Dissertation 2015 by Victoria Duffy

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Victoria Duffy

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Contents:

Acknowledgements

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I would maintain that thanks are the highest form of thought and that gratitude is happiness doubled by wonder (G. K. Chesterton)

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Introduction

Of all the words that I have written in the past three years, these have been the most important. I feel laden with gratitude for a very special group of people. Without their love, care, support and understanding, I wouldn’t be writing this now.

Literature Review

Firstly to Gillian Dickinson, thank you for giving me a chance to study. You have challenged me and made me think in different ways; unlocked my mind and planted some of your wealth of knowledge to bloom and grow. I will miss our supervision sessions and our runaway chats; you are a wonderful teacher, an inspirational woman and a beautiful soul. I couldn’t have done this without you.

Methodology

To Belinda Child, you provided the foundations on to which I hope a great career will be built. You have been supportive and encouraging, helping me to build my academic confidence, and we have had fun along the way.

Ethical Considerations

To Dr Phil Johnson, your unwillingness to merely accept things has been both frustrating and delighting. You have instilled in me a more non-judgemental, mature and critical approach to my work. I admire your edupunk beliefs and am continually inspired by you. To my mum and dad, I hope this makes up for the plethora of parents’ evening in which you were told that if I just stopped talking and listened I would do well. I did stop talking and I did start listening, so I guess they were right. Thanks for being there and always believing that I could do this. I hope I have made you proud. To my brother and sister, thank you for your support and confidence in my abilities.

Results and Analysis

To Diane Wright for checking in on me almost daily, for making me laugh and keeping me sane. There is now a portion of the evening that is called ‘Diane Time’.

Discussion

I give my greatest thanks to my creative genius husband, Neil, and my cherished son, Dexter. You have always been on hand with coffee, hugs and words of support – either that or you have left me to it! But your unending belief in me has been lovely. Even at my most stressed or when I’ve been plagued by self-doubt, you were there to get me through. Thank you boys!

Conclusion

Initially, I thought this was all about having a graduation photo, something much envied in my friends’ houses, but this experience has been life-changing, however twee that sounds. I feel like I have fulfilled potential, grown as a person and am set on a path to a promising career. I don’t want my journey to be over, just yet. But I thank you all for the hand-holding in this adventure, it means more than you will ever know. So I dedicate this piece of work to you all and hope that I will be able to make you even more proud in the future.

Bibliography 02

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Does balanced reporting of crime affect perception?

Introduction

n 2015, the world is a complex, fast-paced, multi-mediated society. Communication is 24 hours a day, seven days a week and the news is constantly being updated on news channels, on the Internet and on social networking sites. There is a culture of audiences being involved by providing user-generated content, giving eye-witness account and, more recently, being encouraged to comment on news events. Media permeates all aspects of life.

CRIMINOLOGY TODAY

For the 18 years to 2013, the researcher worked as a journalist and news editor, covering a range of news events, from murders and riots to high-profile court cases and health campaigns. This work culminated in winning the industry’s Campaigning Journalist Award in 2006. The researcher progressed from journalist to news editor and page designer shortly afterwards and added to the skillset that is being utilised today. Embarking on a degree at University Centre at Blackburn College, the researcher realised that she could utilise the power of the media to the advantage of the criminological community. There is significant criticism of how the media handles news, particularly involving crime, how it is reported and the political bias and pecuniary advantage of media corporation owners.

The Myra behind the mugshot - understanding Britain’s most hated woman

FEATURING: • DOMESTIC VIOLENCE • MEDIA REPORTS ON YOUTH • CHALLENGING BEHAVIOUR

News organisations purport to reveal the truth about crime, but instead, they have contributed to a warped idea of its prevalence. Williams and Dickinson (1993) found a correlation between newspaper reporting and fear of crime and a higher number of crime-related stories in tabloid newspapers compared to their broadsheet counterparts. Tabloid newspapers continue to draw in millions of readers each day with their salacious headlines, graphic images and explicit detail of serious crime and death. And this is unlikely to change. The impact of the phone-hacking scandal and subsequent Leveson Inquiry into Press Ethics has brought about an unprecedented cynicism about the reliability of the press, however, statutory regulation remains an empty threat rather than a viable option. It is this misrepresentation and distorting of the reality of crime that lies at the heart of this research. It combines the fundamental principles of Lasswell’s (1948) communication theory and Carrabine’s (2012) view on visual criminology – how words and images are used and to what effect.

This dissertation aims to:

Carrabine’s (2012) idea of rethinking crime as a ‘spectacle’ underpins this research and his notion of the ‘power of the image’ is married with balanced reporting to create a criminological magazine – Criminology Today – Research Edition. Essentially, it is harnessing the power of the press for positive ends – putting into practice the facets of visual and news-making criminology – at a time when crime is being digested through a diet of newspapers, ‘real life’ magazines and social media.

1. Produce a digital magazine containing features on what are perceived to be the most prevalent crimes in the UK. 2. Using social media, publicise the magazines and ask people to take a pre-task survey on perceptions of crime before reading the magazine. 3. Ask participants to complete a post-task survey.

With a lack of criminological influence in the publishing marketplace, there is no competitor, no educator, nothing to counterbalance this skewed reporting of crime.

4. Evaluate where there is a measurable difference in perception or understanding of crime and which crimes this relates to.

This research aims to bridge the gap between academic publications, tabloids, ‘real life’ magazines and glossy magazines by utilising editorial processes adopted by the industry. The emphasis is on aesthetics and engaging articles in a publication that is free from political bias and the constraints of investors or shareholders.

The questions pertaining to the study are: 1. Does the way in which crime is reported have an effect on perception? 2. Does a publication containing more balanced information promote better understanding of issues?

Work began on this project in 2012 and has continued with refinement of the design and content of the publications. The magazine series is published on the global platform ISSUU.com and has attracted readers in 27 countries.

