Northern Community Water & Wastewater Infrastructure - Literature Review on State of Practice 2016 by Kenneth Johnson

Northern Community Water and Wastewater Infrastructure State of Practice Literature Review Kenneth Johnson, M.A.Sc., RPP, FCAE, P.Eng. Planner, Engineer, and Historian Cold Regions Specialist Prepared for the National Research Council of Canada 2016-03-30 HISTORICAL CONTEXT OF WATER SUPPLY AND SEWAGE TREATMENT Over the course of the past sixty years water supply and waste treatment in Canada has changed dramatically, however, the most dramatic changes have occurred in the northern regions of Canada. Sixty years ago much of northern Canada, particularly the smaller communities, were still based upon a subsistence economy and not a wage economy, therefore the infrastructure for water and sewer was essentially non-existent. A select few communities, such as Dawson City, Yukon and Yellowknife, NWT had infrastructure in place as a result of the mining boom in each of these communities. The water and waste practices in the early days of small northern communities were very simple. Water was brought in by hand, from the nearest water source, "outhouses" were used for sewage waste, grey water was dumped adjacent to the houses, and garbage was burned in individual barrels near each household. One of the most significant infrastructure milestones in the decade following World War 2 was the development of the community of Inuvik and its above ground piped water and sewer system, which was initiated by the chronic flooding and limited capacity of the nearby community of Aklavik. In 1957, John Diefenbaker's once-famous "northern vision" policy inspired the nation, and advanced further initiatives in northern infrastructure. Water and waste infrastructure in northern communities continued to make incremental improvements in the 1960's and 1970's as the subsistence lifestyles continued to decline, and more people moved to permanent settlements. Water and sewer tanks were becoming more common, along with indoor plumbing, but these were still limited, and there remained a significant need for engineered water supply and wastewater disposal systems. One of the most significant policy decisions concerning water supply infrastructure occurred in the mid-1980's with the recognition that intestinal disease could be correlated to water use. As a result, a policy was put in place that water supply infrastructure would be required to deliver a minimum of 90 litres per capita per day for each individual in a community. This policy initiated a concerted effort to provide indoor plumbing to each household, and phased out the use of honey bags for sewage disposal. The infrastructure included with the establishment of the water and sanitation policy included potable water reservoirs, where a year round source of fresh water was not available, and sewage lagoons for the treatment of wastewater stream. The majority of the water supply and wastewater collection is provided by trucked services, which generally provides an adequate level of service in most communities. The turn of the 20th century in the north has brought regulatory demands into the forefront of community infrastructure, in conjunction with the development of the Wastewater Systems Effluent Regulations (WSER) as part of the initiation by the Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment (CCME) to harmonize wastewater regulation across Canada. The CCME initiative has considered, to some degree, the influence of geography and climate on the application of the WSER, and the Government of Canada has devoted some resources to researching the potential for northern systems to achieve these objectives.

ÂŠ National Research Council of Canada 2016.

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However, it has been pointed out by the Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami that Inuit communities have limited resources available to them and communities can only make incremental improvements to their sewage treatment infrastructure. It was stated that unless significant resources and commitment are applied to the research into all aspects of arctic sewage treatment, the WSER will have significant impacts and produce significant hardship on the Inuit regions of Canada. On one hand, continuing incremental improvements in water and waste infrastructure as a result of regulatory demands have benefited communities. On the other hand, regulatory scrutiny has placed many communities in positions where they have neither the financial nor human resources to address the regulatory demands. REGULATORY, STANDARDS, POLICY AND OTHER INFLUENCES - WATER SUPPLY AND WASTEWATER TREATMENT The regulatory context for wastewater management in the far north are the respective water acts in each of the territories (Yukon, Northwest Territories, and Nunavut), and the framework for application of these regulations is the municipal water license granted to each community through an application and approval process that is subject to scrutiny of regional water boards. The water boards consist of lay people supported by technical resources retained either directly by the board or through various Federal Government Departments. Each community water license is unique to that community and is generally developed in consultation with the community. The license presents effluent quality standards for waste management systems, along with reporting requirements. A benchmark document for effluent quality standard was the 1992 Guidelines for the Discharge of Treated Municipal Wastewater in the NWT. The vast majority of the communities in the territories have water licenses, however the state of compliance with the licenses varies, with many communities struggling to maintain compliance with the effluent quality standards or other compliance issues associated with operation, maintenance and reporting. There remains a hierarchy of legislation in the territories, and water license framework with its effluent quality standards, is superseded by the Fisheries Act. From the community context this hierarchy is a confusing and stressful condition because, in spite of efforts to comply with water license criteria, a community is independently subject to potential charges under the Fisheries Act if ascertained by water sampling that the wastewater discharge is a deleterious substance. The regulatory context water supply in the far north are the respective public health acts in each of the territories (Yukon, Northwest Territories, and Nunavut), and the application of the legislation is through supplementary regulations to the act. The water quality reference in the legislation is the Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Water Quality. The regulations are administered through regional public health inspectors who periodically inspect the water supply and treatment facilities. The legislation in the Northwest Territories has been the most progressive in the far north following the lead of legislation in southern Canada in the post Walkerton era. Under the legislation, water treatment facilities are required to have an operator who is certified, or is in the process of being certified, with the appropriate mentorship in place. The Government of the Northwest Territories has also been progressive in the completion of water treatment facilities in each and every community of the territory. Water quality monitoring data is also available on line for each and every community. With the framework of the territorial governments there are policies as well as standards and criteria for water and sanitation systems. The most influential of these policies is the water and sanitation policy of the Government of the Northwest Territories which established the benchmark requirement for a minimum water supply of 90 litres per capita per day. This policy has been the basis for funding of water and sanitation infrastructure throughout the Northwest Territories (now the Northwest Territories and Nunavut). The development of standards and criteria followed the development of the policy, and a variety of guidelines were also developed for water and sanitation facilities.

