselm, Rofoofighters, Servant Saber~enwiki, NickT123, RHodnett, Brainless6, Necronomicomedian, Madman, Brenont, Gouki88, Louis88~enwiki, SWAT34, Lisahof, Politics rule, Calliopejen1, OberRanks, Tresiden, Nihil novi, Mewis88, Dreamafter, NintendoFreakkMTL, Scarian, Citizen, Kernel Saunters, Zooma123, Jasscurio, Raghu.rk, Æthelwold, Ninington, Otiste, Claycrow, Beretta13, Killerflowers, Winchelsea, Phebot, Stylishman, Mobifa, Pw33n, Kusha123, Dawn Bard, Alex Middleton, Caltas, Spinxy, ConfuciusOrnis, Windmaker999, Trigaranus, Cwkmail, Matrix151, Valler, Canfezplay, Rickjames69er, Vanished user 82345ijgeke4tg, Bigbear bh, Azplm, Nullo247, Booyaka6191, Srushe, Mg1102, Axxe36, Langtucodoc, Bootha, Duplicity, Nummer29, Jerryobject, Purbo T, Slimdizzel, Sparkypants, Caveman 07, Gamejunkie323, Keilana, Enb14, Rathalos09, Nickyaberdeen, Jeansj, Jorditxei, RucasHost, WildFan48, Happysailor, Toddst1, Radon210, Leo9311, Wowsas, Oda Mari, Fauj, Grandbey, Smilemean, Ventur, Penicillinza, Mandsford, Lord British, Atari400, TheSodaMachine, Ipredictariot3, Jimmymod, Monegasque, Freddie Coster, Nobody1700, Mattie123456, Emberstone666, Knewen, Tekkendog, Redmarkviolinist, Bkcpisme, Bob98133, Tranctor, Aliajacta, Jmarr21, Frenchmein, Djgangstabob, Shroomkilla, Oxymoron83, Gissak, Mankar Camoran, Faradayplank, Harry~enwiki, Also, octopuses, Abovedoubt, Szater, KoshVorlon, Redandwhitekop, Lightmouse, WikiTracker, Abdowiki, Happyguy49, Polbot, Reid1967, Redmercury82, Chronicle13, Halfastar, Dusmar, Fried beef1, Harrydayhodson, Hobartimus, Int21h, Keeffeyjr, KPROFSLS, Rfortner, Ahangar-e-Gaz, Matt Standen, UncleMartin, Eagle eyes40, 5dsddddd, Diego Grez-Cañete, Dillard421, Seedbot, Ballwinkle, Drewtmcd2, Svick, Ivan el eveninch, JohnSawyer, Mas 18 dl, Whewelln, H0mEiN, Tomiggy, Liamdanny2, Segregold, Vice regent, Chowa001, Trevamon, Rusty Marshmallows, StaticGull, Bretzelnator, Cyfal, Mj02c, Hunit92, Chapi~enwiki, Garzj019, Schlier22, Jacob.jose, Alpha166, Sandersonjoe2211, Tesi1700, Realm of Shadows, Lackflag, Chomeara, Lenmarlow, Dimboukas, Mattydakin, PerryTachett, Solidfisher101, Mohummy, Xvi99, Dee926, Hans yulun lai, Varanwal, TreeSmiler, Denisarona, Pgnewman92, Hihihimememelol, Literaturegeek, Richard David Ramsey, Jons63, Escape Orbit, RichSatan, ManUnited4Ever, Edito*Magica, Beniti, Tripod86, Hadseys, Christus11, Kesselring88, DaddyWarlock, Eurolover1089, Anuranga7~enwiki, Explicit, Gr8opinionater, ImageRemovalBot, Paul112, Eddy23, Yimpat, Latlaz, WikipedianMarlith, Tentor, Faithlessthewonderboy, Kal2000, Twinsday, CameronK93, Loren.wilton, Flamestrike92, Luprecal, Mike Tv 2007, ClueBot, Yamanbaiia, Victor Chmara, Krusty627, Binksternet, Edwardge123, Hutcher, Asentreu~enwiki, Wedineinheck, Cretino, Cullen498, Kennvido, Fyyer, Foxj, Wikievil666, The Thing That Should Not Be, All Hallow’s Wraith, Rodhullandemu, Crazy1monkey, Drones in a box-411, Ulrich Friedrich Wilhelm Joachim von Rippentrop, MWatson15, Dedachan, Cyril42e, EpiphoneRI123, Pgecaj, Chainax, IXetsuei, 666 HIM 666, Mx3, Gaia Octavia Agrippa, Humphreys1, Chessy999, P0mbal, Jasonloban, Manbearpig4, Dickzter, Breakdown beau, Westtree, Drmies, GarryMann, Bobisbob, Les Ward, Jacurek, Raggle frangle, Mild Bill Hiccup, LordAntrim, Woodsox92, Taylor7508, Jgreen14, Tolcandler, Saowen7, Glamface66, Nicksta92, Tommytom69, Awsomegamer678, Zazeza, Markreidyhp, Niceguyedc, Stefanbcn, Kingrory, Jdlddw, Redmedium, MattM752, Blanchardb, Poppy sir, Abceded, Lacey125, C. 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306

CHAPTER 24. ZOTT

Centauri, Schumer, CarsracBot, Ccacsmss, 37ophiuchi, Andyahaziz, LAAFan, Glane23, Ferroequus, Lihaas, Z. 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Karastathis, Snipedyou11, Prezmeister, Capricorn42, TimHalldor, JamesAnderson86, Drilnoth, Wüstenfuchs, RoyyGreene, Pouncler, 4twenty42o, Ja20082008, Ann arbor street, GenQuest, Ulf Heinsohn, MrJuanSmooth, Timmyshin, Betty Logan, Swingline888, Tad Lincoln, Lalein91, DegenFarang, Vanished user oweironvoweiuo0239u49regt8j3849hjtowiefj234, Rmhs15, Tomilo23, Tiller54, JWIZMAN96, LeeLee2008, -BC109C-, Santista1982, YYouhanna, Wipkipkedia, Histasithappened, J04n, GrouchoBot, Off2riorob, Alumnum, Omnipaedista, DAndC, Ducki17, Malcolmehaffey, Foreverprovence, Annalise, GorgeCustersSabre, Earlypsychosis, Brandon5485, Prunesqualer, Mark Schierbecker, RibotBOT, Mvaldemar, AhlinaS, Sayerslle, JoeLoeb, Karanko, Zipotur, Marowmerowmer, The Wiki ghost, ChrJahnsen, JediMaster362, NeroAxis, A Quest For Knowledge, GhalyBot, Tulocci, Moxy, Geschichte des Bambiteletubbies, Ozzie13, Safiel, Comemitmier, Jmc6787, Shadowjams, Oracun, Jnocook, Fixentries, Misortie, SixBlueFish, Nukillis, Vlastimil Svoboda, Fredfred2, RightCowLeftCoast, Green Cardamom, Sushiflinger, Alssa1, StoneProphet, Tomlovesyankees, Helloaday, Fingerz, Ana Bruta, Wikationer, DE14, FrescoBot, Surv1v4l1st, NSH002, Amsterdam360, Shipnerd62962, CaptainFugu, Empocariam, Kierzek, Tobby72, Lothar von Richthofen, Vidboy10, Wstrwald, BrysonBayot, Socrat1, Sitethis, Michael93555, Babi kay, Mìthrandir, Vesuvius13, Aristeiakorps, Knightflyte, Routerone, ElijahBosley, Vishnu2011, Camanator, Fox1942, Mrbigglezworth95, Solaricon, Bambuway, Askalan, A Second Man in Motion, Twiki98, Purpleturple, Holonboy, Cannolis, Hoho832, Nonexyst, Citation bot 1, Thaiverb, Launchballer, Arrowhead88, VOBO, Amplitude101, Camronwest, From the Sidelines, Radu Gherasim, Kim-Zhang-Hong, Rogriv, HRoestBot, Sarandioti, Martin Raybourne, Coolhitmandude5000, Tinton5, AmateurEditor, Seftinho, Moonraker, Fat&Happy, Piobka, John Elson, Quindie, SpaceFlight89, André Devecserii, Σ, BankiSun, Motorizer, Cmguy777, VenomousConcept, MaraudingChimpanzee, DingleNutZ, Judefawley2, B-Machine, Brocam11, Benhaldenby, Full-date unlinking bot, Cramyourspam, Walkabout12, Gasta220, Kelvin Ruddisten, Merlion444, December21st2012Freak, Ozhistory, Thdgd, Leq1, Boris jones, Kgrad, Ff22, Meier99, Willdasmiffking, FoxBot, Tenthmonth, TobeBot, PiRSquared17, Ksanexx, Podruznik, Rampant unicorn, TheFix63, Hillman15, LukeM212, Lotje, Xiansho, Lasherman, Marshalkiriyama, Zvn, Green-Halcyon, Mechanicaldummy, Anti-Nationalist, Cassianto, Max Janu, Chrisazarian, FF1977, Schmiebel, Canuckian89, Diannaa, Jhenderson777, Rzuwig, Yertuy, Suffusion of Yellow, IRISZOOM, Propaganda328, , Tbhotch, Xwa11, Mileshalverson, WillNess, Minimac, Monkeyassault, Mean as custard, Arathjp, The Utahraptor, Doogard, RjwilmsiBot, Waters2100, TjBot, Jmaxim2001, Milkbaba, Bossanoven, Akó si Gundam, Beyond My Ken, Phil Whiston, Alfons2, Gorillaz711, Lynn Maury, Spacejam2, Ajajajaj5, Salvio giuliano, CalicoCatLover, DASHBot, Jpatros, CanadianPenguin, Gillis54, EmausBot, Professional Assassin, Ykantor, Youtheotube2, WikitanvirBot, EricthePinko, Surlyduff50, John julie white, Родолюбец, Bluethegrappler, Popkid2002uk, Super48paul, Prairiegirl KJD, Mrwho00tm, GoingBatty, RA0808, NoisyJinx, Rajesh822, Bull Market, TuneyLoon, Ref ward, Sp33dyphil, Somebody500, Dessert fox, Ianp321, Theatrick, The Mysterious El Willstro, Challisrussia, Jordyjordy, John of Lancaster, Josephero, Thecheesykid, The Madras, Vladwin, ZéroBot, Cogiati, Quasihuman, Danpaklstan, Illegitimate Barrister, Fæ, Alec J. 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24.3. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