3. Can people’s perceptions of crime be altered through more balanced reporting?

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Literature Review

his research draws on the diverse work already undertaken in terms of understanding the effects of the media. This review will focus on the theories that influence and underpin this research, namely, aesthetics, communication, news-making criminology, ‘moral panics’ and media effects theories. Theories connected with the media are many in number and arguably start with Lasswell’s (1948) communication theory. His notion of communication – “who said what, to whom via what channels, with what effect?” – is as applicable today as it was in 1940 when it was first published. Carrabine’s (2012) work is focused on criminological aesthetics and the power of the image. Visual criminology is concerned with the telling of the story while communication theory examines how the story is communicated and what effect that has. It is the combination of these two notions that underpin this research.

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Journalism is popular, but it is popular mainly as fiction. Life is one world, and life seen in the newspapers is another. (Gilbert K. Chesterton)

Stanley Cohen

Lasswell’s (1948) model is a developed version of Aristotle’s 300 B.C. communication model, which had five elements: speaker, speech, occasion, audience and effect. Lasswell (1948) considered the functions of communication, which he gives as surveillance of the environment, correlation of components of society and cultural transmission between generations. Yet his model remained simple and has arguably grown in relevance with the advent of technology as it suits all types of communication.

gests “the ‘story’ of crime is told as much today through the visual image as through the written word”. But whether that ‘story’ truly reflects the reality of crime is another matter. Hayward and Young (2004: 259) believe that the media “attempts to make sense of a world in which the street scripts the screen and the screen scripts the street. Here there is no linear sequence; rather the line between the real and the virtual is profoundly and irrevocably blurred.”

However, critics, such as Gerbner (1956), suggest that the theory is too linear. Gerbner expanded the remit to include “attention on perception and reaction by the perceiver and the consequences of the communication”.

However, it could be argued that sometimes the crimes that happen on the streets are graphic and distressing, for example the murder of Fusilier Lee Rigby and the image of Michael Adebolajo with bloodied hands. But Sontag (1977:20) argues that ‘being subjected to a stream of miserable or horrific images can sap an audience’s ability to react to them’. And Young (2010) suggests that people ‘do not need to see violence to feel it’.

Yet McQuail and Windahl (1993) described the model as “perhaps the most famous single phrase in communication research”. While Lasswell’s (1948) model applies to various technologies and modes of communication, Carrabine (2012) is particularly concerned with the visual; the power and effect of images of crime.

But while the power of the image is not to be underestimated, can it be used in a more positive and influential way? Barthes’s (1981:70) search for a photograph of his mother following her death discusses the gulf between a ‘just image’ and ‘just an image’. It could be argued that the mainstream media are not seeking out those ‘just images’ or exercising caution with regard to the distressing nature of images or their impact on audiences.

“Over the last decade or so, criminologists have become increasingly concerned with the visual – as images of crime, harm and punishment proliferate across new and old media, there is a growing recognition that criminology needs to rethink its relations with the ascendant power of spectacle.” (Carrabine 2012 p.463)

Stanley Cohen’s seminal work ‘Folk Devils and Moral Panics: The Creation of the Mods and Rockers’ asserts that the media can create disproportionately panicked reaction by the way in which news is reported (Cohen, 2002: 27). His work, updated several time since it was first written in 1970, was prompted by youth subcultures. He was looking for a sociological explanation for delinquency in two groups, the Mods and the Rockers and examined how they were reported in the press. But while he says his book was ‘out of date even when it first appeared in 1972’, it remains the starting point for the examination of the inextricable links between crime and the media.

The work of Stinson Hunter, who calls himself the ‘Paedophile Hunter’, is an example of how crime is currently being used as a social media ‘spectacle’. He poses as underage girls and converses with men in Internet chatrooms before arranging to meet them. The meeting between Stinson Hunter and the ‘suspected paedophile’ is recorded and posted online. The details are then passed on to the police, who have been critical of this approach. There have been copycats and the subject of one video hanged himself. But it could be argued that the notion of crime as a ‘spectacle’ could be applied to all media, particularly in today’s multi-mediated world – images, words, social media, rolling news channels, the Internet. The power of the image is inextricably linked with the power of the media. This view is supported by Hayward (2004) who sug-

While Cohen’s work is fundamental to understanding what can happen when the media focuses in on a subject, there are ex-

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ceptions, such as the murder of Stephen Lawrence. Cohen accepts that while the case had all of the hallmarks of a moral panic, it never materialised. This could be due to its proximity in time to the murder of James Bulger by 10-yearolds John Venables and Robert Thompson. Media-fuelled, it is arguably the most prolific case of folk devils and moral panic in this country’s recent history. However, it could be argued that the tables have turned and the media itself has become the ‘folk devil’, following revelations of phonehacking at the Leveson Inquiry into Press Ethics.

published offensive comments on social media websites. For example, Liam Stacey was sent to prison for 56 days in 2012 for posting offensive and racist remarks on Twitter about footballer Fabrice Muamba who collapsed from cardiac arrest during a match (Guardian, 2012). McRobbie and Thornton (1995) said: “The proliferation and fragmentation of mass, niche and micro-media and the multiplicity of voices, which compete and contest the meaning of the issues subject to ‘moral panic’, suggest that both the original and revised models are outdated in so far as they could not possibly take account of the labyrinthine web of determining relations which now exist between social groups and the media, ‘reality’ and representation.” Arguably, this statement is even more relevant now and sets the stage for the development of niche publications such as Criminology Today.

In the intervening years since 1972, media has diversified and now pervades almost all aspects of modern life. The advent of social media and 24-hour rolling news channels means that news in 2015 looks, feels and is accessed very differently. While 45 years ago, newspapers were delivered in time for breakfast and there were scant television and radio news bulletins. Today there is a bombardment of news, accessible every minute of the day or night on smartphones, tablets and laptops, which have almost eclipsed the traditional ways of accessing news. Our society has become multi-mediated.

