History and Theory of Architecture
N A T E? NATUR N? M O R F O AWAY EDIATI S M U F E O K E OL E TA HNIQU SUPPOSE A R C E T S RE DOE ITECTU H C R A OES
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Table of contents
Culture as a distance Page 2
Introducing concepts A historical difference The negation of the relation
Travail, ways and meanings Page 5
The loss of touch Nature as a moyen
Architecture as balancing answer Page 8
The excess of exploitation The research of a measured rapport What vernacular knowledge offers
Conclusions Page 11
Bibliography Page 12
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The term of natural refers to what is existing or formed by nature, understood as something which grows spontaneously, without being planted or tended by human hand. In contrast, absolutely opposed to natural, appears the term of artificial: made by human skill, produced by humans. This last one has had always a slightly negative connotation lacking naturalness or spontaneity. Something artificial is recognized as something simulated, imposed arbitrarily, and taken to the extreme, as a sham. Aristotle was one of the first ones in confronting these two terms. It is actually an ancient dichotomy, in which the natural is made alike to something organic, spontaneous, alive, autonomous… whereas the artificial to something without soul or even dead. This way the product made by the human has always been despised throughout history. In addition to this, it might be considered the influence of religion which has set on our minds the idea of Divine nature as something unreachable superior to artificial production. Somehow, this superiority of the natural remained in the subconscious of the human being. Romanticism was characterized by its emphasis on emotion and individualism as well as glorification of all the past and nature. In Art, Caspar David Friedrich’s work was all about the supremacy of nature over humanity: The Sublime. Wanderer above the sea of fog is an immense landscape in which the man is feeling lost.
The concept of nature has accompanied the human being along all his existence, nevertheless it is about a complex term with slightly nuanced meanings: Firstly, nature is the universe itself with all its phenomena but it is also considered the total sum of the forces at work throughout the universe. On the other hand, nature is also understood as the material world, especially as surrounding humankind and existing independently of human activities. Said in other words, it is the natural world as it exists without human beings or civilization.
Wanderer above the sea of fog by C.D. Friedrich (1818)
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Simultaneously, in the field of Literature, two more romantic examples emerged representing different approaches and thoughts about this topic. On the one side, as an important poet of nature, there is Wordsworth. He is a worshipper of nature. His love of nature was probably truer, and tenderer, than that of any other English poet, before or since. Nature comes to occupy in his poem a separate or independent status and is not treated in a casual or passing manner as by poets before him. Wordsworth had a full-fledged philosophy, a new and original view of nature. Wordsworth believed that we can learn more of man and of moral evil and good from nature than from all the philosophies. In his eyes, “Nature is a teacher whose wisdom we can learn, and without which any human life is vain and incomplete.” He believed in the education of man by nature. In this he was somewhat influenced by Rousseau. This inter-relation of nature and man is very important in considering Wordsworth’s view of both. This artistic movement also coincided with the Transcendentalist movement in the Western world. A common classical idea of beautiful art involves the word mimesis, the imitation of nature. Artificial has had always an inextricably bound up with art and nature has been always the object of imitation because of its perfection. Afterwards a contradictory concept will be born in society, the Artificial Nature. This oxymoron will pose problems caused by the changes in the relationship between man and nature.
