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OFFICIAL ONLINE PROCEEDINGS

All papers were presented at the:

CENTER FOR SCHOLASTIC INQUIRY

INTERNATIONAL ACADEMIC RESEARCH CONFERENCE

IN CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA (OCTOBER 28‐30, 2015).

Author Credit:

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BEHAVIORAL SCIENCE

PROCEEDINGS

End of Life Discussions in the Community Elizabeth Houglan Adkins, University of Toledo/Wright State University

Treating Intimate Partner Violence: The LGBT Couple Gregory Canillas, The Chicago School of Professional Psychology‐LA

Treating the Psychological Effects of Verbal Abuse in Children & Adolescents Gregory Canillas, The Chicago School of Professional Psychology‐LA

Validating the Integrated Person‐Centered and Existential Therapy Model (IPCE) for the Treatment of Combat Veterans with Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Henry J. Venter, National University, CA

Learning to Work with Trauma Survivors: Lessons from Tbilisi Georgia James T. Decker, California State University, Northridge Jodi Constantine Brown, California State University, Northridge

The Relationship among Sluggish Cognitive Tempo, ADHD, and Information Processing Indicators Orly Calderon, Long Island University

Examining Memories: Cuban‐Americans Courage, Connection, and Adaptation Rhondda Waddell, St. Leo University Debra Mims, St. Leo University

Human Trafficking In the Land of Prayer and Enlightenment Rochelle L. Dalla, University of Nebraska‐Lincoln

Factors That Influence Student Evaluations Of ʹExpertʹ And ʹExperiencedʹ Guest Lecturers In Introductory Psychology Courses William L. Phillips, Dominican University of California Afshin Gharib, Dominican University of California Kelly Miura

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End of Life Discussions in the Community

Elizabeth Houglan Adkins University of Toledo/Wright State University

Advance Care planning (ACP) is a process of review and discussion between patients, family members, and healthcare providers that focuses on goals of care rather than specific treatments. ACP should be initiated by the health care provider well before the patient is end stage or develops diminishing cognitive abilities and then implemented.

The PICOT question of this project is “ In primary care patients age 50 or older, with a chronic medical condition, does having a ACP discussion with a healthcare provider increase the likelihood that a patient/surrogate decision maker will be comfortable stating his/her ACP wishes and filling out an Advance Directive”. The Stetler Model was used to guide implementation of the project. The Gunderson Lutheran “Respecting Choices Patient Centered Advance Care Planning (PC‐ACP) was used to guide the discussion. Seventy Five (75) patients were selected from the Electronic Medical Record (EMR) and were given the Medical directive form pre and post intervention to review changes in their decision making. This Project will promote open discussions with patients, family members and healthcare providers about patient wishes and preferences, hopefully before the patient is hopelessly ill.

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Treating Intimate Partner Violence: The LGBT Couple

Gregory Canillas The Chicago School of Professional Psychology‐LA

In the last two decades, public awareness about intimate partner violence has dramatically increased. However, little is known about the dynamics of IPV within the LGBT community (Center for Disease Control, 2013). It is hypothesized that IPV is underreported in the general population because of stigma, cultural issues and poor interactions with legal enforcement. Those issues may be compounded in the LGBT community, as the group may still be viewed as “marginalized” by certain segments of the U.S. population, which may further prevent persons from coming forward to report.

Additional stressors, such as a partner threatening to “out” his/her partner who is closeted at work or within his/her larger family system add unique treatment issues to consider with LGBT clients. The workshop session will examine the psychological impact of intimate partner violence and effective treatment methods with LGBT couples. Economic, social and multicultural issues in the assessment and treatment of intimate partner violence with LGBTQ clients will be explored and presented through a case vignette/treatment plan. Finally, resources that may be used with this population will be suggested.

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Treating the Psychological Effects of Verbal Abuse in Children & Adolescents

Gregory Canillas The Chicago School of Professional Psychology‐LA

Parents who verbally abusive may believe it is an effective form of discipline, especially if they were raised in households that used this form of punishment. They often times do not realize that it can be traumatic for children and have long term effects on the child and his/her outcomes as an adult. Parents are often oblivious to the fact that verbal abuse can undermine their childʹs self concept and self‐esteem, damage his/her ability to develop trusting relationships, and effect social and academic functioning. In fact, recent research findings suggest that verbal abuse of children may be more emotionally destructive than sexual or physical abuse, and put survivors at greater risk for developing anxiety and depressive disorders (Teicher, et. al., 2006; Yuen, 2009).

This workshop will examine the psychological impact of verbal abuse on children.

Developmental, social, and multicultural issues in the assessment and treatment of verbal abuse will be considered.

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Validating the Integrated Person‐Centered and Existential Therapy Model (IPCE) for the Treatment of Combat Veterans with Posttraumatic Stress Disorder

Henry J. Venter National University, CA

Autobiography: Dr. Henry J. Venter is associate professor at National University, CA. he is the lead faculty of psychology at the Woodland Hills campus in Los Angles. He is also a licensed psychologist in the State of California.

Correspondence: hventer@nu.edu Abstract The findings and results of various studies on the prevalence and treatment of mental health disorders among US military and veteran populations, particularly Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD), indicated a need to focus on Person‐Centered and Existential Treatment modalities to address the issues of moral injury and dysfunctional meaning ascribed to war trauma. Preliminary data will be presented to statistically show the effectiveness of a treatment model developed to address the underlying existential issues of war trauma such as loss of meaning and purpose among veterans diagnosed with PTSD.

Keywords: Posttraumatic Stress Disorder; combat veterans; Person‐Centered

Therapy; Logotherapy; Existential Therapy.

8 Introduction The last ten years have been marked by a surge in United States (US) military personnel and veterans seeking treatment for service connected psychological and mental health issues following several military operations. In 2004, 15.6% to 17.1% of soldiers returning from Iraq and Afghanistan reported with symptoms of PTSD, depression, and general anxiety with 35% of Iraq war veterans requiring mental health care in the first year after deployment. In 2007, 20.3% active duty and 42.4% reservists screened positive for mental health disorders; in 2008 18.5% of Iraq and Afghanistan veterans reported depression and PTSD (Marmar, 2009). Of the 289,328 veterans seeking health care for the first time, 36.9% received one or more mental health diagnoses; 21.8% (60,000 plus) had PTSD and 17.4% depression (Institute of Medicine [IOM], 2012). Not only is the alarming high amount of veterans seeking help a problem, but providing effective therapy or high‐quality care ‐ defined by the Institute of Medicine (IOM) in their 2012 study as safe, effective, patient‐centered, timely, efficient, and equitable treatment of any physiological or psychological problem ‐ is equally a challenge. However, problems with Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) approved psychological approaches and some evidence based practices used in the treatment of veterans with combat‐related PTSD include: Focus on simplistic and reductionistic models of psychopathology, lack of evidence of efficacy, and omitting the existential crisis of PTSD from treatment (Venter, 2014). This tendency toward simplistic and reductionistic models of psychopathology results in interventions based primarily on catharsis, deconditioning, support, and medication (Venter, 2014). While the approaches prescribed by the VA is certainly necessary for symptom reduction, there are increasing indicators that such approaches to treat PTSD by themselves overlook additional factors making recovery from PTSD problematic. If this issue is not addressed through more comprehensive treatment designs, the difficulty of treating the

9 mental health problem of PTSD and its comorbid psychological conditions will increase exponentially in spite of available treatments, thereby exacerbating the crisis of mental health problems among US veterans. Historically, Person‐Centered, existential and experiential treatment modalities did not lend itself to psychometric research to render statistical analysis of its significance due to being too abstract and not focused on diagnosis. This research project developed a treatment approach using the theory and principles of Person‐Centered, existential and experiential treatment modalities structured in five phases with specific goals and outcomes in each phase that can be measured with pre‐ and post‐testing and statistically analyzed for effectives.

Literature Review The returning veteran is not only suffering from symptoms of the PTSD syndrome, but is suffering loss on a larger metaphysical scale including the loss of the world as they once knew it – the world now suddenly has little meaning or sense after returning from war to civilian life. This kind of metaphysical loss cannot be cured by drugs, catharsis, deconditioning, or support alone (Greening in Krippner & Powers, 1997). Greening stated that for most humans, the meaning of illness, any illness or disorder, begins with the loss of a world. It is vital to help reconstruct this world when providing counseling to populations such as the combat veteran suffering from PTSD. Recent studies confirmed the effectiveness of humanistic and existential therapeutic approaches to address this metaphysical problem including the loss of meaning and purpose (Hoffman, Vallejos, Heatherlyn, Cleare‐Hoffman & Rubin, 2015; Vos, Cooper, Correria & Craig, 2015; Vos, Cooper & Craig, 2014). Logotherapy is a distinct branch of the Humanistic/Existential School of Psychotherapy with a focus on the meaning of human existence as well as man’s search for such a meaning developed by Viktor Frankl (Frankl, 1946, 1985, 2010). What sets Frankl apart is his unconditional affirmation of life’s meaning. The Greek word Logos can mean “the word”, “the will of God”, “the controlling principles of the universe” or “meaning.” Frankl translated

10 logos as meaning and called his approach Logotherapy (Frankl, 1946; 1985). Therefore, Logotherapy means healing and health through finding meaning in life. The main objective of Logotherapy is to address the existential crisis a person experiences due to a loss of meaning in life and facilitate his or her quest to find meaning in any circumstance or event, thereby empowering them to live meaningfully and responsibly regardless of their life circumstances. Recent empirical investigation of Frankl’s Logotherapy has been proven effective in addressing issues of meaning and purpose (Joshi, Marszalek, Berkel & Hisnhaw, 2014). Logotherapy was put to a severe test in a very personal way between 1942 and 1945, when Frankl was committed to Nazi concentration camps. His experience and observation about that period supported the main thesis of Logotherapy: “This was the lesson I had to learn in three years spent in Auschwitz and Dachau: those most apt to survive the camps were those oriented toward the future, toward a meaning to be fulfilled by them in the future” (Frankl, 1985, p.37).

The humanistic and specifically the Person‐Centered approach to counseling developed by Carl Rogers have been proven to be effective regardless of which theoretical approach it is integrated with. Person‐Centered therapy has recently been effectively integrated by various therapeutic approaches including with cognitive therapy treating anxiety (Chalesworth, Sadek, Schepers & Spector, 2015); with prolonged exposure in mediating PTSD symptoms reduction (Mclean, Yeh, Rosenfield & Foa, 2015); and Cognitive Remediation Therapy in the Whole Psychosocial Rehabilitation Process in an evidence‐Based approach (Penadés, Catalán, Pujol, Masana, García‐Rizo & Bernardo, 2012). The fluidity of Existential therapy makes it an ideal foundation for an integrative approach to therapy (Hoffman, 2009). The three pillars of Person‐Centered therapy, empathy, congruence and unconditional positive regard enables the therapist to create a safe and trusting environment in which clients can explore their lives and consider change (Rogers, 1951, 1961, 1980). One of the tenets of

11 Person‐Centered therapy is to help the person discover incongruence in their lives, which withholds them from being authentic and free people who lives in the present (Rogers, 1951, 1961, 1980). One of the incongruences is the loss of meaning and purpose experienced by the combat veteran returning from war and suffering from PTSD. Therefore, Person‐Centered Theory is a natural fit to integrate with Existential Theory when pursuing metaphysical loss and moral injury.

A major misconception regarding counseling from an existential or humanistic perspective is that it only applies to well‐adjusted individuals who are basically psychologically healthy. Despite their long and rich history, Existential and Person‐ Centered psychotherapy has remained largely on the fringes of mainstream practice and underutilized in the treatment of serious psychological disorders such as Major Depressive Disorder and PTSD. In light of the current emphasis on evidence‐based therapeutic approaches, these approaches have difficulty producing evidence of efficacy. Some factors inherent in these approaches, especially existential counseling, contributed to this state of affairs including: a lack of clear definition and cohesiveness, being too esoteric, abstract and vague, difficult to evaluate quantitatively, and unclear guidelines. In the current circumstances surrounding the treatment of veterans with PTSD there is a need for more succinct, clearly‐defined, and “user‐friendly” model utilizing Person‐Centered and existential psychotherapeutic approaches, especially treating serious psychological disorders such as veterans with combat‐related PTSD. For this reason there is a need for more refined models of treatment which specifically focus on the underlying issues behind symptoms.

The Present Study In light of the observed shortcomings of existing treatment models the researcher developed a psychotherapeutic treatment model consisting of a five‐phase integrated Person‐Centered and Existential Treatment program for veterans with combat related PTSD based on the tenets of Victor Frank’s Logotherapy (1946) and Carl Rogers’

12 Person‐Centered therapy (Rogers, 1951, 1961, 1980). The treatment model is called Integrative Person‐Centered and Existential Therapy (IPCE) with five phases in the treatment process: Impact, Meaning, Process, Action, and Continuity (IMPAC). It is based on the core set of Person‐Centered therapy, which focuses on creating a safe, unconditional environment and Existential Theory with a focus on the loss of meaning.

This model effectively translates the tenets of Existential Theory and Person‐Centered therapy into a measurable counseling process that is more readily accessible to practitioners and one that can provide a measurable impact on counseling outcomes.

Since the five‐phase model lends itself to be quantifiable and measurable it is suitable for qualitative research that can provide much needed evidence of Existential treatment outcomes in the treatment of serious psychological disorders.

Treatment Philosophy of Integrated Person‐Centered and Existential Therapy (IPCE) The treatment philosophy of the newly developed treatment program is unique in that it goes beyond symptom reduction and focuses on the whole person. The purpose is to process the root of anxiety and create new meaning of life thereby fostering connectedness to life and to others. The root of Existential therapy is that people cannot begin to heal from their experiences of trauma unless they are supported as whole beings and provided a safe conduit to explore their world and reconnect with themselves and others (Frankl, 1946). The treatment will focus on developing an understanding of the veteran in his or her world, their capacities to be in the world, and the barriers or incongruences that are preventing them from fully experiencing those capacities (Rogers, 1951, 1961, 1980). The treatment program will address the issues behind the trauma including guilt, responsibility, despair, and loss. It will specifically focus on the meaning the veteran is ascribing to his or her trauma and the world he or she is in now, because when people encounter traumatic events their ability to make sense of the senseless is not only thwarted by the overwhelming traumatic experiences,

13 but also altered in a way that gives traumatic experiences power over their world. The model specifically focuses on: Developing an understanding of the veteran in his or her world; their capacities to be in the world; the barriers that are preventing them from fully experiencing those capacities; the existential issues behind the trauma including guilt, responsibility, despair, and loss; and the meaning the veteran is ascribing to his or her trauma and the world he or she is in now. When encountering traumatic events peoples’ ability to make sense of the senseless is not only thwarted by the overwhelming traumatic experiences, but also altered in a way that gives experiences power over their world. Without addressing these underlying causes of trauma, life becomes a day‐to‐day struggle to survive the intrusive, the horrific, and the paralyzing world that has the traumatized veteran feeling there is no exit or escape (Greening in Krippner & Powers, 1997; Brown, 2008).

Description of Integrated Person‐Centered and Existential Therapy (IPCE) The treatment model is called Integrative Person‐Centered and Existential Therapy (IPCE) with five phases in the treatment process namely: Impact, Meaning, Processing, Action, and Continued Growth (IMPAC). IPCE is based on the core set of Existential Theory with a focus on the loss of meaning or dysfunctional meaning ascribed to traumatic events. This model effectively translates the tenets of Existential Theory and Person‐Centered therapy into a measurable counseling process that is more readily accessible to practitioners and a model that can provide a measurable impact on counseling outcomes and is replicable. Since the five‐phase model lends itself to be quantifiable and measurable it is suitable for qualitative research that can provide much needed evidence of experiential treatment outcomes in the treatment of serious psychological disorders such as combat‐related PTSD. The therapist moves to the next phase when he or she is certain that the goals of the phase have been accomplished.

The five phases cover the following:

14 Phase 1: Impact ‐ processing the impact of the event: The essential question of this phase to the client is: “What happened to you and how did it change you and your life?” The focus is on helping the veteran tell his or her story with a past‐and‐present focus, and in the process gaining a clear understanding of how the trauma affected them uniquely. The aim in this phase is to create a safe and trusting environment using the three pillars of Person‐Centered therapy, empathy, congruence and unconditional positive regard (Rogers, 1951, 1961, 1980). The veteran is helped to reflect on the history of the trauma, what happened during the trauma, with focus on how it changed or affected his or her life instead of only focusing on what is wrong with the veteran, for example just talking about symptoms. In this phase it is important that the person receives the message that he or she is more than just the sum of the symptoms making up PTSD. Every person is unique and in some way each person’s PTSD will manifest in a different manner. The premise of IPCE is that trauma gains a hold over people and keeps them trapped in the past, but in the process the person is not aware of what it is that is keeping him or her trapped. This phase gives the therapist a window into the person’s past and present and helps the therapist to develop an idea of how it must be to be the veteran, which is the cornerstone of empathy. Empathy is both a counseling technique and a way of being with the veteran which conveys the notion that they are completely understood and accepted regardless of what happened to them, what they did, and how it affected them.

Phase 2: Meaning ‐ discovering the meaning ascribed to the trauma: The essential question of this phase to the client is: “Why do you think the event that cause your trauma happened to you and what is the meaning you ascribed to it and your life?”

The focus of this phase is helping the veteran discover the dysfunctional and negative meaning they ascribed to the trauma, themselves, and their lives. This is the point in therapy where it is explored with the client that the loss of meaning and purpose they are experiencing in the present are trapping them in the consequences of the past and

15 therefore keeping them chained to the pain of the trauma. Examples of dysfunctional meaning includes self‐statements such as: I can never trust people again; I can never get close to someone else (when they lost buddies); my life is over; I don’t deserve to be alive; I don’t deserve happiness; I need to suffer for what I’ve done. Each person ascribes something unique to themselves and the trauma and it is often this ascribed meaning that can keep a person trapped in their trauma and the past. This phase takes the veteran further than just telling the story as in Phase 1 and explores possible dysfunctional meanings or loss of meaning the veteran experiences. One of the tenets of Person‐Centered therapy is to help the person discover incongruence in their lives, which withholds them from being authentic and free people who lives in the present (Rogers, 1951, 1961, 1980). Attentive listening during the first phase would have given the therapist an idea of how the veteran views the trauma of the past or if meaning is absent in their lives.

Phase 3: Processing ‐ processing the effects of dysfunctional meaning: The essential question in this phase to the client is: “How can you view what happened to you differently?” Now that the therapist has a better understanding of the veteran’s past and what happened to him/her and a clear idea has been formed of the meaning ascribed to the trauma and the past, the veteran can be assisted in brainstorming how they can view the past differently. In IPCE therapy, according to the principles of Person‐Centered and Existential Theory, solutions are not prescribed to the person (Frankl 1946, 2010; Rogers, 1951, 1961, 1980). Every person is unique and will take more or less time to explore how they can view the past differently. With the help of the new perspective developed during the first two phases the veteran is encouraged to explore different views or interpretations of the past with new self‐statements such as: I did not betray my friends by surviving the war and coming back alive; I’m not a criminal that should be punished because I killed someone in war; my life is not over. Taking personal responsibility is a major tenet of Person‐Centered and Existential Theory and,

16 therefore it is important that the veteran is empowered during this phase to take responsibility for changing their way of thinking. The idea during this phase is not to make any major life changes yet but simply to reflect on how the past could be viewed differently.

Phase 4: Action ‐ taking action and making new decisions: The essential question of this phase to the client is: “Now that you understand the how and why of your past, what changes would you like to make?” The focus of this phase is to assist the veteran in putting the changes they conceptualized in the previous phase in action. Often the veteran needs to be helped to “let go” of the past. In essence, if a veteran is existentially trapped in their trauma they never returned from war. Prevailing thoughts keeping them trapped in the past often includes: I can’t leave my buddies behind, or I want to view things differently but I can’t forgive myself. This is also referred to in Existential Theory as unfinished business that has to be processes in order to experience further growth. This is a practical phase and depending on the unfinished business the veteran presents with, the therapist assists the veteran to decide how he or she wants to finish or deal with the past. Memorializing is one of the techniques used in this phase and, for instance, the veteran may decide to write a letter to his or her deceased friends to share whatever thoughts they want to, which often includes asking forgiveness. Often they write a statement to themselves for forgiveness and to let go of the past. They may also write poems or make a painting or a collage. These acts of memorializing are also called anchors. The focus is to not simply let them make a decision about the future but to anchor it in an action they can remember or to memorialize the decision in a way they can vividly recall. Veterans who have lived isolated lives or lives focused only on themselves and their problems, often decide to join a group or start doing volunteer work to break the pattern of egocentric isolation.

Phase 5: Continued ‐ planning for future growth: The essential question of this phase to the client is: “How do you plan to continue growing and healing?” This phase

17 focuses on cementing the new decision veterans made in the previous phase. If a veteran for instance decided to start volunteering it will not be easy to find the right place or group. This phase focuses on assisting them in implementing changes and keeping with their decisions. During this phase the first four phases must be summarized and reviewed to ensure that the veteran maintains their new perspective.

At the same time this phase focuses on the future to ensure that the veteran implements changes they made during the therapy. This is also the time where the veteran is helped to decide if they should pursue further therapy, such as joining a group. The notion is conveyed to the veteran that healing is a process and a journey and often not accomplished in one therapy approach. As such, many veterans will benefit from joining a group therapy with other veterans, joining a symptom‐focused therapy approach to deal for instance with ongoing symptoms of anxiety, joining a therapy approach to develop interpersonal skills or access couples therapy with their spouses.

Depending on the unique circumstances of each individual the therapist will help them make a plan to facilitate future and ongoing growth and healing.

Objectives The aim of this pilot study is to determine the effectiveness of a newly developed psychotherapy IPCE model using Person‐Centered and Existential Theory. The following research question will be answered: Will the newly developed treatment IPCE model render statistically significant differences in pre‐ and posttest results that would show it is potentially effective in treating veterans with combat‐related PTSD? Method Procedure One male veteran who has been previously diagnosed with PTSD at the VA and awarded a 100% service connected rating for PTSD has been selected to participate in the pilot study. Prior to participating in the newly developed psychotherapy model, the veteran completed three psychometric tests, two measuring PTSD symptoms and

18 one measuring purpose in life including: the PTSD Checklist (PCL‐5) for American Psychiatric Association, Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, fifth edition (DSM‐5) (Weathers, Litz, Keane, Palmieri, Marx & Schnurr, 2013); Purpose in Life Test (PIL) (Crumbaugh & Maholick, 1964); and the Mississippi Scale for Combat‐ Related PTSD (M‐PTSD) (Keane, Caddell & Taylor, 1988). Following completion of the therapy, which consisted of 10‐20 therapy sessions of 1 hour each once per week, the veteran completed the same three posttests. Results from the pre‐ and posttests were then statistically analyzed to determine possible significance using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) using paired t‐Tests (IBM Corp., 2013).