307

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CHAPTER 24. ZOTT

• Numerology Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numerology?oldid=690925823 Contributors: Magnus Manske, Bryan Derksen, Robert Merkel, The Anome, Eclecticology, Mark Christensen, Kowloonese, Fubar Obfusco, Ortolan88, Apollia, Nommonomanac, Smelialichu, Michael Hardy, Wshun, Kwertii, Menchi, Axeloide, Sannse, Shoaler, Goatasaur, Egil, DavidWBrooks, Norwikian, Charles Matthews, Rob.derosa, Jitse Niesen, Fuzheado, Hyacinth, Marc omorain, Stormie, AnonMoos, Chris Rodgers, Carlossuarez46, Northgrove, Aleph4, Robbot, Paranoid, Zandperl, Texture, Moink, Hadal, UtherSRG, Modeha, Garrett Albright, Seth Ilys, Wayland, Pengo, Giftlite, Jao, TOttenville8, Tom harrison, Everyking, Rookkey, Jfdwolff, Duncharris, Guanaco, Mboverload, Edcolins, JRR Trollkien, Golbez, Hemant, Gadfium, Utcursch, Andycjp, Alexf, Noe, Masmith, Sam Hocevar, Gary D, Joyous!, Zondor, Kate, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Leibniz, Abelson, Pavel Vozenilek, Bumhoolery, Bender235, Brian0918, CanisRufus, Purplefeltangel, El C, Kwamikagami, Mwanner, Nrbelex, Deanos, Wareh, Infocidal, Reinyday, Clawson, Rbj, Redquark, Alphax, Aleph1, Thialfi, Jonathunder, Aardwolf, Wiki-uk, Diego Moya, TracyRenee, Ricky81682, CheeseDreams, ABCD, Kotasik, Bart133, DreamGuy, Subramanian, Wtmitchell, Suruena, RainbowOfLight, Leese on life, Jopxton, Arnold1, Versageek, Redvers, Dan100, Ceyockey, Aristides, Oleg Alexandrov, Alex.g, Hijiri88, Bastin, MickWest, Heyss, Lochaber, Ruud Koot, WadeSimMiser, JeremyA, KAWASAKI Hiroyuki, Cbdorsett, Pictureuploader, Farhansher, Royan, Ashmoo, Graham87, LuciferPercival, BD2412, Mothperson, Volland, Yurik, Alan Barkway, Amorrow, Charmii, Canderson7, Rjwilmsi, Koavf, Саша Стефановић, Quiddity, TheRingess, Ltruett, NeonMerlin, KharBevNor, Brighterorange, Bhadani, Platypus222, Dinosaurdarrell, RobertG, Mathbot, RexNL, Nimur, Scottinglis, Seinfreak37, Maustrauser, Le Anh-Huy, Hibana, Benlisquare, Hall Monitor, Peterl, YurikBot, Brandmeister (old), 999~enwiki, Hede2000, Pigman, SpuriousQ, Hydrargyrum, Mythsearcher, CambridgeBayWeather, NawlinWiki, Alset, Wiki alf, Pagrashtak, Complainer, Aeusoes1, ONEder Boy, Eric Sellars, Aaron Brenneman, Hyperqube, Moe Epsilon, DeadEyeArrow, Sesshy, Phaedrus86, Pawyilee, Zzuuzz, Lt-wiki-bot, Theda, Closedmouth, Arthur Rubin, LiquidFire, BorgQueen, GraemeL, Opiaterein, Fractalchez, Kwyjibear, JDspeeder1, Alexandrov, WholemealBaphomet, That Guy, From That Show!, Veinor, SmackBot, Rex the first, Reedy, KnowledgeOfSelf, Melchoir, Bomac, AustinKnight, MrBlondeX, Alex earlier account, Francisco Valverde, Jwestbrook, Portillo, Audacity, PrimeHunter, Dlohcierekim’s sock, Leonix~enwiki, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, A Geek Tragedy, Nick Levine, Aquarius Rising, Laura Anglin, Furby100, Mr.Z-man, Phaedriel, Richard001, TGC55, Astrojyotishi, Drc79, Usernamefortonyd, Lucretius~enwiki, Ollj, LDHan, Ohconfucius, Inhahe, Minaker, T-dot, Khazar, Euchiasmus, DEmerson3, SilkTork, Metaholist, Butko, JoshuaZ, Reepnorp, Ckatz, A. Parrot, Illythr, Dixieredhen, Rizome~enwiki, Samurai Kato, Emx~enwiki, Catherineyronwode, TurabianNights, S0me l0ser, WOL~enwiki, Linkspamremover, Gco, Filelakeshoe, George100, JForget, CmdrObot, CBM, Lighthead, Page Up, Nunquam Dormio, Cydebot, Ryan, Seoras, Righttovanish1, Fl, Aposya, Gogo Dodo, Anthonyhcole, Skittleys, Gtalal, MatthewAJYD, Shirulashem, Pga23, M a s, AndTheCrowdGoesWild, JodyB, MayaSimFan, Rjm656s, Dennis34, Epbr123, Iziaee, Aleph-4, Marek69, John254, Leon7, Fenmore, Justin737, NERIUM, Dawnseeker2000, Natalie Erin, Gioto, Willscrlt, Julia Rossi, Pixiebat, Powerful0x0, DagosNavy, MER-C, Andrasnm, Accharlotte, Smith Jones, MSBOT, Stardotboy, SiobhanHansa, Oliver341, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, Kuyabribri, JamesBWatson, Akkashh, Nyttend, Catgut, Indon, David Eppstein, JoergenB, Glen, Johnbrownsbody, Patstuart, Wikiley, Arenarax, MartinBot, NAHID, Rettetast, Anaxial, Kostisl, Eleyebrow, EdBever, Bogey97, Maurice Carbonaro, Sc00baSteve, Cpiral, IdLoveOne, Katalaveno, 123sunangel, 1337haxor1992, Gorananicic, Somitsrivastav, Kraftlos, Student7, Tiggerjay, Mike V, Wikipeterproject, CardinalDan, Macedonian, Chaos5023, TheQuandry, Mbula, Kakoui, Zerpent, Philip Trueman, Vinayakg, BANGINCOLOR, Dendodge, Hburg, Sanfranman59, Buddhipriya, Room429, Mannafredo, Ilkali, Sapphic, EddyJawed, HiDrNick, ScottPetullo, Bugner, AlainLa, Hyper panda, Fishduff, SieBot, Moonriddengirl, Deancoombs, Quest for Truth, Tiptoety, JD554, Yerpo, Newlay, Oxymoron83, Byrialbot, Nuttycoconut, Android Mouse Bot 3, Iain99, Hobartimus, Nishanth 94, Voltron, Aboluay, Erasmus389912915, Entelekk, Spartan-James, Adam Cuerden, Astrologist, Wahrmund, Faithlessthewonderboy, Martarius, ClueBot, Mimranjatoi, PipepBot, Graydon789, The Thing That Should Not Be, Mild Bill Hiccup, Polyamorph, Bhavikk, ChandlerMapBot, Thoobsente, NNtw22, Chocolateluver75, Baboobott, Kovacs47, Larrya49, Human.v2.0, Estirabot, Sun Creator, La Pianista, NJGW, Stanley Accrington, SoxBot III, Editor2020, DumZiBoT, Wednesday Next, XLinkBot, BretonSG, Mifter, Wikivedalankara, Jvhays, Addbot, Ablindmansees, Betterusername, EMasks, Download, Rebecca Fleisher, Tide rolls, Apteva, Paulthebest, Gail, Luckas-bot, Yobot, TheLeetScienceGuy, Legobot II, Angel ivanov angelov, Thetruthlogic, KamikazeBot, Examtester, AnomieBOT, Jim1138, Proger, Self-ref, Materialscientist, Jebrotz, Capricorn42, Smk65536, VinogradovaValikov, DSisyphBot, Tyrol5, Papercutbiology, Brandon5485, Geopersona, Psychic Expert, Ravengataraman, A.amitkumar, Spring12, FrescoBot, Gbern3, MazeOfThoughts, SL93, Pinethicket, Notedgrant, Julzes, Feather Jonah, Akindaguy2, Nameologist, Goomthatha, Cpilant, Barras, Andysarts, TheCalm1, Lotje, Alextlu, Lamcs, David Hedlund, Mean as custard, Fwchapman, Metsites, EmausBot, Artefactual, John of Reading, Orphan Wiki, WikitanvirBot, Reformeroftimes, Bmajors, Tommy2010, Bijander singh, Akerans, Ὁ οἶστρος, H3llBot, Zap Rowsdower, Wayne Slam, Tolly4bolly, Obotlig, Shreedevi teli, Sbmeirow, Rahuldhingra92, Shrigley, Donner60, Blairgorman, ClueBot NG, Infogurl83, Wcherowi, Colapeninsula, JimsMaher, Willhumphries1, Yanclae, Frietjes, Dream of Nyx, Psichica, Anuragjainvirus, NagaRamaneshwar, Helpful Pixie Bot, Deutschmark82, Jeraphine Gryphon, Kinaro, Гера Локшин, Vikasbhurat, Steelheartsmart, Hotelraamus, 9Jericho9, Noordinarykapo, Smcg8374, Rohanidoc, Drift chambers, CitationCleanerBot, Guy3fire, MrBill3, Glacialfox, Klilidiplomus, Cagliostro74, Pythagorean1, Pythagorean2, Omicron1234, Kaaisersoze, ChrisGualtieri, Modestmunky, Germanbrother, Kkiazand, Dexbot, VinneOverwinner, Srross22, Rashmindersingh84, LauraleeC, Zodiacastro, Hedgehog1987, Mrtruonglucky, Guzman543, Registered somethin, Meadschaz, Monkbot, Isaiahmontoya, Pauster, Selimoezkan, Shibbolethink, Jerodlycett, KasparBot, Evelynblaser, Joeby26, Graphicsindiaonline, LH82, Kingoftheweb, Donvold, Rahulbhatia2289, AbisZ2222 and Anonymous: 801 • Zott Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zott?oldid=635204123 Contributors: Dbachmann, Computerjoe, Woohookitty, Malcolma, SmackBot, Hibernian, Maurice45, Cydebot, Erechtheus, R'n'B, Gene93k, Solar-Wind, Jatsikh, Wikiusermike, WALTHAM2, Grampion76, Candleabracadabra, BG19bot, Delljvc, Rakkalrast and Anonymous: 7