In a critique of moral panics, Jewkes (2004) suggests that young people are the usual target of moral panics and their behaviour is ‘regarded as a barometer to test the health or sickness of as society’ (Jewkes, 2004, p67). This could be argued in the case of Venables and Thompson. “Ultimately, perhaps, moral panics should be regarded in the way that Cohen intended – as a means of conceptualising the lines of power in society and the ways in which we are manipulated into taking some things too seriously and other things not seriously enough” (Jewkes, 2004, p 85). In contrast, Altheide (2009) emphasises how moral panics ‘encapsulate the fear narrative for news purposes’ and are ‘part of the social control and fear narrative’. He highlights how news reports about crime and fear have contributed to studies into links between crime and fear (such as Pearson, 1983 and Innes, 2003 and 2004) and how moral panics can promote social control through providing a focus for mobilising fear. As McShane and Williams (1995) wrote in Media, Process and the Social Construction of Crime: “One of the most pervasive forms of social control in our society

In juxtaposition to Cohen is ‘Rethinking ‘Moral Panic’ for Multi-Mediated Social Worlds’, by McRobbie and Thornton (1995) who suggest that Cohen’s framework is outdated. They argue that moral panics are not the preserve of the media, but are used by politicians and businesses. Cohen intimated that moral panic was negative, but McRobbie and Thornton argue that they can be used to raise awareness or sell products. They also suggest that more focus should be placed on the consequences of the huge expansion of the media and the increase in numbers of participants in public debate. It should be noted that the media has moved on significantly since their publication and the notion of commenting and taking part in the debate has reached an extreme, even leading to prison sentences for those who have

#dissertation is the mass media… the problem, however, is that full or complete interpretations of reality are not presented.” This, again, provides scope for research into the impact of the reporting or publication of a more realistic view of crime.

issues on ‘public sociology’ and ‘public criminology’ respectively. While individual criminologists and criminal justice practitioners have contributed to public debate occasionally (see Uggen and Inderbitzin, 2006, for examples), few have tried to measure the impact of such contributions on members of the public. However, this may be because there is a feeling of disengagement or a lack of interest. In Feilzer’s (2007) study, a column written by a criminologist was published in a local newspaper for 26 weeks to establish whether it could cultivate a better understanding of crime. However, readership of the column was low and had no measurable impact on readers. She concluded that interest in and absorption of factual information on crime and criminal justice was not as high as previously suggested. Feilzer’s experiment may not have worked because it was featured within an established local newspaper and perhaps did not fit with the readership’s demographic. In contrast, a major Home Office study on sentencing framework in 2000 aimed to test options for changing public attitudes. This research provided information to members of the public through three different media – a leaflet, a video tape, and a seminar – and measured the impact of the information on attitudes towards crime and criminal justice. The research found that levels of knowledge could be improved (Chapman et al., 2002). However, there were several methodological problems such as participants being paid to read the literature.

Pearson (1983) believes that political and media interest in bad behaviour ‘takes on a life of its own’. This can be evidenced in the amount of coverage that is dedicated to crime with serious and rare crimes commanding a high level of newsworthiness (Warr, 1994), suggesting that crime sells newspapers in a similar vein to the old adage of ‘sex sells’. This means that serious and violent crimes such as homicide and rape are disproportionately represented in the news. Warr (2000) argues that the general rule of crime broadcasting is that the more serious a crime is and the less frequently it happens, the more frequently it is reported. Doob and Macdonald (1979) suggest that the portrayal of crime in the mass media does not accurately reflect the reality of crime. Williams and Dickinson’s (1993) study, entitled Fear of Crime: Read All About It, found that 65% of newspaper crime reporting involved violent crime, despite these types of crime making up only 6% of recorded crime. And Glassner (2002) noted a 600% rise in the amount of news coverage dedicated to murder at a time when homicide rates dropped by a fifth. This leads to a distorted perception about the prevalence of crime, particular serious crime and ‘over-sensitises them to their risk of victimisation’ (Jewkes, 2011). Chiricos et al (2000) claimed that the frequency of news consumption is ‘significantly related to fear of crime’. This view is supported by Gerbner et al’s (1976) claim that prevalence of violent crimes was overestimated by people who watched a large amount of television and Graber’s (1980) research which found that 75% of the public believe that the media’s representation of crime is an accurate reflection of crime rates. Criminologists have long been critical of how the media reports and portrays crime. But McShane and Williams (1995) suggest that if criminologists operated in the media they could make news less distorted. Barak (1988) believes that criminologists need to develop technical skills and popular language to become involved in the news-making process and change public attitudes.

Crime continues to be a mainstay of the British media and, in some sectors, it is felt that the some newspapers revel in crime rather than educate readers. This can be evidenced by the numbers of pages dedicated to crime-related stories, the type of language used and the vilification of offenders. For example, a study by Jones and Wardle (2008), found that a some newspapers reporting on the case of Soham murderer Ian Huntley and his then girlfriend Maxine Carr, who was found guilty of conspiring to pervert the course of justice, wrote their accounts in a way which ‘could only encourage readers to draw misleading conclusions’ relating to Carr’s actual involvement in the murders (p.53). Crook (2010, p292) suggested the tabloid press deliberately attempted to ‘build her up into a national hate figure’.

While certain criminologists are regular contributors to television programmes, such as Prof. David Wilson, there is no similar presence in newspapers or magazines. The British Journal of Sociology (2005) and Theoretical Criminology (2007) have produced special

There are rare occasions when crime is highlighted by the press. In 2014, Italian Vogue editor Franca Sozzani dedicated one issue of the high-fashion aspirational magazine to domestic violence. While it focused on male violence towards women, which could be