Design This type of research design using one subject with measure prior and after an intervention is called a one‐group pretest‐posttest design. The one‐group pretest‐posttest design involves collecting information on the status of subjects prior to and following implementation of an intervention such as psychotherapy treatment. This involves pre‐ testing (e.g., symptoms) and subsequent measurement (posttesting) of the variables of interest after implementation.

Testing (1) PTSD Checklist for DSM‐5 (PCL‐5): The PCL‐5 is a 20‐item self‐report questionnaire that assesses the 20 symptoms of PTSD corresponding with the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual Fifth Edition (DSM‐5) (2013). The PCL‐5 has a variety of purposes, including: Monitoring symptom change during and after treatment; Screening individuals for PTSD; Making a provisional PTSD diagnosis. The self‐report rating scale is 0‐4 for each symptom corresponding to ʺNot at all,ʺ ʺA little bit,ʺ Moderately,ʺ ʺQuite a bit,ʺ and ʺExtremely.ʺ It has excellent test‐retest reliability. Internal consistency is very high for each of the three groups of items corresponding to the DSM‐5 symptom clusters as well as for the full 17‐item scale. The PCL‐5 correlates strongly with other measures of PTSD, such as the Mississippi Scale for Combat‐Related PTSD (M‐PTSD)

19 and also correlates moderately with level of combat exposure with correlations reported as 0.929 and diagnostic efficiency was 0.900 (Weathers, et al., 2013). Examination of the individual items showed wide ranging values of individual item correlations ranging from 0.386 to 0.788, and with diagnostic efficiencies of 0.700 or better for symptoms (Blanchard, Jones‐Alexander, Buckley & Forneris, 1996).

(2) Mississippi Scale for Combat‐Related PTSD (M‐PTSD): The M‐PTSD is a 35‐item self‐ report measure that assesses combat‐related PTSD in veteran populations. Items sample DSM‐5 symptoms of PTSD and frequently observed associated features (substance abuse, suicidality, and depression). Respondents are asked to rate how they feel about each item using 5‐point, Likert‐style response categories. Ten positively framed items are reversed scored and then responses are summed to provide an index of PTSD symptom severity which can range from 35‐175. Cutoff scores for a probable PTSD diagnosis have been validated for some populations, but may not generalize to other populations. In a study to validate the M‐PTSD findings support the construct validity (sensitivity) of this scale in the immediate and longitudinal measurement of relatively non‐pathological degrees of war‐related stress in reservists not involved in direct fighting (Keane, et al., 1988). Initial level of PTSD symptomatology upon returning from a war zone was predictive of M‐PTSD‐DS scores 3 years later. This scale was shown effective in detecting varying degrees of war‐related stress in this self‐ selected group of reservists (Sloan, Arsenault, & Hilsenroth, 1998).

(3) Purpose in Life Test (PIL): Meaning in life has been a popular topic of philosophy and study, and the perceived presence of meaning in oneʹs life has been associated with many positive psychological variables (e.g., life satisfaction), while the perceived absence of meaning has been associated with negative variables (e.g., depression). The Purpose in Life test (PIL) was developed in order to assess the amount of perceived meaning in a personʹs life (Crumbaugh & Maholick, 1964). The Purpose in Life (PIL) test is the earliest and most widely studied of the well‐known Logotherapy

20 psychometric instruments (Crumbaugh & Maholick, 1964, 1969) and is the primary Logotherapy measure of the degree to which an individual experiences a sense of personal life meaning. The PIL has been psychometrically reviewed in a number of sources (Crumbaugh & Henrion, 1988; Hutzell, 1987a, 1988; Melton & Schulenberg, 2008; Reker, 2000; Schulenberg, 2004). With regard to validity, the PIL, as is expected, correlates positively with constructs such as happiness, emotional stability, and extroversion, and negatively with constructs such as boredom proneness, anxiety, and depression (Hutzell, 1988, 1989; Melton & Schulenberg, 2007, 2008; Robak & Griffin, 2000; Schulenberg, 2004). Such correlations are consistent with Logotherapy conceptualizations and research studies that demonstrate the relationship between meaning and well‐being (Melton & Schulenberg, 2008; Schulenberg, 2004).

Results The results for the PTSD Checklist (PCL‐5) indicate that the mean value of the PCL‐5 pretest and PCL‐5 posttest for 20 questions is 3.60 and 1.95 respectively at a standard deviation of 0.681 and 1.191 respectively. The correlation between the variables are 0.419 at the significance level of 0.059 (which is greater than 0.05). So there is no significant correlation between PCL pretest and PCL posttest. However, the t‐Test value is 6.773 at the significance level of 0.000 (which is less than 0.05). So there is a statistically significant difference between the PCL pretest and PCL posttest (at the significance level 0.05). The researcher concludes, on the basis of the results, that there is a statistically significant reduction in symptoms of PTSD and it can be concluded that this reduction is due to the effect of the treatment program (see Table 1.1, Table 1.2, and Table 1.3).

The results for Mississippi Scale for Combat‐Related PTSD (M‐PTSD) indicate that the mean values of the M‐PTSD pretest and M‐PTSD posttest for 35 questions are 3.34 and 2.89 respectively at a standard deviation of 1.413 and 1.207 respectively. The correlation between the variables is 0.782 at the significance level of 0.000 (which is less

21 than 0.05). So there is significant correlation between M‐PTSD pretest and M‐PTSD posttest. The t‐Test value is 3.053 at the significance level of 0.004 (which is less than 0.05) indicating a statistically significant difference between the M‐PTSD pretest and M‐ PTSD posttest (at the significance level 0.05). It can therefore be concluded that the reduction in PTSD symptomatology as measured by the M‐PTSD is not due to chance but due to the effects of the therapeutic intervention (see Table 2.1, Table 2.2, and Table 2.3).

The results for Purpose in Life Test (PIL) indicate that the mean values of PIL pretest and PIL posttest for 20 questions are 2.35 and 3.70 respectively at a standard deviation of 0.813 and 0.657 respectively. The correlation between the variables are 0.306 at the significance level of 0.190 (which is greater than 0.05). So there is no significant correlation between PIL pretest and PIL posttest. The t‐Test value is 6.899 at the significance level of 0.000 (which is less than 0.05) and therefore there is a statistically significant difference between the PIL pretest and PIL posttest (at the significance level 0.05). Therefore a significant increase is noted in the perceived meaning reported by the subject, which is due to the effect of the treatment program and not to chance (see Table 3.1, Table 3.2, and Table 3.3).

Discussion This study started with the research question: Will the newly developed treatment model render statistically significant differences at the significance level 0.05 in pre‐ and posttest results that would show it is potentially effective in treating veterans with combat‐related PTSD? The conclusion is that the newly developed integrated Person‐Centered and Existential treatment model for use with combat veterans with PTSD has proven effective in a one subject one‐group pretest‐posttest design based on the statistical analysis of the pre‐ and posttest data.

The three instruments used, the PTSD Checklist (PCL‐5), Purpose in Life Test (PIL), and the Mississippi Scale for Combat‐Related PTSD (M‐PTSD) rendered

22 statistically significant data indicating that the change in the pretest and posttest data was not due to chance, but as a result of the effect of the therapeutic intervention utilized in this study as indicated in Tables 1‐3. The results of the PCL and the M‐PTSD indicate that PTSD symptoms as measured by these reliable and valid instruments significantly decreased after the therapeutic intervention. These two testing instruments are frequently used by other evidence‐based treatment modalities such as cognitive behavioral therapy and exposure therapy to determine effectiveness. The fact that the newly developed experiential and Existential treatment model rendered statistically significant results of change using the same instruments confirms that it has promise for future inclusion as an evidence‐based treatment in future.

The results of the pretest and posttest data of the PIL indicate that the subject’s perception of purpose and meaning in life increased significantly at the significance level 0.05 after the intervention. This instrument is frequently used by Existential therapists and meaning centered approaches to measure the change in meaning among clients. The fact that the newly developed therapeutic approach rendered statistically significant results using the PIL shows that it has promise in effecting existential issues, such as meaning and purpose in life.

Limitations This is a pilot study and a first attempt to systematically evaluate the effectiveness of the newly developed treatment IPCE model and this can be seen as strength.

Problematic is that the type of design using one subject called a one‐group pretest‐posttest design has limitations. Although this design provides a significant improvement over the one‐shot study measuring only posttest results the design suffers from weaknesses because it cannot allow the researcher to rule out the possibility that some alternate factor (besides the treatment) or extraneous variable has contributed to change. Another limitation is that the study could not be designed as a true randomized control trial

23 since no control group could be included and the subject was not randomly assigned to the treatment.

Suggestions for future research This issue of the one‐group pretest‐posttest design using only one subject could be addressed in future and the statistical data improved by including more subjects into future research projects using the newly developed treatment model. The issue of the lack of randomization can be addressed in future by including more subjects in future research studies and allow some to be randomly assigned to a no‐treatment, waiting list control group and others to be randomly assigned to treatment. The researcher plans to expand the study in future and to include the above suggestions in order to determine if the effectiveness shown in this study cross over to larger samples.

Conclusion The conclusion of this study is that the newly developed treatment IPEC model proofed to be effective treating one veteran suffering from combat related PTSD. The aim was to develop an integrated treatment model using Person‐Centered and Existential Theory in a five‐phase model that can be replicated by other researchers and that lend itself able to be assessed for effectiveness using testing instruments that could be statistically analyzed. The results of this study cannot at this stage be generalized to the larger population of veterans with combat‐related PTSD due to the small scope of the study using only one subject. However, it does show that the newly developed treatment model has promise for the future.

24 Table 1: The results for PTSD Checklist (PCL‐5) Table 1.1 Paired samples statistics Paired Samples Statistics

Pair 1

Mean

N

Std. Deviation

Std. Error Mean

PCL Pretest

3.60

20

.681

.152

PCL Posttest

1.95

20

1.191

.266

Table 1.2 Paired samples correlations Paired Samples Correlations

Pair 1

N PCL Pretest & PCL Posttest

Correlation 20

Sig.

.429

.059

Table 1.3 Paired samples test Paired Samples Test

Paired Differences Mean

Std. Deviation

T

Mean

PCL Pretest – PCL Posttest

1.650

1.089

.244

Sig. (2‐ tailed)

Std. Error 95% Confidence Interval of the Difference Lower

Pair 1

df

1.140

Upper 2.160

6.773

19

.000

25

Table 2: The results for M‐PTSD Table 2.1 Paired samples statistics Paired Samples Statistics

Pair 1

Mean

N

Std. Deviation

Std. Error Mean

M‐PTSD Pretest

3.34

35

1.413

.239

M‐PTSD Posttest

2.89

35

1.207

.204

Table 2.2 Paired samples correlations Paired Samples Correlations

Pair 1

N M‐PTSD Pretest & M‐PTSD Posttest

Correlation 35

Sig.

.782

.000

Table 2.3 Paired samples test Paired Samples Test

Paired Differences Mean

Std.

Std.

95% Confidence Interval

Deviation

Error

of the Difference

Mean Pair 1

M‐PTSD Pretest – M‐ PTSD Posttest

.457

t

.886

.150

Lower .153

df

Sig. (2‐ tailed)

Upper .761

3.053

34

.004

26 Table 3: The results for Purpose in Life Test (PIL) Table 3.1 Paired samples statistics Paired Samples Statistics

Mean

Pair 1

N

Std. Deviation

Std. Error Mean

PIL Pretest

2.35

20

.813

.182

PIL Posttest

3.70

20

.657

.147

Table 3.2 Paired samples correlations Paired Samples Correlations

N

Pair 1

PIL Pretest & PIL Posttest

Correlation 20

.306

Sig. .190

Table 3.3 Paired samples test Paired Samples Test

Paired Differences Mean

Pair 1

PIL Pretest – PIL Posttest

‐1.350

T

Std.

Std.

95% Confidence Interval

Deviatio

Error

of the Difference

n

Mean

.875

.196

Lower ‐1.760

df

Sig. (2‐ tailed)

Upper ‐.940

‐6.899

19

.000

References

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27 Charlesworth, G., Sadek, S., Schepers, A., & Spector, A. (2015). Cognitive behavior therapy for anxiety in people with dementia: A clinician guideline for a person‐ centered approach. Behavior Modification, 39(3): 390‐412.

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Abilene, TX: V. Frankl Institute of Logotherapy Frankl, V.E. (1946). Man’s search for meaning. Boston: Beacon Press.

Frankl, V.E. (1985). The unconscious god: Psychotherapy and theology. New York: Simon & Schuster.

Frankl, V.E. (2010). The Feeling of Meaninglessness: A challenge to psychotherapy and philosophy. A. Battyany. Milwaukee, WI: Marquette University Press.

Greening, T. (1997). Post‐traumatic stress disorder: An existential humanistic perspective. In Krippner, S. & Powers, S. M. (Eds.) Broken images, broken selves: Dissociative narratives in clinical practice. 125‐135. New York: Brunner/Mazel.

Hoffman, L. (2009). Knowing and the unknown: An existential epistemology in a postmodern context. Humana, Mente, 11, 97‐110.

Hoffman, L., Vallejos, L., Heatherlyn, P., Cleare‐Hoffman., H.P., & Rubin, S. (2015).

Emotion, relationship, and meaning as core existential practice: Evidence‐based foundations. Journal Contemp Psychotherapy, 45: 11‐20.

Hutzell, R.R. (1987a). Purpose‐in‐life (PIL) test. In D. J. Keyser and R. C. Sweetland (Eds.), Test critiques: VI: 437‐446. Kansas City, MO: Test Corporation of America.

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28 Hutzell, R.R. (1989). Life purpose questionnaire overview sheet. Berkeley, CA: Institute of Logotherapy Press.

IBM Corp. (Released 2013). IBM SPSS statistics for Windows, Version 22.0. Armonk, NY: IBM Corp.

Institute of Medicine (IOM). (2012). Treatment for posttraumatic stress disorder in military and veteran populations: Initial assessment. Committee on the Assessment of Ongoing Effects in the Treatment of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. Study supported by the National Academy of Sciences and the Department of Defense.

Joshi, C., Marszalek, J.M., Berkel, L.A., & Hisnhaw, A.B. (2014). An empirical investigation of Viktor Frankl’s logotherapeutic model. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 54(2), 227 ‐253.

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Marmar, C.R. (2009). Mental health impact of Afghanistan and Iraq deployment: Meeting the challenge of a new generation of veterans. Depression and Anxiety, 26:493‐497.

Mclean, C.P., Yeh, R., Rosenfield, D., & Foa, E.B. (2015). Changes in negative cognitions mediate PTSD symptom reductions during client‐centered therapy and prolonged exposure for adolescents. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 68: 64‐66.

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29 Penadés, R., Catalán, R., Pujol, N., Masana, G., García‐Rizo, C., & Bernardo1, M. (2012).

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30 Weathers, F.W., Litz, B.T., Keane, T.M., Palmieri, P.A., Marx, B.P., & Schnurr, P.P. (2013). The PTSD checklist for DSM‐5 (PCL‐5). Scale available from the National Center for PTSD at www.ptsd.va.gov.

31

Learning to Work with Trauma Survivors: Lessons from Tbilisi Georgia

James T. Decker California State University, Northridge

Jodi Constantine Brown California State University, Northridge

On August 8, 2008 Russia invaded Georgia and as a result of that war there were a reported 45,000 refugees from Abkhazia and South Ossetia displaced in Tbilisi. At that time, Ilia State University was in its second year of developing a Master of Social Work (MSW) Program. As part of its curriculum, students had to do 16 hours a week of field placement (internship) for their first year and 20 hours for their second year. There were five second year student interns in their field practicum’s working in refugee camps, three with adults and two working with children. On August the 10, 2008 as an outside consultant to Ikia State University arrived in Tbilisi Georgia and was scheduled to present four workshops on trauma. Two of the students invited the consultant to visit the refugee camp and help explain how they could use the activities the children were involved with and how could those activities be integrated into understanding children’s trauma issues through the use of their art projects and play. Based on that visit to the refugee camp and consulting with the two students working with children, a model was presented for intervention with childhood trauma using their art work and play therapy. By analyzing their art and observing them in both art activities and play; the student interns could see firsthand that most young people have no life experience to prepare them for the horrors of war and being displaced from their homes. They saw that children’s emotions can be strong and overwhelming. There was a fear of being injured or killed, being displace and more than likely never being allowed to return to their homes and friends, those losses increased the impact of this disaster. When

32 counseling children, it is important to highlight with them that events rarely come with warnings and their scope, intensity; and duration can be extreme and so it makes sense to be scared and angry. This paper will highlight an intervention model that provides workers/counselors the tools to work with trauma victims, which builds on Blending Higher Education and Western Traditional Knowledge of Trauma into a working model for interventions that developing counties can utilize.

33

The Relationship among Sluggish Cognitive Tempo, ADHD, and Information Processing Indicators

Orly Calderon Long Island University

Sluggish Cognitive Tempo is a construct describing symptoms of day dreaming, lethargy, drowsiness and underactivity in children (Jacobson, Murphy‐Bowman, Pritchard, Tart‐Zelvin, Zabel, & Mahone, 2012). Research has attempted to establish the construct validity of SCT, (Garner, Marceaux, Mrug, Paterson and Hodgens, 2010; Penny,Waschbusch, Klein, Corkum, & Eskes, 2009), producing several scales that assess SCT based on behavioral symptoms reported by parents and teachers and deriving from a behavior assessment checklist . Results suggest that SCT may not be a unitary construct. Differences between parents and teachers’ reports of SCT imply the contextual link of SCT (Watabe, Owens, Evans, Brandt, 2013). SCT has also been studied in relationship to ADHD with mixed results. Skirbekk, Hansen, Oerbeck, and Kristensen, 2011, founds that SCT did not differentiate between subtypes of ADHD but was elevated in children with ADHD compared to controls. Jacobson et al. (2012) found a stronger association between SCT and the inattentive, rather than hyperactive, type of ADHD. Barkley, (2013) has found that SCT may be distinct from ADHD and that it may involve organizational, rather than executive, functioning deficits. To date, most of the SCT research focused on the behavioral components of the syndrome, but not on cognitive correlates. A few recent studies suggest that SCT is not associated with executive functioning. Others found associations with spatial memory but not with reaction time (Skirbekk et al., 2011).

34 The current study tested the validity of SCT and its association with ADHD as well as the relationship between SCT and certain cognitive processes of verbal and nonverbal information in a sample of 58 clinically‐referred children. Utilizing an archival repeated measures correlational design, scores on a 5‐item SCT scale a (Garner, 2010) ADHD screening as per parents and teachers rating scales, and information processing as per cognitive testing, were analyzed. The results suggested disparity between parents and teachers’ reports on the presence and severity of SCT indicators, with teachers ratings in the moderate range and parents’ rating in the low range. Factor analysis suggested that SCT was not a unified construct. Additionally, parents‐reported SCT items were more likely than teachers’ reported items to correlated with ratings of ADHD, especially the inattentive type, although some parent‐reported SCT items correlated significantly with both types of ADHD. Lastly, a moderate association was found between two items of parents‐rated SCT (confused and stares blankly) and working memory but none with processing speed. Teachers ‐reported SCT items did not correlate with either aspect of information processing tested.

While the small sample size is a limitation, the current results are consistent with previous findings regarding the controversial validity of SCT, its contextual link to informant and environment, and its unclear connection with ADHD or with indicators of efficient cognitive processing of verbal and nonverbal information.

More research is required, but it seems that SCT is poorly labeled as it does not show strong linkages to cognitive processing . The utility of the construct as a predictor of ADHD or as differentiating factor among types of ADHD remains dubious.

References

35

Barkley, R. A. (2013). Distinguishing sluggish cognitive tempo from ADHD in children and adolescents: Executive functioning, impairment, and comorbidity .Journal Of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 42(2), 161‐173.

36

Examining Memories: Cuban‐Americans Courage, Connection, and Adaptation

Rhondda Waddell.

St. Leo University

Debra Mims St. Leo University

The purpose of this qualitative research study was to explore the experiences of Cubans leaving Cuba during the Mariel Boatlift that took place between late April and late September 1980 in response to Fidel Castro’s Revolution. Electronically blogged entries were submitted in an attempt for Cuban‐American emigrants to seek and share information about their experiences and help them locate the vessels that brought them to America originally (Minkoff,2010, para. 1). A Miami Herald database publicized in‐ depth information on one of the most important events of Cuban emigration. A reporter, data analyst and Web developer worked for months to digitize and organize little‐known data about the 1980 Mariel boatlift, published to commemorate the 30th anniversary of the vessels’ arrivals in the United States. The data sets proved to be more than mere numbers and names; every record hints at the story of someone beginning a new chapter of his or he life. Using the social work strengths perspective which represents an approach that uses human strength and resiliency as a tool for helping individuals overcome personal obstacles and challenges this study explores the process that assists troubled people realize their full potential through the narrative analysis of 13 blogged representative entries extrapolated from 140 total entries that included five males and 7 females that responded to the Miami Herald blog.

37

Human Trafficking In the Land of Prayer and Enlightenment

Rochelle L. Dalla University of Nebraska‐Lincoln

Thirty in‐depth interviews were conducted with women trafficked into the red‐light slum districts of Mumbai, India. Interviews focused on the women’s developmental trajectories (with particular focus on recruitment strategies), systems of support (e.g., relationships with family, children, male partners), and strategies for ending trafficking into the commercial sex industry (CSI). Results suggest that family members are primary perpetrators in the trafficking of poor India women into the CSI, leaving the CSI—for these women—is an insurmountable challenge, and children’s education is critical to ending next‐generation flesh trade. Global awareness of familial and cultural factors which shape CSI trafficking is critical to providing valuable services and outreach as well as directing research agendas.

