CANADIAN RACE RELATIONS FOUNDATION
VISITING LECTURESHIP PROGRAM ON INDIGENOUS HEALTH AT THE UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO: FIGHTING UNCONSCIOUS BIAS Chandrakant P. Shah, M.D., FRCPC, S.M.(Hyg), O.Ont. Professor Emeritus Dalla Lana School of Public Health University of Toronto May 2020
Visiting Lectureship Program on Indigenous Health at the University of Toronto: Fighting Unconscious Bias Chandrakant P. Shah, M.D., FRCPC, S.M.(Hyg), O.Ont. Professor Emeritus Dalla Lana School of Public Health University of Toronto & Honorary Consultant Physician Anishnawbe Health Toronto Contact: c.shah@utoronto.ca
Abstract Unconscious bias refers to a bias that we are unaware of, and which happens
outside of our control. The presence of such implicit bias among health and social
service providers further suggests that it could play a role in health care disparities just as it plays a role in differential outcomes elsewhere in society.
In 1980’s as a teacher, I became aware of such bias towards indigenous people
among undergraduate and graduate students and researchers at the University of
Toronto, healthcare workers in general and population at large. Realizing that the
voices and “lived experiences” of aboriginal people were missing in curricula
contents across health and social sciences faculties, a three-week program “Visiting
Lectureship on Native Health” was developed in 1990. The objective of the program was that if the future and present healthcare workers were cognizant of aboriginal
issues, their services will be more culturally sensitive; if they become policy makers,
their policies will be more relevant; and in future they will become advocates for aboriginal people. The program ran for eleven years (1990-2001); developed a
different theme each year; and knowledgeable aboriginal speakers from all walks of
life were recruited across Canada to deliver classroom sessions at three universities in Toronto; these comprised of continuing education sessions to various teaching
and community hospitals, health professional groups and also delivered public fora. Evaluation of the program indicated aboriginal speakers were extremely well
received and contents of lectures were valuable; aboriginal speakers rated the
utility of program high for their audience and their personal growth. At the end of
eleven years, an endowment fund of two million dollars was obtained to establish an Endowed Chair in Indigenous Health and Wellbeing at the University of Toronto, first of its kind in Canada to hire an indigenous professor. This initiative was
congruent of what the Truth and Reconciliation Commission had recommended for education of healthcare professionals to remove their unconscious bias.
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It is well documented that many underlying factors negatively affect the health of Aboriginal people in Canada, including poverty and the intergenerational effects of colonization and residential schools. But one barrier to good health lies squarely in the lap of the health care system itself. Many Aboriginal people don’t trust—and therefore don’t use—mainstream health care services because they do not want to face potential stereotyping and racism, and because the Western approach to health care can feel alienating and intimidating. Health Council of Canada (2012)
The Health Council of Canada has documented direct racism and discrimination
Indigenous People in Canada face in healthcare (Health Council of Canada, 2012).
For the past fifty years I have been active with indigenous health issues as a teacher, researcher, advocate and ally. In this article, I describe how widespread the
unconscious bias existed in undergraduate students towards the indigenous people is and describe the educational program to combat this stereotypical
view.Unconscious bias refers to a bias that we are unaware of, and which happens
outside of our control. It is a bias that happens automatically and is triggered by our brain making quick judgments and assessments of people and situations, which is
influenced by our background, cultural environment and personal experiences (Cornish Consulting Services, 2014). The presence of such implicit bias among
health and social service providers further suggests that it could play a role in health care disparities just as it plays a role in differential outcomes elsewhere in society (Blair IV, Steiner JP et al 2011; Kitching, G.T., Firestone, M., Schei, B. 2019).
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I will often use interchangeably terminology indigenous people as “native or
aboriginal” not out of respect but as the prevalent language used during the 1990’s
when this work was carried out.