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A benchmark non-government document in support of water and sanitation technology in the far north has been the Cold Regions Utilities Monograph. The third edition of the monograph was jointly published in 1996 by the American Society of Civil Engineers, and the Canadian Society for Civil Engineering; the th technical editor of the monograph has been Dr. Daniel Smith. An initiative to develop a 4 edition of the monograph is currently underway with the leadership of the ASCE. The framework for the regulation of water and sanitation in the north has to some degree been based upon general science, but definitely not on northern science. The engineering of water and sanitation in the north has also to some degree been based upon northern applied science, however there remains some significant shortfalls in the applied science as demonstrated by projects that do not fulfill their original objectives. A significant gap that remains in the framework for water and sanitation in the north are the aspects associated with administrative, human resources, and financial resources and capacities at the community level, which has been referred to as the social science segment of water and sanitation in the north. This cannot be defined by any regulation, or technical reference, but is a unique and dynamic part of each and every community in the north. This aspect of water and sanitation in the north has been recognized for decades but it has not been consistently formalized into the delivery and legacy of water and sanitation projects in the north. SUMMARY OF PRIMARY RESOURCES The portals for publicly available literature concerning water and sanitation in cold regions are very limited. Within a North American context the only publications associated specifically with cold regions engineering are the American Society of Civil Engineers Journal of Cold Regions Engineering, and the Journal of the Northern Territories Water and Waste Association. The water and sanitation related information in the ASCE journal is very limited, and it is generally academically oriented. The NTWWA journal is dedicated solely to water and sanitation in the north (Canada and Alaska), which includes potable water supply, treatment and distribution, wastewater collection, treatment and disposal, and solid waste management. The literature review is organized into 13 themes, as follows, based upon subject groupings of approximately 104 articles presented in 11 years of the NTWWA Journals publication. Another 40 articles were added to the 13 themes from the compilation entitled Wastewater Treatment and Management in Northern Canada (Ken Johnson, 2016 edition). THE SOCIAL CONTEXT OF WATER AND SANITATION The engineering of water and sanitation systems is a technical exercise due to the simple fact that the elements of water and sanitation systems require technical resources. However, there has been a growing recognition over the past 30 years that communities receiving the infrastructure should have a stake in the rollout of the project in order to increase the long term success of the infrastructure project. Considerably more resources are being applied to operation and maintenance documentation of a facility and comprehensive training for the facility operators. These resources are being applied at the project level with regard to the project documentation and also at the community level with regard to communication with residents and the administration about the human resource, and financial legacies of the project. The term “social context” is a phase now to be used to categorize this segment of an overall project as an addition to the well-established “engineering context”. Training for northern operators of water and sanitation systems is now a regulated requirement (NWT Health Act), and a well- established part of the annual conference program of the Northern Territories Water and Waste Association. This augments the training offered by the Government of the Northwest Territories School of Community Government. The formalized training offered from southern institutions, such as the Northern Alberta Institute of Technology, is also a well-established element to the annual NTWWA conference. Although there are no training programs as part of the educational institutes in the north, Arctic College offers a program in environmental technology. © National Research Council of Canada 2016.

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The absence of the element of social science in northern communities can have significant public health consequences, which were most recently demonstrated with the water and sewer challenges in the community of Kashechewan in northern Ontario. References         

The Social Context of Wastewater Management in Remote Communities. NTWWA Journal, 2015. A Comparison of Water and Sanitation in the Canadian North and the American North. Proceedings of the Annual Conference of Western Canada Water and Waste Association, 2013. Mentoring Young Inuit Minds at the Basil Bay Science Camp. NTWWA Journal, 2010. Environmental Technology Students Complete “Crazy” Field Work. NTWWA Journal, 2010. NAIT Water and Wastewater Program at a Glance. NTWWA Journal, 2010. Water and Sewer Challenges in Kashechewan, Ontario. NTWWA Journal, 2009. Rocks, snow and wastewater treatment in Pangnirtung, Nunavut. NTWWA Journal, 2005. Research and Development of Waste Management Training Program in the Northwest Territories. NTWWA Journal, 2005. Land Use Planning and Waste Management in Iqaluit, Nunavut. Proceedings of the Annual Conference of the Canadian Institute of Planners, July 2001.

WATER AND SANITATION PROJECT DELIVERY Project delivery has been a recognized challenge in the far north since the first large northern projects were undertaken more than a century ago with the post-gold rush development of the Klondike Goldfields. The extreme conditions associated with projects and the extreme costs of northern projects remain an element of all northern water and sanitation projects. One project delivery innovation that has been applied in the NWT has been the “bundling” of water treatment facilities for the communities. This program has successfully delivered 11 water treatment facilities to communities at an average cost of less than $3 million. A singular element that has been applied to reduce the cost of project delivery is the application of modular facilities, which essentially have the facility constructed and commissioned in the south, and then shipped to the community for installation and final commissioning. The delivery of a greenfield water and sanitation system for an entire community has been undertaken in only a few instances in the far north. The most significant of these projects was the Town of Inuvik in the late 1950’s; a more recent example was the community of Natuashish in northern Labradour, which replaced the community of Davis Inlet. References        

Baker Lake, Nunavut – Water Treatment Plant. NTWWA Journal, 2013. The Extreme Cost of Northern “Liquid Assets.” Western Canada Water Magazine, Fall 2013. Project Delivery in the Far North – Then and Now. Western Canada Water Magazine, Winter 2011. Bundled Water Treatment Project in Five NWT Communities. NTWWA Journal, 2010. Water Supply and Treatment Improvements in Gjoa Haven, Nunavut. NTWWA Journal, 2007. Development of the Water and Sewer System, Natuashish, Nunatsiavut. NTWWA Journal, 2006. Extreme Water Treatment Engineering in Sachs Harbour, NT. NTWWA Journal, 2005. th Design and Construction of Sewage Lagoon in Grise Fiord, Nunavut. Proceedings of the 7 International Conference on Permafrost, 1998.

