Sans: the choice of Mas-transit systems

Sans The unified choice for mass-transit and way-finding systems

iii Project C

Typography as meaning, form & information

Thanks NYC for introducing me to the greatest use of sans-serif type in a complex system, the New York City subway. Its easy to use and complex to understand, that’s why I enjoy it so much. I guess that makes me a New Yorker.

George garrastegui, jr / GRDS - 734ol / proF. Trudy Abadie S e c t i o n / SANS

ARIOUS HEIGHTS

1

02

Timeline

04

brief history of sans-serif

08

Why Mass-Transit

12

Terminology

14

THE FREQUENT FIVE

16

The Benchmark

Akzidenz-Grotesk

INTERSTATE

TRAFFIC VIO BOLD

State trooper did not take kindly

SPEED LIGHT CONDENSED

Sign sEastbo 20

24

HAIRLINE ITALIC

The German Norm

Din

The Swiss Takeover

Helvetica

Rush hour drivers becomi

CONSTRUCTI REGULAR

BLACK CONDENSED

Work crews playing catch w

BRIGHT TRAIL LIGHT

28

The humanist

Frutiger

30

The highway

32

Comparisons

41

appendix

Interstate

Route 59 BOLD CONDENSED

EXTRA BLACK COMPRESSED

IN RAGE AND FRUSTRATION, I THRE REGULAR ITALIC

THEN I NOTICED I WAS EXTRA LIGHT COMPRESSED

TOC / SANS

Sans-Serif HistoricAl

1908

1916

1927

1928

News Gothic

Johnston Railway Sans

Futura

Gill Sans

1905

1904 Franklin Gothic

1898

1816

1800

Timeline

*

Akzidenz-Grotesk Din 1451 Std resources: http://www.counterspace.us/typography/timeline/ & http://www.100types.com/100types.com.timeline.html SANS / TI M E L INE

2000 Gotham

1993

1991

1967 Avant Garde

Meta

1962 Eurostile

1975

1957 Univers

1948 Trade Gothic

1957

1937 Bell Gothic / Peignot

Frutiger Helvetica

Interstate * This is not a true timeline of ALL sans-serif typfaceS, just quite a few of the major contributors to the CLASSIFICATION. TI M E L INE / SANS

4

My interests in the sans-serif form lie with my exposure to the NYC subway system of the 70s and 80s. it was the overwhelming boldness of these forms that had always engaged me.

This is what has led me to look into sans-serif as the type of choice for mass-transit and wayfinding systems.

Fig 01

SANS / H I S TO R Y

Brief History of Sans-Serif Culture and context play a major role in the evolutionary uses and characteristic of typography.

Throughout history type has reflected the times in both simple and complex ways to always ultimately covey a message. From the mark making of cuneiform to the chiseled serifs on Trajan columns [fig01] to the illuminated pages of scriptures to the first printed lines of blackletter [fig03], each type style pertained to what was happening and the newest technology pushing the limit of the craft.

As time change, societal life proceeded to become more complex and yet more streamlined.

After the opulence of the Renaissance and the ornamental nature of the Victorian era, styles began to simplify. In the early 1800s with the new interest in the findings and explorations of Egypt a newer typographic approach began to emerge. More interest was placed on letter forms and less focus on ornamentation or the feet that helped keep type grounded. Type design became an expression of the everyman. Once revered as printers and designers were linked to royalty, now they were fit to monetize their work and produce type more abundantly and for a wider audience. Type specimen books showcased the work and skills of printers and type

5 Fig 02

Fig 03 Left Page Top: A Trajan inscription. Bottom: A page from the Book of Kells.

This Page Top: A page from the Gutenberg Bible. Below: Proportional type sketch Albert Dürer.

designers. Foundries had unique attributes allowing customers to choose foundries for specific purposes.

Printers and type designers loved to experiment with the new forms. In 1816, tucked away in the back of a spec book, lied what was to be one of the most important advancements in typography.

Printed in the pages of William Caslon IVs specimen book, was W CASLON JUNR TYPEFOUNDER in all caps, without the serifs that type was accustomed to possessing. Caslon’s Egyptian [fig05] was the first printing of a letter forms without their supporting structures; serifs. The printed sans-serif type was born, it seemed to be of the style and weight of an initial slab-serif forms, but with the serif missing — almost an incomplete thought.