Indigenous Health Education at University of Toronto in 1990’s In 1982, I had become very cognizant of Indigenous People’s health isses
and, social and political determinants of their health. The quality of Indigenous health was in a desperate state and, as usual, too few people were actively
attempting to ameliorate this sad state of affairs. I believed that, in order to improve the quality of life ofIndigenous People, public awareness about their problems had to dramatically increase. This would inspire further advocacy for the extended support of the Indigenous communities and intensify progressive changes in
Indigenous health in Canada. To do this, I was of the opinion that centers of higher
learning, such as the University of Toronto, had to be leaders in public advocacy and inspire others to devote their energy to supporting Aboriginal peoples. But, as I
looked around the University of Toronto, especially my own Public Health Sciences department (now known as Dalla Lana School of Public Health), I saw barely any
efforts being made to investigate Aboriginal peoples’ difficulties or create Aboriginal support movements that others could rally around. I was disappointed, but not
discouraged, and began to dream about the possibility of a permanent position for an indigenous professor within Public Health Sciences who was devoted to
Aboriginal Health. I wrote to the Dean of Medicine (as our department was situated
in Faculty of Medicine) at that time and subsequently to the two deans who followed
him, asking about whether such a professorship could be created. In my letters, I
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focused on conveying the social changes it could inspire within the university and Canada as a whole. Woefully, my letters were not met with a response, and my
attempts to discuss the topic with the Dean in person were always thwarted. I began to realize that I would have to initiate the creation of such a post through public support.
Genesis of The Visiting Lectureship on Native Health As a professor of the Public Health Sciences faculty at the University of
Toronto and a researcher in Aboriginal health, I would often get invited in different health and social sciences faculties at the University of Toronto’s campus to give a
one to two-hour classroom lecture on Aboriginal health. These lectures were given in faculties such as Pharmacy, Nursing, Dentistry, and Social Work, drawing
approximately 100 to 150 students to each lecture. (Shah C. P., Svaboda T, and Goel S. 1996)
I made it a point to begin each lecture with a simple activity that I felt
gauged the level of understanding students had about Aboriginal peoples. After
introducing myself, I would ask the audience, “What adjectives came to their mind when they thought about Aboriginal peoples?” I encouraged them to say anything they thought of, no matter how it might be construed. Before they answered me, I would usually turn my back to them, facing the blackboard, so as to afford them a greater sense of personal safety. Students were generally honest in their verbal
responses, and I would write down the majority of my audience’s thoughts on the
blackboard. After that, I would undertake the activity again but for a different ethnic group such as Chinese, German, or French people. After writing down their
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responses, I would turn back towards my class and ask for everyone who knew an
Aboriginal person to raise their hand. Generally, about 10 hands would be in the air at this stage. I would then ask how many students in the class had been to lunch
with an Aboriginal person they knew. At this point, another 4 to 5 of the hands in the air would fall. Finally, I asked my audience if any of them had been in an
Aboriginal person’s house. Almost without fail, there would be no hands in the air. At this point I would review their statements on the blackboard with them.
Generally, almost eighty percent of their responses about the Aboriginal people
were stereotypically negative, in stark contrast with the other ethnic groups, where almost eighty percent of responses were portrayals of positive images.
I knew that the students in my class were not necessarily racist, and they
could see the error in their assumptions at this point. To attempt to understand how such a learned group of people could succumb to such a crude perspective of an entire race, I would ask them how they accounted for the negative Aboriginal
stereotypes they believed to be true. The largest culprit, in their eyes at least, was the media and their negative portrayals of Aboriginal peoples in Canada. While I could understand this perception, I was still constantly taken aback and would always remind my audience that the purpose of higher education is the
development of “critical thinking skills”—I refused to let them off the hook for because I knew they had the tools to combat the negativity of the media.
As I gave more and more lectures, the constant repetition of the same
beliefs about Aboriginal peoples bothered me in such a way that I began to realize
the extent of Aboriginal education that was missing from the grand stage of higher 6
learning. I also realized these students probably had no education about aboriginal people in their primary or secondary schools. I began to develop an idea in my
mind—to have some kind of forum wherein I could bring Aboriginal peoples to the university campus so that they could tell their own stories. I felt that if the
Aboriginal peoples told their stories and their “lived experiences� instead of non-
aboriginal experts like me, it would have a larger impact on listeners. Aboriginal
speakers would be able to advocate for greater social justice. However, it was 1990
and Canada was going through a rough recession, and the funding needed for such a forum was not available from the university, my own department or non-profit
voluntary organizations. Canadian granting agencies did not provide for such annual forums. So to gain the funds required for this advocacy endeavour, I began to
approach a number of agencies and foundations, asking for a small contribution
from each and assuring them that I would not take their funds unless I was able to secure the required amounts for the next five years which was pegged at $25,000. Many of my colleagues had doubts about my ability to raise such funds. By
gathering funding from a variety of groups (now a days we can call it crowd source funding), I was able to secure funding for the forum of my dreams for the next 5
years. Thus, I was able to start a forum/program and named it the Visiting
Lectureship on Native Health (at this time, the word indigenous was not in currency).