Lord Byron believed nature to be its own entity, not a “soul” to be associated with that of mankind. The depiction of nature in his poetry whereby nature is both warm and aggressive at the same time. Increasingly the valuing of nature became an aspect of Western culture. The technique as a socio-cultural and historical practice had its interaction with nature. This is why the hierarchy changed with the vision of the “Magician man” in which man was endowed with a divine creative power analogous to God’s. Since then, the man was considered able to understand the course of nature and thus has the power to interfere in it in order to generate something new or to reorganise the old. This new vision came through the relationship between the two spheres: the natural and the artificial. Hermeticism conceives nature as dominated by and subject to “The Magician man and his instrument”. In this way, the hierarchy of values undergoes a transformation. Nature happens to be inferior to the artefacts “products of magical arts”. At the end of the 19th century, it begins to perceive the decentralization of the human being as the best creative focus in Earth. Nature is back in the spotlight. Closely linked with the beliefs of the Romantics, Transcendentalists such as Ralph W. Emerson insists on the importance of this link between man and nature. In his essay "Nature", Emerson lays out and attempts to solve an abstract problem: that humans do not fully accept nature’s beauty. He writes that people are distracted by the demands of the world, whereas nature gives but humans fail to reciprocate. In the essay Emerson explains that to experience the “wholeness” with nature for which we are naturally suited, we must be separate from the flaws and distractions imposed on us by society. Emerson believed that solitude is the single mechanism through which we can be fully engaged in the world of nature, writing “To go into solitude, a man needs to retire as much from his chamber as from society. I am not solitary whilst I read and write, though nobody is with me. But if a man would be alone, let him look at the stars.” When a person experiences true solitude, in nature, it “takes him away”. Society, he says, destroys wholeness, whereas “Nature, in its ministry to man, is not only the material, but is also the process and the result. All the parts incessantly work into each other’s hands for the profit of man. The wind sows the seed; the sun evaporates the sea; the wind blows the vapour to the field; the ice, on the other side of the planet, condenses rain on this; the rain feeds the plant; the plant
On the other side, there is Lord Byron who undoubtedly shared this romantic point of view but however his individuality was still more prominent. He never mingles nature with his individuality, unlike Wordsworth. Nature in Byron is evocative of both the light and dark forces of life; Byron portrays nature in a realistic manner that in itself is exotic and mysterious. Essentially, he wrote what he saw of nature around him. Following lines from Childe Harold’s Pilgrimage are important to sum up perfectly the concept of nature in Byron:
There is pleasure in the pathless woods, There is rapture on the lonely shore, There is society, where none intrude, By the deep sea, and music in its roar, I love not man the less, but Nature more.
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feeds the animal; and thus the endless circulations of the divine charity nourish man.” When Aristotle describes man in general as a "reasonable animal", he already emphasizes the difference which separates him from other living beings, and the distance which he establishes in relation to ordinary animality. While the animal obeys its instincts and can only realize the program, the human being has in it only impulses allowing him to vary its achievements and to be transformed according to his first knowledge. If hunger is, at the outset, a natural need of physiology alone, the definition of what is edible as well as the ways of preparing it have nothing in common with nature. It can be generalized that everything that in man is first given by nature is elaborated in many ways, to the point where, ultimately, the human body is never accepted or exhibited in its original state. Even the body becomes a body by cultures, and is therefore defined as "human" by the modifications brought to it. Therefore, Karl Marx was far from mistaken when he wrote the following lines about the Alienation from nature, “Humans, this view asserts, feel themselves to be independent of nature, and masters of it, and believe science makes it possible to bend nature to their will; in fact, however, they are part of nature, themselves subject to its laws, and any act to change it potentially rebounds back to humanity’s (and nature’s) own peril”. Bruno Latour, in We have never been moderns (1991), criticizes the distinction between nature and society. He states that our sciences emphasize the subject-object and the nature-culture dichotomies. He claims we must rework our thinking to conceive of a "Parliament of Things" wherein natural phenomena, social phenomena and the discourse about them are not seen as separate objects to be studied by specialists, but as hybrids made and scrutinized by the public interaction of people, things and concepts. Although the human being does not cease to constantly deny in every aspect of life his very close relationship - of dependence - with nature, it is inconceivable to think of a world without it.