#dissertation considered somewhat trite in this age of elder abuse and domestic abuse in teenage and same-sex relationships, it used its considerable readership and influence to highlight a prevalent crime. However, Sozzani was criticised by other sections of the press for glamourising domestic violence. She defended the move by saying: “What is important for us is that at least one of the dozens of women suffering violence every day can feel our nearness.” Such glossy magazines feature designer clothing and accoutrements that the average person would be unable to afford and have significantly high cover prices, for example Vogue costs £3.99. This is in stark comparison to the ‘real life’ magazines, which are all priced under £1, for example Take A Break is 99p and That’s Life is 74p. Vogue, which is monthly, has a combined print and digital circulation of 200,141 (Vogue, 2015) while Take A Break has a weekly print circulation of 645,884 (H. Bauer Publishing, 2014 and That’s Life has 260,933 (H. Bauer Publishing, 2014). This shows the vast appetite for this sort of magazine, but while they are not wholly focused on crime their front pages are often dominated with stories of murder, rape and domestic violence. For example, Take A Break’s issue of April 10th, 2015, had two crime stories on its front page – “Stepdad made me his sex slave, aged 6” and “Mum’s killer hid in the laundry basket”. These magazines are also readercentric, offering up to £2,000 for real life experiences, and are commercially outperforming many other print titles, which are suffering decline as readers move towards mobile and Internet technologies. This sector of the media appears to have been overlooked in terms of impact on readers whereas mainstream newspapers have been heavily scrutinised.

be implemented. While threatened, most seriously in 1993, it has never come close to being introduced. This research must, therefore, be set against a backdrop of the media being dominated by the power and influence of news organisation proprietors and only being subject to self-regulation. However, large publishing organisations could use their power and standing to highlight crime and educate readers whether this was in the mainstream or in niche publications. That said, Clark (2013, p101) has warned that press regulation is becoming largely irrelevant and that future problems lie with regulation of the Internet. He warns of an age of ‘information terrorism’ “We’re heading into a future of no regulation, and even worse, an inscrutable world of ‘look the other way’. This is not the same as powerlessness or being without influence. The internet monoliths will have plenty of clout, pretty well unfettered by democratic national governments, which will be used to censor when it suits their commercial purposes. Beyond that they will turn a blind eye, because to them content doesn’t matter, so long as editorial issues do not interfere with the off-shore bottom line” (Clark, 2013 p101). The number of people accessing the Internet currently stands at 3.1 billion, which represents about 40% of the world’s population (Internet Live Stats, 2015). Internet access increased tenfold between 1999 and 2013 and is projected to continue to grow. In 2014, the UK had 57,075,826 Internet users, which equated to 89.90% of the population (Internet Live Stats, 2015). Could this lead to a more complex problem than the current situation with how the press report crime? Are we heading towards an unregulated Internet without a strong criminological voice to redress the bias, misinformation and opinion?

However, with the commercial nature of the press, the likelihood of effecting change in the way crime is reported is minimal. Over the past 60 years, there have been several reviews of press standards and ethics, the end result being the same each time. The most recent review was the Leveson inquiry described as the most “sustained, intricate and comprehensive” (Jewell, 2013 p37) taking ‘testimonies, either in person or in writing, from 650 witnesses, thus generating more than 6,000 pages of evidence’ (Greenslade 2013, p37). Its recommendations included an independent press watchdog by Royal Charter, but no statutory regulations. This follows all previous reviews since the First Royal Commission of the Press in 1947. All have been critical of the significant influence of proprietors and all have called for better self-regulation with the caveat that if this was not successful then statutory measures would

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Methodology

We are living in a

Golden ofApegacee crime, is at its Crime, particularly violent but why doesn’t lowest point for 20 years, it feel like it?

is dominated with stories Is it because the news violent crime? Or is it beof terrorism, murder and cynical about the way crime cause we have become by the media, politiis reported and manipulated cians and police? may not be reflected in How we feel about crime the British Crime Survey but official crime statistics, collect data on perception extends its research to and fear of crime. we exists between the way But while a dichotomy the crimes that are actufeel about crime and our neighbourhoods, towns ally being committed in change this position? and cities, will anything the Institute for Economics According to a study by quarter a has dropped by and Peace, violent crime murder rates are approxiin the past decade and were in 2003. The data mately half of what they a safer place to live than suggest that London is and Britain has seen the Brussels or Amsterdam of any European country. fastest decline in crime at safe to walk our streets So surely we should feel a of impending crime. But night and be less fearful and that is the differing further dichotomy exists media. This study by the response to crime by the and Peace, which examined Institute for Economics hospital admission police recorded crime statistics, British Crime Surthe and data and treatment front pages of the national vey, did not make the of us living in a golden age newspapers. The idea of was story on BBC news. It peace was not the top