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Visiting Lectureship on Native Health As mentioned earlier, the health status of the First Nations People of Canada
was discouraging in the late 1980’s (Shah CP and Johnson R 1992). Those
particularly affected were the children under the age of 15 years which comprised 35% of the population. For example, in early 1990, the infant mortality and
children's disability rates were two to four times above the national average, and the suicide rate among 15-24-year-olds was six times the norm. The living
conditions on Aboriginal reserves were shocking. Most houses were crowded and
were lacking sewage facilities and potable water. The unemployment rate on many reserves was up to 85%. Almost 60% percent of the Aboriginal population resided
in urban settings. Discrimination, low education levels, insensitive health and social services, and a lack of support networks contribute to the continuing high level of physical and mental illness (Health Canada 2005).
Over the past two decades, many articulate Aboriginal individuals had
stepped forward as change agents within their communities to bring about
meaningful change. To facilitate this effort, it was imperative that non-Aboriginals
become educated and sensitized to the plight of the First Nations communities; the process we now call “Allyship�. Obstacles in Early Phase After securing the necessary funding, I initiated the planning of the Visiting
Lectureship Program on Native Health at the University of Toronto in July 1990, set to commence in October 1990. As I started advertising the program across the
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University, I received a phone call from the Provost Office indicating that I had not
sought the appropriate approval for a Lectureship program from the Faculty Council of Faculty Medicine and the University-wide Academic Affairs Committee of the Governing Council. Despite my telling them that I was not aware of such a
requirement, they insisted that I follow their process, which would set back the
development of the program by months, if not years. I was dismayed and almost willing to submit to the University’s Regulatory Councils to seek their approval.
Fortunately for me, there was a sudden provincial election called in June 1990, and,
to everybody’s surprise, the Provincial New Democratic Party was elected. I had had a meeting with the newly elected Premier, Rt. Hon. Bob Rae, just four weeks before the election was called and I knew that his office held me in high esteem. In July, a few days after the election I had invited him to be the Inaugural Speaker for the Visiting Lectureship program, motivated by the fact that he had been heavily
involved in promoting aboriginal issues in the past. He was the ideal man for the job. It truly seemed as if all the great momentum the program had captured was
about to dissipate. But, in spectacular fashion, a lifeline was thrown to me; the Premier’s Office phoned me to notify me that the Premier had accepted my
invitation to be one of the inaugural speakers at the launch of the program besides the aboriginal speakers. Much more importantly, this would be his first public
function as the Premier of Ontario. Following this marvellous news, I called the
Provost’s office to inform them about the Premier accepting my invitation. With the conveying of this news, there was a sudden change in the Provost’s stance on the
issue of the Lectureship program. I was promptly told that somebody had made a 9
mistake about the process—apparently, the office had believed I was initiating a
Visiting Professorship, not a Visiting Lectureship. I was told that for the creation of a Visiting Lectureship I did not need the approval of the Academic Affairs Committee andI was given permission to continue my planning and to invite the Premier. Creating a Foundation This was the beginning of an eleven-year program that had at least 3 weeks
per year dedicated to Aboriginal experts discussing Aboriginal health issues
concerning the reshaping of their health care system. I led a Planning Committee that was composed of both faculty members and students across the university;
members were both Aboriginals and non-Aboriginals. Every year, there were a few members who resigned for various reasons, but they were quickly replaced with
new ones, leading to a consistent refreshing of the program. This committee decided the focus of the lectureship’s topic each year, as well as whom to invite to speak each week. The speakers came from across Canada, from all walks of life and
backgrounds. The only requirement for speakers was that they were Aboriginal and knowledgeable in the subject matter that they planned to speak on.
These Aboriginal lecturers put together a two-hour presentation during
which they gave a lecture, seminar or workshop concerning Aboriginal health in
several disciplines such as medicine, pharmacy, social work, nursing, anthropology,
law and teaching hospitals. These presentations were designed to be as accessible as possible for faculty students and staff members. The only requirements for
accessing the speaker for the lecture were that the lecture had to be a part of a 10
formal course and the students had to be examined on the material they had learned during the course. The main reason behind this was that many students only paid attention to material that was included in course examinations. After their
presentations, the Aboriginal experts were committed to being available to
researchers and graduate students for consultation about research related to
Aboriginal health, and to provide consultation and workshops to professional
community organizations such as various teaching hospitals affiliated with the
University of Toronto, the Public Health Departments of Metropolitan Toronto, the Ontario Ministry of Health, Anishnawbe Health Centre, the Sioux Lookout Zone Hospital and the Aboriginal Health Authority. Lecturers were also shared with
appropriate university departments in three Greater Toronto Area universities; York University, Ryerson University and McMaster University; as well as the
Canadian Memorial Chiropractic College, the Canadian Naturopathic College and a few of the local high schools. A part of their commitment to the program was also
pledging their participation in a forum for public debate on Aboriginal health for a
university wide audience, as well as for the general public at the Toronto City Hall,
which was held in the City’s Council Chamber followed by a reception hosted by the Mayor.
