What is sociology? The origin and development of Sociology as a Social Science This week we will take a look at myth, superstition and ‘religious faith’, and the development and rise of science, a new way of thinking which rapidly challenged and replaced the ‘old’ assumptions about knowledge. Sociology as a subject and discipline grew out of this new, scientific way of thinking about the universe, then societies and people.
What is sociology?
Science, Rationality, Enlightenment: Modernity & Social Science
The word ‘sociology’ derives from two distinct words: socius [Latin for companionship] and logos [Greek for study of] – sociuslogos. The modern definition is – the study of society. Essentially – sociology creates ‘theories’ about humans, and the societies in which they live – it attempts to understand why people & social groups behave the way that they do. In a way – we are all already sociologists: as everyday, we discuss people, friends, partners, and events – and attempt to understand and explain them. The main difference between sociology and our ‘everyday’ conversations is that sociology attempts to understand people by being ‘scientific’. So, how has ‘sociology’ developed … ? In order to understand the origins of social science and sociology, we need to develop an understanding of where ‘modern’ thinking derives.
HE Access: Sociological Perspectives.
2
What is sociology?
‘Modern’ thinking can be traced back to distinct historical developments. One of these events was the emergence of rationality. To think ‘rationally’ is a relatively recent and modern concept. To think rationally is now ‘common sense’ to us, but throughout the middle ages and into the renaissance, this was not the case: myth, superstition and religious ‘fatalism’ brought meaning to life. • Can you think of any modern day ‘superstitions’ that we still have? Why do you think we still use them (what is their use)? Are they rational? How could we attempt to understand any of the superstitious situations rationally?
Rationality then, is the belief that by using systematic reasoning and ‘testing’ – looking at the actual evidence ‘realistic’ explanations can be established. It is all about producing the evidence as opposed to resigning to blind faith:
HE Access: Sociological Perspectives.
3
What is sociology?
“Rationality is the belief that by using systematic reasoning and established empirical facts one can produce explanations which have general or universal application. This would give modern science, the major claimant to rationality, a privileged position in relation to such things as religion when it comes to arguments about knowledge and truth.” (Spybey. 1997: 71).
The practice of science is based upon the notion of rationality – objective enquiry, looking at the physical evidence. Science and rationality started to radically change peoples view of the world from the 16th century onwards. For example Galileo Galilei further developed the telescope in (1610). As he ‘actually’ observed the moon, he discovered mountain ranges on its surface. His rational, scientific approach [& use of real evidence] shook the religious assumptions of the time: which assumed that the moon consisted of a heavenly (ethereal, angelic) substance. However, after observing the ‘facts’ for themselves, by using a telescope the Jesuit priests had to submit to Galileo’s discovery. Galileo’s rational and [early] scientific approach challenged and changed a belief system that was based on ‘mythical’ or superstitious principles. The discipline of ‘physics’ was born which set out to analyse and scientifically explain how the physical world/universe around us works.
HE Access: Sociological Perspectives.
4
What is sociology?
The original “men” of science – through objective, detailed, rational (scientific) study – enlightened humanities view and understanding of the universe. As a result of this new rational approach/belief system – human society entered into a new historical period: which has become known as the era of Enlightenment. The enlightenment movement was based around harnessing the new truth of science in order for people to really understand how the world works the way that it does. Because the new scientific approach was able to explain the mystifying complexities of the massive universe around us, philosophers began to adapt this new way of thinking and apply it to the human societies in which they lived:
“The Enlightenment is a term used to describe those thinkers of the eighteenth century who established the basis of looking at society in a scientific way. In effect they established the foundations of modern social science. In rejecting a religious viewpoint they adopted a secular belief that society could be seen as the object of systematic, exact scientific enquiry. (Spybey. 1997: 72).
Immanuel Kant in his article ‘What is Enlightenment’ in 1784 states that: “Sapere aude! Have courage to use your own reason! – that is the motto of enlightenment.”
*****************
HE Access: Sociological Perspectives.
5
What is sociology?
The Bloody Code & Enlightenment, (Science & Modernity) Michel Foucault: Discipline & Punish The Birth Of The Prison (1991).
This book by Michel Foucault is concerned with discovering the ‘birth’ and development of the modern prison. For centuries before the eighteenth century law and punishment was largely concerned with torture: barbaric and public displays of death (retribution). Read the excerpt from Foucault’s book, and then consider the following questions:
1. What is the function of this process being carried out in public?
HE Access: Sociological Perspectives.
6
What is sociology?
According to the book, during the latter end of the 1700’s - a transition occurred in the way that ‘criminals’ were dealt with and punished. An emphasis on training and control emerged. This new period was characterised by a more humanist approach - seeking ‘reform’ (rehabilitation) rather than torture. 2. Why did the changes in the style of punishment change, why did law & punishment change from public torture to private [inside buildings] training?
As part of the utilitarian movement, Jeremy Bentham put forward his own theory for new kind of Prison - one that could reform the souls of criminals – the Panopticon prison.
(See diagram overleaf).
HE Access: Sociological Perspectives.
7
What is sociology?
• The idea was for the Panopticon prison to train prisoners to ‘internalise’ obedience: with the constant threat of surveillance from the central watchtower, in conjunction with silence and religious instruction.
HE Access: Sociological Perspectives.
8
What is sociology?
• The panopticon prison would force offenders to ‘internalise’ discipline & become their own jailors. • After being disciplined in this way for a number of years, it was thought that when, released they would subconsciously continue to behave in the way that they have been trained. • Their souls had been disciplined.
Bentham’s principles were never fully implemented – but a new (rational, scientific) modern prison system was developed.
Social science developed alongside the social and economic changes brought about through the industrial revolution (in Western Europe); events which radically changed the way people lived. It is out of these rapid and fundamental changes that social science and sociology emerged: The ‘first’ – or founding - sociologists (Karl Marx, Emile Durkheim, & Max Weber) set about theorising about the many transformations taking place – and how they would impact upon, and change society. These theorists used science to establish theories about how society works, how it changes, how we keep order in society, how society can be improved etc. HE Access: Sociological Perspectives.
9
What is sociology?
In small groups produce a brief paragraph [in your own words] that explains what these concepts mean and how they link together: • • • • •
The Bloody Code Enlightenment Science Modernity Social Science / Sociology
HE Access: Sociological Perspectives.
10