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SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND INNOVATION IN WATER AND WASTEWATER (LAGOONS) Lagoon systems for wastewater treatment have a universal performance success. This performance success was also documented in the far north decades ago along with the recognition that the extreme cold climate influences biological activities in a lagoon system. The opportunity for biological processes to perform in a northern lagoon system is generally limited to a four month period during the months of June, July, August and September. A compilation of lagoon facility performances suggested that the simpler / the better would be the best approach for wastewater treatment in the far north, and lagoon systems meet this requirement. Lagoon systems have evolved over the past several decades from detention ponds with no “engineered” structures associated with the facility to highly engineered earth structures with extensive use of geomembrane materials with the intent of providing a wastewater retaining structure. In simpler terms, lagoon systems have evolved from what was referred to as a “leaky lagoon” to completely engineered multi-cell lagoons with retention lagoons and seasonal discharges. The largest of these systems constructed in the far north is the wastewater system serving the City of Whitehorse, which is a multi-cell configuration (primary, secondary, and tertiary cells) that discharges in the fall of each year. Over the 20 years of operation of this facility, the effluent quality has been consistently good. Incremental improvements have been undertaken to many lagoons that were originally non-engineered lakes or ponds, with improvements to the berm structures and the discharge structures. An ongoing improvement to discharge structures is the transition for piped discharge systems to pumped discharge systems in recognition that piped systems consistently freeze. Aerated lagoon systems have been documented to perform well in the far north, however the application of this technology has not advanced. This could be an incremental improvement to simple lagoon systems in the future to improve performance. References        

Successful Lagoon Operation in Northern Communities. Environmental Science and Engineering Magazine, October 2014. Aerated Lagoons in the Canadian North – Fort Nelson, BC Facility. NTWWA Journal, 2007. Environmental Study and Evaluation of the Water and Sewage System at Baker Lake. NTWWA Journal, 2007. Engineered Improvements to Sewage Treatment System in Cambridge Bay, Nunavut. Proceedings of the Annual Conference of the Canadian Society for Civil Engineering, 2007. Performance and Potential Improvements to Anaerobic Sewage Lagoon in Fort McPherson, NT. th Proceedings of the 12 International Cold Regions Engineering Specialty Conference, 2004. Livingstone Trail Environmental Control Facility (LTECF), Whitehorse, Yukon. NTWWA Journal, 2005. Sewage Treatment Systems in Communities and Camps of the Northwest Territories and st Nunavut Territory. Proceedings of the 1 Cold Regions Specialty Conference of the Canadian Society for Civil Engineering, 1999. th Performance Evaluation of Primary Sewage Lagoon in Iqaluit, Nunavut. Proceedings of the 7 International Cold Regions Engineering Specialty Conference, 1994.

SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND INNOVATION IN WATER AND WASTEWATER (WETLANDS) The limitations on the performance of sewage lagoon systems in the far north are influenced by the extreme environment, however the natural systems in the far north do take advantage of the limited periods when the environment is suitable for biological activity. The potential application of wetland systems for supplementary wastewater treatment first emerged decades ago with observations on the treatment that was being achieved with flow through natural wetlands adjacent to existing lagoon systems. Considerable research associated with sampling and modelling has provided a scientific basis for applying wetland systems as an engineered part of a wastewater treatment system. The research has

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been based upon full scale monitoring, and pilot scale monitoring. The research has advanced to the development of several models for predicting the performance of a wetland system. From a regulatory perspective, wetlands have gained a general acceptance as a supplementary process for improving the effluent quality of a lagoon discharge. An issue does remain on the regulatory monitoring of natural wetland systems because a definitive “end of pipe” compliance point may be difficult to define. References       

Defining the Role of Tundra Wetland Treatment Areas in Municipal Wastewater Management in Nunavut. NTWWA Journal, 2015. Chesterfield Inlet Wetland Modeling. NTWWA Journal, 2015. Evaluating Constructed Wetlands at CFS Alert, Nunavut. NTWWA Journal, 2011. Active Research into Passive Systems: A Study of Wastewater in Nunavut. NTWWA Journal, 2011. Pilot Scale Experimental Wetland Cells in Baker Lake, Nunavut. NTWWA Journal, 2010. Wetland Planning Study in Cambridge Bay, Nunavut. NTWWA Journal, 2008. Performance of a Tundra Wetland Sewage Treatment System in Coral Harbour, Nunavut. NTWWA Journal, 2006.

AGING WATER AND SANITATION INFRASTRUCTURE Aging infrastructure is an issue for communities regardless of latitude, but the remedial work associated with infrastructure in the far north presents unique demands because of the geography, climate, and, in some cases, geology. The geology in Dawson City is a prime example because of warm permafrost and soil conditions that include high ice content in silts, which cause ground subsidence. Remedial work on the sewer systems has required the development of a unique and expensive sewer pipe configuration. Water main remedial work in Norman Wells was able to use oil field technology to clean and coat the pipe for about one third of the cost of replacing the pipe. A water tank in Cambridge Bay received remedial work by recoating as an alternative to extend the service until a planned replacement project could be executed. The most significant remedial project in the far north is the replacement of the utilidor system in Inuvik. Most of the above ground system is over 50 years old and is near the end of its service life. The decision was made to maintain the above ground configuration and a modern system was designed using steel piles instead of wood piles and using insulated steel pipe to replace the original asbestos cement pipe. The replacement system is robust, but the cost is approximately $6,000 per metre, which, because of limited capital funding, limits the amount of replacement work that can be completed in any given year. References       