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The city represents the ultimate example of this increasing distance between human and nature. In the course of civilization, man has been the promoter of numerous and diverse forms of settlement ending in the city. The human being has designed the city to be its "natural" habitat, a place where it can orderly establish a series of relations with other individuals, that is to say a society. Thereby the city becomes the new living space. For now forty years, the main concern of architecture has been the city. But how is the city? Susannah Hagan in Taking shape (2001) writes “The datum of a city seems to be a grid or a labyrinth, not soil nor subsoil”. The city according to Aldo Rossi is almost exclusively mineral as he states in his Architecture of the City (1982). This book was defined as a study of architecture, in fact, its subject is the whole city, not only different buildings in the city and the urban visual image, but also the city's construction process. However in this new space of interaction there is practically no place for nature. At this point, it is opportune to recall the quote of Bruno Latour "Without representation, nature cannot speak to us". Man has certainly lost his instincts as well as his origins –the nature. It is unavoidable to mention the vernacular architecture as an essential reference to reconnect architecture and nature. Sibyl Moholy-Nagy refers to this architecture using the term of native understood as innate, natural. Vernacular architecture is designed based on local needs, availability of construction materials and reflecting local traditions. This form of primary architecture is undeniably rooted in the geography as it is directly linked to the territory –the natural. In the Encyclopaedia of Vernacular Architecture, Paul Oliver underlines the importance of the correlation between architecture and natural resources. It would make more sense to “attempt to return to traditional ways of establishing the location and identify a settlement according to the physical characteristics of the site” (Susannah Hagan, Taking shape, 2001) rather than enforcing arbitrary political impositions. Nature is for sure our first and unique resources provider. But its power is not simply limited to substantial goods but goes much further. Nature is definitely our main source of inspiration and has been the origin of a myriad of studies and theories throughout history. In his book Nature and Architecture, P. Portoghesi search archetypes with which to express, through symbols, the origin of
The philosophical analysis of travail, carried out from Rousseau to Marx via Hegel, shows that it consists of a double transformation: firstly of substantial matter, but also, and simultaneously of man himself. So that the remoteness of man in relation to nature never ceases to be accentuated, insofar as the shaping of matter produces a man different from what it was. ~5~
architectural forms in nature. For F. Otto, nature is obviously included in the form finding process whilst human participation is unlinked within this quasiscientific process of Gestaltwerdung. Even L. Sullivan took nature as a reference when he sentenced: “Whether it be the sweeping eagle in his flight or the open apple-blossom, the toiling work horse, the blithe swan, the branching oak, the winding stream at its base, the drifting clouds- over all the coursing sun, form ever follow function, and this is the law.” But the technique isn’t satisfied enough with imitating nature, mimetism, for aesthetic expression. To modify an adage from Arthur C. Clarke, any sufficiently advanced technology is indistinguishable from life. Life, or nature, has had millions of years to finely-tune mechanisms and structures, such as photosynthesis or spider's silk, that work better than current technologies, require less energy and produce no life-unfriendly waste. The emulation of this technology is the goal of biomimicry. Humankind has studied nature for inspiration in solving all kinds of problems, not just architectural or building.
against wind loads. His Chicago Spire, evocative of a twisting snail shell, is slated to be the tallest structure in North America. The most deeply biomimetic buildings are those that utilize functional properties learned from nature. Calatrava’s spire comes 80 years after Frank Lloyd Wright used the idea of a tree taproot to design tall buildings based on a deep foundation supporting a central pillar, with floors cantilevered like branches—now standard practice. Another example is the passive cooling system at Zimbabwe’s Eastgate Center, which mimics how African termite mounds maintain a constant internal temperature despite wide temperature swings. The Eastgate Center, designed by Mick Pearce, uses cold night air to cool the building mass. Daytime air is then drawn in through the first floor, is cooled by the mass, and rises up through the building to ventilate out chimneys. As a result, the structure uses less than 10 percent of the energy of a typical building its size. Examples of useful innovations derived from natural processes in the plant kingdom are endless: solar panels designed to track the sun like sunflowers, roof planes designed to draw water to a central downspout like leaves drawing water down a stem, service ducts integrated with structural members and material around branching structural nodes thickened to strengthen the joint and reduce torque. Although humans comprise only a minuscule proportion of the total living biomass on Earth, the human effect on nature is disproportionately large. Because of the extent of human influence, the boundaries between what humans regard as nature and "made environments" is not clear cut except at the extremes. Even at the extremes, the amount of natural environment that is free of discernible human influence is diminishing at an increasingly rapid pace. The development of technology by the human race has allowed the greater exploitation of natural resources and has helped to alleviate some of the risk from natural hazards. In spite of this progress, however, the fate of human civilization remains closely linked to changes in the environment. There exists a highly complex feedback loop between the use of advanced technology and changes to the environment that are only slowly becoming understood. Man-made threats to the Earth's natural environment include pollution, deforestation, and disasters such as oil spills. Humans have contributed to the extinction of many plants and animals. Nevertheless,
Studiomobile’s installations are working living machines where nature and built landscape live in symbiosis. They suggest a future imaginary where it is impossible to see the dividing line between naturalized architecture and plugged nature and between living machines and artificial organisms. Networking Nature is a laboratory imitating a natural ecosystem including the hydrologic cycle and the process of rainwater formation.