24.3.2

Images

• File:046CupolaSPietro.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5a/046CupolaSPietro.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: MarkusMark • File:1477-1799_ESTC_titles_per_decade,_statistics.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bf/1477-1799_ ESTC_titles_per_decade%2C_statistics.png License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Olaf Simons • File:1665_journal_des_scavans_title.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5d/1665_journal_des_scavans_ title.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Unknown Original artist: Unknown • File:1905_2fnl_Velikoe_v_malom_i_antikhrist.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a7/1905_ 2fnl_Velikoe_v_malom_i_antikhrist.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: New York Public Library, NYPL-URL: http://catalog.nypl.org/record=b12357231 Original artist: Sergei Nilus (1862-1929) • File:1905_Velikoe_v_malom_-_Serge_Nilus_-_Title_page_-_Facsimile_-_1920.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/ wikipedia/commons/9/9e/1905_Velikoe_v_malom_-_Serge_Nilus_-_Title_page_-_Facsimile_-_1920.jpg License: Public domain

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Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by User:Faigl.ladislav using CommonsHelper. Original artist: Original uploader was Ludvikus at en.wikipedia. • File:1912ed_TheProtocols_by_Nilus.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8d/1912ed_TheProtocols_by_ Nilus.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: 1911 edition of Sergei Nilus' book The Great in the Small that contained The Protocols of the Elders of Zion Original artist: Unknown • File:1920_The_Jewish_Peril_-_Eyre_&_Spottiswoode_Ltd_-_1st_ed..jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ commons/1/1c/1920_The_Jewish_Peril_-_Eyre_%26_Spottiswoode_Ltd_-_1st_ed..jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons. (Original text : Digital reproduction or scan of original book-page. Under US laws mechanical reproduction of a work does not create an additional copyright to that of the original.