38

Factors That Influence Student Evaluations Of ʹExpertʹ And ʹExperiencedʹ Guest Lecturers In Introductory Psychology Courses

William L. Phillips Dominican University of California

Afshin Gharib Dominican University of California

Kelly Miura

Several studies were conducted to compare the effectiveness of ‘expert’ guest speakers, ‘experienced’ guest speakers and the ‘native’ instructor upon student evaluations and performance in Introductory Psychology courses. For these studies, an ʹexpert guestʹ was defined as a professor that specialized in a specific area, an ʹexperienced guestʹ was an instructor that shared a particular disability while discussing the topic of interest (e.g. visual or learning disability), and the ʹnative instructorʹ was defined as the everyday instructor assigned to the course. It appears to be taken as common sense that a guest speaker lecturing in their area of expertise will be more engaging and informative than someone lecturing on a topic outside their specialty, and thus will be more liked by students (Murray, 1988). As a result, it is common practice for faculty to enlist outside guest instructors in order to bring a ‘real‐world’ experience to the classroom (Fortgang, Submaranian and Wheeler, 2000). Surprisingly, research that has examined guest lecturers typically focuses on their role in teaching the topic in question (e.g. negotiation), rather than measuring either student perceptions of the guest or the impact the guest may have on student performance (Groth and Glevoll, 2007). The recent studies that have examined student attitudes and performance in classes utilizing guest lecturers have typically reported null findings with respect to student behavior.

39 For example, Hemphill and Hemphill (2006) investigated the role of guest experts participating in online class discussions. Their results suggested that student participation in discussions, as well as the quality of student postings, remained at a high level regardless of the frequency of postings by an expert. Though not studying behavioral outcomes specifically, Groth and Glevoll report that “in their experience” guest speakers do not facilitate any more interaction on the part of students (in the form of questions and class participation) unless students are directed or required to do so.

Specific analysis of student evaluations of guest lecturers has revealed similar results.

For example, while Groth and Glevoll acknowledge that evaluations of guest speakers are typically “politely positive”, they question the value of the typical guest lecture to student learning. Similarly, Glenwick and Chabot collected over three years of evaluation data for their undergraduate Clinical Child Psychology course. They found that students typically rated the overall course higher than they did the guest speakers.

To better understand the factors that affect how students respond to guest lecturers in the classroom, four studies were conducted. The procedure for each employed a veteran instructor of Introductory Psychology teaching two sections. The guest (either expert or experienced) would lecture on one topic in one of the sections, while the native instructor would lecture on that same topic in the other section (guests were counterbalanced across sections). Immediately following these lectures, students filled out a short (7 item) evaluation for that dayʹs topic. Exam items (from that dayʹs lecture) were also compared. Results indicated that for either an experienced or expert guest, students preferred the native instructor (though this difference diminished for experienced guests). This effect was eliminated in a replication that involved class sizes greater than 100 students. A second replication revealed that experienced native instructors (a native instructor that shares a disability) received higher evaluations than when the disability was not shared (non‐experienced native instructor). This replication also found that student performance on exam items (from that particular lecture) was

40 greater. Finally, a fourth variation revealed that when the guest lecturer was ʹvery warm and extrovertedʹ (asked students for their names, walked around the classroom, gave positive feedback, and attempted humorous remarks) the students rated the guest more highly and performed better on a quiz at the end of the session than when the same guest was more reserved (stayed at the front of the room, did not praise students as much, and did not ask students for their names). The direct comparison of student evaluations between instructors and guests provides empirical evidence for what has long been believed ‐ that students like an instructor for which they feel a connection, which does not occur for one‐time guests. In large sections, this connection is difficult to establish ‐ the instructor is no better known to the student than the guest. Previous experience with the instructor, at a base level, provides the student with reasonable expectations regarding grading and exams, but this can still be compromised in large sections. This connection (as well as learning) can be improved by the instructor sharing some personal experiences (albeit relevant to the material), which is consistent with long known cognitive research (i.e. ʹthe self‐reference effectʹ). In sum, perhaps instructors should be paying as much attention to how they personally engage with students as they do thinking of creative ways for the students to engage with the material.

41

BUSINESS

PROCEEDINGS

Business

Biblical Stewardship: How Christians in the United States are Missing the Mark V. Brooks Poole, Mississippi College Sarah Kelley The June Phenomenon and the Changing Month of the Year Effect Anthony Yanxiang Gu, State University of New York, Geneseo Women’s Applied Strategies to Attain Management Positions Candice Osterfeld Ottobre, University of Akron‐Wayne College Verbal Communication: Analysis Of Undergraduate Business Student Skills Cathyann D. Tully, Wagner College Big Data Analytics and the Impact on Privacy Darrell D. Bowman, University of Indianapolis The Impact of Online Social Capital on Women’s Career Changes Diana S. Maguire , Alfred University Is Deflation a Real Threat in United States?

Doina Vlad, Seton Hill University Exploring the Role of Emotional Intelligence in Entrepreneurial Careers Erin McLaughlin, Nova Southeastern University Informational Systems: A Shot Floor Management Tool Illustrates the Success of GKN Aerospace for Low‐Volume High‐Mix/Value Environment in Improving Their Manufacturing Productivity Jill O’Sullivan, Farmingdale State College Identifying Latent Variables to Measure Customer Satisfaction in a Mixed Audience Environment Marie Kraska, Auburn University Thomas J. Gogue, Gogue & Company Elisha Wohleb, Auburn University Emerging Trends in Social Media and Electronic Communications Melissa Waite, College of Brockport‐SUNY Bridge to Careers Molly Burke, Dominican University Perceptions by Employers of Military Members with Online Degrees Niccole Buckley, Grantham University Why We Need a World Exchange and World Custodian Nils H. Hakansson, University of California‐Berkeley Small Business Analytics: Is it Being Used in Small Town America?

Phillip D. Coleman, Western Kentucky University Ray Blankenship, Western Kentucky University A Methodology to Rank Industries by their Marginal Economic Impact R. Samuel Evans, King University William Teng , King University The Impact And Development of a Mobile Application For Entrepreneurs Robin R. Davis, Claflin University Abdullah Khan, Claflin University U.S. Versus European Voluntary Earnings Forecasts...How Different Are They and Do They Vary by Economic Cycle?

Ronald A. Stunda, Valdosta State University Assessing The Optimal Form Of Partnerships: Transactions, Ownerships, And Institutions Yi Karnes , California State University‐East Bay A Study of Communication Styles in Style Flexing in Personal Selling Using the Platinum Rule Kim Tan, California State University‐ San Bernardino The Importance Of Business Sustainability: Teaching Through Study Abroad Kelly Pittman, University of the Incarnate Word Anna‐ Marie Moore, University of the Incarnate Word The Virtual Manager: Key Essentials for Leading People Remotely Theresa A. Moore, Daytona State College

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Biblical Stewardship: How Christians in the United States are Missing the Mark

V. Brooks Poole Mississippi College

Sarah Kelley

Sarah Kelley, a native Tennessean, earned her Bachelor of Science and Business Administration with a major in Accounting as well as her Masters in Accounting from Mississippi College. After a life‐changing mission trip to Mexico in early 2014, she decided to combine her passion for business with the gospel. She now travels to Mexico regularly and has been given the opportunity to teach accounting, finance, and biblical stewardship classes to local students.

V. Brooks Poole, CPA, CIA, is an instructor of financial accounting and taxation at Mississippi College in Clinton, MS. His research focus is practitioner‐geared topics in taxation and international financial accounting. Specific areas of research interest include estate taxation and planning, federal and state income tax planning, international convergence, and ethics in financial accounting.

Abstract Before leaving this earth, Jesus stated, “All authority in heaven and on earth has been given to me.” With that authority, Jesus then proceeded to command Christians to “go therefore and make disciples of all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit, teaching them to observe all that I have commanded you” (Matthew 28:18‐20). If believers are to fulfill this commandment to reach all nations, the practical application of biblical concepts in a Christ‐follower’s

43 approach to international giving and Christian stewardship is of eternal significance.

The purpose of this paper is to evaluate if Christians in the United States, in both the individual and corporate sense, have defined stewardship too narrowly and missed the mark in their approach to biblical stewardship, specifically in their international dealings. In making this evaluation, stewardship is defined according to passages from the Bible, recognizing the infallibility of God’s word and its authority. The current practices of corporations as well as individuals professing Christianity in the U.S. are explored. Upon measuring these identified practices against the biblical definition of stewardship, the conclusion is reached that Christians in the U.S. have, on the whole, misrepresented Christ in their business dealings. Lastly, potential reforms for both corporations and individuals are presented in order to better conform to true biblical stewardship.

Keywords: Christian, biblical, stewardship,

Introduction Most Christians agree that we should strive to be responsible with our resources; yet, at the mention of possible shortcomings among Christians in the practice of biblical stewardship and giving, the immediate reaction is to cease listening and respond defensively. Let us not be too hasty in our defense, however, without first considering the gravity of stewardship and the consequences of blindly continuing in potentially harmful, or even sinful, practices.

Specifically, the practices referenced here are the international interactions of American individuals and corporations professing Christian beliefs. Have Christians misrepresented the life of Christ in their approach to stewardship on an international scale? Again, reflect on the importance of answering this question before making an assessment. Before leaving this earth, Jesus stated, “all authority in heaven and on earth

44 has been given to me.” With that authority, Jesus then proceeded to command Christians to “go therefore and make disciples of all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit, teaching them to observe all that I have commanded you” (English Standard Version, Matt. 28:18‐20). Note the emphasis that Christ has been given “all authority” to command Christians to reach “all nations.” Therefore, if believers are to fulfill this commandment and reach all nations, the practical application of biblical concepts in a Christ‐follower’s approach to international giving and Christian stewardship is of eternal significance.

Literature Review What is Biblical Stewardship “In the beginning, God created the heavens and the earth.” (Gen. 1:1) Before beginning any reflection on Christianity and our own lives, we must begin here – with God. He has always been and always will be. Preeminent over all, His word does not contribute to our prescribed meaning of Christianity and biblical concepts but, rather, defines them. God, as the creator of all things, is the only one with a perfect understanding of His creation. Thus, as we endeavor to understand God’s intention for Christian stewardship, His word is indisputable.

Delving into the word, we see a multitude of scriptures that instruct believers to

imitate Christ and pursue holiness. For example, Paul instructs believers in Ephesians 5:1 to be imitators of God as His beloved children. Thus, lest we engage in overly‐ complicated lingual gymnastics to twist the Bible to match our predetermined notions of stewardship, let us take a simpler approach by studying the actions which we are to imitate. By doing so, we may reap a true definition of biblical stewardship.

Throughout the Bible, God acts with generosity. While the earth and everything

in it belongs to Him, He continually gives to His people. He first gave us life when He breathed into Adam (Gen. 2:7). In Genesis 1, He proceeded to give man dominion over

45 His creation. In order for man to be reconciled to God and properly care for His creation, God then gave instructions through the law. Due to our inability to keep the law, He gave us salvation from our sins through the gift of His son. John 3:16, possibly the most frequently quoted Bible verse, states, “For God so loved the world, that he gave his only Son, that whoever believes in him should not perish but have eternal life.”

This sequence of giving is the essence of the gospel; and, time after time, we are confronted with the truth that God gives. Therefore, Christians must also give in order to conform to His perfect example. He does not hoard blessings from His children; thus, neither should we hoard the resources which He has entrusted to us.

Vital to our understanding of giving is the proper recognition of what constitutes

“resources.” Commonly, stewardship is described purely in the financial sense.

However, consider that the greatest demonstration of God’s love was through the gift of His son on the cross (Rom. 5:8). In other words, God gave Himself. Logically then, we should be giving ourselves too. Not only our monetary resources but also our time, passions, and knowledge should be managed and allocated responsibly.

To this effect, we contemplate what it means to act responsibly; and, thankfully,

the Bible is not silent on this topic. First, recall the parable of the talents recorded in Matthew 25:14‐30. Jesus tells of a man who, before going on a journey, entrusts talents to his servants. To one he gave five talents, to another he gave two, and to the last he gave a single talent. During his absence, the servants who had been given five and two talents doubled what they had received from the master. The master then commended the servants, saying to each of them, “Well done, good and faithful servant.” However, the servant who received only one talent chose to hide it by burying it in the ground.

When the servant reported this to the master, the master’s displeasure was evident, calling him “wicked and slothful.” This parable simply contrasts responsible and irresponsible behavior. Clearly, a responsible Christian is to be actively seeking ways to multiply his or her resources as did the first two servants. In a practical sense this

46 means that investing funds, prioritizing time, developing passions, and growing in knowledge. Furthermore, this parable outlines the purpose of multiplication. Just as the servants returned the additional talents to the master, Christians are to return resources to God. With regard as to how to return these resources to God, we may study the story of the widow’s offering in Mark 12. Jesus observes the rich men giving out of their abundance for all to see. Picture now the poor widow approaching the offering box. In the eyes of the world her offering is miniscule in comparison to the rich men. Her two copper coins were hardly worth mentioning in light of the great sums given by the rich.

Yet, Jesus tells his disciples that her gift was worth more than those of the rich because, despite her poverty, the widow offered to the Lord all she had. This story illustrates that acting responsibly with our resources is a matter of the heart. We should take heed of the pressure God puts on our hearts when we see unfulfilled needs. Moreover, when we return our resources to the Lord, our attitude should reflect a love that is sacrificial, giving our finances, time, passions, and knowledge to their full extent. Isaiah 58:10 beautifully portrays this attitude: “If you pour yourself out for the hungry and satisfy the desire of the afflicted, then shall your light rise in the darkness and your gloom be as the noonday.” The concept of pouring ourselves out is key in comprehending the extremity to which we have been called to give – there are no bounds.

Once we recognize that the purpose of stewardship is to give as God gave, we must then ponder whom the recipients should be. Returning to Isaiah 58, we find that these recipients are described as those who are oppressed, hungry, homeless, poor, naked, or afflicted. Undeniably, we do not have to search long to find persons who fit one or all of these characteristics. According to the Census Bureau, 14.5 percent of all Americans, more than 45 million people, lived below the poverty line in 2013 (Gongloff 2014). However, the focus of our discussion is Christian stewardship on an international scale. So, while we recognize that our next‐door neighbor may need

47 immediate attention, we continue with the stipulation that the recipient in the context of this dialogue lives in another nation.

After contemplating the biblical evidence above, perhaps we may now adjust our definition of stewardship. Stewardship is not the hoarding of resources; rather, stewardship is the multiplication of resources for the purpose of imitating God through sacrificial giving.

How Are We Measuring Up?

For some, this revised definition of Christian stewardship is uncharted territory.

Maybe you fit into this category. Alternatively, maybe the conclusions we have reached thus far are not revelations to you. Either way, we arm ourselves with this understanding of stewardship as we benchmark the actions of corporations and individuals professing Christianity.

Corporations In the corporate sense, stewardship in the biblical context is nearly a foreign concept. In order to pacify consciences, the pursuit of sinful greed is often placated with impressive sounding goals and objectives. Biblical theology is drowned out by business theology, calling for the maximization of shareholder wealth and remaining eerily silent as to the means by which such wealth is achieved. One may even call into question what the term “wealth” means, for the biblical definitions of wealth and success are sure to deviate from those of the world. Yet, defining wealth is not our goal here.

Rather, let us bring the objective of businesses as a whole into question. Is maximizing shareholder wealth in conformity to the principles of biblical stewardship previously outlined?

We have already established that a part of stewardship is multiplying our resources. This concept of multiplication aligns with the goal of maximizing wealth.

However, the means by which some Christian corporations achieve this maximization is certainly questionable. Take, for example, Forever 21, a clothing retailer popular

48 among teens and college students. Forever 21 is well‐known, not only for its reasonable prices, but also for the “John 3:16” printed on the bottom of every bag. However, the retailer faced a class action lawsuit in 2001 due to sweatshop‐like conditions in its L.A. factories. After settling the lawsuit, Forever 21 moved the majority of its production to Asia (Hicken 2012). Internationally, Forever 21 has neglected to advocate for the rights of its workers, most notably in Bangladesh. While most of its competitors have joined groups in Bangladesh which seek to improve factory conditions, Forever 21 has not acted in‐kind due to the claim that a “very small” amount of the retailer’s merchandise is produced in Bangladesh (Merrick 2014). This claim rings of the maximization of shareholder wealth at the expense of others. The Bible directly condemns this behavior in Deuteronomy 24:14 which reads, “Do not take advantage of a hired worker who is poor and needy, whether that worker is a fellow Israelite or a foreigner residing in one of your towns.”

Forever 21 is not alone in accusations of unbiblical behavior. This company is one among many Christian companies; and, more likely than not, the retailer is not the only company at fault. The intent here is not to bash Forever 21 but, rather, to highlight instances of disconnect between the actions of some Christian corporations and their touted biblical beliefs. Accordingly, we now return to our definition of stewardship and its focus on giving. Rather than giving, maximizing shareholder wealth often manifests in the exploitation of foreign workers. This exploitation does not imitate Christ whose very life was founded upon the premise of sacrifice. More so, it would appear that these actions combat the cause of Christ as the public views Christian companies acting contrary to the Bible.

Individuals

The Bible’s command found in Matthew 7:5 to “take the log out of your own

eye” before removing the splinter in another’s is a wise sentiment to consider at this

49 point. Before we lash out at corporations, we will benefit from considering our own stewardship practices.

Although we have stated numerous times now that our resources involve more

than solely money, this resource is the easiest to quantify. Thus, we evaluate this aspect of giving first. Giving money is typically a soft spot for Christians in the U.S. We are quick to point out that the Bible says the love of money is the root of all evil, not money itself (1 Tim. 6:10). In this statement, we feel satisfied, telling ourselves that we are not in love with our money. Feelings are unreliable, however, so let us look at the data.

Sociologists Christian Smith, Michael, Emerson, and Patricia Snell published a book in 2008 titled Passing the Plate which reported the results of their study on Christian giving.

The authors found that more than 25 percent of American Protestants give no money away. You read that correctly. Over one out of four Americans fail to give even $5 away a year. Of the protestant groups, evangelicals appear to be the most generous with only 10 percent giving nothing away. However their efforts aren’t worth applause yet. Among this group, 36 percent admit to giving less than 2 percent of their income, and only 27 percent tithe (Moll 2008). If Americans are not giving their money back to God, then where is the money going? According to data produced by the Bureau of Labor Statistics in 2012, among middle class families, housing, transportation and gasoline, and saving for retirement receive the largest percentages. The more disturbing statistic, however, is the fact that Americans spend 5.1% on entertainment and 5.4% on food at restaurants and the like, meaning that over 10% of income for middle class families is spent on self‐serving diversions (Goldstein 2012). In our proclamations that the love of money spurs evil, we appear to testify against ourselves. When we compare the minute amount of money we return to the Lord to the amount of money we spend on ourselves, our loving allegiance to money and to self is evident.

Considering the apparent stinginess of Christians of the U.S. with regard to

money, we may hope at this point to see a more generous outlook toward the giving of

50 non‐financial resources. After all, our time, passions, and knowledge are invaluable resources as well. Although measuring these resources is not as straightforward, we may use data to make some general observations. From 1965 to 2011, the number of Christians in the U.S. taking short‐term mission trips increased from 540 to 1.5 million annually (“Short‐Term Mission Trips” 2011). These figures suggest that the hearts of Americans are inclined to missions and giving their time, passions, and knowledge to the nations. Ideally, these trips serve to spread the gospel of Christ to those who have been untouched by His love; and we cannot neglect recognizing the importance of short‐term missions in this aspect. Undoubtedly, we are allocating our time to service; we expand our knowledge of other cultures; and we feel our passions for the lost and overseas mission work ignite. Yet, as our resources are multiplied, we should also critically evaluate if we are truly giving more than we receive.

As the number of Christians embarking on short‐term missions has increased so

has the criticism. The most often and obvious criticism is the cost. True, we have already established that Americans should be generous with their finances and have, in general, fallen short in this area. However, improperly diverting resources is harmful without question. For example, after Hurricane Mitch hit Honduras, well‐meaning missions teams traveled in droves to rebuild homes for those affected. The cost of the teams to rebuild was on average $30,000 per home; meanwhile, the locals could have built each home for $3,000 (Carlson 2012). Moreover, when Christians from the U.S. travel to these nations carrying bulk amounts of products to give away, locals are negatively impacted. The distinction should be made here that this is not in reference to emergency relief. After disaster strikes a nation, the locals often have no means of alleviation. However, to the nations that are not in crises situations, this manner of giving is detrimental as it forces locals out of work and fosters dependency. For example, from the years 1981‐2000, a 40% decline in African apparel production and a 50% decline in apparel employment are attributed to the influx of used clothing into the

51 country (Frazer 2008). This decline is not surprising as it demonstrates the simple economic concept of supply and demand. The excess product received from other countries reduced the demand for domestic production. In the same way, we choke the economy of these nations when we arrive with material possessions that locals are both willing and capable of providing. Our resources may be better applied if we donated more of our time and knowledge than material possessions.

Results/Findings

If we truly want to imitate Christ, then we may realize at this point that there are

shortcomings in our lives that require attention and correction. The current practices of corporations and individuals we have studied thus far are not aligned with the biblical definition of stewardship.

As we seek to alter our practices, it is vital to remember that the motivation of

our giving should be love rather than guilt. God gave us life; our resources; and, most importantly, His son because He loved us. Additionally, no amount of donated resources can buy us a place in heaven. Salvation is by grace through faith alone. Before we are tempted to criticize, remember that God does not hate the rich. God has a plan for each person’s life that is unique and meant to bring Him glory; so, God blesses some with an abundance of resources because His plan for them involves the use of that wealth. Lastly, we would be mistaken to attribute wealth with God’s favor and poverty with His displeasure. Think of Job. Job enjoyed riches and also experienced a time of utter destitution. Yet, God’s purposes for giving and taking resources from Job was not based on any action of Job. Rather, God’s purposes were solely to bring glory to Himself. Bearing these in mind, we may take practical steps to honor God in our stewardship while maintaining the proper attitude.