Even Leonardo da Vinci studied birds in his quest to create a flying machine that eventually inspired the Wright Brothers. These expressions, while largely aesthetic, sometimes lead to new breakthroughs that reveal underlying order. When Calatrava used the twisting of the human torso as a metaphor for a building, he inadvertently made a major breakthrough in building engineering: spiraling structures behave remarkably well ~6~
humans employ nature for both leisure and economic activities. The acquisition of natural resources for industrial use remains the primary component of the world's economic system. Karl Marx already alluded to this tendency in his reflection on the Alienation from nature: “the clearest expression of our alienation, it is also claimed, lies in the way we treat the natural environment.” Rather than learning from nature, from its complexity, its organismic and holistic character, we treat it as a mere matter to be manipulated for purely human purposes, destroying forests and wetlands in the name of development, killing lakes and streams with the acid pollution from modern industry, genetically engineering new species while callously allowing the extinction of thousands of old ones. Even if nature is supposed to furnish the law and the end of development and ours it is to follow and conform to her ways. Nowadays it is almost impossible to conceive nature outside of the frame of culture. Moreover, apart from being our shelter, nature remain our unique source of life in all directions. It offers water, food, transport, energy, space, biodiversity, entertainment… Man benefits from all of this but it seems not being enough. Human being might seem a parasite for nature. It exists a constant process of transformation and consumerism in order to get the maximum out of it. This lack of reciprocity is a question of ethics and simple logic. There isn’t any balance in this relation and consequences are getting day by day more obvious by means of human devastating techniques. This position is alarming since it permits the construction of everything as natural and excludes de notion of wilderness. If the problem of nature appears to be man, the problem of man is his consciousness. “Consciousness can feel to him like surplus to nature. Imagination can appear more like an embarrassment than a gift, more like an inclination to meddle with the natural course of things and to mess them up.” (I. Scalbert, The perfect worlds of ecology, 2011). The opposition between men and their cultures (or their societies) on the one hand, and the nature on the other, seems to be seen so brutally when Descartes considered control and possession of nature by man positives. The intense development of science and technology may well lead to the exploitation of nature, but the latter results in serious imbalances which involve not only ecology, but perhaps the survival of men themselves. This also marks their place "apart": man is the only species that seems capable of being suppressed.
Post natural nature, Giacomo Costa
“Talk of mysteries! — Think of our life in nature, — daily to be shown matter, to come in contact with it, — rocks, trees, wind on our cheeks! The solid earth! The actual world! The common sense! Contact! Contact! Who are we? Where are we?” H. D. Thoreau, The Maine Woods (1864)
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In
Firstly, Darwinian evolution transformed the face of “nature,” shattering the idea that nature exists in a state of grand repose and projecting instead a reality of struggle, competition, and violent change—not only among plants and animals, but in human society and even within the individual chaotic mind. The idea of studying the human's place in nature—that is, to study human nature as a branch of Darwinian natural history—absolutely displaced the work of earlier writers such as Emerson or Thoreau, who believed that the soul transcends nature. But as the Darwinian revolution developed, affecting every field of thought, realist narratives began to shift from comic to more tragic presentations of people's place in nature. Henry D. Thoreau felt a greater respect for civilization and realized the necessity of balance between these complex entities. Among his lasting contributions are his writings on natural history and philosophy, in which he anticipated the methods and findings of ecology and environmental history, two sources of modernday environmentalism. Ecology is the scientific analysis and study of interactions among organisms and their environment. It is an interdisciplinary field that includes biology, geography, and Earth science. It includes the study of interactions organisms have with each other, other organisms, and with abiotic components of their environment. Like ecology the term environment has different conceptual meanings and overlaps with the concept of nature. Environment includes the physical world, the social world of human relations and the built world of human creation. Thus ecology is a human science as well but the problem of ecology is again man. Within the cycles described by ecology, man introduces needs that are such as to create a continuous situation of shortages. “He disrupts cycles that were otherwise as perfect as the movement of heavenly spheres. Having made them acyclical, his aim is to make them cyclical again. He imagines a perfect world, a greener world in which all living matter can remain within that narrow slice of time associated with life.” (I. Scalbert, The perfect worlds of ecology, 2011). To this day, the human being has perfectly understood that he himself is the one that supposes the origin of the existing imbalance between what we receive from nature and what we contribute in remuneration. The issue of nature has become a global concern. It is mandatory to realize the danger of treating Mother Nature with disrespect and of damaging the earth's ecosystems and natural resources. That’s why we have been immersed in a constant search with the aim of preserving this Mother
contradiction with Rem Koolhaas’ quote
“fuck context”, man is indisputably related to his environment, he maintains relations with him that seem specific. In first instance, the existence of what is called its culture is clearly distinguished from all other living beings. On the other hand, the development of this same culture, especially in its techno-scientists, has arisen for a few decades in reflection which involves possible excesses in the way in which the man accomplishes his project of becoming "master and possessor of nature". ~8~
Nature. Cradle to cradle by M. Braungart and W. McDonough represents a new way of interpreting environmentalism. It stresses the duty of “remaking the way we make things” into a more intuitive and deeply rooted in the imitation and connection with nature. I. Scalbert states that human “envisages his task less as one of invention that one of conservation”.