Fig 04

H I S TO R Y / SANS

6

Fig 05

Fig 06

Fig 07

Early on, sans-serifs played only a supporting role in type spec books of type designers. It was not until around the 1830s that designers and foundries began to see the value in its simpler style [fig07].

With the flux the advertising and poster movement, sans-serif began to show its worth. Serifs used to take up valuable page space, now sans serif type allow themselves to get closer together and form more condensed versions. This created more stylist options. Type sizes grew beyond the standard display size of 2 line display [fig06]. What evolved was

SANS / H I S TO R Y

the explosion of typographic information; typography was giving a voice and attitude to products.

What was becoming important was the information. It needed to be clear and concise; typography needed to reflect that.

Early sans-serif were bold and used mainly for poster printing in the late 1800s and it embraced the need to emphasize. This style off display type was attention grabbing for any passersby viewing the various brands or advertisements. What transpired was the acceptance of this new grotesk form

7 Left Page Top: Caslon Egyptian.

Bottom: Large display sans-serif

by Vincent Figgins.

This Page Top: A page from a type specimen book. Below: Early dictionary definition for sanserif.

Fig 09

Fig 08

H I S TO R Y / SANS

8 Various samples of the five typeface chosen. AkzidenzGrotesk [fig10], DIN [fig11], Frutiger [fig12], and Interstate [fig13], Helvetica [fig14] .

Fig 10

as the inherent norm for attracting viewer’s focus [fig08]. The uniformity of the newly established designs and its weight at larger sizes is one of sansserifs beneficial characteristics. The initial strokes had thick and thin that had less contrast and felt more even. The form began to rely less on the handwritten aesthetic and more on the accuracy of the painted form or its technical attributes.

why mass transit?

With growing urbanization and dense populations, technology and complex systems were important in adding to the culture and attributed meaning information. Municipalities were needed to corral and unify new paths, methods and way finding. These systems created a need for information to be explained. Typography was being elevated toward function. Sans-serif typography SANS / W H Y M A S S T R A N S IT

sparked a new assertiveness for the communication of ideas. Its modern appeal and bold nature gave way to ideas. “The fear that a line without boundaries might flow on forever gave way to a world view defined by rationality – heralding the beginning of widespread use of sans serif typefaces.” 1 It began to be a rallying cry for form following function. Its purpose was to speak to the information being conveyed not only by its display.

From the railways to mass-transit and highway systems, sans-serif established its universal characteristics that focused on the message rather than only the form. Its purpose it to disseminate information clearly and legibly. Without that, it serves no purpose. Typographic form is used to reflect an invisible experience while either directing or informing its audience.

At the time, many systems were updating to be more cohesive. This was around the same time

9 Fig 11

Fig 12

Fig 13

Fig 14

W H Y M A S S T R A N S IT / SANS

10

Fig 15

Fig 16

the modern design movement was taking shape. Graphic and typographic design was shifting into simplicity and wanted to reflect that onto its society. Amidst the chaos that was the transit systems of the post war era, the modernist designer saw the opportunity to consolidate.

By creating patterns and repetition, existing systems could evolve into a more unified aesthetic. Informational graphics were peaking and maps were becoming simple. Navigational design would help to establish a consistent

SANS / W H Y M A S S T R A N S IT

Fig 17

voice to create a visual oneness. The various transit systems were at an apex and needed to be refined, re-thought and reimagined.

Modern design, and more so sans-serif type, helped to bring that unity. What developed were cities becoming hotbeds for tourist activity. Needed was the ability to create systems that reflected universality would allow it to be easier to traverse. In the next pages are some of the most influential typefaces and how they helped create meaning though their forms and expressed messages.