At the corporate level, it is clear that business leaders should reject unethical

practices which promulgate an inaccurate portrayal of Christ to the world. For a Christian company, the goal is not to maximize shareholder wealth. Instead, Christian

52 corporations operate based on biblical morals in order to multiply their resources and then give. Rather than meeting the minimum standards of acceptable working conditions, corporations professing Christian beliefs need to “go the extra mile” in their operations. The level of consideration required for foreign employees and locals is one of compassion not compulsion. To illustrate, corporations should give fair wages to employees – which may exceed what is typical for that country. What is typical often falls short of the ideal or even necessary; therefore, an employee’s compensation should be proportionate to both the effort made by the employee as well as that country’s standard of living. Additionally, to give time, passion, and knowledge, corporations invest in their employees. Supervisors should be given the time to instruct employees and answer questions to facilitate the passing on of knowledge. The passion that the company has for both its workers as well as for the gospel and saving grace of Jesus should be clearly communicated. To this effect, the gospel should be preached. If a corporation professes Christianity on paper then Christ should be professed vocally and demonstrated to employees daily.

While some may feel far‐removed from a corporation’s actions, we are all able to evaluate our personal practices and make immediate changes. As previously stated, we are told to multiply our resources. The means by which each person accomplishes this multiplication will vary; yet, the purpose does not change. Once we receive, we give.

The most obvious resource to give is cash. As research suggests, Christians in the U.S. fail overall to act generously with their funds. Thus, the first adjustment must be of the heart. If money is our idol, we boldly ask God to tear it down. From there, we look for avenues to give. Again, each person’s recipients will vary, but the active pursuit of worthy causes and persons is what is most important. God will lead us to give if we are willing.

As we give, responsible allocation demands logical research as well. First and foremost, does the recipient preach the gospel? If so, what is the economic impact of

53 your gift on the locals? Remember that the recipient does not necessarily have to be an organization. There are countless missionaries who have no source of income and are desperate to return to the countries they love. Take, for example, the heartbreaking report by the International Missions Board (IMB) 5 years ago. The IMB announced in 2009 that it would be forced to cut its overseas force by around 600 missionaries due to budgetary constraints in the following year (Vu 2009). By seeking out those individuals, you may be an instrumental part of allowing men and women follow God’s calling and remain in the countries where they have invested their lives. Moreover, you can have a greater assurance that your resources are being used properly due to the close connection you form with the missionary. Alternatively, you can directly support locals through microfinancing their businesses. On the whole, to find a worthy cause is not difficult. Letting go of our god of money is the stumbling block.

Moreover, giving just money is not sufficient if we are to pour ourselves out for others. We must also give our time, passion, and knowledge. During a recent trip to Mexico, I had the opportunity to explore this topic in depth with a missionary family there. The Marrero family lived as missionaries in southern Mexico before starting the school where I was blessed to visit. As the family’s mother Elisa drove me around local towns, she explained the demographics of Chiapas, a southern state where they spent much of their time as missionaries. For years, she explained, Chiapas has been the state with the most missionaries; however, Chiapas is also the poorest and most illiterate state. Speaking with obvious passion, she asserted that the problem was not that the people were unexposed to the gospel, but that they were uneducated. The people of Mexico look to Chiapas as an example of Christianity and, consequently, associate faith in Jesus with ignorance and poverty. Chiapas’ poverty rate in 2009 was 76.7%, and the state has the lowest literacy level at 82.2% (Mexico 2014; “The Rapid Expansion” 2011).

Therefore, during their time in Chiapas, the Marrero’s dedicated their time and knowledge to education. The students were taught to read using the Bible. This

54 beautifully illustrates pouring out your resources for another. To pour out our time, passion, and knowledge internationally we are presented with the options of going, sending, or getting creative.

First, we may go. Although, as discussed previously, short‐term missions have their share of flaws, we may still exhibit Christian stewardship when these trips are executed effectively. When we go, we should be cautious not to usurp the work of the locals but to enhance. We connect with the locals to identify unfulfilled needs and evaluate how we may best apply our resources to alleviate the issues. As we make plans, we should be certain that our visit is not “more trouble than it’s worth.” If the visit of a large group causes undue pressure on the host and offers limited benefits, other options such as sending one or two members with specialized knowledge may be explored. Alternatively, some may feel the call to go for the long‐term in order to truly plant their feet in another country, build relationships with the people, pour themselves out day after day, and spread the gospel. If, however, we are unable to go ourselves, we have the option of sending missionaries by giving either indirectly through organizations or directly to the hands of the men and women in need. Lastly, instead of going and sending, we can get creative.

God gave us all specific talents and resources; He made us unique. Jeremiah 1:5 attests to our uniqueness, saying “Before I formed you in the womb I knew you, and before you were born I consecrated you; I appointed you a prophet to the nations.”

This verse demonstrates how God designated specific purposes for us before we were created. With those purposes in mind, God formed us and endowed us with what we would need to fulfill His plans. Not only did He create us with certain abilities, but He also commanded us to use these talents. Paul urges Timothy “Do not neglect the gift you have.” (1 Tim. 4:14). In the same way, we are to use our gifts. Naturally, using those talents often requires thinking outside of the box. You might not be able to go overseas at the moment, but innovation does not require a passport. If you have a

55 teachable skill, consider establishing a contact within the area and conducting a Skype class to share your knowledge. If you are gifted in graphic design, you could create an eye‐catching logo for an international group. Perhaps you have been blessed with musical talents. In this case, you could hold a benefit concert to raise funds as well as instill in others the same passion that has motivated you to act on behalf of the oppressed. Undoubtedly, many options exist for reaching others. We need only to utilize the body of Christ around us in order to develop strategies to reach out internationally.

Discussion The responsibility to adhere to the biblical definition of stewardship in our international relationships is vital as we seek to make disciples of all nations. Christian stewardship has been misunderstood in the past as the careful hoarding of resources.

Yet, scripture tells us that true Christian stewardship is the multiplication and sacrificial giving of our resources. On a corporate and individual basis, Christians in the United States appear to have fallen short of this definition. However, we may still take steps to alter our approach to stewardship. Our finances, time, passions, and knowledge are all valuable; and, as we imitate God’s example of sacrificial giving, we may truly represent Christ to the world.

56 References Barboza, D. (2009, December 25). Direct selling flourishes in China. Retrieved October 29, 2014.

Carlson, D. (2012, June 18). Why you should consider canceling your short‐term mission trips. Retrieved October 30, 2014.

Frazer, G. (2008, October). Used‐clothing donations and apparel production in Africa. The Economic Journal,118 (532), 1764‐1784.

Goldstein, J., & Vo, L. (2012, August 1). How the poor, the middle class and the rich spend their money. Retrieved October 30, 2014.

Gongloff, M. (2014, September 16). 45 million Americans still stuck below poverty line: Census. Retrieved October 27, 2014.

Hicken, M. (2012, February 27). The secret behind Forever 21ʹs dirt cheap clothing. Retrieved October 28, 2014 Levin‐Epstein, A. (2012, August 23). Is Mary Kay a ʺpink pyramidʺ scheme?

Retrieved October 29, 2014.

Merrick, A. (2014, June 6). Why students aren’t fighting Forever 21. Retrieved October 29, 2014.

US Embassy. (2010, January 1). U.S. ‐ Mexico at a glance. Retrieved October 30, 2014 Moll, R. (2008, December 5). Scrooge lives! Retrieved October 30, 2014.

Short‐term mission trips: are they worth the investment. (2011, May 2). Retrieved October 30, 2014.

The rapid expansion of literacy and education in Mexico. (2011, November 28) Retrieved October 30, 2014.

Vu, M. (2009, November 26). Southern baptist agency to cut missionary force by 600. Retrieved October 30 2014.

57

The June Phenomenon and the Changing Month of the Year Effect

Anthony Yanxiang Gu State University of New York, Geneseo

Mean June return of the U.S. stock market is significantly negative since 2001 and the phenomenon is more apparent for large stocks. June return is negatively related to returns of all the other months and the coefficients are all statistically significant except for January and August, and June return is significantly negatively related to change in short interest. Meanwhile, April is the best month for the DJIA and S&P 500 and October is the best for the NASDAQ. The purpose of this study is to reveal the worst month of the U.S. stock markets in the new century and the dynamics of the month‐of‐the‐year anomaly.

Keywords: month‐of‐the‐year‐effect, June and September phenomena, equity market.

Introduction Stock market anomalies have been one of the most intriguing issues in modern investments. The most puzzling empirical findings include the January effect – the abnormally large returns on common stocks in most months of January (Wachtel, 1942, and Rozeff and Kinney, 1976), and the weekend effect – the abnormally high average Friday returns and significantly negative average Monday returns (Cross, 1973, and French, 1980). Recently, Gu (2003, 2004) finds that the effects declined or disappeared after they became well known, specifically, the January effect is declining and disappearing since late 1980s, and the weekend effect was declining from late 1970s to late 1980s and even

58 reversing, that is, mean return of Mondays are higher than that of Fridays since late 1980s. Hulbert (2008) and Ziemba (2010) show that the January effect is disappearing, He & He (2011) question whether the January effect is replaced by November effect. Easterday et al., (2009) report that the January effect does not occur in some years, while Ciccone (2011), Dzhabarov & Ziemba (2010), Mashruwala & Mashruwala (2011), Ziemba (2011) and Sikes (2014) argue that the January effect still appears in modern U.S. stock markets, particularly for small stocks. Mashruwala and Mashruwala (2011) show that stocks of high accruals quality (AQ) outperform low AQ stocks only in January.

There may be a month in the year when the stock market generally performs the worst. Browning (2003) and Baldwin (2003) believe that September is the month, Gu and Simon (2007) document that mean September returns of the U.S. stock markets are significantly negative and are the lowest among the calendar months, and the phenomenon is more apparent for large stocks.

Here in this study we examine each month’s return of major U.S. stock indices from 2001 through 2013 and test whether September is still generally the worst month for the U.S. equity market as the market grows into the new century, and whether there is a month in the year when the U.S. stock market generally performs the best. The objective of the study is to reveal the worst month of the U.S. stock market in the new century and the dynamics of the month‐of‐the‐year anomaly. The study proceeds as follows: Section 2 introduces the data, Section 3 reports the empirical findings, Section 4 explains the June return and related variables, and, Section 5 concludes.

59 The Data We use three indices for the analyses. They are the Dow Jones Industrial Average (DJIA) price‐weighted index, the S&P 500 value‐weighted index, and the NASDAQ Composite value‐weighted index. Data of NYSE Group Inc. Short Interest is from the monthly report of the NYSE Euronext.

Empirical Findings The mean monthly returns of the indices during the period are depicted in Figures 1 through 3 and the statistics of the empirical findings are presented in Table 1. In the table, the mean and standard deviation of each month’s return for the three indices for the observation period is reported. The t‐statistics in the column of June indicate the comparison of June return with 0 and the number below it is the statistical significance of the t‐statistic for the observation period.

The test is one‐tailed, the null hypothesis is that June return is greater than or equal to zero, and the alternative hypothesis is that June return is less than zero.

The t‐statistics in the columns of the months other than June indicate the pairwise comparison of that month’s return with June return, and the number below it is the statistical significance of the t‐statistic for the observation period.

The test is one tailed, the null hypothesis is that June return is at least as much as that month’s return, and the alternative hypothesis is that June return is less than that month’s return.

60

Figure 1. DJIA Mean Monthly Return

Figure 2. S&P 500 Mean Monthly Return

61

Figure 3. NASDAQ Mean Monthly Return

62 Table 1. Comparison of June Return with Return in Other Months DJIA

Jan

Feb

March

mean

‐0.0064

‐0.0057

0.0113

0.0252

‐0.0006

‐0.0182

st.dev.

0.0391

0.0412

0.0350

0.0396

0.0385

0.0379

t‐stat

0.9368

0.8549

2.1143 **

2.8492 ***

1.1867

July August

April

May

June

‐2.1642 **

Sept

October

Nov

Dec

mean

0.0120

‐0.0079

‐0.0132

0.0146

0.0172

0.0126

st.dev.

0.0397

0.0298

0.0623

0.0604

0.0401

0.0326

t‐stat

0.8523

0.3347

1.8847 **

2.4764 ***

3.1201 ***

1.7325 **

Jan

Feb

March

April

May

June

mean

‐0.0034

‐0.0121

0.0129

0.0235

0.0013

‐0.0171

st.dev.

0.0420

0.0466

0.0382

0.0448

0.0407

0.0361

t‐stat

1.1344

0.3393

2.0329 **

2.6837 ***

1.2946

S&P500

July August

‐1.6561 *

Sept

October

Nov

Dec

mean

0.0055

‐0.0068

‐0.0094

0.0137

0.0144

0.0124

st.dev.

0.0444

0.0329

0.0617

0.0670

0.0412

0.0304

t‐stat

0.8803

0.5137

1.6095 *

2.4510 **

2.7149 ***

1.7071 *

Jan

Feb

March

April

May

June

mean

0.0049

‐0.0275

0.0119

0.0268

0.0056

‐0.0122

st.dev.

0.0609

0.0742

0.0634

0.0661

0.0565

0.0462

t‐stat

1.1400

‐0.6467

0.9949

2.1146 **

0.9915

‐0.8128

July August

Sept

October

Nov

Dec

NASDAQ

mean

0.0043

‐0.0092

‐0.0111

0.0317

0.0221

0.0091

st.dev.

0.0614

0.0484

0.0858

0.0835

0.0652

0.0411

t‐stat

0.1705

0.0457

1.7235 *

1.7981 **

1.5738 *

0.9510

t‐statistics for the hypothesis that June mean is less than the given month’s

1.

mean

63 t‐statistics for the hypothesis that June mean is less than zero

2.

* Significance at the 10% level ** Significance at the 5% level *** Significance at the 1% level The data covers 2001‐2013. In addition to the mean return and standard deviation of the months, the column for each month other than June shows the t‐ statistic1 of pairwise comparison of that month’s return with June return, and the significance level. The column for June shows the t‐statistic2 of comparing June return with zero, and the significance level.

64 As shown in Table 1, mean June return is significantly negative for all the three indices for the observation period. Specifically, for the DJIA Index, the mean is ‐1.82 percent (t‐statistic = ‐2.16); for the S&P 500 Index, the mean is ‐1.71 percent (t‐statistic = ‐1.66), and for the NASDAQ Composite Index, the mean is ‐1.22 percent (t‐statistic = ‐ 0.81). The mean June return is even significantly lower than the mean September return, and mean September return is the second lowest for the DJIA, the third lowest for the S&P 500 and the NASDAQ. This indicates that the September phenomenon is declining in the last ten years after it became well known. Further observation is required to find whether the June anomaly will also diminish as it becomes well known in the future.

Mean June return is the lowest compared to all the other months for the DJIA and the S&P 500 indices from 2001 to 2013, and for the NASDAQ from 2002 to 2013, because February return of the NASDAQ Composite Index is negative 22.4 percent in 2001 as a result of the burst of the dot‐com bubble, which made the mean of February returns of the tech‐heavy index the lowest when year 2001 is included. Nonetheless, the difference between mean returns of February and June is not statistically significant for the NASDAQ index for the whole observation period.

Table 2. Comparative Performance of June Return with Return in Other Months Index

Number of months whose mean return exceeded June mean return

DJIA

S&P500

Nasdaq1

11

11

10

Number of months whose return exceeded June return at 1% level of significance 3

2

0

Number of months whose return exceeded June return at 5% level of significance 6

4

2

11 if February 2001 return is excluded.

1.

Number of months whose return exceeded June return at 10% level of significance 6

6

4

65 The data for this table is taken from Table 1. Column 2 is the number of the 11 months whose mean return exceeded June mean return in the given time period, Columns 3, 4, and 5, are the number of months whose return exceeded June return at 1, 5, and 10 percent levels respectively.

The comparison results are summarized in Table 2. In this table, column 2 shows the number of the other 11 months whose mean return exceeded mean June return, and column 3 shows the number of months whose mean return exceeded mean June return at the 1 percent level of significance. For example, for the DJIA Index during the period, there were three months (April, October, and November) whose mean return exceeded mean June return at the 1 percent level of significance. Column 4 shows the number of months whose return exceeded June return at the 5 percent level of significance. This includes those months where their mean returns exceeded mean June return at the 1 percent level of significance. Taking the DJIA Index as an example again, during the period, March, September and December mean return exceeded mean June return at the 5 percent level of significance, making a total of 6 months where their mean returns exceeded mean June return at the 5 percent level of significance. Column 5 shows the number of months whose mean return exceeded mean June return at the 10 percent level of significance. The number includes those months where their mean returns exceeded mean June return at the 1 percent and 5 percent levels of significance. For the DJIA Index, there were 6 months whose mean returns exceeded mean June return at the 10 percent level of significance.

The June phenomenon can be further evidenced by the frequency of negative June returns, which is compared with the frequency of negative returns in other months during the time period. The statistics are presented in Table 3.

66 Table 3. Comparison of the Frequency of Negative Return in June with Negative Return in Other Months

Index

Number of

% of times

Number of

% of times

years June

June

times

monthly

had negative

had negative monthly

return were

return

return

negative

return were negative

DJIA

10 out of 13

76.9%

64 out of

41.0%

156 S&P 500

8 out of 13

61.5%

61 out of

39.1%

156 NASDAQ 8 out of 13

61.5%

69 out of

44.2%

156 Column 2 shows the number of years June had a negative return for the given index and time period, column 3 expresses this as a percentage, column 4 gives the number of months where return was negative for the given index and number of months in the time period, and column 5 expresses that as a percentage.

In Table 3, column 2 shows the number of years when June has a negative return, out of the total number of years in the sample period, and column 3 shows the percentage of years when June has negative return. For example, for the DJIA Index, 10 out of the 13 Junes in the period have negative returns, which is 76.9 percent. Column 4 shows the number of months in that time period which have negative returns, as well as the number of months included in that time period. For the DJIA Index, there were

67 64 months out of the 156 months when the return was negative. Column 5 shows this as a percentage, which in this case is 41 percent. It is clear that for every index, on a percentage basis, June return has significantly more often been negative compared to all of the other eleven months’ returns.

Mean June return is the lowest for large stocks because most of the June returns in the period are negative. However, June return in each year is not necessarily the lowest among the twelve months. This is different from the September phenomenon reported by Gu and Simon (2007) who point out that a significant percentage of September returns are the lowest in the year.

Mean June return of large stocks is more significantly negative than that of small stocks. The DJIA Index is composed of the thirty largest stocks; the S&P 500 Index contains the thirty largest stocks in the DJIA Index and other 470 smaller stocks; while the NASDAQ Composite Index contains a few thousand much smaller stocks. The percentage of Junes with negative return is much higher for the DJIA Index, which is 76.9 percent while for the NASDAQ Composite Index it is 61.5 percent. Small firm stocks perform better than large ones in the June phenomenon, or in other words, the negative performance is less pronounced for small firm stocks than large ones. This is similar to the September phenomenon and the January effect, i.e., small firm stocks were noticed to perform better than large ones in September (Gu and Simon, 2007), and even better than large firm stocks in January (Rozeff and Kinney, 1976, Reinganum, 1981, Keim, 1983, Roll, 1983, and Loughran, 1997).

We also examine which week(s) in June contribute(s) more to the month’s poor performance, similar to the examination by Wang, Li, and Erickson (1997) who found that Monday effect occurs primarily in the fourth and fifth weeks of the month. The first

68 week of the month is defined as the week that contains the first trading Friday of the month. We find that the forth week is the worst followed by the first week for the DJIA and S&P 500 indices, and the difference between the two weeks’ returns and the second week’s returns are statistically significant at the 1 percent and 10 percent levels, respectively, for the DJIA, but insignificant for the S&P 500. Comparisons of other pairs of the weeks’ returns did not yield statistically significant results. For the NASDAQ, the third week appears the worst followed by the first week, but the differences between the two weeks’ returns and the second week’s returns are statistically insignificant.

April is the best month for large stocks, i.e., mean April returns are 2.5 percent and 2.4 percent for the DJIA and S&P 500, respectively. The absolute values of mean April returns are significantly larger than the absolute values of mean June returns for the three indexes. Further, frequency of positive April return is 10 and 9 for the DJIA and the S&P 500, respectively, the highest among the twelve months for the indexes in the sample period, even higher than the frequency of negative June returns for the S&P 500, which is 8.

Furthermore, October is still a strong month (Gu and Simon, 2007) in the period even with the DJIA, S&P 500 and NASDAQ down 14 percent, 17 percent and 18 percent, respectively, in October, the worst month in 2008, the year of great recession market crash. Frequency of positive October return is 9 for all the three indexes. Mean October return is the highest for the NASDAQ Composite Index, the third highest for the DJIA and S&P500. Mean October return is 3.2 percent for the NASDAQ, significantly higher than the mean April returns of the DJIA and the S&P 500 indexes, and the 2.7 percent of the NASDAQ. The absolute value of mean October return is

69 significantly larger than the mean February and June returns of the NASDAQ, and also significantly larger than the mean June returns of the DJIA and the S&P 500 indexes.

June return and related variables It is well talked about that a good January leads a good year of the stock market although we did not find any report of empirical evidence. To find possible relations between returns of June and the other eleven months, and the year, and changes in short interest, we conduct a regression analysis: RJ = α + ∑ βi Ri + δY + γS

(1)

Where, RJ = June return of each year Ri = return of each of the other eleven months, i = 1, … 5, 7,…11 Yt = return of the year S = change in short interest Short interest reflects investors’ expectations and their actions. The NYSE releases monthly total short interest report every month, total short interest reflects investors’ expectations of the stock market’s movement and their actions may move the market. Change in short interest is calculated using the mid‐month data, i.e., from min‐ May to mid‐June, because of data availabilityi. Results of the regression analysis are presented in Table 4.

70

Table 4. Estimates from Regressing June Return on Related Variables Intercept

January

February

March

0.0104

‐0.4478

‐0.5357

‐0.7371

1.059

1.651

2.827***

3.440***

April

May

July

‐0.4434

‐0.7977

‐0.7639

2.167**

3.637***

3.446*** Short

August September October ‐0.2896 0.991

‐0.3776 2.419**

‐0.6005 3.684***

November December ‐0.4990 2.302**

Year

interest

‐0.5712

0.5786

‐0.4879

1.907*

3.810***

2.603**

* Significant at the 10% level.

** Significant at the 5% level.

*** Significant at the 1% level.

The independent variables are returns of the other eleven months, the indices’ annual returns, and change in short interest. The adjusted R Square is 0.787.

As shown in Table 4, June return is negatively related to returns of all the other eleven months, and all the coefficients are statistically significant except for January and August. This indicates that generally, the more the indexes increase from January through May, the more they decline in June, and the more they decline in June, the more they increase from July to the end of the year. The relation between June return and return of the year is significantly positive, which indicates that a better (worse) June return may help (hurt) return of the year. The relation between June return and change in short interest is negative and statistically significant, this shows that generally,

71 selling, including selling short dominates the market in the first half of June, which frequently results in negative June returns in the period.