building's core doesn't support that over a long period of time improvements would have to be made on a constant basis and the building itself would be vulnerable to disasters or enhancements. With companies cutting paths to make shortcuts with sustainable architecture when building their structures it fuels to the irony that the "sustainable" architecture isn't sustainable at all. Sustainability comes in reference to longevity and effectiveness.
It is in this way how architecture acquires a fundamental role as a possible solution for this eternal dichotomy. Susannah Hagan, in Taking shape, identifies “the need to participate in the formation of a rigorous, visionary agenda to re-imagine architecture as a partner in the pursuit of a new contract with nature”. This book is, at once, an intriguing overview of the relationship between architecture and the environment, and a timely manifesto setting a new vision for the role and meaning architectural form. It identifies the formal potential of environmentally sustainable design for the first time and proposes environmental sustainability as a major cultural underpinning of architecture. Such an alliance of form and ethics unleashes the exciting possibility that architecture may take new forms with typologies of sustainable form as yet unimagined. Sustainable architecture seeks to minimize the negative environmental impact of buildings by efficiency and moderation in the use of materials, energy, development space and the ecosystem at large. It uses a conscious approach to energy and ecological conservation in the design of the built environment. The idea of sustainability, or ecological design, is to ensure that our actions and decisions today do not inhibit the opportunities of future generations. There is no doubt green technology has made its headway into the architectural community, the implementation of given technologies have changed the ways we see and perceive modern day architecture. While green architecture has been proven to show great improvements of ways of living both environmentally and technologically the question remains, is all this sustainable? Many building codes have been demeaned to international standards. "LEED" (Leadership in Energy & Environmental Design) has been criticized for exercising flexible codes for building to follow. It is important to note that LEED emphasizes how buildings are constructed, but it does not underline that sustainable buildings must not only be sustainable, but must also appear to be sustainable. And this is what all this type of certifications has failed. For example, a building may have solar panelling but if the infrastructure of the
Lodges in the pawnee village which stood on the loupe fork of the platte river Photograph by W.H. Jackson (1871)
In a certain sense, this initial wave of green architecture was based on admiration of the early Native American lifestyle and its minimal impact on the land. At the same time, by isolating themselves from the greater community, these youthful environmentalists were ignoring one of ecology’s most important principles: that interdependent elements work in harmony for the benefit of the whole. Still vernacular architecture adheres to basic green architectural principles of energy efficiency and utilizing materials and resources in close proximity to the site. These structures capitalize on the native knowledge of how buildings can be effectively designed as well as how to take advantage of local materials and resources. Even in an age where materials are available well beyond our region, it is essential to take into account the embodied energy lost in the transportation of these goods to the construction site. The perceived sustainability of vernacular architecture has become a major area of interest in recent decades. In Paul Oliver’s Encyclopaedia of Vernacular Architecture of the World (1997) there is a section on the environment that shows how it sets the context for the vernacular, but which does not contain any ~9~
entries related to the concept of sustainability. Nonetheless, this situation changed significantly, a relevant growth in the interest in the sustainability of vernacular architecture is apparent, resulting in the publication of an ever-growing number of conference papers, journal articles and books such as Learning from vernacular: Towards a new vernacular architecture by P. Frey. According to Vernacular architecture: Towards a sustainable future (2011), by applying vernacular strategies to modern design, a structure can ideally achieve net zero energy use, and be a wholly self-sufficient building. In addition to assessing the sustainability of specific vernacular traditions, many of these recent studies attempt to establish what may be learned from their environmental performance so as to inform contemporary architectural design in the place concerned. “Learning from the vernacular” and “lessons from vernacular architecture” are frequently encountered expressions that capture the aim of most studies to identify specific traditional practices or technologies that may be of use to those involved in the design of contemporary architecture. Even though many of the studies that make up the discourse on the sustainability and vernacular architecture are quite distinct from other work produced in this field; in terms of argument, methodology and underlying assumptions about the nature of vernacular architecture, ways of doing things as means to critique and, if all possible, influence contemporary design. More recent writings on vernacular and sustainability constitute a