Original artist: . The original uploader was Ludvikus at English Wikipedia • File:1934_Protocols_Patriotic_Pub.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ee/1934_Protocols_Patriotic_ Pub.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons. Original artist: Humus sapiens at English Wikipedia • File:5492_-_Venezia_-_Ghetto_Nuovo_-_Negozio_ebraico_-_Foto_Giovanni_Dall'Orto,_1-Aug-2008.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/47/5492_-_Venezia_-_Ghetto_Nuovo_-_Negozio_ebraico_-_Foto_Giovanni_ Dall%27Orto%2C_1-Aug-2008.jpg License: Attribution Contributors: Own work Original artist: Giovanni Dall'Orto • File:A_coloured_voting_box.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg License: Cc-bysa-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Académie_des_Sciences_1671.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/78/Acad%C3%A9mie_des_ Sciences_1671.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Achille_Lemot-1902-5.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e5/Achille_Lemot-1902-5.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Le Pèlerin, n° 1339, 31 août 1902, quatrième de couverture Original artist: Achille Lemot (1846-1909) • File:AdamSmith.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0a/AdamSmith.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.library.hbs.edu/hc/collections/kress/kress_img/adam_smith2.htm Original artist: Etching created by Cadell and Davies (1811), John Horsburgh (1828) or R.C. Bell (1872). The original depiction of Smith was created in 1787 by James Tassie in the form of an enamel paste medallion. Smith did not usually sit for his portrait, so a considerable number of engravings and busts of Smith were made not from observation but from the same enamel medallion produced by Tassie, an artist who could convince Smith to sit. • File:Adam_Weishaupt01.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/58/Adam_Weishaupt01.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Adolf_Hitler-1933.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/66/Adolf_Hitler-1933.jpg License: CC BYSA 3.0 de Contributors: This image was provided to Wikimedia Commons by the German Federal Archive (Deutsches Bundesarchiv) as part of a cooperation project. The German Federal Archive guarantees an authentic representation only using the originals (negative and/or positive), resp. the digitalization of the originals as provided by the Digital Image Archive. Original artist: Heinrich Hoffman? • File:Adolf_Hitler_42_Pfennig_stamp.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ec/Adolf_Hitler_42_Pfennig_ stamp.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Professional Assassin • File:Adolf_Hitler_at_Berchtesgaden.ogg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/2/27/Adolf_Hitler_at_Berchtesgaden. ogg License: Fair use Contributors: This clip forms part of the material seized by the US from Nazi Germany. It bears ARC identifier 43461, and is from the Eva Braun archive. This file was originally hosted on Commons under the same name, but was deleted due to the absence of any evidence that it is in the public domain. The author and actual copyright status of the film are unknown and cannot be easily determined - the US National Archive, where the film is housed, does not have any information about either. A little digging shows that this is most probably not free. Contrary to popular assumption, not everything in the National Archives is in the public domain - as their own FAQs expressly say. In other words, the US National Archive does not know whether this video is PD or not. Most records I found through a search using the two keywords “Berchtesgaden” and “hitler” had a similar status, and because of this, it is being re-uploaded here on the English Wikipedia as a fair use video. Original artist: ? • File:Adolf_Hitler_cropped_restored.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dc/Adolf_Hitler_cropped_ restored.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 de Contributors: This image was provided to Wikimedia Commons by the German Federal Archive (Deutsches Bundesarchiv) as part of a cooperation project. The German Federal Archive guarantees an authentic representation only using the originals (negative and/or positive), resp. the digitalization of the originals as provided by the Digital Image Archive. Original artist: unknown • File:Adolf_Hitler_in_Paris_1940.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/db/Adolf_Hitler_in_Paris_1940.jpg License: ? Contributors: This image is available from the Online Public Access (OPA) of the United States National Archives and Records Administration under the National Archives Identifier 540179. This tag does not indicate the copyright status of the attached work. A normal copyright tag is still required. See Wikipedia:Image copyright tags for more information. Original artist:

Office for Emergency Management. Office of War Information. Overseas Operations Branch. New York Office. News and Features Bureau. • File:Aktion_brand.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fd/Aktion_brand.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Marcel • File:Al-Quds_2014_Berlin_20140725_173841.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9c/Al-Quds_2014_ Berlin_20140725_173841.jpg License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Denis Barthel • File:Alexandre_humboldt.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/db/Alexandre_humboldt.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.avh.de/en/stiftung/namenspatron/portrait.htm Original artist: Friedrich Georg Weitsch

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• File:Alois_Hitler_in_his_last_years.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e8/Alois_Hitler_in_his_last_ years.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: The Life and Death of Adolf Hitler by Robert Payne [1] Original artist: Unknown • File:Ambox_important.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work, based off of Image:Ambox scales.svg Original artist: Dsmurat (talk · contribs) • File:Amos_Oz_by_Kubik.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ac/Amos_Oz_by_Kubik.JPG License: CC BY 2.5 Contributors: own work, http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Kmarius Original artist: Mariusz Kubik, http://www. mariuszkubik.pl • File:Asefathanivharim.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e4/Asefathanivharim.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ‫תמונה זו נסרקה מחוברת "הגלגל" שיצאה לאור עד‬1948. Original artist: Unknown • File:Ashkali_flag.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/8/8c/Ashkali_flag.png License: Fair use Contributors: The logo may be obtained from Ashkali and Egyptians. Original artist: ? • File:Basilica_di_San_Pietro_1450.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/df/Basilica_di_San_Pietro_1450. jpg License: Public domain Contributors: de:Bild:Altstpeter1450.jpg Original artist: H.W. Brewer (1836 – 1903)[#cite_note-1 [1]] • File:Basilica_di_San_Pietro_in_Vaticano_September_2015-1a.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f5/ Basilica_di_San_Pietro_in_Vaticano_September_2015-1a.jpg License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Alvesgaspar • File:Battesimi0113.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f1/Battesimi0113.jpg License: CC0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Brianza2008 • File:Belz_World_Center_Inside.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5d/Belz_World_Center_Inside.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:BentoXVI-51-11052007_(frag).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/43/BentoXVI-51-11052007_ %28frag%29.jpg License: CC BY 3.0 br Contributors: Agência Brasil; http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image: BentoXVI-51-11052007.jpg [1] Original artist: Fabio Pozzebom/ABr • File:Berlin_Pink_Triangle.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cb/Berlin_Pink_Triangle.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia Original artist: Original uploader was Argos’Dad at en.wikipedia • File:Blutschutzgesetz_v.15.9.1935_-_RGBl_I_1146gesamt.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ab/ Blutschutzgesetz_v.15.9.1935_-_RGBl_I_1146gesamt.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Blutschutzgesetz_v.15.9.1935_-_RGBl_I_1147.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/34/ Blutschutzgesetz_v.15.9.1935_-_RGBl_I_1147.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Buchenwald_Corpses_60623.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0f/Buchenwald_Corpses_60623. jpg License: Public domain Contributors: United States Holocaust Memorial Museum - Photograph #60623 (Direct link) Original artist: Parke O. Yingst (Lieutenant Colonel, United States Army) • File:Buffon_1707-1788.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5e/Buffon_1707-1788.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Musée Buffon à Montbard Original artist: François-Hubert Drouais • File:Bundesarchiv_B_145_Bild-F051673-0059,_Adolf_Hitler_und_Eva_Braun_auf_dem_Berghof.jpg Source: https: //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ca/Bundesarchiv_B_145_Bild-F051673-0059%2C_Adolf_Hitler_und_Eva_Braun_ auf_dem_Berghof.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 de Contributors: Deutsches Bundesarchiv (German Federal Archive), B 145 Bild-F0516730059 Original artist: Unknown • File:Bundesarchiv_B_145_Bild-P049500,_Berlin,_Aufmarsch_der_SA_in_Spandau.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/ wikipedia/commons/b/b4/Bundesarchiv_B_145_Bild-P049500%2C_Berlin%2C_Aufmarsch_der_SA_in_Spandau.jpg License: CC BYSA 3.0 de Contributors: This image was provided to Wikimedia Commons by the German Federal Archive (Deutsches Bundesarchiv) as part of a cooperation project. The German Federal Archive guarantees an authentic representation only using the originals (negative and/or positive), resp. the digitalization of the originals as provided by the Digital Image Archive. Original artist: Unknown • File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_102-00344A,_München,_nach_Hitler-Ludendorff_Prozess.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/ wikipedia/commons/4/42/Bundesarchiv_Bild_102-00344A%2C_M%C3%BCnchen%2C_nach_Hitler-Ludendorff_Prozess.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 de Contributors: This image was provided to Wikimedia Commons by the German Federal Archive (Deutsches Bundesarchiv) as part of a cooperation project. The German Federal Archive guarantees an authentic representation only using the originals (negative and/or positive), resp. the digitalization of the originals as provided by the Digital Image Archive. Original artist: Heinrich Hoffmann • File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_102-02134,_Bad_Harzburg,_Gründung_der_Harzburger_Front.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia. org/wikipedia/commons/4/4b/Bundesarchiv_Bild_102-02134%2C_Bad_Harzburg%2C_Gr%C3%BCndung_der_Harzburger_Front.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 de Contributors: This image was provided to Wikimedia Commons by the German Federal Archive (Deutsches Bundesarchiv) as part of a cooperation project. The German Federal Archive guarantees an authentic representation only using the originals (negative and/or positive), resp. the digitalization of the originals as provided by the Digital Image Archive. Original artist: Unknown • File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_102-04062A,_Nürnberg,_Reichsparteitag,_SA-_und_SS-Appell.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia. org/wikipedia/commons/e/eb/Bundesarchiv_Bild_102-04062A%2C_N%C3%BCrnberg%2C_Reichsparteitag%2C_SA-_und_ SS-Appell.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 de Contributors: This image was provided to Wikimedia Commons by the German Federal Archive (Deutsches Bundesarchiv) as part of a cooperation project. The German Federal Archive guarantees an authentic representation only using the originals (negative and/or positive), resp. the digitalization of the originals as provided by the Digital Image Archive. Original artist: Unknown • File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_102-10460,_Adolf_Hitler,_Rednerposen.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/ 39/Bundesarchiv_Bild_102-10460%2C_Adolf_Hitler%2C_Rednerposen.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 de Contributors: This image was provided to Wikimedia Commons by the German Federal Archive (Deutsches Bundesarchiv) as part of a cooperation project. The German Federal Archive guarantees an authentic representation only using the originals (negative and/or positive), resp. the digitalization of the originals as provided by the Digital Image Archive. Original artist: Hoffmann, Heinrich