Water Tank Rehabilitation in Nunavut. NTWWA Journal, 2011. Water Main Rehabilitation in the Northwest Territories (Norman Wells). NTWWA Journal, 2011. Water Treatment Facility in Nunavut. NTWWA Journal, 2011. Utilidor Replacement in Inuvik. Proceedings of the Annual Conference of Western Canada Water and Waste Association, 2010. Infrastructure Serving Dawson City, Yukon – The New Klondike Gold. Proceedings of the Annual Conference of Western Canada Water and Waste Association, 2009. Potable Water Reservoir Clean, and Repair in Jean Marie, NWT. NTWWA Journal, 2008. Water Reservoir Improvements in Qikitarjuaq, Nunavut. NTWWA Journal, 2006.

POLICY, LEGISLATION AND STANDARDS ASSOCIATED WITH WATER AND WASTEWATER The Canada wide strategy to harmonize wastewater effluent guidelines (Wastewater Systems Effluent Regulations (WSER)) remains an issue across the north because the effluent quality standards of 25/25 (BOD5/TSS)are not consistently achievable with passive systems (lagoons) and may not be achievable © National Research Council of Canada 2016.

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with mechanical systems because of the operating demands associated with human resources and financial resources. A considerable effort has been invested by the regulatory community to rollout the regulations and research to the potential performance of passive systems being able to achieve the regulations; this effort has not produced any conclusive results. Considerable effort has also been invested by the territorial governments, particularly Nunavut on the potential performance of passive systems and the impact of effluent discharges on the aquatic environment. This research has suggested the passive systems are at the mercy of the extreme climate, and the discharges from the smaller communities generally have a limited impact on the natural environment. The impact of ultimately meeting the WSER on Inuit communities was investigated, and it was concluded that these objectives were not achievable without significant research, capital, and operation and maintenance investments by the Government of Canada. Drinking water in the far north has also been subject to increasing regulation, with requirements for quality and requirements for certification and training. The evaluation of northern water supplies in the context of southern benchmarks has been identified to be out of context with the operating realities in the far north. References      

Understanding Environmental Risks Associated with Current Municipal Wastewater Systems in Nunavut. NTWWA Journal, 2015. Northern Water – Treating it with Context. NTWWA Journal, 2013. Environment Canada Work to Implement the Canada-Wide Strategy. NTWWA Journal, 2011. Northwest Territories Water Supply Legislation – A New Framework for Clean Water. NTWWA Journal, 2010. CCME Strategy and the North. NTWWA Journal, 2009. Advancing Wastewater Treatment in Inuit Regions of Canada. Proceedings of the Annual Conference of Western Canada Water and Waste Association, 2008.

SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND INNOVATION IN WATER AND WASTEWATER (OTHER WASTEWATER TECHNOLOGIES) Cold temperatures limit biological activity, therefore the application of biological systems in the far north consider this limitation in the design and application of treatment systems. The general approach for wastewater treatment is to retain the wastewater and take the best advantage of biological activity during the short warm season. Several innovations have been able to work outside the usual “warm” system to advance wastewater and biosolids treatment. For wastewater treatment, a biofilter has been developed that provides nitrification at low temperature, and therefore may have an application to supplement the retention process, and operate in the colder seasons. For biosolids treatment, an inherent physical process can be used to dewater biosolids with a freeze thaw cycle. Regions that have not been glaciated, and have discontinuous permafrost in the far north have the opportunity to make use of soil as a biofilter for supplemental treatment to a lagoon. References     

Cold Wastewater Lagoons and SAGR: A Match Made in Canada. NTWWA Journal, 2015. Sewage Composting in Iqaluit, Nunavut – Black Gold. Proceedings of the Annual Conference of Western Canada Water and Waste Association, 2009. Fort Resolution Wastewater Management Study. Proceedings of the Annual Conference of Western Canada Water and Waste Association, 2010. City of Dawson Wastewater Treatment – Biosolids Management. Western Canada Water Magazine, Fall 2013. Integrated Waste Management in Iqaluit, Nunavut. Prepared for Consulting Engineers of Alberta Award Application, September, 2006. Received Award of Merit, Municipal Engineering Category.

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Application of Large Scale At-Grade Sewage Treatment and Disposal in Fort Good Hope, NWT. NTWWA Journal, 2006.

MECHANICAL WASTEWATER SYSTEMS Mechanical wastewater systems are not frequently used in the far north, however there are situations where the technology may be appropriate. In Alaska, a funding gap of approximately $750 million prompted the Government of Alaska to pursue a program to develop options for decentralized wastewater treatment and water use. The Alaska Water and Sewer Challenge is a competitive program for technology development that started with 18 proponents. Based upon the limited number of applications of mechanical systems in the far north, it may be stated that the likelihood of the successful application of a mechanical treatment process for centralized wastewater treatment in the far north is low. References    

Alaska Water and Sewer Challenge. NTWWA Journal, 2015. The Challenges with Mechanical Wastewater Systems in the Far North. NTWWA Journal, 2015. Dawson City Digs Deep for Sewage Treatment. Western Canada Water Magazine, Winter 2009. Technologies for Use in On-Site Wastewater Recycling within Cold and Remote Regions. Cryofront Journal of Cold Region Technologies, 2000.