vibrant and growing discourse that makes an important contribution to this field studies. Providing detailed investigations of the actual environmental qualities and performance of specific traditions, they have added a depth of knowledge that was absent in many of the earlier writings which tended to study the relationship between vernacular traditions and the environment in more formal and functional terms. Nonetheless, as a whole, the body of work does suffer from some fundamental shortcomings that limit the usefulness and reliability of much of the research and that consequently hinder the acceptance of vernacular knowledge as a potential contribution to contemporary design. These shortcomings need to be addressed and discussed if we want to arrive at a more holistic understanding of sustainability of vernacular architecture. The first shortcoming concerns the persistent tendency of the vast
majority of studies to focus on issues of environmental sustainability only. Because of the immense importance of environmental issues in a time of rapid climate change, global warming, environmental pollution and the depletion of natural resources, this focus is of course understandable. But in order to truly understand the relationship between vernacular architecture and sustainability, others aspects such as the social, the economic, the political and the cultural ones will need to be looked at as well. Another shortcoming is the very denial that vernacular architecture supposes for the profession of the architect. Architecture designed by professional architects is usually not considered to be vernacular. Indeed, it can be argued that the very process of consciously designing a building makes it not vernacular. Paul Oliver, in his book Dwellings, states: "...it is contended that 'popular architecture' designed by professional architects or commercial builders for popular use, does not come within the compass of the vernacular". Oliver also offers the following simple definition of vernacular architecture: "the architecture of the people, and by the people, but not for the people." Reflecting on the contributions and shortcomings of the current discourse on vernacular architecture and sustainability, there are two or three lessons that I believed can be learned. First of all, the scope of investigation needs to be broadened to include social, economic and cultural aspects for sustainability, as well as environmental ones. Vernacular architecture is an integral part of the societies and cultures that produced them. By limiting attention to the technological and environmental performance of buildings, the importance of the cultural embodiment of vernacular architecture is neglected, making our understanding of the ways in which it relates to its environment partial and distorted. A holistic and integrate perspective that looks at all aspects of a building tradition and the way they interrelate is essential. Ultimately, I believe that the main lesson that vernacular architecture can teach is to do with the value and importance of cultural diversity. It is of importance because it shows us the various, distinctive and often beautiful and ingenious ways in which people, throughout the world and over time, have imagined, designed used and maintained their built environments. Its study can remind us that there are alternatives to our contemporary ways of designing, building and inhabitation. But to really
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understand the alternative vernacular forms of architecture and draw inspiration from them, we need more holistic, integrated and, above all, critical approaches.
“The philosophy and the know-how of the anonymous builders present the largest untapped source of architectural inspiration for industrial man.” B. Rudofsky (1965)
Diagrams of vernacular design strategies
Learning from vernacular implies to make a big effort to analyse not only the traditional constructions, but also its relationship with the environment –the nature. Thus, it is possible to understand the needs and demands the architecture answered to, which are not the same ones as nowadays. Understanding those needs allows translating traditional strategies into contemporary ones, responding to current demands.
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Bibliography
Ralph W. Emerson, 1836, essay Nature
Sibyl Moholy-Nagy, 1957, Native Genius in Anonymous Architecture
Frei Otto, 1995, Finding form
Irenée Scalbert, 2011, The perfect worlds of ecology
Paolo Portoghesi, 2002, Architecture and Nature
Irenée Scalbert, 2014, New Apples
Narciso G. Menocal, 1981, Architecture as nature: the transcendentalist idea of Louis Sullivan
M. Braungart and W.Mcdonought, 2002, Cradle to cradle: remaking the way we make things
Rudolf Finsterwalder, 2011, Form Follows Nature
C. Mileto, F. Vegas, L. García Soriano and V. Cristini, 2014, Vernacular architecture: towards a sustainable future
Bruno Latour, 1993, We have never been modern Pierre Frey and Patrick Bouchain, 2010, Learning from vernacular: towards a new vernacular
David Bourdon, 1995, Designing the Earth: The Human Impulse to Shape Nature Vernacular
M. Correia, G. Carlos and S. Rocha, 2014, Vernacular heritage and Earthen architecture: contribution for sustainable development
Susannah Hagan, 2001, Taking shape: a new contract between Architecture and Nature
Bernard Rudofsky, 1964, Architecture Without Architects: a short introduction to Non-pedigreed Architecture
Paul Oliver, 1997, Encyclopaedia Architecture of the World
of
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