We commissioned the logo for the program to an indigenous artist
depicting the theme:
This logo depicts the circle which represents the concept of a medicine
wheel, within the center, the upper hand depicts an indigenous person who is imparting (giving) knowledge to a non-indigenous person; the four feathers
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represent four races which are moving in harmony to enhance the health of indigenous people.
Content for the Lectureship Each year the Lectureship revolved around a particular Aboriginal health
theme. The themes were explored through a series of lectures, seminars and workshops led by Aboriginal experts. Aboriginal speakers reflected a
broad spectrum of backgrounds including professors, writers, politicians, health professionals, community leaders and others involved in reshaping Aboriginal
health care. Each year the program spanned three weeks. At the beginning of the first week, there was an Inaugural Lecture where local, provincial or national
aboriginal leaders and one of the relevant provincial ministers were invited to make remarks on the theme of lectureship. Chancellor or President of the University of
Toronto and Dean of Faculty of Medicine spoke on relevance of the program to the university community and made welcoming remarks. Many invitees attending the lectures were high ranking officials from the teaching hospitals, public health
departments, ministry of health, community leaders and activists as well as general
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public. At the end of lecture, there was always an informal reception so audience members could mingle with each other and with speakers. During each lecture
week, a dinner was held for the speaker inviting committee members and a few other officials. These events had a powerful impact on bringing in forefront the aboriginal issues at several levels.
The first week of lectureship involved providing a historical background
including impact of colonization on Aboriginal people relevant to the topic chosen.
The second week examined the health and social issues as it exist now in Aboriginal communities. The third week focused on future solutions to these problems. The themes for the eleven years of the lectureship are listed in Table 1.
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As mentioned earlier, our target audience was primarily made up of
students, academicians, professional and community groups. They were selected
because it was hoped that equipped with the insight gained through the lectureship about Aboriginal health issues that in future, they will be able to deliver culturally
appropriate services, formulate culturally relevant policies, and become advocates
for Aboriginal causes. The funding of the program was very broadly based, including support from government, foundations, non-government organizations and various institutions.
In the first eleven years, the lectureship themes have been extremely varied
as evidenced by Table II. During the eleven years of the programs existence, 179
lectures and 135 seminars and workshops were given to undergraduates, graduates and post-graduates in numerous departments and faculties at different universities and institutions (Table II).
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A total of 14 908 persons attended the lecture series over the course of its
run. The lectureship was extensively involved in the continuing education of health professionals at Community Hospitals, Teaching Hospitals, Public Health Units, District Health Councils, the Children's Aid Society and even Royal Canadian
Mounted Police. During this period, 35 public lectures and forums were also held.
The Visiting Lectureship Series and the health issues discussed received widespread media exposure during each of the eleven years (1990-2000) the program ran for. A significant innovation during the Lectureship’s run was the addition of video production concerning Aboriginal Family Violence. It had been an extremely
important resource for teaching students and professionals about the sensitivity of the victims of such situations. The audience to which the lectureship reached
dramatically expanded with the introduction of the Northern Ontario Telephone
Network, which provided continuing education to the northern communities. Eight Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal communities from Saskatchewan to Ottawa
participated in the program. In 1995, the Women's T.V. Network produced a onehour program, which was broadcast across the country Evaluation Feedback was elicited from all the various participants including the
audience, organizers and speakers about the program. Of the 14,908 individuals who attended the program during the eleven-year period, 7366 or 49.4% of the
audience participants responded to the questionnaires. The audience feedback is summarized in Table III.
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The comments from the audience were extremely positive. The Majority of
audience thought sessions were between good and excellent (89.6%); the relevance of sessions were also generally rated good to excellent (85.1%). Half the audience found material they learned was new and most (72.6%) felt the length of session
was adequate and, encouragingly, one in five attendees found it to be shorter than they would have desired. Some common suggestions for future themes for the
Visiting Lectureship Series were Native Health Professionals, Women's Health, Substance Abuse and Aboriginal Urban Health. Most of these topics were incorporated as themes for the lecture series in following? years.