No evidence was found that the U.S. stock market’s poor June and good April

performances are related to any microeconomic factors. It may be helpful to note the suggested possible reasons for the January effect, which include tax‐loss selling effects (Ritter, 1988, Ritter and Chopra 1989), ‘window dressing’ (Haugen and Lakonishok, 1988), and seasonality in risk premium or expected returns (Chang and Pinegar, 1989, 1990, and Kramer, 1994). Tax‐loss selling could also contribute to the generally poor June performance if investors, particularly institutional investors, sell large quantities of stocks in June that they don’t expect to perform well. Also, window dressing could help the generally good returns of April, i.e., institutions buy stocks that performed well in the first quarter in order to make their portfolios look better to their clients.

Unfortunately, data of institutional trading activities of each month is not available.

Macroeconomic seasonality could also be a reason, but only thirteen years of macroeconomic data, i.e., GDP growth, inflation rate, unemployment rate, interest rate, housing market, consumer confidence, and change in international trade balance, does not result in meaningful statistics.

Conclusion This study contributes to the literature the June phenomenon in the new century and related variables. Most of the Junes in the period have experienced negative returns for the DJIA, NASDAQ Composite and the S&P 500 indices, which appears that the September phenomenon is being replaced by June phenomenon. June return of the

72 indices is negatively related to returns of all the other eleven months and all the coefficients are statistically significant except for January and August. June return is significantly positively related to return of the year. And June return is significantly negatively related to change in short interest. The implication of this finding is that one should sell late May, buy late June, as long as this phenomenon lasts. April returns are the highest for the DJIA and S&P 500, and October returns are the highest for the NASDAQ. Tax‐loss selling and ‘window dressing’ could contribute to the poor June and good April performances. A market phenomenon should disappear after it is well known, and it is a puzzle why mean June return replaced mean September return as the lowest for the U.S. equity market in the last 10 years, and whether the June and April phenomena will continue and how long it will continue. Mid month to mid month returns, i.e., from the 16th of a month to the 15th of the next month may exhibit more significant monthly performance pattern. Further research is needed to answer these puzzles and questions.

Acknowledgements Thanks to the anonymous reviewers for their valuable comments and suggestions.

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77

Women’s Applied Strategies to Attain Management Positions

Candice Osterfeld Ottobre University of Akron‐Wayne College

Few women reach the level of chief executive officer (CEO) in Fortune 500 organizations, a troubling disparity, especially considering that women bring unique leadership qualities and expertise to organizations that result in financial gains. This phenomenological study explored strategies that women incorporated to attain successfully senior management positions in business organizations. Guided by critical theory, which seeks to explain a phenomenon of an oppressed social group by criticizing the oppression and using the oppression as a catalyst for empowerment, the current study asked participants to explain the strategies they applied to attain senior management positions in business organizations. Twenty female senior managers in Fortune 500 companies in the Midwest United States related their lived experiences through face‐to‐face interviews. Using the Hycner method to bracket meanings and themes of the data, 5 subthemes emerged: (a) acting positive and fair, (b) obtaining a mentor, (c) listening to advice and asking questions of a mentor, (d) needing increased/continued education, and (e) needing to work hard and increase responsibilities. The implications for positive social change include specific, tangible strategies women seeking advancement may implement in order to reach senior management positions. Ultimately, as the number of female CEOs in the workforce increases, the gender wage‐gap will decrease, resulting in a gender‐equal workforce.

78

Verbal Communication: Analysis Of Undergraduate Business Student Skills

Cathyann D. Tully Wagner College

Business communication skills are a primary requisite for hiring, promotion and career success yet companies report that verbal communication skills are the most lacking ability in their applicant pool (Hartman, 2004, Robles, 2012). To confirm employer sentiment, the researcher conducted a five year study of class participation. At the outset of the study, business professors instituted a formal class participation grade as part of the final course grade. On a daily basis students were encouraged to participate in classroom discussion. At the end of the semester both the student and the professor assigned a grade to the student’s class participation. Data collection, analysis and findings indicate that students perceive their communication skills to be far better than their professor’s actual participation grade which suggests a disconnect between what is and what should be. The study findings 1) help business educators better understand company sentiment toward lacking business communication skills and 2) suggest that business curriculum needs to place further emphasis on business communication skills.

79

Big Data Analytics and the Impact on Privacy

Darrell D. Bowman University of Indianapolis

Big Data describes data warehousing, data mining and analytics. The vast amounts of data collected and stored from businesses and from personal applications such as social media have generated new opportunities and challenges. The opportunities include the capability to make better decisions, faster. The challenges are how to secure data, respecting privacy and meeting legal concerns. This paper explores the privacy and legal issues regarding Big Data.

80

The Impact of Online Social Capital on Women’s Career Changes

Diana S. Maguire Alfred University

This presentation focuses on research investigating the impact of online social capital on women’s career repositioning in business. The research investigated the degree to which online social networking tools increased businesswomen’s ability to make useful career‐related networking contacts. The study utilized a quantitative methodology surveying over two hundred women working in businesses in a region of New York and Pennsylvania. An important finding in the research related to the behaviors associated with women’s development of career related social capital. Of all the online connectivity behaviors associated with developing professional social network contacts, email was the only online tool that was found to have significance on ability to make desired career changes. However, use of most online tools was very infrequent amongst participants. Fewer than 20% of participants indicated that they even rarely use email for professional social networking, as compared to 68% of women who rarely or never use LinkedIn and 70% who never use text messaging. The research found that only eight percent of participants indicated that they even sometimes use LinkedIn, compared to twenty‐three percent who rarely, and sixty‐eight percent who never, use LinkedIn for typical career networking communications. A quantitative follow‐up study is being conducted in 2015 to investigate why so few women utilize the online tools for professional networking and surveying individuals who utilize online tools to also determine the degree to which their use facilitated career repositioning. The

81 findings will provide further insight into the influence of online social networking on career change success measures.

82

Is Deflation a Real Threat in United States?

Doina Vlad Seton Hill University Recent developments of plunging oil prices and increasing concerns of slower economic growth around the world have raised the possibility of disinflation or maybe deflation in the United States. The purpose of the paper is to investigate the possibility of disinflation and/or deflation in the U.S. This is a concern because of negative revisions on business profits, wages, and economic growth, in the presence of disinflation or deflation.

The method used in the statistical analysis presented here is “The Least Squares Method” and included 357 observations, between January 1985 and September 2014.

As an explanatory variable in the model, the “Economic Policy Uncertainty Index for United States” revealed a statistically significant coefficient in the regression analysis.

Given the recent downward revisions in inflation expectations, the first contribution of the paper reveals that as long as participants in the economy perceive more uncertainty associated with the economic policy by the policy makers, prices will continue to stay down, possibly leading to deflation in extreme uncertainty situations.

Both government and corporate bonds reveal statistically significant correlations with inflation expectations in the U.S. The second contribution of the paper signals the danger of a downturn spiral in bond yields in the U.S, possibly leading to more disinflation or even deflation, based on the current decrease in inflations expectations. In this context, the policy and decision makers could use this signal to implement measures and curb the deflation dangers.

83

Exploring the Role of Emotional Intelligence in Entrepreneurial Careers

Erin McLaughlin Nova Southeastern University

Dr. McLaughlin is an Assistant Professor of Management at the H. Wayne Huizenga College of Business and Entrepreneurship at Nova Southeastern University. She has a Ph.D. in Management, with and emphasis in Entrepreneurship and Strategy, from the University of North Texas. Dr. McLaughlin received her MBA in Financial Management and Entrepreneurship from Missouri State University. She not only teaches the entrepreneurial mindset, but has also successfully started and continues to operate her own new ventures. Dr. McLaughlin’s research interests are in entrepreneurial cognition, emotional intelligence, leadership effectiveness, and new venture financing.

Abstract Previous research has sought to answer the age old question, why are some entrepreneurs more successful than others in operating new ventures? The purpose of this study is to empirically examine the relationship between emotional intelligence and entrepreneurial career success. Entrepreneurial career success is further broken down into financial firm success, relative firm success, and personal success. While previous research has explored external factors, such as personality traits, this study investigates the role of cognition and social skills in entrepreneurial career success. The results of the study provide insight for individuals with entrepreneurial career aspirations, academic institutions, as well as government and financial entities that provide resources to entrepreneurial ventures.

84 Early entrepreneurial career research explored the role of biographical information and personality characteristics in entrepreneurial performance (e.g., Gartner, 1988). These studies found mixed results and researchers argued that future entrepreneurial research should explore other facets, such as skills and abilities (e.g., Baron & Markman, 2000), need and opportunities (e.g., Davidsson, 1991).

Entrepreneurial career success has since been linked, in part, to cognitive abilities and social skills (e.g., Baron & Markman, 2000, 2003). Some of those skills include accurately perceiving others, making good first impressions, and persuading or influencing others in interpersonal interactions (e.g., Baron & Markman, 2000; Duck, 1994). Emotional intelligence (EI) encompasses many of these social and cognitive skills, as it is defined as the ability to identify, facilitate, understand and regulate your own emotions as well as the emotions of others (Mayer & Salovey, 1997). Thus, while EI encompasses many of the skills and abilities found to relate to entrepreneurial success, very little research in the field of entrepreneurship has explored the role of emotional intelligence.

While there is substantial evidence documenting the effects of emotional intelligence on leadership performance (e.g., Goleman, Boyatzis, & McKee, 2002; George, 2000), job performance in large firms (Matthews, Zeidner, & Roberts, 2002), and educational performance (e.g., Humphrey, Curran, Morris, Farrell & Woods, 2007), there is much less research examining how emotional intelligence affects entrepreneurial career performance and the variables that account for this relationship.

Individuals in entrepreneurial occupations face business situations that necessitate unique skills and abilities in social interactions (e.g., Baron & Markman, 2000; Chandler & Hanks, 1994; Begley & Boyd, 1987). Emotional intelligence has implications for entrepreneurial behaviors such as negotiation, obtaining and organizing resources,

85 identifying and exploiting opportunities, managing stress, obtaining and maintaining customers, and providing leadership (e.g., Foo, Elfenbein, Tan & Aik, 2004; Mitchell, Busenitz, Bird, Galio, McMullen, Morse & Smith, 2006; Rozell, Pettijohn & Parker, 2004; Stein, 2009).

Emotions have also been intertwined in behavioral research in the workplace for several decades (e.g., George, 2000; Cross & Travaglione, 2003). Emotions interact with cognitive processes and behaviors; they are high intensity feelings that require attention (Forgas, 1992). Prior research evidence reveals that emotions can influence judgments, creativity, memory recall, as well as deductive and inductive reasoning (George, 2000).

Because emotions can, and do, affect thought processes and behaviors their potential role in entrepreneurship is evident (Cross & Travaglione, 2003).

The interest in emotional intelligence in the workplace rests on the belief that EI plays an important role in innovation, efficiency, productivity, the development of talent, sales, revenues, quality of service, customer loyalty, employee recruitment and retention, employee commitment, morale, health and satisfaction, and client or student outcomes (Cherniss, 2001). Previous researchers have explored the role of emotional intelligence in a range of organizational activities, recognizing that the integration of explicit knowledge and tacit emotional abilities may lead to greater success (Zeidner, Matthews & Roberts, 2009).

Hypothesis 1: There is a positive correlation between emotional intelligence and entrepreneurial career success Hypothesis 1a: There is a positive correlation between emotional intelligence and objective financial firm success Hypothesis 1b: There is a positive correlation between emotional intelligence and relative entrepreneurial firm success

86 Hypothesis 1c: There is a positive correlation between emotional intelligence and personal entrepreneurial success

This study will contribute to the field of entrepreneurship having addressed the influence of emotional intelligence on entrepreneurial career success. Researchers have previously used extensive resources to investigate the role of emotional intelligence in leadership, general workplace performance, and education, but have spent considerably less time exploring emotional intelligence in the entrepreneurial context (e.g., Cross & Travaglione, 2003; Rhee & White, 2007). Ability‐based emotional intelligence has implications for entrepreneurial careers such as negotiations, obtaining and organizing resources, identifying and exploiting opportunities, obtaining and maintaining customers, leading the organization, and other interpersonal activities.

This investigation also contributes to the emotional intelligence stream of research. Researchers agree that emotional intelligence is a tool scholars can use to better understand and predict performance, but the construct has strong roots in social intelligence and theoretically differentiating the constructs has plagued researchers (e.g., Gardner, 1993). Exploring the relationship between emotional intelligence and performance in the entrepreneurial context will contribute to the building of a nomological network to support EI research.

In this investigation, entrepreneurial career success was broken down into three constructs; namely, financial entrepreneurial success, relative entrepreneurial success, and personal entrepreneurial career success. By addressing entrepreneurial success from three vastly different perspectives this study looks much deeper at the effect of emotional intelligence on entrepreneurial performance. Evaluating multiple forms of

87 entrepreneurial career success provides a more thorough explanation for the contribution of emotional intelligence in the field of entrepreneurship.

Because emotional intelligence abilities can be taught and learned, individuals seeking emotional intelligence training and education may acquire a competitive advantage in entrepreneurial careers; namely, negotiations, obtaining and maintaining customers, as well as providing leadership and maintaining order. These tasks are vital to entrepreneurial career success, so this study provides additional evidence to support the need for emotional intelligence training and education.

The contributions of this study are also important for educators. Entrepreneurial education currently emphasizes technical skills, like creating a business plan, managing daily operations, and planning skills; but overlooks entrepreneurial abilities like emotional control and relational abilities. This investigation provides additional verification for the need to provide supportive classrooms that focus on key entrepreneurial skills, such as emotional intelligence, that allow individuals to launch successful entrepreneurial careers in a competitive, global climate.

88

Information Systems: A Shop Floor Management Tool Illustrates the Success of GKN Aerospace for Low‐Volume High‐Mix/Value Environment in Improving their Manufacturing Productivity

Jill Anne O’Sullivan Farmingdale State College

In a world full of demanding challenges how does a company like GKN Aerospace improve their manufacturing productivity? This story creatively illustrates how they have been successful in improving their manufacturing productivity using an Advanced Shop Floor Management tool, an Information System called Factory Framework by FORCAM. This is critically important to the author because of the research she has done in academia on using real world tools to best prepare students.

Highlighting this tool in her classes with a hands on ERP system accurately represents what companies use and validates the extreme importance of student preparation with information systems tools.

Conveyed in this story, we will investigate how GKN management, stakeholders and operators are able to see production anywhere, anytime in real time with this tool.

How they are able to analyze their machine data to understand their current state and prepare for the future state. Knowing their weaknesses, and improving quickly, learning their best capabilities, their best practices while motivating employees. The system shows line status, shows when assistance is needed (e.g. supervisor or maintenance calls), and empowers operators to stop the production process (e.g. for

89 quality issues). GKN can now see their true downtime including, every stop, every second with every detail.

GKN Aerospace, Engine Systems, the aerospace operation of GKN plc, is one of the world’s largest independent first tier aerospace suppliers, providing complex, high performance, high‐value integrated metallic and composite assemblies for aero structures and engine products with a broad range of capabilities. They have close strategic partnerships with all the major OEMs and tier one suppliers –General Electric, Pratt & Whitney Rolls‐Royce, Snecma and MTU. The division this GKN Aerospace” for Low‐Volume High‐Mix/Value Environment “Success Story” is about is the GKN Aerospace Engine Systems facility in Newington Connecticut.

GKN Aerospace has a reputation for investing in technological innovation, developing and applying new products that bring real and practical benefit to their customers, aircraft operators and passengers. GKN’s capabilities have been, and continue to be developed through constant investment and innovation.

Their investment in using the Advanced Shop Floor Management (SFM) tool allows GKN Aerospace to be lean. Advancing their capabilities that they use to manufacture and assemble metallic engine casings and fixed structure permits them to supply these critical structures with the highest quality standards. GKN leads the market in the design and production of fan containment and non‐containment cases in titanium, aluminum, alloy and composites. Some of the parts highlighted in this success story are the: GEnx 1B – GE Engine Aft Fan Case used in the Boeing 787, PW4000‐100 Pratt and Whitney Front Fan used in the Airbus A330, GP7000 – Pratt and Whitney Front Fan Case used in the Airbus A380, Trent 1000 Rolls Royce Mount Ring

90 used in the Boeing 787, F414 GE Engine Compressor Case, F18 military jet, BA Intermediate Case PW1500, PW Intermediate Case BA CS100 and CS300, MRJ Intermediate Case PW1200, PW Intermediate Case MRJ70 and MRJ90 variants.

The SFM tool is an extremely flexible and powerful tool for improving manufacturing productivity, making it incredibly easy for GKN to achieve unprecedented improvements in their lean manufacturing productivity. GKN envisions new ways to keep their customers happy, to focus on customers’ needs and to differentiate from its competition. Their President, Martin Thorden, claims that “This tool is a very good tool for continuous improvement activities, we are actually able to see the effect of the change right away”. “We didn’t measure our performance until we closed the books each month and then it was too late to do anything about it, we can now measure on a daily basis instantly”. “This gives us an overview of all of our equipment and how we are utilizing them”. When asked about the risk of acquiring the SFM system, Martin Thorden proclaimed “Strategically, the biggest risk of not having this SFM tool is that we would be out performed by our competitors”. “That’s the big risk we realized we needed this tool for continuous improvement”. GKN has had the tool in place for one year. Thordon explains, “We took a moderate approach to what we should be able to achieve in this first year and I am convinced we have been able to achieve our objectives.” “Since this is a journey, we are in phase 1 while working towards hooking up to our ERP SAP in phase 2”.

In their visual lean manufacturing environment, GKN has the SFM tool providing a visual display that shows status information on the plant floor enabling their operators to signal line status based on color: green for normal operation; yellow

91 when assistance was needed; and red when the line was down. This provides increase throughput efficiency, and real‐time communication of plant floor status. The SFM tool GKN is using provides OEE (Overall Equipment Efficiency) that is fast and accurate that they can instantly respond to, instantly react too and instantly improve with.

With their focus on a continuous improvement, GKN is able to see all production in a clear glimpse knowing instantly when lines are down. They now know exactly where to focus their attention in real time.

Sergio Moren, the Director of Operations, at GKN Newington states, “The tool helps me react as well”. I’ve been trying to instill in my management team to keep track, while using the system as they learn. They review Gantt charts and reports to see when the machines status starts and stops. This helps us be more proactive like Martin mentioned”. “We see benefits that show that we are doing better against our standard hours that we can directly relate to using the SFM tool. We see it in the bottom line”.

GKN President Martin Thorden and Director of Operations Sergio Moren in the Lobby of the GKN Aerospace Engine Systems Facility in Newington, CT with the Advanced Shop Floor Management tool on display.

Accordingly, GKN has a solid Team Leader in Ewelina Maselek, the Sales Engineer/Configuration Control pictured here with Director of Operations, Sergio Moren in the conference room displaying their data in the SFM tool.

Everyone knows what we want to do, our vision is set and we are working towards it, declares Martin Thorden GKN’s President. Ewelina brings a lot to this effort because of her SAP experience and how operators use the SFM system.

92 During the Pilot, Martin Thorden states that the SFM tool has helped us get great results. Sergio Moren asserts that, “Where this SFM tool is important is where everyone knows what to do, we all know what we have to do. This tool quantified and justified what we needed to do to get to certain levels. We needed to meet our financial goals and our customer demands. “Were unable to meet our customer demand three months ago now with using the SFM tool we meet it and beat it on a regular basis”.

GKN has daily production meetings tracking their parts, where engineers responsible for these parts talk about improvements, their KPI’s. According to Sergio there KPI’s are; on time delivery, quality notification, tool cost, inventory, labor efficiency (direct labor‐how much charged to product instead of setup). Ewelina mentions KPI’s as reducing lead time from about 50 days to 34 days, ability to reduce and see that we can run a certain amount of batches so we don’t have to run large batches we can run smaller batches because things are flowing easier. Key Performance Indicators (KPIs) at GKN are the metrics that facilitate achieving GKN’s critical goals.

GKN’s best manufacturing KPIs are aligned with their top‐level strategic goals, helping to expose and quantify waste, and can be readily influenced by plant floor personnel.

In gathering the data, according to Ewelina Maselek, “The newer machines can handle more signals so we get more accurate data where for the older machines we have to rely on the operator to signal or tell us”. For example; if right now the operator is changing a tool or an insert or cleaning a machine there is more operator involvement. In the beginning; it was tougher to trouble shoot signals if the machine is running at 100 percent was it really at 100 percent? In the startup issues, that was the only one that stood out and this was probably the most painful. Occasionally, we had signals that didn’t work correctly and you don’t usually catch it unless the operator tells

93 you why it’s yellow. Unless the operator tells you, or I am checking the machine, I would not know, declares Ewelina. This happened in one machine, it was a dual ram mil turn with two controllers, one was working and was not, we didn’t realize until the operator told us. One was not showing and it happened to be a lost connection. Unless we get notified to check 35 machines once they were approved and it was good to go, we don’t really see that. Operators are conscientious about not being green and why they are not running.

There is a comradery between operators to provide feedback. Martin Thorden states, “Part of our success is that we have not forced the data on these operators or held them accountable, they have adopted it willingly”. This is seen on the shop floor when Martin walks around the facility. Having a trained empowered workforce makes a difference. This trained workforce could be the difference between a customer putting their work here or elsewhere, stated Sergio Moren.

For GKN, Overall Equipment Effectiveness (OEE) is a metric for monitoring and improving the efficiency of manufacturing processes at their facilities. This measures the percentage of planned production time that is truly and fully productive. Three crucial performance metrics: Availability, Productivity, Quality. OEE reports are usually only available to managers as a record of what happened in the past. GKN can learn from the past but they can’t change it. Now, GKN can most definitely change the future to take action today by using the SFM. Displaying OEE or related metrics in real‐ time enables supervisors to proactively set live targets, and enables the GKN production team to immediately see the results of their improvement actions. There is a growing trend of organizations focusing on data quality (GIGO).