pages of the Daily Telsecluded to the comment piece cites Steven egraph. Tom Chiver’s intelligent of our Nature”, Angels Pinker, author of “Better has been declining in who says that violent crime recorded history. On the fits and starts for all of 2013 – The Mirror’s front same day – April 23rd the Boston bomber cut “Did was headline page would have had more best mate’s throat?” Which barbarism? Which would impact? Peace time or The concept of the have resonated with readers? ever or the imminent and world being safer than terrorism? unpredictable threat of the drop in violent crime The IEP suggest that population and the nois due to Britain’s ageing well young man’s game as tion that violence is a and improved as a drop in alcohol consumption believes that Pinker policing techniques. However, reason – money. He there is a more fundamental of trade and commerce suggests that in terms than dead. Pinker also we are more valuable alive of tamterms in marriage of considers the impact literacy and communicaing young men as well as idea is the supprestion. However, his over-riding in men. “The idea that sion of emotion, particularly to great personal and the differential a strong man should react one in 22. For burglaries, slight compression of the ily safe. The is about national calamities by a with one in 18 in 1954 his cigarette into the are, historically speaking, extraordinar is even more pronounced it. lips and by silently throwing 59 now. If England imprissays crime writer problem is that people don’t believe origin,” recent compared with one in very of it did 50 fireplace is by oned the same ratio of people today that that is not considered Dorothy Sayers. There is a component be around 300,000 people that the drop in violent years ago, there would population of of dignity, which emerged the IEP study and that is of the prison in prison compared to the current Born out of the culture we started to crime coincides with the doubling 2014). honour, of Reform, Penal culture for to replace our 85,544 (Howard League in the face of the world’s population in Britain. present as unemotional with debate in America, where from the stance of avengThere has been a similar rapid rise in crime coincided trials. This was a far cry Elias called this the In the 1980s, the increased violent crime has fallen far more dramatically ing wrongs. Sociologist Norbert with a large part a fall in the incarceration rate and an with all up credits it warnings. Studies UK. Sociologists have come “civilising process”, and of lead use of cautions and unrecorded the falling risk than in the saves lives. ranging from a reduction between theories, links of of our modern safety. Self-control strong sorts to have found From 1993, Home in petrol affecting the behaviour of young men another phenomenon of punishment and rising crime. This fact helps to explain the use of prison was the legalisation of abortion. in the worldwide reversal, Office policy changed and in our recent history: especially for repeat offenders. trend in violence: another constant is there too, the Sixties, of the downward Partly it was the encouraged, But in America, prison doubled. introduced a series down of much harsher suddenly, violent crime men born in the The last Labour Government at increasing prison factor: the handing numyoung of large millions kept of has coming of age ral of criminal justice laws aimed sentences since the 1980s it was the countercultu is hard to believe The US incarcerbaby boom and partly the terms for violent offences. It criminals off the streets. of norms bers the is exactly years problem as it did 20 revolution, which targeted between the two. The four times as many people especially self-control. there is no link penal reform lobby, ates fallen commensucivilising process had built, that there is a very powerful and the crime rate has said, do it. and sentence deny any causation: the ago If it feels good, as the slogan which is determined to In fact, imprisonment rates might work” is unthink- rately. in America than in the post-Sixties violence re- very notion that “prison lengths are much higher But even at its worst, in this field. folwhy burglary, robbery earlier times, and in the able to many campaigners UK, which might also explain mained at a fraction of On the again: by 2010, in the US least puni- and car thefts are also lower in the US. lowing decades it dropped UK still has one of the roughly the world, it had just about Even so, the fewer incarcerations other hand, Canada has experienced with and most of the Western Europe in the same lengthencounat in 1950, although Britain tive systems than in many European reached the level it was same decline in crime without rate decline, as unexpected per 100 offences The yet. incarceration there sentences. the back crimes, is not ing of prison by unemployment tries. With some 2006, police recorded as the spike, was unaffected such as is minute. For example, in in its argument that events cogent by is or were study IEP inequality, offenders While the but only 26,300 levels, by rates of its data World Trade Center on 889,000 break-ins – an impris- we are living in a golden age of peace, the terror attacks on the a convicted. Of these, 13,350 were jailed in 25 of us will be a vicare once again living in suggests that while one September 11th 2001. We 1.5 per cent. to the overwhelming onment rate of of us think we will be. And tim of crime, a quarter time of peace unimaginable These latest IEP figures were more likely to go that media coverage has it could be suggested majority of our ancestors. Historically, too, offenders the same meandering now. In 1954, one in three that view. are another step along to jail in the past than today, the ratio compounded millennia. It’s a path that led to a jail sentence; path we’ve been on for but right now, we robberies 05 moment, any at deviate could

Crime at lowest rate for 20 years

Sex offender lo What does a

ok like?

Pictured: Self-styled ‘Paedophile Hunter’ Stinson Hunter

Sex offenders, particularly paedophiles, are perhaps the most vilified and pilloried group of criminals.

And attached to that predisposed view of sex offenders is a series of physical attributes including greasy, lank hair, bulging eyes behind thick glasses, oily skin and thin lips. The mental image is grubby, possibly creepy. However, the reality is distinctly different.

It was Italian criminologist and physician Cesare Lombroso who devised the notion that criminality was inherited and those who were ‘born criminal’ had distinctive physical characteristics. These included simian features, sloping forehead, unusual ear size, asymmetry of the face, protruding jaw and excessive arm length. His 19th Century work, now feels outdated. But it who have committed is this simplistic view that offences as diverse as is being attached to the rape, child sexual idea of sex abuse, possession offenders, which, it could or transmission of child be argued, is fuelled by pornography, and media cover- indecent exposure. age and the activities of Offenders can be adults self-styled ‘Paedophile Hunter’ or juveniles, male Stinson or female, and of any age. Acts Hunter and websites such defined as sexual offences as www.ukpaedosexposed.c vary across religions, cultures, om. nations, and states, and However, the terms sex definitions of sexual offences change offender and paedophile over time based on prevailing have become cial norms. entangled and are used so” However, interchangeably. Criminologist the term paedophile refers specifically to Karen those attracted Terry explains: “The term to prepubescent children, ‘sex offender’ is applied says Criminologist to individuals Kelly Richards.

he purpose of this research is to investigate whether perception of crime can be altered when presented with more balanced reporting of criminological issues. This chapter will look at conceptual and theoretical influences, the research methods, results from previous publications, and the development Criminology Today.

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By three methods we may learn wisdom: First, by reflection, which is noblest; Second, by imitation, which is easiest; and third by experience, which is the bitterest. (Confucius)

But due to the way both terms are used, there could be defunct news confusion as to the breadth of the World newspaper’s of offences. While the campaign to ‘name content and shame’ of indecent images is ranked paedophiles, launched on a scale of one to five after the murder of Sarah – the Payne in 2000. It latter being the most serious led to hundreds of people – using the COPIne (Combating gathering outside Paedophile Information the homes of convicted networks in england) and sex offenders and a vigilante Sentencing on the home attack Advisory Panel scales, there of a paediatrician. The is no such ranking applied campaign was dropped to the shortly afterwards swathe of sex offences. following claims that it Perhaps it is time to update had incited vigilantthe COPIne ism. This same scale, which was developed criticism could in the 1990s, and use it be levelled at Stinson to develop who was featured Hunter, a way to distinguish between in a Channel 4 documentar offences. For example, y aired in July someone 2014. He poses as young who committed low-level people in internet chatrooms sexual assault could be described as ranges to meet potential and ara Category 1 sex offender offenders. He and his crew while a predatory paedophile then film who the meeting and question has abused a child could the alleged offender before be classed as a Category posing 10 sex of- their ‘evidence’ online fender. This could lead and submitting it to the to better understandin police. Michael g and, possibly, Parkes hanged himself more tolerance of the range after being subject of a of offending that is encapsulate Stinson Hunter under the heading of sex d sting. Following the inquest into his death, a spokesman offending. for northamptonshire Police said: “We do not condone However, while the media or support the actions of Stinson continues with its broad-brush Hunter.” And, Warwickshire ap- West Mercia proach to sex offenders Police and Police issued a joint statement coupled with the high-profile stating they did work of not condone Stinson Hunter, there is his methods and adding likely to be a fear and misundersta that his actions “could nd- have serious consequenc ing of sex offenders. This has been demonstrate es”, including compromisin d by the now gations.. g investi-