SYSTEM REDUNDANCY AND SYSTEM CONTROLS IN WATER AND WASTEWATER The system redundancy of water and sanitation facilities has always been an inherent part of planning and design in the far north. An emerging issue for water supply has been the need for a redundant water source in the event of a situation that makes the water supply unusable due to quality or quantity issues. A study of alterative water supplies for communities in the Nunavut Territory provided a contingency planning tool in addition to provisions for emergency water treatment systems. Monitoring and controls have changed dramatically with new technology, and the available technologies offer the opportunity for remote monitoring and controlling. Retrofitting of systems is also an alternative for facilities. References    

Kugaaruk, Nunavut Water Supply, and Alternative Water Supply Study. NTWWA Journal, 2013. Affordable Remote Monitoring & Control of Small Treatment Plants. NTWWA Journal, 2013. PLC Installation in Norman Wells. NTWWA Journal, 2008. Emergency Measures Organization Exercise in Normal Wells. NTWWA Journal, 2007.

SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND INNOVATION IN WATER AND WASTEWATER (CONVEYANCE) Water and sewer conveyance systems are commonly used in the larger communities of the Yukon and NWT, but are used in only a select number of communities in Nunavut. Trucked water supply and sewage collection are used in the majority of the communities. The piped systems, other than the most southerly communities of the Yukon and NWT, are buried and insulated, with the exception of Inuvik and a portion of Norman Wells, which use above ground piped systems (utilidors). The utilidor system is a legacy servicing alternative from the original development of the community of Inuvik and was selected because of the severe ground conditions. After 50 years in service, the utilidor is in the gradual process of being replaced, applying current northern construction techniques and insulated piping materials. The cost of this replacement work is approximately $6,000 per metre for water and sewer, which is the most expensive servicing alternative in the far north. The water and sewer system in Dawson City is subject to similar ground conditions as Inuvik, but the decision was made to bury this system. The consequence of burying the system in Dawson City, particularly the sewer system, has been that the piping has been subject to significant deformation, which © National Research Council of Canada 2016.

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has required significant replacement. Improvements were made to the sewer piping to provide a more robust system. The cost of the insulated systems are very expensive and alternative concepts for access to the systems has been investigated. The results of this limited study suggested that the cost associated with the robust nature of the access systems was warranted given the demanding environment in which the systems have to perform. References   

Water and Sewer Systems Serving Dawson City Yukon. NTWWA Journal, 2007. Design and Winter Construction of Sewage Lagoon Discharge Pipeline in Landslide Area near Fort Smith, NWT. Proceedings of the Annual Conference of the Canadian Society for Civil Engineering, 2006. Alternative Concepts for Water and Sewer Main Access in the Northwest Territories. Proceedings of the Annual Conference of the Canadian Society for Civil Engineering, 1990.

SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND INNOVATION IN WATER AND WASTEWATER (WATER SUPPLY) Surface water is generally used for water supply in the communities in the far north, with the exception of communities in the Yukon, and a select number of communities in the NWT, which have aquifers due to the absence of glaciation and the absence of permafrost. An alternate water supply has been investigated in permafrost areas in a “talik” aquifer, which is a limited pool of water which forms in the talik permafrost feature. A common problem for water supply from rivers in the far north is seasonal high turbidity. This has been addressed by a variety of processes, and the simplest process has been sedimentation with the application of a polymer. Water disinfection generally applies chlorination because of its simplicity and residual concentration, which is important for trucked water supply systems where the water may remain unused for significant periods of time. UV treatment is emerging as a more common disinfection system in the far north. Raw water supplies are generally of high quality in the far north with the exception of turbidity, however some unique contaminants, such as arsenic, have emerged in some raw water supplies. References    

Groundwater Supply from a Talik Aquifer in Kugluktuk, Nunavut. NTWWA Journal, 2011. Haines Junction, Yukon Treatment Upgrading for Arsenic Removal. NTWWA Journal, 2011. Treating High Raw Water Turbidity in Fort Smith, NT. NTWWA Journal, 2005. Water Treatment Improvements in Iqaluit, Nunavut. NTWWA Journal, 2005.

WASTEWATER SAMPLING AND TESTING For the purposes of regulatory compliance, water and wastewater sampling and the transportation of these samples to an accredited laboratory is a necessary part of the operation of any facility. The logistics for achieving this objective presents collection and transportation challenges. The collection presents the challenge of accessing the compliance point in the regulatory framework; in one case, the compliance point for the community is only accessible by helicopter. The transportation presents a logistics problem of coordinating the sampling with the transportation of the sample to the accredited laboratory; transportation from several of the most northerly communities may take days, which makes the sample results not acceptable for legal purposes. To improve upon the transportation logistics it is feasible to set up a laboratory facility in the far itself. However, the cost of maintaining a lab facility is generally not sustainable for the volume of samples from northern communities.

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References  

Wastewater Sampling Challenges in Grise Fiord and Other Northern Communities. NTWWA Journal, 2010. Logistics for Implementing and Operating a Remote Testing Lab in Rankin Inlet, Nunavut. NTWWA Journal, 2009.

CLIMATE CHANGE Climate change is a recognized phenomenon issue in the far north, with expectations for serious issues for all community infrastructure. From a water and sanitation perspective, there is speculation that climate change will influence water and sanitation, but the specific implications in the Canadian north have not been thoroughly examined. Several instances related to water quality and water quantity have been reported, with speculation that climate change may have had an influencing factor. A water quality issue with the water supply for the City of Yellowknife was reported and it was suggested that the degradation of a river embankment may have caused high turbidity levels in the Yellowknife River water supply. This new water quality experience with the water supply system was part of a motivation for advancing a filtration system for the City of Yellowknife, which was commission in 2015 at a cost of over $30 million. A water quantity related issue was reported in the community of Grise Fiord, Nunavut with decreased flow in the seasonal water supply stream. The stream is glacier fed, and a reduction in flow did not allow the water reservoir to be completed filled, which ultimately required iceberg harvesting at the end of the winter to maintain the community water supply. References  

Major Water Treatment Improvements for Yellowknife, NT. NTWWA Journal, 2013. Water Supply Challenges in Grise Fiord, Nunavut. NTWWA Journal, 2008.