94 As an example of reduction in waste using the SFM tool, Ewelina Maselek describes; “how in one of the parts we broke down in the process itself we have reduced the measuring of it since we used to measure sporadically. Now we condensed it so the machine only stops one or two times for a longer amount of time instead of the short five or ten minutes of measuring so we increase that and run the part without the operator present. In reading the data and seeing that there were far too many stops, we found more than we thought we had. By working with the operators who work with the part every day, we knew these measurements had to be reduced or moved to a different location. We were able to do that with the operator and put that into an action plan and actually change the program”. In tracking data, GKN’s Ewelina noticed that in one instance with a Niigata machine the program was not updated they changed the tool and were running at an old rpm feed rate which didn’t reflect reality but was accurate. They were running reduced production but if that was the way they were supposed to be running the program needed to be updated. Taking data and making sense of it is crucial.

Sergio Moren details, “That we have one issue where we are trying on a new tool and noticed in one of our new aluminum containment cases we used a brand new sharp tool which you would think is the best thing but we had to lower it to 20 percent and then they would show reduced production and it would take longer to machine. When we investigate with engineering they determined we need to have a tool that was dull from the beginning to be able to machine these parts at full rate. “We are devising improvement solutions”.

Sergio Moren, Director of Operations, is currently looking at the reporting module in the office client and doing a run analysis. He is now in the middle of looking

95 at it from power consumption of electricity, looking for ways to reduce our carbon foot print. In this facility, we noticed our highest usage is in summer with all the air conditioners because of the aluminum parts are sensitive to temperature we have to maintain a certain temperature. With the power company, we are trying to correlate when we have high usage of energy and high days of utilization. They will come back to us with how much power we use to compare to temps outside and predict this year when we spike so we can offset compressors that the system doesn’t get overloaded.

At GKN, more efficient equipment can be scheduled more accurately and for smaller lot sizes. This lowers cost and reduces lead times, which leads to more customer orders which utilize the increased capacity Roman Hudzyak, Operator on the Zimmerman machine, on the shop floor at GKN Aerospace Engine Systems in Newington, CT. As GKN ventures forward in their Manufacturing journey they have implemented a collection of improvement techniques based on the idea that waste in all forms should be eliminated from the manufacturing process.

President Martin Thorden relayed, “Continuous improvement is an important strategy allowing the companies individuals to work together proactively to achieve regular, incremental improvements in the manufacturing process”. Continuous improvement for GKN is about ongoing vigilance and multiple layers that address machines, people, process and technology enhancements.

Focusing on reducing the time it takes to changeover a production process from manufacturing one part to manufacturing the next part enables smaller lots, less

96 inventory, and a faster response to the marketplace. Reducing SMED. At GKN the role of information sharing using the SFM tool is empowering and motivating employees by aligning their efforts with the goals of the company. This tool has enabled the company to: show line status at a glance (e.g. running, stopped, changeover), enable operators to call for help as needed (e.g. from maintenance or supervisors), bring immediate attention to problems as they occur in the manufacturing process, provide a simple and consistent mechanism for communicating information on the plant floor, encourage immediate reaction to quality, down time, and safety problems, improve accountability of operators by increasing their responsibility for “good” production and empowering them to take action when problems occur while improving the ability of supervisors to quickly identify and resolve manufacturing issues.

By giving operators the authority to stop the line and call for assistance, to address a quality issue, promotes employee involvement in the production process.

Having the opportunity to truly understand the reason for a stop saves time. Using this SFM tool, GKN created a culture that continually challenges employees.

Efficient communication at GKN is as a simple, consistent, method of conveying information focusing on a few key pieces of information. Consistency comes from applying the FORCAM SFM visual cues in a standardized way (e.g. green is normal, yellow is slightly deviating, and red requires immediate attention). GKN’s response comes from using lights or message boards on the plant floor that can be seen over long distances as in the pictures below.

97

Looking ahead, how does GKN expect to have the ultimate competitive advantage using the SFM tool?

GKN now enables their operators to add more value to the production process, increase throughput, and to be an integral part of process improvements. Although the underlying SFM technology continues to evolve at the company, the value and benefits of timely communication and shared information remains essential. The Shop Floor Management tool promotes visual manufacturing lean communication, enhances the role of information sharing, empowers employees, and aligns their efforts with the goals of the company.

The Advanced Shop Floor Management tool is an extremely flexible and powerful tool for improving manufacturing productivity. GKN using SFM is making it incredibly easy for them to achieve unprecedented improvements in manufacturing productivity. GKN can be as flexible and sophisticated as they want.

Regarding the Second Phase, Ewelina, conveyed that they are gathering data to get the SFM tool to work together with our ERP which is complicated, we will be able to get specific times for set up right now when the operators put it in, now it is reading the signals and it’s not exact since it is not when the setup starts is, it is when the operator

98 says the set up starts. Having phase two completed will allow us to be more completive and efficient.

GKN’s President, Martin Thordon said it best, “This tool is a very good tool for continuous improvement activities, and we are actually able to see the effect of the change right away. We can measure on a daily basis now instantly. This gives us an overview of all of our equipment and how we are utilizing them. Martin Thordon proclaimed “Strategically, the biggest risk of not having this SFM tool is that we would be out performed by our competitors”. “I am convinced we have been able to achieve our objectives.”, since this is a journey, we are in phase 1 while working towards hooking up to our ERP SAP in phase 2.

The success of this advanced shop floor management tool used at GKN, as seen by this author, at the companies facility, in a tour and through these interviews of these executives, allowed for the best type of education. For this professor, who is a consultant, to be in the forefront of companies using this state of the art technology benefits her student’s greatly. Exposing students to this industry tool is what is needed now in this very competitive world we are in. Students need to hit the ground running upon entry into the workforce and preparing them with skills using tools like this with an ERP system just like a company does will give them the competitive advantage.

Students in the authors ERP classes, her Operations Supply Chain classes and her Management Information Systems classes benefit from her manufacturing consulting work with industry and allows for this author to help in meeting the demand that companies have for students prepared with this skill set.

99 Special thanks to FORCAM, GKN and JJKT Consulting. Permission received from FORCAM and GKN Aerospace for this story.

100

Identifying Latent Variables to Measure Customer Satisfaction in a Mixed Audience Environment Marie Kraska Auburn University

Thomas J. Gogue Gogue & Company

Elisha Wohleb Auburn University

The problem for this research was an investigation of latent variables on a Consumer Service Satisfaction scale. The purpose of the study was to identify underlying structure(s) from a 22‐item researcher‐developed customer satisfaction scale. A basic assumption of this study was that relationships among the survey items would reveal underlying factors for the total scale. The rationale for this project is the rapidly growing awareness by business and industry of the economic impact of gay consumers.

There is a lack of research related to satisfaction of customers in a gay bar and restaurant that caters to a mixed audience, gay and straight customers. A total of 2,100 surveys were distributed to customers in a gay bar; and 1,364 were complete and usable for the study. Based on the number of usable surveys, the response rate was 64.95%.

All survey data were anonymous. An exploratory factor analysis procedure, applying varimax rotation, was used to identify latent variables derived from the questionnaire items. Four criteria, eigenvalue, variance, scree plot, and residuals were used to determine the appropriate number of factors to retain. Results of the factor analysis revealed that three factors (Responsiveness, Reliability and Tangibles) explained 63.9%

101 of the variance. Implications and conclusions of this study suggest that business managers may profit by understanding the kind of environment that customers desire, regardless of their sexual orientation. In addition, this study contributes to the knowledge base related to serving mixed audiences in bars established originally to serve gay customers.

102

Emerging Trends in Social Media and Electronic Communications

Melissa Waite College of Brockport‐SUNY

The ubiquity of electronic communications and social media present unique challenges to organizations. Not only must organizations comply with the SCA and the ECPA, to date, twenty‐two states have passed laws placing restrictions on organizations’ access to applicant and employee social media accounts, in an effort to protect individual privacy. At the federal level, Section 7 of the NLRA protects concerted activity, legally permitting individuals to discuss wages, benefits and workplace conditions, protecting acts as simple as a “Like” on a Facebook page. In 2007 the NLRB took the position “employees have no statutory right to use the[ir] Employer’s email system for Section 7 purposes”; that position has recently come under scrutiny, opening discussions of the permissibility of using company email for non‐work related purposes. Yet not all social media activity is protected or private. A federal court ruled that information from a plaintiff’s social networking sites was discoverable, in support of the plaintiff’s alleged emotional trauma and harassment, despite the EEOC’s objections, ruling although potentially embarrassing, such discovery is “the inevitable result of alleging these sorts of injuries.” Social media also have implications for first amendment protections and class action notice. Lastly, the acceleration of “Bring Your Own Device” (BYOD) to the workplace introduces further organizational challenges, from security threats and compliance risks to protection of trade secrets and end‐user support. With more than

103 one billion BYOD devices in use by 2018, organizations have myriad policy issues to address in their mobile device management programs.

104

Bridge to Careers

Molly Burke Dominican University

Recent employment reports suggest that the Great Recession may be over but the job market for young professionals has not rebounded and students sitting in our business classes are increasingly questioning whether their education will help them to find gainful employment. Equally concerning is the fact that this millennial generation seems exceedingly unprepared to navigate our particularly competitive employment landscape. Realizing that our business school could not simply leave the development of students’ career development skills only in the hands of the University Career Services staff, the business faculty came together to develop and launch an integrated program of career preparation we termed “Bridge to Careers.”

This paper first reviews the current literature on collegiate level career development practices and documents the increasing presence of credit based career courses in the undergraduate curriculum, particularly in the business disciplines. It then describes the goals of the “Bridge to Career” initiative and the expectations the faculty had for students to develop skills in five distinct areas: Understanding Career Selection, Strengthening Interpersonal Dynamics; Building Knowledge, Skills and Abilities; Creating and Marketing a Personal Brand; and Understanding Initial Employment Considerations. Finally the paper describes how these activities are reinforced throughout the business curriculum during the students’ four years of study. It explains how, as a result of the this initiative, faculty in every discipline have begun to take responsibility for building students’ industry knowledge, improving students’ self‐

105 presentation skills, expanding and strengthening students’ career networks and motivating them to begin their internship and job searches early. The final section of the paper discusses next steps as the outcomes and results of the initiative are measured and assessed.

106

Perceptions by Employers of Military Members with Online Degrees

Niccole Buckley Grantham University

The United States (U.S.) military personnel is comprised of two and a half million Americans (United States Census Bureau, 2012). The two and a half million Americans comprising the military personnel are encouraged to pursue higher education through verbal encouragement of leadership and payment of the educational programs.

Distance education is increasingly bridging the gap for obtainment of military student’s degrees (Baker, 2010). Baker (2010) stated only 29% of education to military servicemembers is delivered through traditional classrooms, while 71% are using online learning. The U.S. military is well versed in the use of distance education as a modality for professional military education. Furthermore, the U.S. has been conducting distanced education for more than fifty years (Keh, Wang, Wai, & et. al, 2008). The military online learner is comfortable with distance education as the U.S. military is contented with the technologies and the value obtained. Yet little research has been completed to explore how employers perceive the online degree earned by a military experienced applicant. As human resource professionals review applicants from online military graduate what is the perception? The intent of this non‐experimental quantitative research study is to research if employers view online military degree holders statically different than military degree holders of on ground institutions.

107

Why We Need a World Exchange and World Custodian

Nils H. Hakansson University of California‐Berkeley

The world’s exchanges and custodial arrangements currently suffer numerous and serious shortcomings. Opaque instruments are still traded opaquely over the counter.

Bond trading remains in the stone age and foreign exchange and metals price rigging has been persistent. Private exchanges pay for order flow and sell information to favored traders. High speed traders fleece individual and institutional investors some of whom try to seek protection in dark pools. Liquid and transparent markets are still lacking in important metals and commodities. Investment advice is often tainted by conflicts of interest.

Custodial services suffer from serious shortcomings as well. Metal stocks have been physically moved around warehouses to lengthen storage time for profit. Delivery schedules for aluminum have been inordinately long. Funds in customer accounts have been lost or embezzled. The world’s largest bond fund is under investigation for mispricing.

Government regulation and oversight have not solved, and cannot fix, these shortcomings. But as I argue in this paper, a simple, efficient, transparent, and secure solution is attainable with respect to both exchange and custody: the establishment of two linked institutions, a world exchange and a world custodian, both independent and not‐for‐profit. A single global exchange for stocks, bonds, futures, options, currencies, and metals can overcome these shortcomings when operated by an automated market maker (whose decision rule was published in The Journal of Finance). And a direct link to a world custodian for all securities and physical commodities traded on the world exchange can insure maximum security. The net result will provide much improved price discovery, liquidity, transparency, equal access, greatly reduced transaction costs, new securities to invest in, and protection from market failures, thus enhancing overall market efficiency.

108

Small Business Analytics: Is it Being Used in Small Town America?

Phillip D. Coleman Western Kentucky University

Ray Blankenship Western Kentucky University

Business or Predictive Analytics are terms that are not well known in today’s business environment. As a precursor to establishing a Data Analytics Center for a medium‐size Midwestern university, a survey about business practices, including business analytics, was mailed out to several hundred businesses in a small town in the Midwest. The survey’s intent was to identify what small business owners and managers know about business analytics, if they were using it, and if not, what they would be willing to pay to have their data analyzed. The responses received so far total 232 and it was found that over two thirds of business rely on current financial data only to manage their firms.

Additionally, it was discovered that all business that analyzed data only used a spreadsheet or database with the exception of one business that used a predictive analytics program. Only 16% of the business did any frequent data mining. When questioned about using a data analytics center 35% said that they would consider this and all but 3% would only spend $25‐$50 per hour with three businesses agreeing to spend more than $75 per hour. With over 95% of the data going unanalyzed in America, small business needs to be engaged in today’s global business analytical needs in order to optimize business decisions.

109

A Methodology to Rank Industries by their Marginal Economic Impact R. Samuel Evans King University William Teng King University

This paper presents a methodology which allows one to rank industries according to their marginal economic impact. We define the marginal economic impact for a given industry, industry X, as the “change in total earnings paid to households employed in all industries for each job created or lost in industry X.” Marginal economic impacts are based on regional economic impact multipliers (RIMS II) developed by the Bureau of Economic Analysis (BEA). The information to estimate the marginal economic impact for a particular industry is buried in the RIMS II output. We present a method to derive the marginal economic impact from the output tables. The region for our study is Southwest Virginia, which has witnessed significant erosion in its economic base as coal production declined. We use the results of this research to rank industries according to their capacity to replace income lost from vanishing coal mining jobs. We found that manufacturing industries, characterized by above average earnings and extensive supplier linkages, and the higher‐paying service industries rank highest. The lowest ranked industries in terms of their marginal economic impact are service providers and retail whose primary locally purchased input is hired labor, with average earnings at the low end of the scale. This research should be helpful to local political and economic development officials who have the task of evaluating

110 benefits and costs of attracting new businesses. The marginal economic impact is a measure of the benefit side of the benefit/cost equation.

111

The Impact And Development of a Mobile Application For Entrepreneurs

Robin R. Davis Claflin University

Abdullah Khan Claflin University

According to Markley and Macke (2002), entrepreneurs that work and live in local communities need entrepreneurial community elements which consist of climate, infrastructure and resource support (such as new business services, mentors, entrepreneurship training, financing etc…) The field of entrepreneurship continues to struggle with the development of a modern theory of entrepreneurship (Gartner, 1988).

The theoretical work in the discovery theory focuses on the existence, discovery, and exploitation of opportunities and the influence of individuals and opportunities (Kirzner, 1973 and Shane, 2003). In this research study we will use the discovery theory to study fifty entrepreneurs that are in the early stages or mid‐stages of their business models. The researchers will study fifty entrepreneurs; in order to anticipate opportunities that exist in the marketplace that entrepreneurs can target by using creative mobile application(s). Therefore, based upon the research findings the faculty and student researchers will develop a mobile application device that will aid an entrepreneur in growing a business, operating more efficiently and improving the company’s overall profits within the marketplace.

112

U.S. Versus European Voluntary Earnings Forecasts...How Different Are They and Do They Vary by Economic Cycle?

Ronald A. Stunda Valdosta State University

This study provides empirical evidence regarding the credibility of management forecasts of earnings during differing economic cycles, namely, economic expansion, and economic contraction for both U.S. firms and a sample of firms from nine European countries. Results indicate that during periods of economic expansion, managers exert greater downwards earnings management on the forecast (relative to actual earnings) for both U.S. and European firms. However, during periods of economic contraction, managers exert greater upwards earnings management on the forecast (relative to actual earnings) for U.S. firms, while for European firms this is not observed.

Information content results indicate that for U.S. firms during economic expansion, forecasts tend to exhibit a positive information‐enhancing signal to users. However, during economic contraction, users interpret the forecast as being more noisy and potentially less informative. For European firms, forecasts tend to exhibit a positive enhancing signal to users during both times of economic expansion and economic contraction.

113

Assessing The Optimal Form Of Partnerships: Transactions, Ownerships, And Institutions

Yi Karnes California State University‐East Bay

Many emerging economies have launched ambitious efforts to privatize state‐owned enterprises (SOEs). However, not all privatization entails complete ownership and control transfer from public to private hands. In this study, we recognize different forms of public‐private partnerships (namely, management contract, acquisition, and greenfield) in 7,610 investment projects in emerging economies. We conceptualize these organization forms as different governance structures of ownership and control by SOEs and private entities. Integrating transaction cost economics (TCE), agency theory, and institution‐based view; we propose that public‐private partnership forms are interdependent with characteristics of private entities and institutional environments.

We find that there are optimal forms of partnerships that benefit the performance of public‐private investments.

114

A Study of Communication Styles in Style Flexing in Personal Selling Using the Platinum Rule

Kim Tan California State University‐ San Bernardino

Style flexing is the adaptation of communication style by highly skilled professional salespersons to enhance communication and marketing effectiveness with their clients.

Many studies have revealed the process of client style categorization, particularly the use of Myers‐Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) in communication style categorization when performing adaptive selling. Research has also discovered the use of the Platinum Rule in adaptive selling where “treating others the way they want to be treated” as the new self‐centered rule adopted by sales professionals in personal selling. This research study seeks (1) to study to scope and extent of the use of style flexing in personal selling, (2) to investigate the use of MBTI in communication style categorization and (3) to identify the key behavioral preferences associated with the application of the Platinum Rule in style flexing when selling to clients.

115

The Importance Of Business Sustainability: Teaching Through Study Abroad

Kelly Pittman University of the Incarnate Word

Anna‐ Marie Moore University of the Incarnate Word

Creating environmentally friendly, sustainable companies is a growing trend today; companies are looking to implement cost effective, sustainable projects that will have positive effects. Sustainable businesses incorporate Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR), maintaining a high level of responsibility for the society at large. Students today are conscious of the importance of sustainable and environmentally responsible practices; they’ve been raised with recycling programs and environmentally friendly corporations like TOMS. Educators must enhance this understanding and teach a broader scope of “smart financial business practices” alongside sustainability. Ernst & Young recently stated that within five years all employees will “touch” sustainability in some way. Knowledge of this topic is critical for preparing students to meet the challenges of the workforce. Currently, European companies are global leaders in the implementation of sustainable business practices. This presentation will use a faculty‐ led sustainability and reporting trip taken to Germany in 2013 as a basis for highlighting the benefits of such an experience when teaching sustainability.

Corporations visited, such as Deutsche Bank, Siemens and Audi, all emphasize CSR and are leaders in the implementation of sustainable practices. Examples include: green building initiatives, symbiotic relationship between manufacturers and communities,

116 employee labor initiatives, and energy‐efficient processes. Although this trip focused on accounting and business, we believe the same format can be used to teach sustainability across several disciplines. We’ll also discuss how these concepts could be taught with a “domestic study abroad” experience through either local business or US based corporation visits.

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The Virtual Manager: Key Essentials for Leading People Remotely

Theresa A. Moore Daytona State College

The online office environment is different in many ways from the bricks and mortar office. When managers are leading people that are not physically housed at the same location, there are some notable modifications to traditional leadership styles that should be recognized. How do the four functions of management play out in the virtual environment: Planning, Leading, Organizing, Controlling? The presentation will include some best practices of virtual leadership: 

Employee Selection

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Accountability Mechanism

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Technology and Corporate Support

EDUCATION PROCEEDINGS 118

Examining the Layers of Beginning Teacher Induction: A Cross‐Case Analysis at the Elementary, Middle, and High School Level Adam Myers, LaGrange College Rebecca J. Alexander, LaGrange College New Minimum Requirements for Admission to Teacher Education Programs: How Will Teacher Education Programs Respond?

Alan S. Canestrari, Roger Williams University Bruce A. Marlowe. Roger Williams University Anne Winfield, Roger Williams University Learning to Teach With A Stick and Dirt: International Education Internships and Are They Worth It? Amelia Gunn Spencer, Birmingham Southern College Louanne Jacobs, Birmingham Southern College Special Education Induction and Mentoring Program Evaluation Project Ann M. Sebald, Colorado State University The Validity of an Understanding of Cognitive Skill Strengths in the Climate of Inclusion and Differentiation Ardyth Foster, Armstrong State University An Exploratory Examination of GLOBE Leadership Constructs in Education Barbara J. Mallory, High Point University Megan M. Buning, Georgia Regents University Teri Melton, Georgia Southern University Cindi Chance, Georgia Regents University Preservice Educators and Writing Apprehension Brooke A. Burks, Auburn University‐Montgomery Marie Kraska, Auburn University‐Montgomery Emma G. Haley, Tuskegee University Are Teacher Educator Programs Ready to Embrace Mindfulness in their Classrooms Carol Klages, University of Houston‐Victoria Jane Devick‐Fry, University of Houston‐Victoria Satisfaction and Success with Blended Learning in Teacher Education Coursework at Metropolitan State University of Denver Cynthia Lindquist, Metropolitan State University of Denver Lisa Altemueller, Metropolitan State University of Denver The Use Of A Specific Schema Theory Strategy‐Semantic Mapping‐To Facilitate Vocabulary Development And Comprehension For At‐Risk Readers David C. Little, Samford University Insta‐Guide: Integrating Instagram in Today’s Classroom David Naylor, Middle Tennessee State University Alison Mueller, Middle Tennessee State University Mentoring the Problem Solver: Student Perceptions of Online Course Content, Activities and Assignments David R. White, Texas Tech University Data Driven Decision Making: Donʹt Leave Your Class Without It Denise Hexom., National University Judith Menoher, National University Assessment And Grading Practices: Consideration Of Academic And Non‐Academic Factors Diana M. Yesbeck, Randolph‐Macon College How Do Preservice Teachers Learn to Manage Classrooms?: Research Results Dianne Lawler, Arkansas State University Susan Davis, Southeast Missouri State University Siyuan Chen, Arkansas State University An Analysis of the Ethical Decision‐Making Process Used by Educators Don M. Beach, Tarleton State University‐Texas A&M University Mentoring Preservice Practicum Students: Preschool Teachers Share Strategies for Success Donna R. Sanderson, West Chester University

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EDUCATION PROCEEDINGS

Challenges for Successful Implementation of the Common Core for Mathematics Gary Christie, Baldwin Wallace University Descubriendo la cultura y voces de familias Mexicana sobre dichos: Discovering the culture and voices of Mexican households via daily expressions Gilbert Dueñas, Auburn University‐Montgomery The Politics And Practices Of Curriculum Approval In Higher Education Janet L. Applin, Western Kentucky University Youth Entrepreneurship: A Charter School Model Jesse D. Beeler, Millsaps College Penelope J. Prenshaw, Millsaps College David H. Culpepper, Millsaps College Are Elementary School Principals Competent to Evaluate English as a Second Language Teachers?