11

Fig 18

W H Y M A S S T R A N S IT / SANS

12

Basis Attributes and terminolgoy for the anatomy of a typeface KERNING

Arm

CAP HEIGHT

X-HEIGHT

BASE LINE CHARACTER WIDTH

Stem

SANS / TE R M INO L O G Y

Closed Counter

13 Open Counter

Shoulder

Ascender

Spine

Terminal

Analysis Crossbar

Bowl

Tail

Aperture

Resource: http://www.typographydeconstructed.com S e cLtOi oG nY / SANS TE R M INO

The Frequent Five

16

SANS / t h e b e n c hmar k

17

LEFT: Accidenz Spec sheet.

(http://www.sanskritweb.net/fontdocs/ index.html#AKZIDENZ) [FIG19]

BELOW: Some unique attributes of the Akzidenz-Grotesk Typeface

CAP HEIGHT

Akzidenz 1

X-HIEGHT

2

5

3

4

BASE LINE

120 PT Akzindez-Grotesk Medium Designer: Günter Gerhard Lange Classification: Grotesk Year Created: 1898

[1] Tall x-height. (Height from baseline to top of lowercase form) [2] Shorter ascender & descended.

[3] Larger counter. (Opening created within rounded forms) [4] Angled Terminals on open curved forms ( end stroke of letter forms) [5] Flat horizontal & vertical terminals on most straight forms.

The Benchmark Inspired by and a reimaged version of such existing faces as Briete Grotesque and Royal Grotesk, designer Günter Gerhard Lange created a face thathad homogeny which had many of the same characteristics. Akzidenz-Grotesk first named Accidenz Grotesk was first published in 1898 after H. Berthold purchased Theinhardt’s foundry.

Combining the style and essence of the many sans-serif typefaces into one ubiquitous face. As it is, Akzidenz-Grotesk was the future of sans-serifs typography. It is not perfect, but in its own way it has a bold, unique character and timeless style.

As stated by Karl Gerstner, swiss designer Fig 20

Th e b e n c hmar k / SANS

18 Fig 21

and typographer, “It is the work of anonymous typecutters: craftsmen, specialists, whose professional background and experience meant they were familiar with the finest subtleties and principles, and not just those of Grotesque. They gave AkzidenzGrotesk the ultimate accolade a typeface can have: a functional, formal rightness, transcending the whims of fashion.�2 As one of the first faces to be widely used in the newer sans-serif form, Akzidenz began to be the benchmark upon how other faces in the future would be established or be measured against.

Its style, uniformity and familiarity also led it to be universally know as a modern face. Designers from the 20th century and beyond explored with words to tell visual story using this chameleon of a typeface. From the movements of the Bauhaus, Dada and the International Typographic Style, sansserif and Akzidenz-Grotesk became an expression of a generation. Because of its modern appeal designer such as MĂźller-Brockmanm, Massimo Vignelli and Armin Hoffman began using Akzidenz to show clean and organized information. Their poster and wayfinding system influenced and revolutionized design at the time. The style was simple yet complex.

The forms always recede its nature compared the content of the design. What became was a larger understanding of placing and distributing hierarchal information. This forever allowed it be now characterized as uniquely swiss and clear in its purpose: to inform and direct to its audience.

Fig 22

SANS / t h e b e n c hmar k

19

Fig 24

Fig 26 Fig 23 Fig 25

t h e b e n c hmar k / SANS

20

SANS / Th e G e rma n N o rm

21 LEFT: DIN: Type Specimen Sheet [FIG27]

(Jonathan Wong - http://cargocollective.com/ artofwong/Specimen-Sheet)

BELOW: Some unique attributes of the DIN 1451 Typeface

CAP HEIGHT

Din 1451 Std 2

X-HEIGHT

1

3

BASE LINE

120 PT Din 1451 Std Mittelschrift Designer: Stempel Classification: Realist Sans Year Created: 1923

4

[1] Larger counter [2] Tall x-height.

[3] Uniform weight on the vertical and horizontal strokes [4] Angled terminals on wide open curved forms

The German Norm A typeface that is inherently linked to its culture must be the one from Germany and is that been that standard for over 100 years. DIN, named from the acronym Duetsches Institutf端r Normung (German Institute for Standardization) is based on the mechanical and grid like layouts from the Prussian Railway Company. This sans-serif typeface was slowly adopted into the German lifestyle as is permeated many facets of the culture.