Feedback from the institutions that participated over the first five years was
obtained via mailed questionnaires. The response rate was 60%. In summary, most institutions felt the lectures were "very educational and well presented.� Some institutions wrote about the need for a permanent series with "follow up and
commitment from participants". Regarding format, greater lead-time and smaller 16
audiences were requested. Feedback from speakers was obtained via
questionnaires mailed to all the speakers who were involved in the first five years.
The response rate was 50%. All of the speakers wrote that responses they received
from the audience were all exceptionally positive. A number of the speakers felt the lectureship provided a "training ground" on which they could interact with nonAboriginals and prepare for future professional endeavours. They felt
the Lectureship Series was "a commendable undertaking" and an "important
symbolic statement showing the importance of Aboriginal knowledge.” Many
speakers felt the sessions should be more interactive with students discussing the
issues presented to them instead of listening to a lecture for the entirety of the two
hours. Many speakers also felt that an Aboriginal studies program was needed at the University of Toronto to complement this program.
The comments about the program were extremely heartening and, more
importantly, fulfilling, and I felt that including some would help to convey the sense
of understanding people derived from the Lectureship program. The following are a selection of comments obtained from audience feedback: ● “Great! Keep the speakers coming. We all benefit!” ● “Excellent overall.” ● “Really interesting. What can we do? (to help).” ● “I think students need to better understand exactly what native Canadians are up against --- i.e. how difficult it would be to even envision a university education, never mind complete one. Thanks, it was a great talk.”
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● “Thank you, thank you. Congratulations to Dr. Shah. I hope the Lectureship will continue to bear fruit and that the wisdom of aboriginal people will permeate the white structures of the university, government and our country.” Some of the other comments received for this program also highlights its importance to the university community and indigenous speakers:
• Dr. Shah’s Visiting Lectureship Program on Native Health “provides a model for all
of us … I recently spent time at the University of Colorado working with people involved in their extensive Native American Studies Program; and I found my description of Dr. Shah’s work caught their interest as nothing else did. It is clear
that what he is doing is unique and enormously important.” Edward Chamberlin, Centre for Comparative Literature, University of Toronto, 1997
• “I have known Dr. Shah most prominently for his work on the Visiting Lectureship series at the University of Toronto by which an attempt is made to educate future
healthcare workers and public at large about the healthcare issues that are of concern to the First Nations people … I cannot thank Dr. Shah enough for all the
help he has provided to the people of Nishnawbe-Aski in improving their health through public education, research and policy development and analysis.” James Morris, Deputy Grand Chief, Nishnawbe-Aski Nation
• “I came away from the Lecture Series with a feeling of pride and enthusiasm for the Native people who were being properly celebrated … I saw Dr. Shah in action.
In his unabashed generosity in promoting a culture that is not his own, he has
done us a huge service by giving us a public forum at the Annual Lecture Series to speak with our hearts from our unique experiences as Native peoples.” Madeleine
Dion Stout, founder, Carleton Centre for Aboriginal Education, Research and Culture, Carleton University, 1997
• “Dr. Shah’s efforts encourage the recognition that indigenous peoples are consistent contributors to our mosaic society. His mission is the resurrection of
Indigenous people’s rightful place in their homeland, the institutional guard of 18
their voice and the guarantee that they will have opportunity to enjoy the same
health status as Canadians generally. Equity is an enduring tenet of Canadian nationalism and a principle reflected in the life work of Dr. Chandrakant P. Shah.
Social justice is the hallmark of his contributions to the university and community.” Kishk Anaquot, Director, Health Advisory Services, Indian and Inuit Health Services, Health Canada
• “Dr. Shah’s unwavering commitment urged on the establishment of the Visiting
Lectureship on Native Health … it has broadened the understanding among health professionals of the social, cultural and health issues facing our Native communities; broaden the base of cooperation in pursuit of the common goal of
improving the quality of life of or Native peoples.” Robert Prichard, president, University of Toronto, 1997
Establishing a Source of Aboriginal Advancement The program celebrated its tenth anniversary in 1999. At the celebration,
the Aboriginal Community honoured me for my role in the Lectureship Series. They
presented me with the "Eagle Feather" which is one of the highest awards accorded to a non-Aboriginal person by the Aboriginal community. At the celebration, the
Minister of Health, Mrs. Elizabeth Witmer, also presented a $100,000 check to me, to be put towards the establishment of an Endowed Professorship for Aboriginal
Health and Wellbeing in the Department of Public Health Sciences at the University of Toronto. I had already collected $400,000, and with the Ministry of Health's
contribution, my total funds rose to $500,000. At this point, I was also raising issue
with the University of Toronto for lack of visible minorities faculty members (Shah, C. P. 2019). This had led to having meeting with the Vice-Provost; at the end of
meeting I asked Provost to discuss issue not related to our meeting and he kindly 19
consented. I told him one of my unfulfilled dream before my retirement in 2001 was
to establish an endowed professorship in aboriginal health and I already have single handed collected $500,000 and would University of Toronto be kind enough to match it so we can have an Endowed Professorship in Aboriginal Health and
Wellbeing. As I had cornered him on issue of lack of visible minority, I think to appease me he right away promised to match the fund making it one million
endowment. I am sure he also thought that this was a “win win” for both of us as the University will have something to show case and he will get rid of me on the visible minority issue by granting my request to fulfill my dream.