While the mainstream media is concerned with telling the ‘story’, particularly in relation to crime, there is little thought given to the impact of images and words on the reader. Visual criminology tries to make sense of this. However, with the world being a multi-mediated place the idea of separating images and words becomes increasingly difficult. Visual criminology is central to this research in that Criminology Today – Research Edition is a highly visual publication utilising Carrabine’s (2012) notion of ‘the power of the image’ and marrying it up with powerful words. While Carrabine’s work has been tested in terms of images, this takes it in a new direction; in essence testing the power of multi-media.

A cAse of m

despite it being the subject prime-time of countless televi

However, while Carrabine (2012) suggests a rethinking of crime as a ‘spectacle’, it could be argued that the media utilises the ‘spectacle’ in a bid to get readers interested. This is something that was considered carefully in the design of the magazine, especially in terms of having a striking front page.

urder...

films, murder sion dramas, books and for true crime experiences. is actually a rare crime. Countless drama crime to unders From Midsom series are watche tand the nature er Murders of viewers each out there of the threat to Broadchurch Miss Marple and to learn week, for examp d by millions s to Poirot, audien and million people what victims le a reported made thems the mystery ces are drawn tuned in to did that elves vulner of murder. watch the finale 8.7 ries to first series able,” he said. Added to this help women running Americ of Broadchurch of the “The stoare long- Howev generate a an television (Independen list of cautio er, these shows and Dexter, series such t, 2015). actually could help ns that in which the , coupled with as CSI crime them avoid murders have counterparts becoming victims increasingly their true of abusive spouse become Darkes siniste such as FBI s, dangerous Files, t Taboos and psychopath strangers and could be dismis r and sadistic. But while next door. The Forensic Detect Britain’s the these are sed as fiction proble aired there has also ives, which who consume al m is that people on dedicated a lot of been a signific entertainment, be influen crime chann petite for true ant rise in els, could much more parano true crime tales likely the ap- Gerbne cing how we feel about feel crime progra id, anxious and crime. George articles (Schm mmes, books r’s (1976) Cultiva vulnerable.” id, 2012). and the more time people tion Theory suggests that The mass media, particularly spend watchi So have we the down-m the more likely become desen ng television, tabloids in Britain appea arket their view of sitised to murde r fixated on pecially cases the world will what they murder, esr? see on televis In the past reflect that have been 10 years, the ion. In referen distic or ritualis crime, it sugges ultra-violent, British public lowed the Americ ce tic. sats to This, misrep it could be has fol- ers and resentations an trend by argued, only victims as of offend- serves to perpetuate cious appeti developing well as overthe notion te for a vora- of certain Drew and is representatio of Grabe and crimes will result works of Jeffery all things crime. The supported by n fiction the reporting in the viewer Deaver, Lee and Ruth Rende Child, Val McDer al distorted view of reality. of cases having a such as that of Matthe w Williams. The However, Grabe ll sell million mid (2007) s of copies found little and are compl Mirror and Drew ried the headline “‘Cann each year associ evidence of emented by ibal’ killer found carcultural affects ING woman’s ated with crime a diet of true books, often ‘CHEWface’ in hotel seen as pulp crime find drama, althou room before some eviden and tabloid content but gh they did tasered by police” he was ce for cultiva in their non-fic . are devoured tion theory in their million down-market tional violenc with s, and Schmid e. English magazines, which pay professor David But all types of murde (2012) sugges up to £250 r in the UK rare, ts that are incredibly accounting true crime books more for one per than men. “Wome women read Accord 100,000 popula ing to the n turn to true tion. Office for National (2014): Statistics

● Over recen t years, the number of cides has shown recorded homia downward for 2012/13 trend and the (551) and numbers 2011/12 (530) since 1989 were the lowest (521). ● In 2012/13

tims (69%)

more than two-thirds of homicide were male. vic-

●

Women were far more likely by partners/ex-p than men to be killed artners, and men were far than wome n to be killed more likely by friends/acqu aintances. ● In 2012/13, there were 67 homicide under 16 years. victims aged Of those 40 were killed step-parent by a parent and eight were or killed by a strang er. ● The most common metho to be by sharp d of killing continued instrument (such as a ken bottle). knife or broIn 2012/13, there were in this way, 194 victims accounting killed for around homicides. one in three of all

● In 2012/13, 29 people were killed fewer than by shooting, in 2011/12 and 11 the lowest 1980 (19). number since

‘sap an audience’s ability to react to them’. This research aimed to strike the balance between the images and words used.

Hayward’s (2004) view that “the ‘story’ of crime is told as much today through the visual image as through the written word” is also fundamental to this research. With this in mind, the magazine was designed with a balanced aesthetic: large, bold images with clear, concise articles. But in the pursuit of a balanced aesthetic, it was decided not to use images that were graphic or distressing. It should be noted that it is difficult to deviate from the sort of images that people associate with crime. While the images are a visual representation of the crime featured in the articles, they are perhaps less salacious than those used in the mainstream media. It was felt that there was a need for the images to engage the reader, rather than alienate them. This reflects Sontag’s (1977:20) suggestion that being subjected to a plethora of distressing images can

The development of the magazine builds upon on previous publications. Criminology Today and its partner publication Criminal Justice Today were published on March 3rd, 2014 as part of the researcher’s work-based learning module. Since then, Criminology Today – accessible at http://issuu.com/criminologytoday/docs/ criminology_today_magazine – received 2,815 page impressions and 390 reads. Criminal Justice Today – accessible at http://issuu. com/criminaljusticetoday/docs/criminal_justice_today – received 1,612 page impressions and 233. The notion of the magazine – which can be viewed at http://issuu. com/criminologytoday/docs/criminology_today_magazine-2 – fits within the framework of visual criminology.