From its roots as a mechanical font bred the birth of it as an actual typeface released in 1923.

It had two weights a condensed (Engschirft) and a medium weight (Mittelschrift). Each version had Fig 28

Th e G e rma n N o rm / SANS

22

Fig 29

Fig 30

Fig 31

SANS / Th e G e rma n N o rm

23 Fig 32

specific purposes, the Mittelschrift was use more often unless information was too long to fit, then Engschirft was used. Din uses mainly vertical as the basis of the typeface and because of its grid made it simple to mass-produced on the rail cars. This made it easier to reproduce for non-type designers; it also made the infiltration of the typeface a no brainer. “In 1929, the Berthold foundry released a version, and it, too, was used mostly for technical drawings. Both of the early DIN typefaces were made available as lettering templates cut from an acetate material for drafting use. Both of the earliest DIN typefaces were used primarily in oblique form.

In 1929, the Berthold foundry released a version, and it, too, was used mostly for technical drawings.

Both of the early DIN typefaces were made available as lettering templates cut from an acetate material for drafting use.�3 The realist nature of the face meant it has a relative straight appearance and lacks line width variation. The wide spread use of DIN as the German standard can be seen everywhere. It began to be used for blueprints, roadways, signage as well are many other avenues of German life such as business and official work.

Fig 33

Th e G e rma n N o rm / SANS

24

SANS / t h e sw i ss t a k e o v e r

25 LEFT: Helvetica metal type (with Manfred Schulz) Helvetica Movie [FIG34] (http://www.helveticafilm.com/media/) BELOW: Some unique attributes of the Helvetica Typeface

CAP HEIGHT

1 X-HEIGHT

Helvetica 2

BASE LINE

120 PT Helvetica Medium Designer: Max Miedinger Classification: Neo-Grotesque Year Created: 1957

3

4

[1] Tall x-height.

[2] Large eye and counter opening.

[3] Straight terminals on open curved forms.

[4] Two-story lowercase a.

The swiss takeover In 1957 designer Max Miedinger and Eduard Hoffmann set out to make a new Swiss standard typeface. Neue Haas Grotesk, as Helvetica was first was called, was meant to be a neutral face. It was intended to allow for transparency and let the message speak. This was especially important for signage. The Haas foundry needed a face to compete with the benchmark of the time, Akzidenz.

Helvetica takes may visual cues from Akzidenz, while establishing some nuances that make it sand out on its own. But it was truly influenced by Haas’ earlier typeface Schelter-Grotesk [fig20]. “The most distinctive features of the new typeface were consisFig 35

t h e sw i ss t a k e o v e r / SANS

26 tently horizontal terminals, large x-heights, and extremely tight spacing. These features together resulted in the typeface’s characteristically dense and vigorous texture.”4 Helvetica could be set extremely tight and still be highly distinguishable.

After its release Helvetica became an instant success. Aiding in the modernist take over in design and typographic layouts. During its release was “the middle of the Swiss design movement—a style of design that said design should be an objective communication of ideas and not an artistic expression.”5 Its comparison to Akzidenz will always be discussed.

The uniformity and evenness of strokes are part of its similarities, but where Akzidenz had angled terminals Helvetica has straight. It also tends to have a boxier feel to the over all letterforms.

The use on signage and various systems can been seen everywhere. It has taken over many large subway systems. The Madrid, Boston, Philadelphia and Paris metros all use some form of helvetica for their signage.

Most recognizable use of Helvetica is with in the NYC subway system. It did not truly adopt the face until around the mid-1980s. it had always been a misnomer that Helvetica was always the subways typeface. With the lack of popularity of Helvetica at the time when Unimark was unifying the city subways, they used Standard (the US version of Akzindez) instead. Helvetica was not available in the US until much later.

Fig 36

SANS / t h e sw i ss t a k e o v e r

27 Fig 37

Fig 38

Fig 39

Th e sw i ss t a k e o v e r / SANS

28

SANS / t h e h u ma n i s t

29

LEFT: Frutiger as wayfinding sign at Orly Airport , France. [FIG40] BELOW: Some unique attributes of the Frutiger Typeface

CAP HEIGHT

Frutiger 1

X-HEIGHT

3

4

2

BASE LINE

120 PT Frutiget Std 65 Bold Designer: Adrian Frutiger Classification: Humanist Sans Year Created: 1975

[1] Tall x-height.