While my dean and chair of the Public Health Science’s department were
extremely happy with my accomplishment, they suggested that I should have asked for more money from the University. They wanted to have an Endowed Chair that would have an endowment fund of two million dollars; one million from fund
raising and then receiving a matching grant of one million from the University of Toronto. The Dean, with the help of a fundraiser and myself, was able to attract $500 000 from the TransCanada Pipeline. Thus, a two million dollar fund
was established, a fund which would support the monetary needs of the chosen
professor. Dr. Jeff Reading, an aboriginal scholar, became the first Endowed Chair of Aboriginal Health & Wellbeing when he was hired in September 2000. Summary
In summary, the lectureship program was an attempt to meet certain
educational goals in Aboriginal education. After eleven years, the Lectureship was successful, establishing a Trans-Canada Endowed Chair in Aboriginal Health and
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Wellbeing and bringing an incredible amount of information about Aboriginal
people to the general public by indigenous speakers. This was an early attempt to remove “unconscious bias” by students, health care professionals and public at large. The Visiting Lectureship on Native Health was the beginning for many
widespread initiatives at the University of Toronto to improve health and wellbeing of aboriginal people. Over past twenty years, University of Toronto has made
tremendous progress in establishing many educational initiatives in indigenous
issues including an establishment of Waakebiness-Bryce Institute of Indigenous
Health, Master of Indigenous Public Health, and developing special support services for indigenous students including scholarships. These new initiatives will help a future generation of learners to be more sensitive to aboriginal issues, create
informed and caring citizens and hopefully will remove the prevalent “unconscious bias”!
Acknowledgement I wish thank Alexander Gomes for helping me to prepare the manuscript; all
indigenous and non-indigenous committee members for guiding me to develop themes and suggesting appropriate speakers; and special thanks to Indigenous
speakers across Canada for spending their valuable time in teaching and engaging their audiences. I also thank my Department Chairs, Dr. Mary Jane Ashley and Dr. Harvey Skinner for their encouragements and financial support from P.S.I.
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Foundations, The Hospital for Sick Children Foundations, Governments of Canada and Province of Ontario and many other institutions and individuals.
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REFERENCES
1, Blair, I.V., Steiner, J.F. and Havranek, E.P. (2011), Unconscious (Implicit) Bias &
Health Disciplines: Where do we go from here? Perm J. Spring (15): 71-78. Cornish
Consultancy Services (2014), Unconscious Bias & Higher Education, Literature Review;
https://www.ecu.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/unconscious-bias-
and-higher-education.docx
2. Council of Canada (2012): Empathy, dignity and respect: Creating cultural safety
for Aboriginal people in urban healthcare.
https://healthcouncilcanada.ca/files/Aboriginal_Report_EN_web_final.pdf
3. Health Canada (2005). The statistical profile on the health of First Nations in Canada for the year of 2000 Ottawa, ON: Health Canada.
4. Kitching, G.T., Firestone, M., Schei, B. et al. Can J Public Health (2019). https://doi.org/10.17269/s41997-019-00242-z
5. Shah, C.P., Johnson, R: Comparing Health Status: Native Peoples of Canada,
Aborigines of Australia, and Maoris of New Zealand. Can. Fam. Phys. 38:1205-1219, 1992.
6. Shah, C.P., Svoboda, T., and Goel, S. (1996). The visiting lectureship on aboriginal health: An educational initiative of the University of Toronto. Canadian Journal of Public Health. 87(4): 272-74.
7. Shah, C. P. Advocating for Change: Visible Minorities at the University of Toronto, Directions- Canadian Race Relation Foundation Journal, p. 1-31, August 2019.
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