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Bibliography Part 1 Articles and Papers by Ken Johnson and Coauthors (chronological order 1990 to 2015) 1.

Fifty Years of Wastewater Management and Improvements in Iqaluit. Published in Western Canada Water Magazine, Spring 2015. 2 pages.

The Challenges with Mechanical Wastewater Systems in the Far North. Published in the Proceedings of the Annual Conference of Western Canada Water and Waste Association, 2014. 10 pages.

Successful Lagoon Operation in Northern Communities. Published in Environmental Science and Engineering Magazine, October 2014. 2 pages.

A Comparison of Water and Sanitation in the Canadian North and the American North. Published in the Proceedings of the Annual Conference of Western Canada Water and Waste Association, 2013. 9 pages.

CCC in the Close Quarters of a Northern Water and Sewer Access Vault. Published in Western Canada Water Magazine, Spring 2013. 1 page.

The Extreme Cost of Northern “Liquid Assets.” Published in Western Canada Water Magazine, Fall 2013. 2 pages.

City of Dawson Wastewater Treatment – Biosolids Management. Published in Western Canada Water Magazine, Fall 2013. 1 page.

Innovation Gone Wrong – the SH#%T Hits the Trailer Park in Yellowknife. Published in Western Canada Water Magazine, Winter 2012. 1 page.

Project Delivery in the Far North – Then and Now. Published in Western Canada Water Magazine, Winter 2011. 3 pages.

10.

Wastewater Sampling Challenges in Grise Fiord and Other Northern Communities. Published in the Journal of the Northern Territories Water and Waste Association, 2010. 4 pages.

11.

Fort Resolution Wastewater Management Study. Published in the Proceedings of the Annual Conference of Western Canada Water and Waste Association, 2010. 10 pages.

12.

Giant Mine Water Management System. Published in the Journal of the Northern Territories Water and Waste Association, 2010. 4 pages.

13.

Utilidor Replacement in Inuvik. Published in the Proceedings of the Annual Conference of Western Canada Water and Waste Association, 2010. 8 pages.

14.

Sewage Composting in Iqaluit Nunavut – Black Gold. Published in the Proceedings of the Annual Conference of Western Canada Water and Waste Association, 2009. 11 pages.

15.

Dawson City Digs Deep for Sewage Treatment. Published in Western Canada Water Magazine, Winter 2009. 2 pages.

16.

Diavik Diamond Mine Water Management Plan. Published in the Journal of the Northern Territories Water and Waste Association, 2009. 5 pages.

17.

Water and Sewer Challenges in Kashechewan, Ontario. Published in the Journal of the Northern Territories Water and Waste Association, 2009.

18.

Infrastructure Serving Dawson City, Yukon – The New Klondike Gold. Published in the Proceedings of the Annual Conference of Western Canada Water and Waste Association, 2009. 7 pages.

19.

Advancing Wastewater Treatment in Inuit Regions of Canada. Published in the Proceedings of the Annual Conference of Western Canada Water and Waste Association, 2008. 12 pages.

20.

A Brief History of the Past 60 Years of Northern Water and Waste. Published in the Proceedings of the Annual Conference of Western Canada Water and Waste Association, 2008. 7 pages.

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21.

Cambridge Bay, Nunavut, Wetland Planning Study. Published in the Journal of the Northern Territories Water and Waste Association, 2008. 4 pages.

22.

Aerated Lagoon in the Canadian North â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Fort Nelson, BC Facility. Published in the Journal of the Northern Territories Water and Waste Association, 2007. 5 pages.

23.

The Social Context of Wastewater Management in Remote Communities, Published in the Proceedings of the Annual Conference of the Western Canada Water and Waste Association, 2007. 9 pages.

24.

Engineered Improvements to Sewage Treatment System in Cambridge Bay, Nunavut. Published in the Proceedings of the Annual Conference of the Canadian Society for Civil Engineering, 2007. 8 pages.

25.

Wetland System for Treatment of Landfill Runoff in Iqaluit, Nunavut. Published in the Proceedings of the Annual Conference of the Canadian Society for Civil Engineering, 2007. 8 pages.

26.

Water and Sewer Systems Serving Dawson City, Yukon. Published in the Journal of the Northern Territories Water and Waste Association, 2007. 5 pages.

27.

Application of Large Scale At-Grade Sewage Treatment and Disposal in Fort Good Hope, NT. Published in the Proceedings of the Annual Conference of the Canadian Society for Civil Engineering, 2006. 7 pages.

28.

Integrated Waste Management in Iqaluit, Nunavut. Prepared for Consulting Engineers of Alberta Award Application, September, 2006. Received Award of Merit, Municipal Engineering Category. 8 pages.

29.

Design and Winter Construction of Sewage Lagoon Discharge Pipeline in Landslide Area near Fort Smithy, NWT. Published in the Proceedings of the Annual Conference of the Canadian Society for Civil Engineering, 2006. 8 pages

30.

Livingston Trail Environmental Control Facility, Whitehorse, Yukon. Published in the Journal of the Northern Territories Water and Waste Association, 2005. 5 pages.

31.

Performance and Potential Improvements to Anaerobic Sewage Lagoon in Fort McPherson, NT. th Published in the Proceedings of the 12 International Cold Regions Engineering Specialty Conference, 2004. 14 pages.

32.

The Future of Wastewater in a Global Water Shortage. Published in Environmental Science and Engineering. May, 2004. 2 pages.

33.