[2] Humanist qualities, it follows handwritten forms.

[3] Large counters and eye.

[4] Wide lowercase forms compared to caps

The Humanist First commissioned as a new type design for the Charles De Galle airport in Paris, Adrian Frutiger create a face that birthed a new humanist form.

Initially called Roissy, then changed to Frutiger, the type was new signage system that was being implemented at the airport. It possesses the qualities of calligraphic pen strokes as it focuses on the connections from vertical and curved strokes. It went beyond the identifying with the airport. Through its familiar form, Frutiger became widely popular.6 “(Adrian) Frutiger’s goal was to create a sans serif typeface with the rationality and cleanliness of Univers, but with the organic and proportional aspects of Gill

Sans. The result is that Frutiger is a distinctive and legible typeface.7 The widened aperture and large x-heights are what add to the type legibility. Not only was it create for outdoor signage, but also for directional, information and gate signage. Due to its legibility its transition on to the printed page and to the world of corporate identity. With it ease of reading and familiarity it was used in mainstream applications. The success of Frutiger is attributed to its simplicity and form.

The relation of form to its subject matter allows the content to win out and it becomes what a true information type should be, transparent.

Fig 41

t h e h u ma n i s t / SANS

y I m V y to

N I A E D H A E N R O E I A T P S C P U F S ONSTR RAIL O lo

C k I e F t tak

l d in

30

did

no

e v e g

n i m

s

C A BL

b s r e v ri

d r

ou

CK

N CO

N DE

SE

D

rk

s w e r c

SANS / t h e h i ghway

∫ r f

m r

o c e

h h

e r o

c i nt

n i y a l p

h c t a gc

T T

f o s b o

t o h

p s a

t i w

g h

C

Y

S Y KE

31 LEFT: Interstate Spec Sheet [FIG42]

(http://www.fontbureau.com/fonts/Interstate/)

BELOW: Some unique attributes of the Helvetica Typeface

D A alt

Interstate 3

CAP HEIGHT

1

X-HEIGHT

ph

2

S K R BASE LINE

120 PT Interstate Bold Designer: Tobias Frere-Jones Classification: Gothic Sans Year Created: 1993

o

d e s

R E IV

T O T N

SI

E M O H M

R E H

Fig 43

[1] Tall x-height.

[2] Angled terminals on open curved forms.

[3] Angled ascenders and descenders.

The highway In 1993, Tobias Frere-Jones was working for Font Bureau and established the typeface interstate. This face was not new; it had been in the eyes of the public for years. Based and drawn from the FHWA (Federal Highway Administration) series of fonts, sometimes called Highway Gothic. Interstate has a great viewing disitance. The interplay of space and counters migh it highly distinguishable. So does the diagnaol termianl that make it quite unique.

Not only is it used for signage, It also makes for a good type for print. Frere-Jones took this into account during its creation. The type has a range of weights and variation from wide-to-condensed and hairline-to-super bold. This array adds to the versatility of this face. t h e h i ghway / SANS

Type Comparison

34

Akzindez

din

helvetica

frutiger

interstate

Mass Transit Mass Transit Mass Transit Mass Transit Mass Transit interstate helvetica frutiger Akzindez

SANS / c o m p ar i s o n

din

Type Width / 52pt

In comparing the 5 typefaces, one must notice the various nuances and similarities that each form contains.

X-Heights Each face has larger than normal x-heights, these help to distinguish individual forms.

Weight Most have uniform weights, allowing for optimal viewing. Of the 5, only Frutiger maintains the calligraphic stress that mimics a pen.

Type Width Width of a typeface is essential to the legibility of its characters. Each face in its medium form takes up almost that same width. Interstate is the widest while DIN is the most narrow.

Contrast The contrast between each form and the ground they are placed on also make for a legible face.

Depending on viewing experience, each factors into what kind of contrast or type choice are needed for the design.