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• File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_102-13805,_Hermann_Göring.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6b/ Bundesarchiv_Bild_102-13805%2C_Hermann_G%C3%B6ring.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 de Contributors: This image was provided to Wikimedia Commons by the German Federal Archive (Deutsches Bundesarchiv) as part of a cooperation project. The German Federal Archive guarantees an authentic representation only using the originals (negative and/or positive), resp. the digitalization of the originals as provided by the Digital Image Archive. Original artist: Unknown • File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_102-14469,_Berlin,_Boykott-Posten_vor_jüdischem_Warenhaus.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia. org/wikipedia/commons/9/92/Bundesarchiv_Bild_102-14469%2C_Berlin%2C_Boykott-Posten_vor_j%C3%BCdischem_Warenhaus. jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 de Contributors: This image was provided to Wikimedia Commons by the German Federal Archive (Deutsches Bundesarchiv) as part of a cooperation project. The German Federal Archive guarantees an authentic representation only using the originals (negative and/or positive), resp. the digitalization of the originals as provided by the Digital Image Archive. Original artist: Unknown • File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_102-15234,_Berlin,_Luthertag.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/96/ Bundesarchiv_Bild_102-15234%2C_Berlin%2C_Luthertag.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 de Contributors: This image was provided to Wikimedia Commons by the German Federal Archive (Deutsches Bundesarchiv) as part of a cooperation project. The German Federal Archive guarantees an authentic representation only using the originals (negative and/or positive), resp. the digitalization of the originals as provided by the Digital Image Archive. Original artist: Unknown • File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_102-15750,_Ausstellung_\char"0022\relax{}Deutsches_Volk-Deutsche_Arbeit”.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/14/Bundesarchiv_Bild_102-15750%2C_Ausstellung_%22Deutsches_ Volk-Deutsche_Arbeit%22.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 de Contributors: This image was provided to Wikimedia Commons by the German Federal Archive (Deutsches Bundesarchiv) as part of a cooperation project. The German Federal Archive guarantees an authentic representation only using the originals (negative and/or positive), resp. the digitalization of the originals as provided by the Digital Image Archive. Original artist: Unknown • File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_102-16748,_Ausstellung_\char"0022\relax{}Wunder_des_Lebens”.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia. org/wikipedia/commons/c/c3/Bundesarchiv_Bild_102-16748%2C_Ausstellung_%22Wunder_des_Lebens%22.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 de Contributors: This image was provided to Wikimedia Commons by the German Federal Archive (Deutsches Bundesarchiv) as part of a cooperation project. The German Federal Archive guarantees an authentic representation only using the originals (negative and/or positive), resp. the digitalization of the originals as provided by the Digital Image Archive. Original artist: Unknown • File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_119-0289,_München,_Hitler_bei_Einweihung_\char"0022\relax{}Braunes_Haus”.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/27/Bundesarchiv_Bild_119-0289%2C_M%C3%BCnchen%2C_Hitler_bei_ Einweihung_%22Braunes_Haus%22.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 de Contributors: This image was provided to Wikimedia Commons by the German Federal Archive (Deutsches Bundesarchiv) as part of a cooperation project. The German Federal Archive guarantees an authentic representation only using the originals (negative and/or positive), resp. the digitalization of the originals as provided by the Digital Image Archive. Original artist: Unknown • File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_119-1600-06,_Houston_Stewart_Chamberlain.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ commons/e/e6/Bundesarchiv_Bild_119-1600-06%2C_Houston_Stewart_Chamberlain.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 de Contributors: This image was provided to Wikimedia Commons by the German Federal Archive (Deutsches Bundesarchiv) as part of a cooperation project. The German Federal Archive guarantees an authentic representation only using the originals (negative and/or positive), resp. the digitalization of the originals as provided by the Digital Image Archive. Original artist: Unknown • File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_119-1721,_Gregor_Strasser.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/58/ Bundesarchiv_Bild_119-1721%2C_Gregor_Strasser.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 de Contributors: This image was provided to Wikimedia Commons by the German Federal Archive (Deutsches Bundesarchiv) as part of a cooperation project. The German Federal Archive guarantees an authentic representation only using the originals (negative and/or positive), resp. the digitalization of the originals as provided by the Digital Image Archive. Original artist: Unknown • File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_137-004055,_Eger,_Besuch_Adolf_Hitlers.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/ c/c0/Bundesarchiv_Bild_137-004055%2C_Eger%2C_Besuch_Adolf_Hitlers.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 de Contributors: This image was provided to Wikimedia Commons by the German Federal Archive (Deutsches Bundesarchiv) as part of a cooperation project. The German Federal Archive guarantees an authentic representation only using the originals (negative and/or positive), resp. the digitalization of the originals as provided by the Digital Image Archive. Original artist: Unknown • File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1968-101-20A,_Joseph_Goebbels.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/35/ Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1968-101-20A%2C_Joseph_Goebbels.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 de Contributors: This image was provided to Wikimedia Commons by the German Federal Archive (Deutsches Bundesarchiv) as part of a cooperation project. The German Federal Archive guarantees an authentic representation only using the originals (negative and/or positive), resp. the digitalization of the originals as provided by the Digital Image Archive. Original artist: Heinrich Hoﬀmann • File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1971-091-20,_Kapp-Putsch,_Marine-Brigade_Erhardt.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/ wikipedia/commons/5/54/Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1971-091-20%2C_Kapp-Putsch%2C_Marine-Brigade_Erhardt.jpg License: CC BYSA 3.0 de Contributors: This image was provided to Wikimedia Commons by the German Federal Archive (Deutsches Bundesarchiv) as part of a cooperation project. The German Federal Archive guarantees an authentic representation only using the originals (negative and/or positive), resp. the digitalization of the originals as provided by the Digital Image Archive. Original artist: Unknown • File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1972-025-12,_Zerstörte_Lagerbaracke_nach_dem_20._Juli_1944.jpg Source: https: //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ae/Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1972-025-12%2C_Zerst%C3%B6rte_Lagerbaracke_ nach_dem_20._Juli_1944.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 de Contributors: This image was provided to Wikimedia Commons by the German Federal Archive (Deutsches Bundesarchiv) as part of a cooperation project. The German Federal Archive guarantees an authentic representation only using the originals (negative and/or positive), resp. the digitalization of the originals as provided by the Digital Image Archive. Original artist: Unknown • File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1972-026-11,_Machtübernahme_Hitlers.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ commons/9/93/Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1972-026-11%2C_Macht%C3%BCbernahme_Hitlers.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 de Contributors: This image was provided to Wikimedia Commons by the German Federal Archive (Deutsches Bundesarchiv) as part of a cooperation project. The German Federal Archive guarantees an authentic representation only using the originals (negative and/or positive), resp. the digitalization of the originals as provided by the Digital Image Archive. Original artist: Sennecke, Robert