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and that there would be no gaps in the data collected. It was also to “expand the breadth of research to offset the weaknesses of either approach alone (Blake 1989; Greene, Caracelli and Graham 1989; Rossman and Wilson 1991) and developing a “mixed way of seeing” and an “orientation toward looking at the social world” (Green, 2007).

The emergence of mixed methods as a third methodological movement in the social and behavioural sciences began during the 1980s (Tashakkori and Teddlie, 2003 p.697)

“

As there is no fixed list of mixed methods, this fitted the research and enabled the researcher to ‘develop a design that answers their own research questions within the constraints and boundaries of the study context (Johnson and Onwuegbuzie, 2004: 20). Using an experimental concurrent mixed method design, the research entailed different types of questions, such as closed, open and Likert-scale questions, so that participants provided both qualitative and quantative data which could be compared (Cresswell and Plano Clark, 2007: 118). However, mixed methods has drawn criticism because of the changing and expanding definitions of mixed methods research and there are calls for users to “recognise that it is a field still in adolescence” (Tashakkori and Teddlie, 2003). This was considered, but the researcher felt that using mixed methods reflected the changing nature of digital communication.

Mixed methodology Mixed methods research enables the collection, analysis and integration of qualitative and quantative data, in a single study. Due to the complex nature of the research design, it was felt that one methodology would not be sufficient to gather the data required. The rationale for using a mixed methodology included: greater validity of data, seeking to answer the research questions from different perspectives, it gather different types of data at the same time,

As well as the primary data, secondary research in the form of official statistics was also used. The analysis of secondary data

#dissertation enabled the researcher to compare statistics and trends across different areas (Royce, 2004). Silverman (2000: 45) argues that ‘secondary analysis of other peoples data is to be commended rather than condemned’. Moreover, Champion (2006: 321) argues that the strengths of using secondary sources far outweigh any limitations or disadvantages.

most likely to bring about results, the difficulty of measuring perception was considered at length. According to Nelson (2008), perception is the subjective process of acquiring, interpreting and organising sensory information. With this in mind, the survey questions were designed to establish how participants make sense of crime and measure the extent to which such perceptions affect individual attitudes. This is particularly evidenced in the Likert scaletype questions in the post-task survey in which participants were asked to what degree their opinions had changed.

The data was then triangulated in a bid to give more insight into the subject and to highlight inconsistencies and irregularities. Triangulation involves the conscious combination of quantitative and qualitative methodologies as “a powerful solution to strengthen a research design where the logic is based on the fact that a single method can never adequately solve the problem of rival causal factors” (Denzin 1978; Patton 1990; De Vos 1998).

One of the central themes of this research is balanced reporting and whether this can effect a change in attitudes and understanding of crime. The word balanced was chosen carefully to reflect an emphasis on giving equal weight to various points of view. The point of the magazine was to be less biased than the newspaper organisations that dominate the marketplace, which have political and personal bias in spades. However, it should be noted that this publication will have been influenced by the author’s personal bias, something shaped by an individual’s experiences, values and background. This fits with Becker’s (1967) view that any form of analysis or work is partisan. However, Liebling (1999) counters this argument saying that it is possible for a publication to be unbiased. In this case, efforts have been made to present fair and balanced information, although it will be subject to a level of personal bias.

Digital ethnography This research utilises digital ethnography, which is predominantly concerned with online questionnaires, digital video, social networking websites and blogs, by being developed as a wholly digital project. Participants were encouraged to take part using social media and asked to complete everything online. They were not given paper copies for any aspect of the research. Murthy (2008) suggests that while there is a proliferation of digital technology, digital ethnography has not truly infiltrated academic research. He said that physical ethnography remains the preferred methods, however, digital ethnography is used more covertly, such as in research connected with sex and deviance. Digital ethnography was chosen to reflect the 21st century multi-mediated world. While there are limitations, such as reaching specific demographics, this could also be argued for physical ethnography. Also, the notion of making the research completely digital was to test the topic on a similar platform to national newspapers and magazines, which are accessible by people across the world, and to reflect the continuing decline of print media which is falling at an average rate of 8% per year (The Guardian, 2014).

The magazine was produced in line with newspaper industry process. Articles were checked to ensure that they conformed to the Contempt of Court Act 1981 and the Defamation Act 2013. The photographs were sourced from Thinkstock, which is a royaltyfree, high definition library of images. Each double-page spread was laid out in Adobe’s InDesign software suite in line with industry principles including font size, word count, size and placement of images and headlines and sub-editing. The font selections were Helvetica, which is regularly used in a variety of media publications, and Gnuolane, a serious headline font. Helvetica has a variety of styles from ultra-light to black, making it flexible for use in body text, sub-headings and headlines. It is condensed, easy to read and has a modern feel. Gnolane, while a less well-used font, was deemed to reflect the serious nature and tone of the articles.

Research design

The pages were transferred into one portable document format (pdf) before being uploaded to the free publishing platform ISSUU. com on March 1st, 2015. Within the document, three web links were embedded, for informed consent and the pre and post-task surveys. All three were hosted by surveymonkey.com.

This research is a piece of action research, which is defined as “a form of research that generates knowledge claims for the express purpose of taking action to promote social change and social analysis” (Greenwood and Levin, 1998, p6). It is distinct from theoretical research, which is carried out as an academic exercise. In this research, there is an active attempt to give more balanced and in-depth information about crime and record influences and perceptions of crime before reading Criminology Today – Research Edition and then again afterwards. It also examines the current situation in regards to crime reporting in the media and puts forward a robust response for the future.