Joseph R. McKinney, Ball State University Michael Sullivan, Fort Wayne Community Schools Application & Evaluation of Specifications Grading Methodology Josh Ellis, Chadron State College Creativity: A Vehicle for Transformation and Social Change Joyous Bethel, Millersville University Tutoring in Urban Schools: What Is and Is Not Happening Judith Cochran, University of Missouri‐St. Louis Being a “Fish Out of Water”: Pre‐Service Teacher and ELL Partnership Experiences that Nurture Judith J. Ruskamp, Peru State College Common Core State Standards and Teacher Preparation: State, University, and Public School Collaborations Kathy A. Smart, University of North Dakota Stuart Schneider, University of North Dakota Bonni Gourneau, University of North Dakota Pamela Beck, University of North Dakota Big Steps with Small Technology: Piloting Paperless in a Graduate Online Program and Creating Professional Portfolios Kathy A. Smart, University of North Dakota Kari Chiasson, University of North Dakota Using Real‐Time Tools to Assess Student Learning in an Online Environment Kenneth Goldberg, National University Using Psychometric and Physiological Paradigms to Establish the Relationship of Intelligence and Perceptual Modality Preference Using Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) Kourtland Robert Koch, Ball State University Effective Classroom Management: What Does Emotional Intelligence Have To Do With It? Laura R. Ficarra, University of Albany‐SUNY Emily Burnham Using Inquiry Practices in Teacher Education Lisa Douglass, Ohio University Mathew Conley, Ohio Dominican University John Mascazine, Ohio Dominican University Assessing Pre‐service Teachersʹ Beliefs on Diversity and (Dis)ability Lonni Gill, Indiana University/Purdue University The Challenge: Engaging Students in Quantitatively‐Based Courses N. Faye Angel, Ferrum College

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Asynchronous Online Discussions with U. S. and Hong Kong Students: A Model for Fostering Intercultural

Competency Nannette Commander, Georgia State University

Peggy A. Gallagher, Georgia State University Kelly Ku

Lisa Deng Sandy Li

Carol Ashong Ways in Which Teachers Structure Reading Instruction for Bilingual Students with Disabilities: A Case Study

Analysis Nikki Logan, University of Wisconsin‐Steven’s Point

The Illusion of Choice: Small Learning Communities in an Urban Setting Niralee K. Patel‐Lye, Southern Connecticut State University

Jess L. Gregory, Southern Connecticut State University Evaluating Learning Outcomes of an Asynchronous Online Discussion Assignment: A Qualitative Analysis.

Orly Calderon, Long Island University‐Post “The Electronic Curriculum: Web Quests, Virtual Field Trips, Simulations, and Gaming to Learn Through Application

and Development of Literacy Skills Using the World Wide Web as a Science Content Sourceʺ Rebecca Slayden‐McMahan, Austin Peay State University

Benita Bruster, Austin Peay State University The Inclusion Classroom: Differentiated Instruction

Rebekah Dyer, Grand Canyon University Disruption in Higher Education: Economics and Technology

Robert E. Waller, Columbus State University Pamela A. Lemoine, Columbus State University

Michael D. Richardson, Columbus State University Principalship: Still an Attractive Career?

Robert E. Waller, Columbus State University Pamela A. Lemoine, Columbus State University

Thomas Hackett, Columbus State University Michael D. Richardson, Columbus State University

Contemplative Explorations in the Origins of Human Schooling Ron Tinsley, Stockton University

Faculty Training in the SIOP Model to Enhance ESL/ENL Students’ Learning Experiences in Higher Education Sally A. Creasap, Capital University

Using Interactive Notebooks with Pre‐Service Teachers Sandy R Jay, Utah Valley University

Lynda R Williams, Utah Valley University Promoting STEM Literacy with Problem‐based Learning: The GlobalEd 2 Project

Scott W. Brown, University of Connecticut Kimberly A. Lawless, University of Illinois‐Chicago

Lisa Lynn Jeremy Riel

Sarah Newton Kamila Kamila Brodowinska Bruscianelli

EDUCATION PROCEEDINGS

Meng Wang Addison Zhao Shiyu Song James Oren Nicole Powell

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Team Teaching in a Distance Education Context: Practical Strategies

Sean Camp, Utah State University Susan Egbert, Utah State University

Assessing the Enacted Curriculum: Teaching Physical Education in Ghanaian Primary Schools Seidu Sofo, Southeast Missouri State University

Eugene F. Asola, Valdosta State University Alice Atubiga

Cynthia W. Attorkwe Ethical and Legal Challenges Among School Specialty Professionals

Sherrie Foster, Tennessee Tech University Pros and Cons of Student Evaluations: Are Teachers Held Hostage?

Shirley H. Walrond, Austin Peay State University Using Bloom’s Taxonomy Web 2.0 Tech Tools in the College Classroom

Sonya Vierstraete, Southwest Minnesota State University Wendy Schoolmeester, Southwest Minnesota State University

Are They Ready?: Teacher Candidate Dispositions Susan Davis., Southeast Missouri State University

Dianne Lawler, Arkansas State University Say, What?

Susan Dean Gilbert, Lee‐McRae College Robin Buchanan, Lee‐McRae College

Pam Vesely, Lee‐McRae College Lynn Swann, Lee‐McRae College

Developing Inquiry for Pre‐Service Teachers Susan Williams, Texas A&M University‐Commerce

Debra Lee, Texas A&M University‐Commerce Strong Writers are Strong Thinkers: Strategies that move our Students to Write and Think

Suze Gilbert, Middle Tennessee State University (Dis) Connections Between Reflective Field Experience Assignments and a Social Justice Paradigm for Pre‐Service

Teachers Tedi T. Gordon, Athens State University

The Influence of Horticultural Activities on Preschool‐Aged Children’s Peer Interaction and Task Engagement Teri Rouse, Chesnut Hill College

Social and Emotional Learning through Service‐Learning Terry A Silver, University of Tennessee‐Martin

Is Inclusion an Appropriate Education for Postsecondary Special Education Students?

Thomas L. Black, Middle Tennessee State University

Program Assessment: Itʹs Not Rocket Science Toni E. Fogarty, California State University, East Bay

Integrating Curriculum Through MythBusters Tracey R. Huddleston, Middle Tennessee State University

Problem‐Based Learning in Teacher Education Lecture Courses: Student Understanding, Confidence, Skills, and Reflections

Vincent R. Genareo, Iowa State University Renée Lyons (student), Clemson University

EDUCATION PROCEEDINGS

Transforming Ourselves During Our Doctoral Journeys: A Phenomenological Look at the Experiences of Students, Candidates, and Graduates of an EdD Program W. Edward Bureau, Drexel University Teaching Well in a Learner’s Market – Student‐Centered Instruction in Online Learning Wendy Cowan, Athens State University Bridgette Chandler, Athens State University

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High‐Stakes Testing: Standards, Ethics, and Trends

Linda Mabry, Washington State University Pedagogies of Place / Geographies of Experience

Ellyn Lyle, Yorkville University Using Psychometric and Physiological Paradigms to Establish the Relationship of Intelligence and Perceptual

Modality Preference Using Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) Kourtland Robert Koch, Ball State University

Using Video Games, PBL, and SCCT to Design High School Science Curriculum that Promotes Learning and Science Career Choice

Margaret Zidon, University of North Dakota Richard Van Eck, University of North Dakota

EDUCATION PROCEEDINGS

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Examining the Layers of Beginning Teacher Induction: A Cross‐Case Analysis at the Elementary, Middle, and High School Level

Adam Myers LaGrange College

Rebecca J. Alexander LaGrange College

Bethany Myers

The cross‐case analysis described in this study examined the patterns of induction practice that support the beginning teacher in the elementary, middle, and high school environment of a rural school district. Bronfenbrennerʹs (1976) systemic model of the educational environment as a series of nested, interacting sub‐systems was used as a compass for this study. Interviews with central office staff at the exo‐system level, with the school administrator at the meso‐system level, and with beginning elementary teachers at the micro‐system were the primary means of data collections. Evolving display matrices were the primary strategy for data analysis. Themes were identified at each level of the educational environment. Findings reveal consistent themes within the levels of the school environment.

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New Minimum Requirements for Admission to Teacher Education Programs: How Will Teacher Education Programs Respond?

Alan S. Canestrari Roger Williams University

Bruce A. Marlowe Roger Williams University

Anne Winfield Roger Williams University

The purpose of this interactive presentation is to illuminate, critique, and suggest solutions to new requirements made by the Rhode Island Department of Education (RIDE) of all the teacher education programs in the state. The memo demands that approved undergraduate and post‐baccalaureate programs must ensure that the mean GPA of their admitted candidate cohorts meets or exceeds 3.0 and that the mean score of admitted candidate cohorts on nationally normed admissions assessments (such as the ACT, SAT, or GRE) meet or exceed the annual benchmarks on each sub‐test of these assessments. The new benchmarks are as follows: top 50 percent of the national distribution from 2016‐2017;top 40 percent of the national distribution from 2018‐2019; and top 33 percent of the national distribution by 2020. In addition processes, systems, and strategies that the teacher education program will use to systematically collect feedback from employers of recent program completers and how this data will be used to determine areas for program improvement will become a critical part of each institution’s accreditation (RIDE May, 2015). What does this mean for educator

125 preparation programs in Rhode Island and potentially as a case study for programs in other states. We are especially concerned that this action will likely further reduce number of teacher candidates especially from historically disenfranchised, underrepresented groups. We wonder if “decrees” of this nature may potentially contribute to a systematic dismantling of teacher education program. How will teacher education programs fulfill these requirements?

126

Learning to Teach With A Stick and Dirt: International Education Internships and Are They Worth It?

Amelia Gunn Spencer Birmingham Southern College

Louanne Jacobs Birmingham Southern College

There is a push in the United States to educate teachers who impact the learning of their students. Preservice teachers become certified to teach students, but often have little practical experience in challenging their theories of practice and pedagogy. Carefully designed international internships have allowed our education students to learn to teach diverse learners and emerge better prepared educators.

As a part of preteaching internships, our students at Birmingham Southern College have the opportunity to travel to Ghana where they work with K‐8 students, connecting with the global community to teach, work, and live with diverse others.

From the education department standpoint, experiential learning through the internship is the capstone the preservice teacher’s college career. Students learn to teach reading and other subjects in spite of the language barrier, through teaching English as a Second Language. This three week experience allows the preservice teachers to dig deep into their repertoire of pedagogy. Through this international internship, students report that their teaching ability and finely honed skills of pedagogy have greatly improved. In addition, cooperating teachers and university supervisors report that these students are uniquely able to teach reading to diverse learners.

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Special Education Induction and Mentoring Program Evaluation Project

Ann M. Sebald Colorado State University

Staff from a university in one western state and a metro‐area school district from the same state, received a technical assistance grant working with the National Center for Inform Policy and Practice in Special Education Professional Development (NCIPP) to evaluate the district’s induction and mentoring program for special educators who were both new to the district and/or new to the field. The goal of this research project was to support the district in evaluating their induction and mentoring programs so as to make informed decisions regarding strengths and areas of need that may result in changes to such programs. Staff from the university used the findings to better understand the degree to which beginning special education teachers are adequately prepared to take on the responsibilities of working in school districts supporting the needs of this population. A survey‐questionnaire was administered to three groups of beginning special education teachers (2011‐2014) and an intervention was conducted year two of the project. Interviews of second year special educators having completed the induction program were conducted. Results indicate that strategic focus on issues specific to special educators’ needs positively impacted beginning teachers’ abilities to operationalize instructional practices unique to their students’ needs. Implications of the results indicate that collaboration between universities and school districts can support strategic improvements in the continuum of teacher preparation with the intent of maintaining the intellectual capital that comes with retaining quality trained teachers.

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The Validity of an Understanding of Cognitive Skill Strengths in the Climate of Inclusion and Differentiation

Ardyth Foster Armstrong State University

The purpose of this presentation is to engage teacher educators and pre‐service/in‐ service elementary and middle‐school teachers in reflecting on effective instructional and assessment strategies in mathematics and mathematics education. The types of mathematical activities that are provided to students, the inherent value in tapping into students’ cognitive strengths while improving their problem‐solving performance on items that are not necessarily geared towards their strengths, the value of allowing students multiple formats for expressing conceptual understanding, and potential implications for designing appropriate assessment instruments will be discussed, as well as implications for effective differentiation of instruction and assessment.

The findings of a study that looked at relationships between students’ cognitive skills and their mathematics problem‐solving performance will be presented and discussed.

The purpose of this study was to examine the existence and strength of relationships between students’ cognitive skills and mathematical problem‐solving performance.

Specifically, relationships between students’ verbal, spatial, and analytical skills and their problem‐solving performance on items that require a verbal response, items that require a spatial response, and overall problem‐solving performance were investigated.

The following questions were addressed by the study: 1. To what extent are students’ cognitive skills (i.e., their spatial, verbal, and analytical skills) related to their problem‐solving performance on items that specifically require a

129 verbal response, and on those that specifically require a spatial response?

2. To what extent are students’ cognitive skills related to each other?

3. What are the potential implications for teaching practice and teacher education?

According to Lesh and Zawojewski (2006), mathematics is learned through problem solving, and mathematical ideas develop along with problem‐solving capabilities during the problem‐solving process. Further, the importance of problem solving to conceptual development in mathematics and the building of strong mathematical connections is also emphasized in The National Council for Teachers of Mathematics’ (NCTM) Curriculum and Evaluation Standards for School Mathematics (NCTM, 1989) and Principles and Standards for School Mathematics (NCTM, 2000).

Researchers indicate that there is an interaction between students’ spatial skills and their production and use of drawings to solve mathematical word problems (Landau, 1984; Campbell, Collis & Watson, 1995), and between students’ verbal skills and their mathematical problem‐solving performance (Battista, 1990; Fennema & Tartre, 1985).

Specifically, spatial skills have been associated with higher level problem‐solving performance (Landau, 1984; Tartre, 1990), and activities that require the use of verbal skills have been associated with higher cognitive functions such as critical thinking, sound reasoning, and problem solving (Albert, 2000; Jurdak & Abu Zein, 1998; Vygotsky, trans. 1962; 1978). Vygotsky’s (trans. 1962; 1978) discussions on language and its importance in problem solving indicate that students possess and use both spatial and verbal skills at varying levels based on their language development, and that both types of skills are important to the problem‐solving process. While Vygotsky’s ideas are not specific to problem solving in mathematics, they are consistent with the findings reported by the aforementioned research in mathematical problem solving. A review of

130 the literature also revealed assumptions of close links between verbal and logical/analytical skills, resulting in a lack of assessment of these skills as separate constructs. This study therefore sought to measure each of the cognitive skills separately in order to clearly establish the existence and strength of any pair‐wise relationships among the cognitive skills.

Ninety‐eight students from the fifth‐ through eighth‐grades were administered assessments of verbal skills, spatial skills, and logical/analytical skills, as well as a problem‐solving instrument that consisted of a verbal (PST‐Verbal) subtest and a spatial (PST‐Spatial) subtest. Students’ scores on the problem‐solving instrument and each of the assessments were analyzed using multiple regression analysis, and the results indicated statistically significant relationships between students’ cognitive skills and problem‐solving performance on the PST‐Verbal subtest, the PST‐Spatial subtest, and overall problem‐solving performance. Surprisingly stronger relationships were found, however, between spatial skills and PST‐Verbal performance than between verbal skills and PST‐Verbal performance, and stronger relationships were found between verbal skills and PST‐Spatial performance than between spatial skills and PST‐Spatial performance. Statistically significant pair‐wise relationships were also found among the cognitive skills, with the strongest pair‐wise relationship existing between verbal and analytical skills. The relationship between verbal and spatial skills, although not as strong as the one that exists between verbal and analytical skills, was also quite strong.

The findings described above have the potential to inform teacher educators and pre‐ /in‐service teachers on the value of an understanding of the existing relationships between cognitive skills and problem‐solving performance, and among the cognitive skills, to the design of instruction and assessments that are relevant and meaningful for

131 the individual student. Effective differentiated instruction requires a clear understanding of where the student is (via assessment), and the use of assessment‐ driven data to design instruction that helps the student achieve an established learning goal requires an understanding of these relationships. According to Sternberg & Zhang (2001), cognitive styles affect how individuals process information, as well as their preferred mode of representation which, in turn, is likely to affect the types of tasks that they find difficult or easy. They note, however, that while individuals with stronger spatial skills generally learn best from pictorial presentations, and those with stronger verbal skills learn best from verbal presentations, regardless of cognitive style, individuals can use either mode of representation if they make a conscious choice. They believe that the educational focus should not necessarily be on who has/does not have a particular ability, but on how to capitalize on individual strengths, and how to develop learning potential.

The popularity of differentiated instruction as an instructional strategy has increased in recent years, and its value in maximizing learning potential has been the focus of recent research agendas. According to Strahan, Kronenberg, Burgner, Doherty, & Hedt (2012), differentiated instruction is responsive instruction that occurs as teachers become increasingly proficient at understanding their students as individuals, and increasingly comfortable with the meaning and structures of the disciplines they teach, and their level of expertise at teaching flexibly in order to match instruction to students’ needs.

The goal therefore becomes one of maximizing the potential of each learner in a given area. Grimes and Stevens (2009) refer to its usefulness in meeting the needs of diverse learners, and they point to the benefits for those who find academic concepts difficult, as well as those who find them easy.

132 Strahan, et al (2012) conducted a review of three studies on differentiated instruction and its benefits for young adolescents, and they cited Bransford, Brown, and Cocking (2000), who emphasized the problem‐solving nature of young people, and the important roles that adults play in nurturing these natural tendencies. They state that “[A]dults help young people make new connections, nurture curiosity, and encourage persistence by • Directing their attention • Structuring their experiences • Supporting their learning attempts • Regulating the complexity and difficulty levels of information (p. 112).”

Strahan, et al (2009) further emphasize that the above guiding practices are especially important in helping students learn to think more deeply about content concepts. Their interpretation of the studies is that the results suggest three important propositions that “…[serve to] guide the investigation of responsive teaching in the context of a differentiated, interdisciplinary unit: • Teachers create academic connections with students by learning more about them as individuals.

• Teachers enrich academic connections with students by collaborating with colleagues to create more personalized instructional strategies and by scaffolding instruction to guide concept development.

• Studentsʹ levels of understanding of academic concepts vary by the types of connections they make with teachers and with ideas.”

Grimes and Stevens (2009) suggest that differentiated classrooms include several common elements that include: student responsibility, student choice, peer tutoring, flexible grouping, and modified instruction (Pettig, 2000; Lawrence‐Brown, 2004;

133 Brimijoin, Marquissee, and Tomlinson 2007; as cited in Grimes & Stevens, 2009).

According to Lawrence‐Brown (2004), “…differentiated mathematics instruction ensures successful math teaching when properly applied. Students who are taught through differentiated methods not only learn mathematics effectively, but they also become motivated students who view themselves as successful mathematicians (as cited in Grimes & Stevens, 2009).”

Grimes and Stevens (2009) also reported on a study where the use of differentiated instruction resulted in a positive correlation between students’ academic success and their motivation and self‐efficacy. They state that the use of differentiated instruction in a mathematics class resulted in students who traditionally scored low on math assessments scoring as well as their high‐performing peers, and increased student motivation among all the students. In addition, students were observed to be more engaged in the learning process, their desire to do math and to improve in math was increased, and their confidence in their math abilities also increased.

An understanding of the relationships between cognitive skills and mathematics learning also has the potential to impact on designing instruction that meets the needs of inclusion classrooms. The key to meaningful instruction in inclusion classrooms lies in the differentiation of instruction, which has been shown to be effective in inclusion classrooms, in that it allows the teacher to meet the needs of every learner by providing students with multiple options for learning, and allowing each student to make his or her own meaning from what is being taught (Anderson, 2007; Tomlinson, 2001, 2004; as cited in Patterson, Connolly, & Ritter, 2009). Patterson, Connolly & Ritter (2009) also believe that differentiated instruction enables each student to individually express what he or she has learned.

Clearly, there are many complexities that exist within this area that have potential

134 implications for appropriate and effective pedagogical decision making, as well as implications for collaboration among students and their teachers and peers. This presentation aims to open dialogue and discussion about these complexities and mathematics pedagogy.

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An Exploratory Examination of GLOBE Leadership Constructs in Education

Barbara J. Mallory High Point University

Megan M. Buning Georgia Regents University

Teri Melton Georgia Southern University

Cindi Chance Georgia Regents University

It is time to get real about what happens in school leadership across global cultures.

School leadership has been conceptualized in various ways, often with much variation among different stakeholder groups. Since teachers are a major stakeholder group impacted by principal leadership, the researchers sought to determine teacher perceptions of “ideal principals.” In this exploratory, quantitative study, the purpose is to determine how the GLOBE questionnaire may be used as an instrument to study variations of principalship leadership across cultures. The researchers obtained permission to administer the GLOBE questionnaire and adapted the “language” of the instrument for administration in schools in two southern states. The GLOBE questionnaire was used to identify attributes and characteristics of leadership in an attempt to determine how principals are viewed as leaders in schools across the world and how tenable the GLOBE scales would translate at the individual level of analysis.

Using SurveyMonkey©, a link to the GLOBE questionnaire was administered to collect

136 data for the pilot study to examine the underlying constructs of the second‐order leadership scales when analyzed at the individual participant level of analysis.