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• File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1974-082-44,_Adolf_Hitler_im_Ersten_Weltkrieg.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/ wikipedia/commons/e/e4/Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1974-082-44%2C_Adolf_Hitler_im_Ersten_Weltkrieg.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 de Contributors: This image was provided to Wikimedia Commons by the German Federal Archive (Deutsches Bundesarchiv) as part of a cooperation project. The German Federal Archive guarantees an authentic representation only using the originals (negative and/or positive), resp. the digitalization of the originals as provided by the Digital Image Archive. Original artist: Unknown • File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-1987-0703-507,_Berlin,_Reichstagssitzung,_Rede_Adolf_Hitler.jpg Source: https://upload. wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b7/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-1987-0703-507%2C_Berlin%2C_Reichstagssitzung%2C_Rede_ Adolf_Hitler.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 de Contributors: This image was provided to Wikimedia Commons by the German Federal Archive (Deutsches Bundesarchiv) as part of a cooperation project. The German Federal Archive guarantees an authentic representation only using the originals (negative and/or positive), resp. the digitalization of the originals as provided by the Digital Image Archive. Original artist: Unknown • File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-1989-0322-506,_Adolf_Hitler,_Kinderbild_retouched.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/ wikipedia/commons/e/e8/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-1989-0322-506%2C_Adolf_Hitler%2C_Kinderbild_retouched.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: This image was provided to Wikimedia Commons by the German Federal Archive (Deutsches Bundesarchiv) as part of a cooperation project. The German Federal Archive guarantees an authentic representation only using the originals (negative and/or positive), resp. the digitalization of the originals as provided by the Digital Image Archive. Original artist: Unknown • File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-2004-0203-502,_Bei_Agram,_kroatische_Sinti_und_Roma-Frauen_und_Kinder.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2b/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-2004-0203-502%2C_Bei_Agram%2C_kroatische_ Sinti_und_Roma-Frauen_und_Kinder.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 de Contributors: This image was provided to Wikimedia Commons by the German Federal Archive (Deutsches Bundesarchiv) as part of a cooperation project. The German Federal Archive guarantees an authentic representation only using the originals (negative and/or positive), resp. the digitalization of the originals as provided by the Digital Image Archive. Original artist: Unknown • File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-2004-0312-505,_Nürnberg,_Reichsparteitag,_Grundstein_Kongreßhalle.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/41/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-2004-0312-505%2C_N%C3%BCrnberg%2C_ Reichsparteitag%2C_Grundstein_Kongre%C3%9Fhalle.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 de Contributors: This image was provided to Wikimedia Commons by the German Federal Archive (Deutsches Bundesarchiv) as part of a cooperation project. The German Federal Archive guarantees an authentic representation only using the originals (negative and/or positive), resp. the digitalization of the originals as provided by the Digital Image Archive. Original artist: Unknown • File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-F0918-0201-001,_KZ_Treblinka,_Lageplan_(Zeichnung)_II.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia. org/wikipedia/commons/5/5d/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-F0918-0201-001%2C_KZ_Treblinka%2C_Lageplan_%28Zeichnung%29_II. jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 de Contributors: This image was provided to Wikimedia Commons by the German Federal Archive (Deutsches Bundesarchiv) as part of a cooperation project. The German Federal Archive guarantees an authentic representation only using the originals (negative and/or positive), resp. the digitalization of the originals as provided by the Digital Image Archive. Original artist: Unknown • File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-R06610,_Oswald_Spengler.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ae/ Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-R06610%2C_Oswald_Spengler.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 de Contributors: This image was provided to Wikimedia Commons by the German Federal Archive (Deutsches Bundesarchiv) as part of a cooperation project. The German Federal Archive guarantees an authentic representation only using the originals (negative and/or positive), resp. the digitalization of the originals as provided by the Digital Image Archive. Original artist: Unknown • File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-R99993,_Jude_mit_Stern_in_Berlin.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/ d7/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-R99993%2C_Jude_mit_Stern_in_Berlin.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 de Contributors: This image was provided to Wikimedia Commons by the German Federal Archive (Deutsches Bundesarchiv) as part of a cooperation project. The German Federal Archive guarantees an authentic representation only using the originals (negative and/or positive), resp. the digitalization of the originals as provided by the Digital Image Archive. Original artist: Unknown • File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-S33882,_Adolf_Hitler_(cropped2).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9a/ Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-S33882%2C_Adolf_Hitler_%28cropped2%29.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 de Contributors: This image was provided to Wikimedia Commons by the German Federal Archive (Deutsches Bundesarchiv) as part of a cooperation project. The German Federal Archive guarantees an authentic representation only using the originals (negative and/or positive), resp. the digitalization of the originals as provided by the Digital Image Archive. Original artist: unknown • File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-S38324,_Tag_von_Potsdam,_Adolf_Hitler,_Paul_v._Hindenburg.jpg Source: https: //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b7/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-S38324%2C_Tag_von_Potsdam%2C_Adolf_Hitler% 2C_Paul_v._Hindenburg.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 de Contributors: This image was provided to Wikimedia Commons by the German Federal Archive (Deutsches Bundesarchiv) as part of a cooperation project. The German Federal Archive guarantees an authentic representation only using the originals (negative and/or positive), resp. the digitalization of the originals as provided by the Digital Image Archive. Original artist: Theo Eisenhart • File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-S55480,_Polen,_Parade_vor_Adolf_Hitler.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ commons/5/54/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-S55480%2C_Polen%2C_Parade_vor_Adolf_Hitler.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 de Contributors: This image was provided to Wikimedia Commons by the German Federal Archive (Deutsches Bundesarchiv) as part of a cooperation project. The German Federal Archive guarantees an authentic representation only using the originals (negative and/or positive), resp. the digitalization of the originals as provided by the Digital Image Archive. Original artist: Unknown • File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-S72707,_Heinrich_Himmler.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/79/ Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-S72707%2C_Heinrich_Himmler.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 de Contributors: This image was provided to Wikimedia Commons by the German Federal Archive (Deutsches Bundesarchiv) as part of a cooperation project. The German Federal Archive guarantees an authentic representation only using the originals (negative and/or positive), resp. the digitalization of the originals as provided by the Digital Image Archive. Original artist: Friedrich Franz Bauer • File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-W1028-507,_Erlangen,_Freimaurer_bei_Zeremonie.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/ wikipedia/commons/1/11/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-W1028-507%2C_Erlangen%2C_Freimaurer_bei_Zeremonie.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 de Contributors: This image was provided to Wikimedia Commons by the German Federal Archive (Deutsches Bundesarchiv) as part of a cooperation project. The German Federal Archive guarantees an authentic representation only using the originals (negative and/or positive), resp. the digitalization of the originals as provided by the Digital Image Archive. Original artist: Unknown

24.3. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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• File:Bundesarchiv_R_165_Bild-244-52,_Asperg,_Deportation_von_Sinti_und_Roma.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/ wikipedia/commons/e/e4/Bundesarchiv_R_165_Bild-244-52%2C_Asperg%2C_Deportation_von_Sinti_und_Roma.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 de Contributors: This image was provided to Wikimedia Commons by the German Federal Archive (Deutsches Bundesarchiv) as part of a cooperation project. The German Federal Archive guarantees an authentic representation only using the originals (negative and/or positive), resp. the digitalization of the originals as provided by the Digital Image Archive. Original artist: Unknown • File:Bundesarchiv_R_49_Bild-0131,_Aussiedlung_von_Polen_im_Wartheland.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/ wikipedia/commons/0/08/Bundesarchiv_R_49_Bild-0131%2C_Aussiedlung_von_Polen_im_Wartheland.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 de Contributors: This image was provided to Wikimedia Commons by the German Federal Archive (Deutsches Bundesarchiv) as part of a cooperation project. The German Federal Archive guarantees an authentic representation only using the originals (negative and/or positive), resp. the digitalization of the originals as provided by the Digital Image Archive. Original artist: Holtfreter, Wilhelm • File:C_o_a_popes_Della_Rovere.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4e/C_o_a_popes_Della_Rovere.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Echando una mano • File:Canonization_2014-_The_Canonization_of_Saint_John_XXIII_and_Saint_John_Paul_II_(14036966125).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/14/Canonization_2014-_The_Canonization_of_Saint_John_XXIII_and_Saint_ John_Paul_II_%2814036966125%29.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: This file has been extracted from another file: Canonization 2014- The Canonization of Saint John XXIII and Saint John Paul II (14036966124).jpg. Original artist: Jeffrey Bruno from New York City, United States • File:Caran_Dache.gif Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9f/Caran_Dache.gif License: Public domain Contributors: [1] Original artist: Caran d'Ache • File:Catholic_Church_Spoken_Version.ogg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4a/Catholic_Church_ Spoken_Version.ogg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Matthew David González • File:Catholicism_by_country.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7c/Catholicism_by_country.png License: CC0 Contributors: Using paint in a Wikipedia blank map. Original artist: Ernio48 • File:Cesare_Beccaria_in_Dei_delitti_crop.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a5/Cesare_Beccaria_in_ Dei_delitti_crop.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: [1] Original artist: Cesare Beccaria • File:Chapelle_sixtine_plafond.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/58/Chapelle_sixtine_plafond.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Christian_cross.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/87/Christian_cross.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Boris23 (talk · contribs) • File:Coat_of_arms_Holy_See.svg Source: cense: Public domain Contributors:

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/31/Coat_of_arms_Holy_See.svg Li-

• Bruno Bernhard Heim, Heraldry in the Catholic Church: Its Origin, Customs and Laws (Van Duren 1978 ISBN 9780391008731), p. 54; Original artist: F l a n k e r • File:Coat_of_arms_of_the_Holy_See.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/31/Coat_of_arms_Holy_See. svg License: Public domain Contributors: • Bruno Bernhard Heim, Heraldry in the Catholic Church: Its Origin, Customs and Laws (Van Duren 1978 ISBN 9780391008731), p. 54; Original artist: F l a n k e r • File:Coat_of_arms_of_the_Vatican_City.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b3/Coat_of_arms_of_the_ Vatican_City.svg License: Public domain Contributors: • File:Emblem of the Papacy SE.svg Original artist: Cronholm144 created this image using a file by User:Hautala - File:Emblem of Vatican City State.svg, who had created his file using PD art from Open Clip Art Library and uploaded on 13 July 2006. User talk:F l a n k e r uploaded this version on 12 December, 2007. The original design is attributed to the Vatican City in Rome and an unknown artist. • File:Coffre_et_rouleau_de_Torah_ayant_appartenu_à_Abraham_de_Camondo_chef_de_la_communauté_juive_de_ Constantinople_1860_-_Musée_d'Art_et_d'Histoire_du_Judaïsme.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/ 1/1b/Coffre_et_rouleau_de_Torah_ayant_appartenu_%C3%A0_Abraham_de_Camondo_chef_de_la_communaut%C3%A9_juive_de_ Constantinople_1860_-_Mus%C3%A9e_d%27Art_et_d%27Histoire_du_Juda%C3%AFsme.jpg License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Musée d'Art et d'Histoire du Judaïsme • File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Convento_de_San_Francisco_-_Ciudad_de_México_-_Creyente.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ commons/3/34/Convento_de_San_Francisco_-_Ciudad_de_M%C3%A9xico_-_Creyente.jpg License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: ProtoplasmaKid • File:Das_Dritte_Reich.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/41/Das_Dritte_Reich.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Das Dritte Reich, Hanseatische Verlagsanstalt; Hamburg Original artist: Moeller Van den Bruck • File:Declaration_independence.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/15/Declaration_independence.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: US Capitol Original artist: John Trumbull • File:Declaration_of_State_of_Israel_1948_2.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b8/Declaration_of_ State_of_Israel_1948_2.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: [1]see also: Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs Original artist: Rudi Weissenstein • File:Delegates_at_First_Zionist_Congress.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/58/Delegates_at_First_ Zionist_Congress.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by User:Alt0160 using CommonsHelper. Original artist: Epson291 (talk). Original uploader was Epson291 at en.wikipedia • File:Denis_Diderot_111.PNG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/63/Denis_Diderot_111.PNG License: Public domain Contributors: Flickr Original artist: Louis-Michel van Loo

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• File:Distribution_of_Catholics.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7e/Distribution_of_Catholics.png License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Starfunker226 • File:Dollarnote_siegel_hq.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3d/Dollarnote_siegel_hq.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: de:Bild:Dollarnote_siegel_hq.jpg Original artist: de:Benutzer:Verwüstung • File:Duraeuropa-1-.gif Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/34/Duraeuropa-1-.gif License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.library.yale.edu/exhibition/judaica/jcsml.2.html Original artist: Unknown • File:Düsseldorf-Lierenfeld_Gedenktafel.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8e/D%C3% BCsseldorf-Lierenfeld_Gedenktafel.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Marek Gehrmann • File:ENC_SYSTEME_FIGURE.jpeg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/58/ENC_SYSTEME_FIGURE. jpeg License: Public domain Contributors: http://ets.lib.uchicago.edu/ARTFL/OLDENCYC/images Original artist: See en:List of contributors to the Encyclopédie • File:Edit-clear.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg License: Public domain Contributors: The Tango! Desktop Project. Original artist: The people from the Tango! project. And according to the meta-data in the ﬁle, speciﬁcally: “Andreas Nilsson, and Jakub Steiner (although minimally).” • File:Emblem_of_the_Holy_See_usual.svg Source: See_usual.svg License: CC0 Contributors:

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4e/Emblem_of_the_Holy_

• Keys: File:Sede_vacante.svg Original artist: Gambo7 • File:Emblem_of_the_Papacy_SE.svg Source: svg License: Public domain Contributors:

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/81/Emblem_of_the_Papacy_SE.

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Original artist: Sergey Prokudin-Gorsky • File:Jewish_zones_1947.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Jewish_zones_1947.jpg License: CC-BYSA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Johann_Gottlieb_Fichte.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8d/Johann_Gottlieb_Fichte.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Josef_II_medal.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/5/57/Josef_II_medal.jpg License: PD-US Contributors: Jewish Encyclopedia, now in the public domain. Original artist: ? • File:Judaica.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d7/Judaica.jpg License: CC BY 2.5 Contributors: Originally from en.wikipedia; description page is/was here. Original artist: Original uploader was Gilabrand at en.wikipedia • File:Judeo-Masonic_Conspiracy.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ac/Judeo-Masonic_Conspiracy.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Freemasons-Freemasonry.com Original artist: Anonymous. This poster is no. 64 in a series entitled “Erblehre und Rassenkunde” (Theory of Inheritance and Racial Hygiene), published by the Verlag fuer nationale Literatur (Publisher for National Literature), Stuttgart, ca. 1935. • File:Kanjirappally_Bishop_Mar_Mathew_Arackal_at_Tomb_of_Mar_Varghese_Payyappilly_Palakkappilly.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b2/Kanjirappally_Bishop_Mar_Mathew_Arackal_at_Tomb_of_Mar_Varghese_ Payyappilly_Palakkappilly.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Mathen Payyappilly Palakkappilly (User:Achayan) • File:Klara_Hitler.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8b/Klara_Hitler.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: forum.axishistory.com Original artist: Unknown • File:KnesetEliyahooSynagogue.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/62/KnesetEliyahooSynagogue.JPG License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Conew • File:Knigge_Freiherr.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0d/Knigge_Freiherr.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Users Webmaster@sgovd.org, AxelHH on de.wikipedia Original artist: ? • File:Kotel_Israel.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c5/Kotel_Israel.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: This panoramic image was created with PhotoStitch(Stitched images may diﬀer from reality.) Original artist: SuperJew