Posts on social media platforms, including Facebook and Twitter, encouraged participation, but the magazine is free and available globally. ISSUU.com is used predominantly for niche publications and has a global reach of 80 million readers. However, it should be noted that while the above gives details on how to replicate this study for reliability and validity purposes, it would have to be undertaken by someone with significant skills and experience in newspaper and magazine design and editing.

Views were measured both before and after reading the magazine to see if there was a difference. But while this method was deemed

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Ethics is the science of morality; those who engage with it determine values for the regulation of human behaviour. (Homan, 1991; 1)

â&#x20AC;&#x153;

Ethical Considerations

he British Society of Criminologyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s code of ethics sets out guidelines and responsibilities to prevent unethical treatment of participants in the course of research.

the pre- and post-task survey responses. However, there is a need to ensure that responses cannot be connected to individual participants (De Vaus, 2005). Participants were given an assurance that their names would be redacted from the final report, unless contacted for permission to use their data in a different way. When the results were processed each participant was given an identification number. Informed consent was gathered in order to brief the perspective participants about the true nature of the research (Bryman, 2008; 123). This involved an explanation of the research aims and intentions and the completion of a short questionnaire. All of the responses are to be kept by the researcher for a period of no more than 12 months after which they will be destroyed.

In line with this code, ethical considerations were made prior to starting this research in order to assess the risk of harm to participants and in relation to the subsequent use and storage of the data collected. As this research was optional and asked about opinions and thoughts on crime, no risk of physical harm and very little risk of mental harm (Bryman, 2008: 118) were foreseen. The most significant concern pertained to data protection and confidentiality. Under the Data Protection Act 1998, there are strict rules governing how personal information can be used. Confidentiality refers to the assurance that information and data collected from research participants are not published in such a way that it is possible to link them to specific individuals (Monette et al., 2008). The Data Protection Act has eight main principles (Bryman, 2008; 119) with the most pertinent to this research being that the data is: used for limited, specifically stated purposes; kept for no longer than is absolutely necessary; and kept safe and secure. Participants were asked for their names, more from a practical aspect to match up

Further consideration was given to the contents of the magazine, which were thoroughly checked to ensure that they were within the bounds of media law. This involved scrutiny of each case mentioned within the articles. All had been through the due legal process therefore conform to the Contempt of Court Act 1981. In one case, the subject is dead (see Michael Parkes, p.11 Criminology Today), so neither piece of legislation is applicable.

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Results and Analysis

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However beautiful the strategy, you should occasionally look at the results. (Winston Churchill)

he presentation of results begins with the statistics from the two publications – Criminology Today and Criminal Justice Today – which preceded this research. In terms of this research, it will give the overall results and explain why some of the responses could not be used. It will also look at the statistics from Criminology Today – Research Edition, such as which pages participants spent the most time reading and how many times the magazine has been visited. It will examine the pre-task and post-task surveys results. Taking the useable data forward, it will look at any extractable trends and headline results.

were closed, noon on April 1st, 2015.

Participants were asked to complete three elements, namely an informed consent form, a pre-task survey and a post-task survey via embedded links on pages 2 and 18 of the magazine. The initial results were that 39 people had accessed at least one element. Of these, 31 participants had undertaken all three tasks. Of the eight incomplete submissions, Participants 37, 38 and 39 did not complete the informed consent and the pre-task survey, so their responses have been discounted. Participant 28 did not complete the pre-task survey and participants 20 and 26 did not complete the post-task survey, so their results were also removed. Participants 23 and 25 said they had not read the research explanation and didn’t understand why they were taking part despite giving informed consent, so it would be unethical to use these responses.

The magazine – Criminology Today: Research Edition – was published on March 1st, 2015. It was live for 31 days with surveys being closed on April 1st, 2015. The magazine remains available for viewing, so the results were taken at the same time as the surveys

Table 1: Criminology Today and its partner publication Criminal Justice Today were first published on March 3rd, 2014 as part of the researcher’s work-based learning module. Since then, Criminology Today received 2,790 page impressions split over three technologies: • Desktop (61%) • Mobile (25%) • Tablet (14%)

CT CRIMINOLOGY TODAY research special edition

386 reads in the following countries: • UK (predominant) • Ireland • Canada • USA • Mexico • Bolivia • Norway • Sweden • Demark

• Germany • Spain • France • Belgium • The Netherlands • Poland • Lithuania • Hungary • Bosnia and Herzegovina

• Albania • Greece • Nigeria • South Africa • UAE • India • China • The Philippines • Australia

The publication has 11 followers and has been liked and shared seven times.

THE FACE OF A SEX OFFENDER? FEATURING: • YOUTH OF TODAY • MURDER MYSTERY • ENCOUNTERING EXTREMISM

CJT CRIMINAL JUSTICE TODAY

Criminal Justice Today received 1,605 page impressions also split over: • Desktop (86%) • Tablet (14%)

230 reads and was read in: • UK (predominant) • USA

• Belgium • Qatar

• Spain • Italy

It has three followers and has been liked three times and shared four times.

Jury’s Out? FEATURING: • ANTI-SOCIAL MEDIA • SOCIAL HARM • ‘POVERTY PAWN’ • WORKPLACE HARMS

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Table 2: How Criminology Today - Research Edition was accessed

READING DEVICES

Publication Performance

22% TABLET

28% MOBILE

50% DESKTOP

EDS MB

SUU

29% ISSUU

71% EMBEDS

Table 3: Countries where Criminology Today - Research Edition was viewed Publication Performance

United Kingdom United States of America United Arab Emirates Canada Sweden Belgium Ireland

READERS FROM AROUND THE WORLD

279 25 15 6 1 1 1

Greece Italy Australia Germany Czech Republic Turkey

1 1 1 1 1 1

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READS

Publication PerformancePerformance Table 4: Publication 60

50 40

25 19

20 15

14 10

11 1

Mar 2

Mar 5

Mar 8

Mar 11

Mar 14

Mar 17

Mar 20

Mar 23

Mar 26

Mar 29

Publication PerformancePerformance Table 5: Publication

READ TIME

4:04:04

4:01:28