Land Use Planning and Waste Management in Iqaluit, Nunavut. Published in Proceeding of the Annual Conference of the Canadian Institute of Planners. July, 2001. 3 pages.

34.

Technologies for Use in On-Site Wastewater Recycling within Cold and Remote Regions. Cryofront Journal of Cold Region Technologies. Published in 2000. 10 pages.

35.

Sewage Treatment Systems in Communities and Camps of the Northwest Territories and st Nunavut Territory. Published in the Proceedings of the 1 Cold Regions Specialty Conference of the Canadian Society for Civil Engineering, 1999. 10 pages.

36.

Evaluation of the Impact of Secondary Sewage Discharge on the Aquatic Environment of Kodiak st Lake near Ekati Diamond Mine, NT. Published in the Proceedings of the 1 Cold Regions Specialty Conference of the Canadian Society for Civil Engineering, 1999. 10 pages.

37.

Design and Construction of Sewage Lagoon in Grise Fiord, Nunavut. Published in the th Proceedings of the 7 International Conference on Permafrost, 1998. 8 pages.

38.

Preliminary Engineering of Sewage Disposal System in the Community of Repulse Bay, Nunavut. Published in the Proceedings of the Annual Conference of the Canadian Society for Civil Engineering, 1994. 10 pages.

39.

Performance Evaluation of Primary Sewage Lagoon in Iqaluit, Nunavut. Published in the th Proceedings of the 7 International Cold Regions Engineering Specialty Conference, 1994. 10 pages.

40.

Alternative Concepts for Water and sewer Main access in the Northwest Territories. Published in the Proceedings of the Annual Conference of the Canadian Society for Civil Engineering, 1990. 10 pages.

ÂŠ National Research Council of Canada 2016.

Page 12 of 17

Bibliography Part 2 Articles from Northern Territories Water and Waste Association Journal (2005 to 2015) 2015 1.

2. 3. 4.

5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Understanding Environmental Risks Associated with Current Municipal Wastewater Systems in Nunavut By Rob Jamieson, Kira Krumhansl, Wendy Krkosek, Mark Greenwood, Justine Lywood Paulatuk – Wetland Management By Gordon Balch, Brent Wootton, Colin Yates Water License Compliance Sampling in Gjoa Haven, Nunavut By Shah Alam Defining the Role of Tundra Wetland Treatment Areas in Municipal Wastewater Management in Nunavut By Jenny Hayward, Rob Jamieson, Justine Lywood Alaska Water and Sewer Challenge By Ken Johnson Cold Wastewater Lagoons and SAGR: A Match Made in Canada By Martin Hildebrand, Philip Wiebe Chesterfield Inlet Wetland Modeling By Gordon Balch, Brent Wootton, Colin Yates The Challenges with Mechanical Wastewater Systems in the Far North By Glenn Prosko, David Lycon The Social Context of Wastewater Management in Remote Communities By Ken Johnson Community Water and Sanitation Policy in the North – A History Edited from an article by Vern Christensen

2014 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

7. 8.

In the beginning By Ron Kent When I Dammed the Klondike River (and got away with it) – Interview with Norm Carlson By Ken Johnson The Changing North – Fort Simpson in the 1950s Edited from book by Jack Grainge Insulating Water and Wastewater Systems in the North, A Supplier’s Perspective By Gregg Gaylord The Yukon Ditch – Moving Big Water After the Rush By Ken Johnson Culture and Change in the NWT – Implications for Community Infrastructure Planning – A 1985 Perspective Edited from the Master Thesis of the late James Joseph Cameron, M.Sc., P.Eng (1947-1997) A Brief History of the Past 60 Years of Northern Water and Waste By Ken Johnson A Status of Water and Sanitation Facilities in the NWT in 1982 Edited from technical paper by Vern Christensen, P.Eng.

Page 13 of 17

2013 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

Major Water Treatment Improvements for Yellowknife, NT By Chris Greencorn Northern Water – Treating it with Context By Ken Johnson Fort Smith Struggles and Succeeds with Water Filtration By Jean Soucy Baker Lake, Nunavut – Water Treatment Plant By George Thorpe Fort Liard Water Treatment Plant By Alan Harris Kugaaruk, Nunavut Water Supply, and Alternative Water Supply Study By Ken Johnson Watson Lake Water System Improvements By Ken Johnson Fifty-Five Year Old View on “Modern” Water and Sanitation Development in the North By Don Stanley Affordable Remote monitoring & Control of Small Treatment Plants By George Thorpe

2012 1. 2. 3. 4.

5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

Yellowknife Centralized Composting Program: Feeding the Land, Not the Landfill By Shannon Ripley Industrial Waste Management in the North By Krystal Malkin Old Crow’s Waste Management Systems Gets Upgraded By Wilbert Yang Community Training in Nunavut – Fueling a Focus on Sound Hazardous Waste Management Practices By Colleen Starchuk & Jim Lapp Solid Waste Survey in the Territories By Jamie VanGulck & Richard Dwyer Landfill Runoff Treatment Options for Iqaluit, Nunavut By Ken Johnson Importance of Landfill Operations – Knowing the Waste in Hay River By Dustin Dewar Alaska Solid Waste Management By Ken Johnson Norman Wells Solid Waste Master Plan By Ken Johnson

2011 1. 2. 3. 4.

Water Tank Rehabilitation in Nunavut By Patrick Wong Water Main Rehabilitation in the Northwest Territories By Rob Osborne Water Treatment Facility in Nunavut By George Thorpe North of 60 Drinking Water Statistics Canada 2011 Survey of Drinking Water Plants

Page 14 of 17

5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11.