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Original artist: Pietro Perugino • File:PetrusPictaviensis_CottonFaustinaBVII-folio42v_ScutumFidei_early13thc.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia. org/wikipedia/commons/e/e2/PetrusPictaviensis_CottonFaustinaBVII-folio42v_ScutumFidei_early13thc.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: British Library <a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Institution:British_Library' title='Link back to Institution infobox template'><img alt='Link back to Institution infobox template' src='https://upload.wikimedia. org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Blue_pencil.svg/15px-Blue_pencil.svg.png' width='15' height='15' srcset='https: //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Blue_pencil.svg/23px-Blue_pencil.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload. wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Blue_pencil.svg/30px-Blue_pencil.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='600' datafile-height='600' /></a> <a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q23308' title='wikidata:Q23308'><img alt='wikidata:Q23308' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='1050' data-file-height='590' /></a> Original artist: Unknown (13th century scribe) • File:Pflichten_der_polen.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e1/Pflichten_der_polen.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: [1] Original artist: Deutsches Reich • File:Pierre_Bayle.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/Pierre_Bayle.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Originally from en.wikipedia; description page is (was) here Original artist: User Magnus Manske on en.wikipedia • File:PikiWiki_Israel_1337_Druze_scouts_at_jethro_holy_place_‫צופים_דרוזים_בקבר_יתרו‬.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/ wikipedia/commons/c/ca/PikiWiki_Israel_1337_Druze_scouts_at_jethro_holy_place_%D7%A6%D7%95%D7%A4%D7%99%D7% 9D_%D7%93%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%96%D7%99%D7%9D_%D7%91%D7%A7%D7%91%D7%A8_%D7%99%D7%AA%D7% A8%D7%95.jpg License: CC BY 2.5 Contributors: PikiWiki - Israel free image collection project Original artist: ‫סאלח עקל ח'טיב‬ • File:PikiWiki_Israel_20841_The_Palmach.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/75/PikiWiki_Israel_ 20841_The_Palmach.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: The Palmach Archive via the PikiWiki - Israel free image collection project Original artist: ‫אין מידע‬ • File:PikiWiki_Israel_5628_Synagogue.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b6/PikiWiki_Israel_5628_ Synagogue.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Museum of Rishon Le- zion via the PikiWiki - Israel free image collection project Original artist: ‫אין מידע‬ • File:Portal-puzzle.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? 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• File:The_Courtyard_of_the_Old_Residency_in_Munich_-_Adolf_Hitler.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/ de/The_Courtyard_of_the_Old_Residency_in_Munich_-_Adolf_Hitler.jpg License: PD-US Contributors: Source: http://www.bytwerk.com/gpa/hitlerpaintings.htm Original artist: Adolf Hitler (1889–1945) • File:The_Protocols_and_World_Revolution.pdf Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/8/8a/The_Protocols_and_ World_Revolution.pdf License: PD-US Contributors: The Protocols and World Revolution (Boston, 1920), book owned by User:Ludvikus (Public domain) Original artist: ? • File:Thebible33.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/31/Thebible33.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia Original artist: Original uploader was Issagm at en.wikipedia • File:Theodore_Herzl.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/25/Theodore_Herzl.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Time_zone_map_of_Israel.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/07/Time_zone_map_of_Israel.png License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work by uploader, made from File:Israel location map.svg by NordNordWest Original artist: Epson291 • File:Trollmanngross.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b9/Trollmanngross.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: sintiundroma.de Original artist: Hans Firzlaﬀ • File:US_Great_Seal_Reverse.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/45/Great_Seal_of_the_United_States_ %28reverse%29.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Ipankonin • File:VonSchoenerer.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9f/VonSchoenerer.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Österreichische Nationalbibliothek, Bildarchiv Austria, Inventarnr. P 5518/3 Original artist: Unknown, Scherl Bilderdienst • File:WWII,_Europe,_Germany,_\char"0022\relax{}Nazi_Hierarchy,_Hitler,_Goering,_Goebbels,_Hess”,_The_Desperate_ Years_p143_-_NARA_-_196509.tif Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/54/WWII%2C_Europe%2C_ Germany%2C_%22Nazi_Hierarchy%2C_Hitler%2C_Goering%2C_Goebbels%2C_Hess%22%2C_The_Desperate_Years_p143_-_ NARA_-_196509.tif License: Public domain Contributors: U.S. National Archives and Records Administration Original artist: Unknown or not provided • File:War_Ensign_of_Germany_1903-1918.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cf/War_Ensign_of_ Germany_1903-1918.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Please edit this ﬁle’s description and provide a proper source. HELP: (1) The picture claims to show an original insignia. “Own work” is therefor no proper source. The provided source doesn't show an original depiction nor an original description and is probably POV (point of view). (2) For coat of arms please use the blazon and/or the picture of an original interpretation of the blazon to provide an adequate source, but at least one or more references to literature. (3) If this depiction is a derivative please use the template Template: Derived from to avoid sequence errors to make this work more transparent for other users and to avoid an infringement of the copyright licence. In some cases it also might be advisable to name the author of those pictures. Thank you for your great work. Original artist: The original uploader was R-41 at

English Wikipedia • File:Washington_Masonic_print.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/96/Washington_Masonic_print.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: eBay Original artist: Unknown artist • File:Western_wall_jerusalem_night.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/40/Western_wall_jerusalem_ night.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Wayne McLean ( jgritz) • File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: • Wiki_letter_w.svg Original artist: Wiki_letter_w.svg: Jarkko Piiroinen • File:Wikibooks-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:Bastique, User:Ramac et al. • File:Wikidata-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:Planemad • File:Wikinews-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: This is a cropped version of Image:Wikinews-logo-en.png. Original artist: Vectorized by Simon 01:05, 2 August 2006 (UTC) Updated by Time3000 17 April 2007 to use oﬃcial Wikinews colours and appear correctly on dark backgrounds. Originally uploaded by Simon. • File:Wikiquote-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Wikisource-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Rei-artur Original artist: Nicholas Moreau • File:Wikiversity-logo-Snorky.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1b/Wikiversity-logo-en.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Snorky • File:Wiktionary-logo-en.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f8/Wiktionary-logo-en.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Vector version of Image:Wiktionary-logo-en.png. Original artist: Vectorized by Fvasconcellos (talk · contribs), based on original logo tossed together by Brion Vibber • File:Yellowbadge_logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/53/Yellowbadge_logo.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Self made, based on a photograph Original artist: Self made, based on a photograph • File:YemeniJew1914.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/84/YemeniJew1914.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Zeev_Jabotinsky.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ec/Zeev_Jabotinsky.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Unknown Original artist: Unknown

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• File:Zionism-template.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c6/Zionism-template.png License: CC-BY-SA3.0 Contributors: • Theodor_Herz007.jpg Original artist: • derivative work: ‫<( הגמל התימני‬a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User_talk:%D7%94%D7%92%D7%9E%D7%9C_%D7%94% D7%AA%D7%99%D7%9E%D7%A0%D7%99' title='User talk:‫>'הגמל התימני‬talk</a>) • File:Zoom_lunette_ardente.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/27/Zoom_lunette_ardente.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Македонска_ханукија_-_‫_מקדוני_חנוכייה‬-_Macedonian_Hanukkah_menorah.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/ wikipedia/commons/6/61/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_ %D1%85%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0_-_%D7%9E%D7%A7%D7%93%D7%95%D7% A0%D7%99_%D7%97%D7%A0%D7%95%D7%9B%D7%99%D7%99%D7%94_-_Macedonian_Hanukkah_menorah.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: PretoriaTravel • File:Шабатна_кибритна_кутија_-_Shabbat_matchbox_holder.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/ 64/%D0%A8%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B1%D1%80%D0%B8%D1% 82%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%BA%D1%83%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0_-_Shabbat_matchbox_holder.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: PretoriaTravel • File:‫שמחה_רותם_וחניכות_הנוער_העובד_והלומד‬.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/46/%D7%A9%D7% 9E%D7%97%D7%94_%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%AA%D7%9D_%D7%95%D7%97%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%9B%D7%95%D7% AA_%D7%94%D7%A0%D7%95%D7%A2%D7%A8_%D7%94%D7%A2%D7%95%D7%91%D7%93_%D7%95%D7%94%D7% 9C%D7%95%D7%9E%D7%93.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Meron Derso Original artist: Meron Derso

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• Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0