VARIOUS X-HEIGHTS

Sign s

All 5 sans-serif choices maintain a bold and solid quality. Compare that to the serif form of Times New Roman, it looks insignificant and scrawny.

Akzidenz-Grotesk Bold / Standard Helvetica Neue Bold Din Pro Bold / Din 1454 Mittelschrift Fruitger Bold Interstate Regular Times New Roman Regular

To achieve a similar viewing experience, a serif type may have to increase itself at least 10-15%. This is mainly because of the lower x-height and the drastic thick and thins which make the weight of the form feel smaller.

C o m p ar i s o n / SANS

35

36 CAP HEIGHT

X-HEIGHT

BASE LINE

CAP HEIGHT

X-HEIGHT

BASE LINE

CGMQRS CGMQR S CGMQRS

UNique Typeface characterisitics

Terminals vary from angled to straight and either vertical and horizontial in the C.

A look into typographic characterisitcs of simliar types of sans-serif fonts.

M width is not consistent. Even with a smaller more condense face, Fruiteg has the widest M.

SANS / c o m p ar i s o n

The tail within the Q can either drops below the baseline or have part of the tail eat in the counter of the letterform.

Most R’s have a leg that pertrudes diangnolly from the lope of the R, except Helvetica which caligraphicaly curves out.

aegikrt ae eg gikrt The a’s are double storied. Some termainal are angled while other are straight. Also ealry form may have a serif looking final to them.

Terminals vary from angled to straight and either vertical and horizontial in the e.

The g’s are single storied. Some termainals are angled while other are straight.

Some k’s connention between the leg and arm either come to a point or the leg stems from the arm.

just some observation based on slight similarities and differences in typefaces C o m p ar i s o n / SANS

37

39

The use of sans-serif typography in mass transit and wayfinding signage is abundant. The ability of typography to be understated yet distinctive is an art and a curse. With type choices that are very similar, it is how you factor in color, contrast, legibility and structure that will ultimately lead you to the right choice.

C o n c l u s i o n / SANS

Appendix

42

Bibliography

Resources

1 - Frutiger, Adrian. “The History of Linear, Sans Serif Typefaces.”

Linotype Font Feature. N.p., n.d. Web. 28 Oct. 2012. <http:// www.linotype.com/2258-16894/thelossoftheserifspart2.html>.

flickr.com

2 - “Akzidenz-Grotesk Next® Pro Family.” Akzidenz-Grotesk Next® Pro Family. N.p., n.d. Web. 1 Nov. 2012. <http://www. bertholdtypes.com/font/akzidenz-grotesk-next-family/pro/>.3 wiki din fon

http://eleven-seventeen.com/thinking/type-notes-din/

3 - “DIN 1451.” Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, n.d. Web. 1 Nov. 2012. <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DIN_1451>.

http://luc.devroye.org/fonts-46521.html

4 - “Typefaces in Transit.” Live Well Collaborative Blog. N.p., n.d. Web. 1 Nov. 2012. <http://livewellcollaborative.org/ blog/2010/06/30/typefaces-in-transit/>.

http://www.rightreading.com/typehead/

5 - “Neue Haas Grotesk - History.” Neue Haas Grotesk - History.

N.p., n.d. Web. 1 Nov. 2012. <http://www.fontbureau.com/nhg/ history/>. http://luc.devroye.org/fonts-28493.html 6 - Smitshuijzen, Edo. Signage Design Manual. Baden: Lars Müller, 2007. Print.

7 - “Typefaces in Transit.” Live Well Collaborative Blog. N.p., n.d. Web. 1 Nov. 2012. <http://livewellcollaborative.org/ blog/2010/06/30/typefaces-in-transit/>.