Groundwater Supply from a Talik Aquifer in Kugluktuk, Nunavut By Jim Walls Evaluating Constructed Wetlands at CFS Alert, Nunavut By Brent Wootton & Gord Balch Wastewater Treatment in Gjoa Haven, Nunavut By Jane Challen Urbanic Environment Canada Work to Implement the Canada-Wide Strategy By Mary Kelly & Isabelle Mayr Water Treatment Improvements in Manning, Northern Alberta By Gary Drachenberg, et al Haines Junction, Yukon Treatment Upgrading for Arsenic Removal By Carol Campbell & Claire Bayless Active Research into Passive Systems: A Study of Wastewater in Nunavut By Bu Lam & Tom Livingston

2010 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12.

Mentoring Young Inuit Minds at the Basil Bay Science Camp By Tanya Connors Environmental Technology Students Complete “Crazy” Field Work By Ken Johnson NAIT Water and Wastewater Program at a Glance By Kurt Stogrin Northwest Territories Water Supply Legislation – A New Framework for Clean Water By Robert Savoury Wastewater Sampling Challenges in Grise Fiord and Other Northern Communities By Ken Johnson Tundra Mine Emergency Treatment Challenge By Harry Marshall Bundled Water Treatment Project in Five NWT Communities By Perry Heath Fisher River First Nation Water and Wastewater Systems By Ken Mattes Giant Mine Water Management System By Ken Johnson Pilot Scale Experimental Wetland Cells in Baker Lake, Nunavut By Colin Yates & Brent Wootton Rankin Inlet Water Supply Improvements By Clay Peck Northern Water and Sewer – Insulation to Installation By Doug Steinhubl

2009 1. 2. 3. 4.

Northern Diamond Mines – Infrastructure Fuelled by “Ice” By Ken Johnson Membrane Bio-Reactor Wastewater Treatment Plant at the Snap Lake Diamond Mine, NWT By Rick Johnson Diavik Diamond Mine Water Management Plan By Ken Johnson Infrastructure Obstacles to Development in Nunavut By Bob Chapple

Page 15 of 17

5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Bosworth Creek Monitoring Project Near Norman Wells, NWT By Glen Guthrie Logistics for Implementing and Operating a Remote Testing Lab in Rankin Inlet, Nunavut By Brent Wootton & Stephanie Collins Residential Fuel Spills in Yellowknife, NWT: The Plague of Necessity By Ron Kent and Clay Peck Water and Sewer Challenges in Kashechewan, Ontario By Ken Johnson CCME Strategy and the North By Catherine Mallet & Anne Wilson Solid Waste Management in Carcross, Yukon By Ken Johnson

2008 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Fifty Years of Engineering for Pipes, Permafrost & People of Inuvik, NWT By Ken Johnson Potable Water Reservoir Clean, and Repair in Jean Marie, NWT By Malcolm McPhail & Dennis Buboire PLC Installation in Norman Wells, NT By Sean Austman-Kunkel Aerated Lagoon Upgrades for Kawawachikamach, QC By Merle Kroeker A Measure and Process for Improving Human Excreta Disposal Practice in Rural Alaska Villages By Joseph Sarcone The Raven Recycles in Whitehorse, Yukon By Ken Johnson Wetland Planning Study in Cambridge Bay, Nunavut By Robert H. Kadlec Cold Region Municipal Wastewater Treatment Workshop, 2007 By David Abernathy Water Supply Challenges in Grise Fiord, Nunavut By Ken Johnson The Development of Water & Sewer Infrastructure in Iqaluit, Nunavut By Farrell McGovern

2007 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Water and Sewer at the Other Pole By Peter Christou Water and Sewer System Serving Dawson City, Yukon By Norm Carlson & Ken Johnson Environmental Study and Evaluation of the Water and Sewage System at Baker Lake, Nunavut By Carey Sibbald & Nick Lawson Water Supply and Treatment Improvements in Gjoa Haven, Nunavut By Heather Scott Aerated Lagoons in the Canadian North – Fort Nelson, BC Facility By Glenn Prosko & Ken Johnson Water for People – Saving the World, One Drop at a Time By Kim Philip Emergency Measures Organization Exercise in Normal Wells By Sean Austen-Kempel

Page 16 of 17

2006 1.

2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Canadian Forces Station Alert” Infrastructure and Environmental Management at Canada’s Frozen Edge By Ken Johnson Northern Operator: Innovative Solid Waste Management in Iqaluit, Nunavut By Darcy Reist Development of the Water and Sewer System, Natuashish, Nunatsiavut By Roger Butt Performance of a Tundra Wetland Sewage Treatment System in Coral Harbour, Nunavut By Brian Purdy & Nick Lawson Application of Burning Vessels for Solid Waste in Destruction Bay, Yukon By Ken Johnson, Matthew Nefstead & Pat McInroy Application of Large Scale At-Grade Sewage Treatment and Disposal in Fort Good Hope NWT By Amir Agha, Mukesh Mathrani & Ken Johnson Water Treatment History in the City of Yellowknife, NWT By Jennifer Roste Water Reservoir Improvements in Qikitarjuaq, Nunavut By Nick Lawson

2005 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Research and Development of Waste Management Training Program in the Northwest Territories By Heather Scott Sewage Lagoon Wetland Treatment System, Arviat, Nunavut By Ron Kent and Dele Morakinyo Treating High Raw Water Turbidity in Fort Smith, NT By Jean Soucy Water Treatment Improvements in Iqaluit, Nunavut By Ken Johnson Rocks, Snow and Wastewater Treatment in Pangnirtung, Nunavut By Peter Christou Extreme Water Treatment Engineering in Sachs Harbour, NT By Shannon Syme Solid Waste Management Improvements in Tsiigehtchic, NT By Ken Johnson Livingstone Trail Environmental Control Facility (LTECF), Whitehorse, Yukon By Ken Johnson

Page 17 of 17