8 - Ibid

http://dinfont.com/story/

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DIN_1451 http://luc.devroye.org/fonts-28493.html

http://typophile.com/node/17643

http://www.bertholdtypes.com/font/akzidenz-grotesk-next-family/ pro/ http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deutsche_Reichsbahn http://typophile.com/node/17643 Subway: The untold story of Helvetica A Visual Histry of Typeface & Graphic Styles Sginage Design Manual Information and Signage Way-Showing livecollective.com

SANS / S e c t i o n

43

Image list FIG 01 - http://kleunerteachingspring2012.wordpress.com/2012/02/06/chapter2-the-alphabet/ FIG 02 - http://www.brattleborology.com/2012/02/29/book-kells-wednesday-program-brooks-memorial-library/ FIG 03 - http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Gutenberg_Bible,_New_York_Public_Library,_USA._Pic_03.jpg

FIG 25 - http://scad.edu/blackboard Type Theory, unit 06, “1. International Typographic Style” Armin Hofmann, Stadt Theater Basel (1967), Offset Lithograph FIG 26 - http://scad.edu/blackboard Type Theory, unit 06, “1. International Typographic Style” Rudy de Harak, The Potential of Women , Book Jacket FIG 27 - http://cargocollective.com/artofwong/Specimen-Sheet

FIG 04 - http://maxboam.blogspot.com/2010/06/typography-from-renaissance.html

FIG 28 - http://www.flickr.com/photos/holy_cow/4280975251/sizes/z/in/photostream/

FIG 05 - http://typefoundry.blogspot.com/2007/01/nymph-and-grot-update.html

FIG 29 - http://idsgn.org/posts/know-your-type-din/

FIG 06 - http://typefoundry.blogspot.com/2007/01/nymph-and-grot-update.html

FIG 30 - http://www.flickr.com/photos/20745656@N00/2867912401/

FIG 07 - History of Graphic Design

FIG 31 - http://www.flickr.com/photos/mpd01605/6750914653/sizes/m/in/photostream/

FIG 08 - A visual History of Typfaces FIG 09 - http://typefoundry.blogspot.com/2007/01/nymph-and-grot-update.html FIG 10 - http://www.flickr.com/photos/triborough/334746135/ FIG 11 - http://www.flickr.com/photos/melih_ozcanli/3740012184/sizes/l/in/photostream/ FIG 12 - http://www.flickr.com/photos/telstar/471194865/sizes/o/in/photostream/

FIG 32 - http://www.flickr.com/photos/ralf_herrmann/2747632134/ FIG 33 - http://www.flickr.com/photos/m-joedicke/3953303065/ FIG 34 - http://www.helveticafilm.com/media/ FIG 35 - http://www.flickr.com/photos/bogtrykkeren/3536360208/sizes/o/in/photostream/

FIG 13 - http://www.flickr.com/photos/iccdude/4319688279/

FIG 36 - http://www.flickr.com/photos/lavibohem/4020548153/sizes/l/in/photostream/

FIG 14 - http://www.flickr.com/photos/sfgamchick/3924363435/sizes/o/in/photostream/

FIG 37 - http://www.flickr.com/photos/johannaonvideo/2390286015/sizes/o/in/photostream/

FIG 15 - http://www.flickr.com/photos/triborough/334734410/in/set72157594441672864/

FIG 38 - http://www.flickr.com/photos/smithology83/3666583670/sizes/l/in/photostream/

FIG 16 - entype.info/blog/2008/05/18/traffic-sign-typefaces-din-1451-germany/

FIG 39 - http://www.flickr.com/photos/filth215/127001453/sizes/l/in/photostream/

FIG 17 - http://cargocollective.com/artofwong/Specimen-Sheet

FIG 40 - http://www.flickr.com/photos/hirokoogawa/5212429698/sizes/o/in/photostream/

FIG 18 - http://www.fontbureau.com/nhg/history/ FIG 19 - http://www.sanskritweb.net/fontdocs/#Akzidenz FIG 20 - http://typophile.com/node/17655 FIG 21 - http://typophile.com/node/17643 FIG 22 - Subway book paul shaw

FIG 41 - http://www.flickr.com/photos/mselenius/5968092895/sizes/o/in/photostream/ FIG 42 - http://www.fontbureau.com/fonts/Interstate/ FIG 43 - http://www.flickr.com/photos/iccdude/4319688279/sizes/o/in/photostream/

FIG 23 - http://www.flickr.com/photos/eston/197787428/ FIG 24 - http://scad.edu/blackboard Type Theory, unit 06, “1. International Typographic Style” Josef Müller-Brockmann, Less Noise (1960), Poster

S e c t i o n / SANS