Preliminary results reveal the need to reduce the leadership scales. The ultimate goal of this study for university‐based principal preparation programs is having potential to measure what matters in school leadership in cultural context of the educational setting, with capacity to compare and contrast “as it should be” leadership in schools across cultures.

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Preservice Educators and Writing Apprehension

Brooke A. Burks

Auburn University‐Montgomery

Marie Kraska Auburn University‐Montgomery

Emma G. Haley Tuskegee University

Writing is, and has been, a topic of concern in the education arena. Whether the discussion rests on writing instruction, the writing process, or writing for enjoyment; the discussion almost always comes back to the teacher. The Common Core State Standards requires teachers of all subjects to incorporate literacy – reading and writing – into their daily lessons. However, many teachers who are not teachers of English often feel that writing should not be part of their responsibility to teach. Math teachers want to teach math, science teachers want to teach science. Nevertheless, the Common Core requires certain literacy standards be taught in all content areas (NGACBP, 2010).

If teachers of writing are apprehensive about their own writing, they may not be prepared to instruct their students. Hall and Grisham‐Brown (2011) suggest that teacher educators help their students become better writers before sending pre‐service teachers into classrooms bereft of appropriate writing skills. Benevides and Stagg‐Peterson (2010) also suggest including activities in teacher education courses that will foster pre‐ service teachers’ positive attitudes towards writing.

The purpose of this current research project is to determine the level of writing apprehension pre‐service teachers may have as it relates to their own writing. Because

138 these pre‐service teachers – both elementary and secondary education – will be required to teach writing to their students, it is imperative that these future teachers feel comfortable and confident about their own writing. The goal of this study is to determine these pre‐service educators’ writing apprehension level, determine their attitudes about their own writing, and notice any comparisons/contrasts between pre‐ service teachers enrolled at public and private institutions. The accompanying presentation for this research project will focus on the results of the Daly‐Miller Writing Apprehension Survey administered by the researchers to preservice educators at two institutions along with the preservice educators’ perceptions of themselves as teachers of writing.

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Are Teacher Educator Programs Ready to Embrace Mindfulness in their Classrooms

Carol Klages University of Houston‐Victoria

Jane Devick‐Fry University of Houston‐Victoria

Mindfulness is the awareness that emerges through paying attention on purpose, in the present moment, and non‐judgmentally to unfolding experience moment by moment (Kabat‐Zinn, 2013, p. 144). A mindful individual responds effectively to the environment based on information presented rather than on preconceived notions about events. Langer (1989) views mindfulness as a process where an individual seeks multiple points of view about a problem. Mindfulness in teaching creates a state of mind that encourages creativity, flexible use of information, and improvement in student/teacher collaborations, problem‐solving and improved identification of effective student instructional strategies.

Mindful teachers emphasize process and multiple perspectives over a generalized response to classroom situations (Langer, 1989) Students that are mindful understand there is not one correct response to a question and they explore alternative responses; student productivity and creativity has been increased (Langer 1989). Mindfulness may be discussed as a theory emanating from constructivism theory and as a disposition that can be internalized through specific training which has been supported by research (For example, Greeson, 2009). Mindfulness should be introduced to teacher candidates

140 during educator preparation programs and to the faculty in higher education who create the learning opportunities for teacher candidates (Sherretz, 2011). Mindfulness as a teaching disposition can only be incorporated into educator preparation programs when higher education faculty understand the value of mindfulness and understand how to incorporate mindfulness into existing educator preparation program curriculum.

Based up the review of research on the idea of mindfulness as a means to promote a positive learning environment for school children and their teachers, we have compiled a list of ten practical tips for teacher educators seeking to include such a disposition in their educator preparation program. This list of practical methods for teacher educators to share, teach, and embrace mindful practice in their teacher preparation courses.

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Satisfaction and Success with Blended Learning in Teacher Education Coursework at Metropolitan State University of Denver

Cynthia Lindquist Metropolitan State University of Denver

Lisa Altemueller Metropolitan State University of Denver

Two faculty conducted research to determine the level of student satisfaction and success in blended or hybrid courses being offered within the school of education at their university. The university was beginning to increase the number of hybrid and online classes. Their goal was to assess if offering courses in a blended format was meeting the needs of the students and if the students’ perception of success varied if they took blended courses rather than face‐to‐face coursework. In addition they researched face‐to‐face, blended and online learning to determine best practice in the field. The design for the research project was through anonymous survey. The student population surveyed included teacher licensure students in blended learning coursework in the undergraduate, post baccalaureate and master of arts in teaching programs who were currently enrolled in a hybrid or blended class. The four page survey allowed the researchers to gather both quantitative and qualitative data from the students. Data was collected for two semesters and involved 24 classes with 306 students participating in the survey. Surveys were administered on campus during a resident portion of the class near the end of the semester of study. Final results of the survey have been compiled and analyzed. The researchers are using this data to

142 improve teaching practices within the department and employ best practices in course preparation and delivery.

143

The Use Of A Specific Schema Theory Strategy‐Semantic Mapping‐To Facilitate Vocabulary Development And Comprehension For At‐Risk Readers

David C. Little Samford University

Research has shown that the use of pre‐reading activities, such as graphic or advance organizers can positively affect student acquisition of vocabulary and meaning when reading new concepts presented in text. One particularly effective strategy, semantic mapping, can significantly impact students who previously had a lack of prior knowledge on new content reading material by assisting them to better understand the vocabulary and content of the reading material prior to actually reading the material.

The strategy of semantic mapping, as with all advance and graphic organizers, is based on the theory that a student’s structure of prior knowledge and experiences (schemata) related to the acquisition of new concepts is a critical element in the student becoming a successful learner and reader.

144

Insta‐Guide: Integrating Instagram in Today’s Classroom

David Naylor Middle Tennessee State University

Alison Mueller Middle Tennessee State University

Hold a penny close enough to your eye, and it can block out the sun. This saying addresses two shortcomings that often hobble educators and their students. These shortcomings result from worthy goals, but inadequate methods. The first: how does a teacher integrate technology into the classroom in ways that are innovative, non‐ distracting, and truly relevant? Simply having students use laptops or tablets does not accomplish this. The second: how does a teacher weave various content together with creativity, relevance, and accuracy to accomplish true curriculum integration? A cursory mention of a geometric shape in a social studies lesson does not integrate mathematics.

This presentation focuses on the academic use of Instagram in a classroom, incorporating various content areas and standards, and explaining how handheld devices can increase student learning and technological skills. The presenters will introduce various Instagram accounts and ways to incorporate them into lesson plans for various grade levels in science, language arts, social studies, mathematics, art and others. Issues of security will be discussed, as well as suggestions for extensions and differentiation. For maximum benefit, attendees should download the Instagram app beforehand; using the Instagram app or website will be encouraged throughout the presentation; presentation software will project images and text as the presentation

145 progresses. Attendees will receive a suggested list of Instagram accounts suitable for classroom use. Additional social media outlets may be recommended.

146

Mentoring the Problem Solver: Student Perceptions of Online Course Content, Activities and Assignments

David R. White Texas Tech University

Information presented in this paper was collected from one course offering conducted in a graduate‐level instructional technology program. Students were required to complete a problem solving unit that involved problem solving tasks, critical thinking activities, and active course discussions. Students completed instructional design tasks that required integrating technology to support learning activities and objectives related to problem solving content presented in the course.

Additional content was presented on using creativity and mentoring strategies to support instructional design tasks. A course assignment questionnaire measuring student satisfaction and perceptions of module assignments and activity tasks was administered. Result from the questionnaire are presented and reveal several supporting items that align with the goals and objectives of the course unit on problem solving, critical thinking and mentoring tasks.

147

Data Driven Decision Making: Donʹt Leave Your Class Without It

Denise Hexom.

National University

Judith Menoher National University

Teachers and administrators across America are being asked to use data and hard evidence to inform practice as they begin the task of implementing Common Core State Standards. Yet the courses they are taking in schools of education are not preparing teachers or principals to understand the data driven decision making (DDDM) process nor to utilize data in a much more sophisticated fashion. DDDM has been around for quite some time; however, it has only recently become systematically and consistently applied in the field of education. This paper discusses the theoretical framework of DDDM; empirical evidence supporting the effectiveness of DDDM; a process a department in a school of education has utilized to implement DDDM; and recommendations to other schools of education who attempt to implement DDDM in their decision‐making processes and in their students’ coursework.

148

Assessment And Grading Practices: Consideration Of Academic And Non‐Academic Factors

Diana M. Yesbeck Randolph‐Macon College

In the current era of student accountability, coupled with high‐stakes testing, schools have focused on the alignment of standardized curriculums and assessments. However, developing standardized grading practices are still under examination. Grading serves as an important responsibility, yet many teachers still find the process a challenge of determining which academic and non‐academic factors correctly represent student achievement.

A qualitative study was designed to examine the grading factors teachers consider when determining student final grades. Middle school language arts teachers from one mid‐sized suburban school district in Virginia participated in qualitative interviews. The interviews addressed the following topics: (1) the purposes of grades, (2) the grading factors teachers consider when they grade, (3) the teachers’ influences in determining their practices, and (4) how teachers’ grading practices relate to measurement theory.

Overall results in the areas of the purpose of grades, the use of academic and non‐ academic factors, teachers’ influences, the use of formative and summative assessments, and the need for professional development are consistent with the literature. With respect to how teachers’ practices relate to measurement theory, the

149 findings are consistent with the literature from previous studies. This suggests that although measurement theory experts recommend that achievement factors should be the only factors that determine student grades, the results of this study indicate that teachers use a mixture of variables in determining student grades, known as ʺhodgepodge grading.ʺ

Recommendations for practice include teacher reflection on determining why they grade, becoming familiar with measurement theory recommendations in terms of using academic factors that measure student achievement, how to use non‐ academic factors in other ways to support student learning, and providing staff development in the area of grading practices and how practices support measurement standards.

150

How Do Preservice Teachers Learn to Manage Classrooms?: Research Results

Dianne Lawler Arkansas State University

Susan Davis Southeast Missouri State University

Siyuan Chen Arkansas State University

Classroom management is not only related to improving the quality of classroom teaching, but also directly affects studentsʹ physical and mental development. The traditional classroom management is more inclined to typical behavior management and problem solving, and focuses on classroom discipline and order (Greer, Neidert, Dozier, Payne, Zonneveld, & Happer, 2013). Pre‐service and in‐ service teachers often cite classroom management and discipline as among the most difficult and disturbing aspects of teaching. In a quest to improve professional preparation within teacher education programs it is important to explore what student extract from their pre‐service courses and field experiences (McCormack, 2001).

This study was based on whether pre‐service teachers are prepared to carry out a classroom management plan and what are their beliefs about managing a classroom. So, the purpose of the study was to get information regarding pre‐ service teachers’ classroom management strategies and current situations, which include their attitudes toward classroom setting, classroom routine, and management of problem behaviors through interactions with children. The research

151 questions of this study were: 1. What do pre‐service teacher identify as problem behavior in their classrooms and what are some of their recommended solutions?

2. What do pre‐service teachers think of effective classroom arrangement should be according to their beliefs?

Seventy preservice teachers’ classroom management plans were analyzed. These plans were written during their senior field experience after completing 6 intensive weeks of classroom “intership‐like” placements in school settings. Preservice teachers were required to write their own “Classroom Management Plansʺ including floor plans, ideas for specific behavior management, and classroom rules and procedures.

Results of analyses indicated that managing problem behaviors has been a crucial part of pre‐service teachers’ classroom management plans. Though challenging, most preservice teachers demonstrate the importance of respect and understanding children’s needs, being patient and showing compassion about children’s behaviors.

Most teachers show their concern about children’s basic needs like food, shelter and clothing, which ensure children a healthy development. Meanwhile, preservice teachers appear to find it challenging when children are being aggressive and disruptive in learning processes. So, the most common problem behaviors in a pre‐ service teacher’s classrooms are: hungry, sleepy, clothing, aggressive behavior and disruptive behaviors. When behaviors regarding children’s basic needs appeared, these preservice teachers recommended providing snacks, finding resources, refering to nurse or counselor, and taking a nap, or conferencing with parents to meet their needs. When children tend to be aggressive, pre‐service teachers mainly

152 suggested managing the behavior from three different perspectives: 1) positive reinforcements such as talk through with respect and redirect; 2) negative reinforcements such as warning, timeout, or 3) refer to principal or conferencing parents. On the other hand, when children tend to be disruptive, pre‐service teachers have different strategies according to the levels of disruption.

While interesting, further research and more in‐depth study of preservice teachersʹ classroom management is needed. This analysis is enlightening and can lead to greater emphasis on training and dispositions for preservice teachers.

153

An Analysis of the Ethical Decision‐Making Process Used by Educators

Don M. Beach Tarleton State University‐Texas A&M University

The purpose of this paper was to describe the decision‐making process used by K‐ 12 educators when confronted with ethical dilemmas. The study sought to determine if public school educators in certain positions within the school use different ethical decision‐making strategies. Using a modified instrument of an “Ethical IQ Test” developed by Henderson (1992), the participants were asked to respond to 10 ethical dilemmas. The study found no significant differences between principals, teachers, or other positions within the school setting who were enrolled in leadership courses; nor was there a significant difference between the males and females. However, there was a significant interaction between the position held by females in roles other than principals or teachers suggesting that these positions require a different thought process by females.

154

Mentoring Preservice Practicum Students: Preschool Teachers Share Strategies for Success

Donna R. Sanderson West Chester University

The success of professional experience for preschool preservice teacher learning is valued and based very much on the personal experiences they encounter in the preschool classroom environment. From teaching the Preschool Methods and Field course and informally conversing with my university students, I noticed that this field‐ based experience in a preschool classroom is a great cause for concern and stress for many preservice students. While I believe moderate stress helps students prepare for the unique challenge of fieldwork, excessive stress can inhibit both teaching and learning. Listening to students stories prompted me to take action and was the basis for this study. Much research on teaching has focused on the perspectives of the students as opposed to those of the mentor teachers. This study focuses on what particular strategies mentor teachers use to assist their preservice students during their preschool practicum experience. The chosen method of data collection was a survey completed by the mentor teachers over the course of three semesters. Surveys were collected, reviewed, organized and categorized so the data could be recorded efficiently and managed in a way for easy retrieval. Findings suggest that mentor teachers use a multitude of strategies to calm and support their preservice teachers for a successful practicum experience. This collection of detailed mentor teacher strategies was compiled so all stakeholders involved in the preschool practicum relationship experience a fulfilling and meaningful experience in the preschool classroom.

155 Implications for change on how preservice teachers can be supported during the preschool practicum are provided.

156

Challenges for Successful Implementation of the Common Core for Mathematics

Gary Christie Baldwin Wallace University

The author discusses the implications of adopting the Common Core Mathematics Standards. In particular, the author addresses the challenges for teachers learning the conceptual math which they must teach as well as learning how to teach in a manner that facilitates higher‐level thinking skills in students. Without seriously understanding and addressing these challenges, the author feels that districts and states will have great difficulty meeting the standards of the Common Core.

157

Descubriendo la cultura y voces de familias Mexicana sobre dichos: Discovering the culture and voices of Mexican households via daily expressions

Gilbert Dueñas Auburn University‐Montgomery

From a three‐year study within the households of five Mexican families, in which everyday conversations was in their native Spanish language, the researcher recognized an important function about dichos or popular expressions. These expressions might encase consejos (or advice from a parent to a child) or cultural attitudes and beliefs such as the strength of family unity (Sanchez, 2009). Dichos are inextricably woven within the crevices of daily conversation between the Mexican parents and their children as a learned strategy to inculcate their native country’s cultural values, traditions, and historical experiences (see Sanchez, Plata, & Leird, 2010). Furthermore, while utilizing such popular sayings, parents are in effect drawing upon their heritage language as a framework for empowering their children with (as noted in Gonzalez, Andrade, Civil & Moll, 2001) a form of accumulated knowledge capital‐‐literacy essential for household activity and academic success. As noted in Nieto (1993), “Dichos are passed down from one generation to another by word of mouth. They are an intricate part of the culture and are taught to everyone because dichos give people wisdom that will guide them throughout their lives.” Thus, the purpose of the conference presentation is to provide participants an insider’s perspective about the inclusion of various dichos in ordinary discourse within the Mexican household; how dichos function to convey family stories, scaffold children’s at‐home literacy or nurture their children’s moral development; and

158 how educators can embrace this integral aspect of their culturally diverse students as a goal toward culturally‐relevant pedagogy.

159

The Politics And Practices Of Curriculum Approval In Higher Education

Janet L. Applin Western Kentucky University

“Is it this difficult everywhere?” is the question that guided this study. Practices from over 25 masterʹs level institutions across the U.S. were reviewed to evaluate institutional procedures governing curriculum approval. Similarities, differences, and the politics involved will be discussed. The study investigated the steps involved in the process, the types of committees required, the timelines required, and the stakeholders involved. The study raised questions related to faculty workloads and curriculum development, the length of the process, and the politics involved in garnering curriculum approval.

160

Youth Entrepreneurship: A Charter School Model

Jesse D. Beeler Millsaps College

Penelope J. Prenshaw Millsaps College

David H. Culpepper Millsaps College

Midtown Public Charter School will open its doors in August 2015 and will be the first charter school in the state of Mississippi. Midtown is a diverse and primarily low‐ income neighborhood located near downtown Jackson, MS, the capital of the state, and is adjacent to Millsaps College. As part of a comprehensive neighborhood revitalization strategy that includes housing, education, economic, health, security and sustainability initiatives, ELSEWorks, the entrepreneurship program of the Else School of Management at Millsaps College in partnership with Midtown Partners, Inc., the non‐ profit advocacy organization is leading revitalization efforts in Midtown. These initiatives have already lead to significant advances in the economic development of the Midtown neighborhood. Similar success on the education front will soon be achieved in the Midtown neighborhood with the opening of the first charter school in the state of Mississippi.

Based on the Brooke Charter School Model, which has been in operation for 13 years in Massachusetts, Midtown Public Charter School is community developed with a mission to build the next generation of entrepreneurs. The model includes a longer school day and school year; team teaching with a maximum class size of 26 students; and

161 pedagogy grounded in the development of analytical skills, creativity skills, and character education. Midtown Public Charter School is a Title 1 school meaning 100% of the students live in poverty. The school is free and enrollment is open to any student in the Jackson Public School district serving 5th and 6th grades. Based on word‐of‐mouth only, full enrollment for the first year has been achieved and subsequent applications are being placed on a waitlist.

162

Are Elementary School Principals Competent to Evaluate English as a Second Language Teachers?

Joseph R. McKinney Ball State University

Michael Sullivan Fort Wayne Community Schools

Nationally, there are eighteen million English Language students enrolled in the public schools. The American Institutes for Research found that “few, if any, evaluation systems for teachers and administrators address the specialized skills it takes to work effectively with English‐learners.” National statistics reveal a wide gap in student achievement between English Language learners and native English Language students. How are English Language teachers evaluated and by whom? Are elementary principals adequately prepared to evaluate English Language teachers?

Legal and quantitative methods (survey) were employed in this study. Thirty‐eight out of one hundred principals participated. One hundred percent of the principals reported they solely evaluated their English Language teachers. Twenty‐four percent of the principals did not believe they were qualified to evaluate their English Language teachers. Sixty‐six percent of the principals used a standard state created evaluation for all teachers. The state created teacher evaluation system does not reflect the special knowledge and skills that teachers require to effectively teach English Language learners. Others used their districts evaluation. Thirty‐seven percent of the respondents did not receive any English Language learners professional development in the last year. Fifty‐five percent of said administrators who supervise English Language teachers should be mandated to earn an “endorsement” in “sheltered English immersion.”

Research shows that teacher evaluation system drive improved instruction for English

163 Language learners. Principals need more professional development pertaining to teacher evaluation. The results of the study indicate principals want to learn more about evaluation systems for English Language teachers.

164

Application & Evaluation of Specifications Grading Methodology

Josh Ellis Chadron State College

An overreaching objective of educators is to encourage and motivate students to take ownership of their education and be an active part of the educational process.

Specifications grading is an approach to course design that has recently been introduced by Dr. Linda B. Nilson in her book “Specifications Grading: Restoring Rigor, Motivating Students, and Saving Faculty Time” that seems to provide the framework necessary to accomplish such an objective. The specifications grading methodology seemed to be practical and effective in theory, prompting an application of its principles to my courses for the spring 2015 semester. As specifications grading is relatively new information regarding its effectiveness and how it is received by students is limited. I intend to explore and address this gap in information by conducting action research within each of my courses. I intend to survey students at the conclusion of the semester to gain greater insight into student perception regarding the effectiveness of the specifications grading course design and delivery. Specifically, I would like to determine if specifications grading course design and delivery when compared to standard course design and delivery motivates students to learn, motivates students to excel, reduces student stress, increases student responsibility for their course grade, and increases clarification of course expectations? Data and information regarding these questions will be evaluated at the conclusion of the spring 2015 semester. This information will be useful in contributing to the limited information regarding the

165 effectiveness and practical implications of implementing specifications grading methodology into the college classroom.

166

Creativity: A Vehicle for Transformation and Social Change

Joyous Bethel Millersville University

Creativity has long been recognized as an expression of oneʹs experiences. Paintner (2007) reminds us that, ʺCreativity is a powerful shaping force in human life. It is an intangible human capacity of a transcendent nature‐‐it moves us beyond ourselvesʺ (p.6) Further, she states that creativity helps us find ways to exist more fully and wholly in our world, and facilitates our abilities to live intentionally, honoring ourselves and others (2007). The author teaches a social justice course which explores mechanisms of oppression and which requires students to engage in strategies that promote justice. Learning about ʺothersʺ in fact requires learning about self, as a separate person and as part of the groups to which we belong.

Adams, Blumenfeld, Castaneda, Hackman, Peters, and Zuniga (2013) call this the ʺwaking upʺ process. As students move toward greater accountability for creating and maintaining a more just society, they find themselves transformed. This study explores how one university incorporates creativity and artistic expression as a way to represent and capture this transformation. Students choose a particular social identity of their own (race, gender, class, ability, age, religion, etc) which has come into clearer focus during the course of study. They then create something which symbolizes their new awareness and their commitment to justice and advocacy. It must be original work. This presentation will explore the ʺwaking upʺ process as it relates to this course in social justice, offering examples of creative work. References Adams, M.; Blumenfeld, W.; Casteneda, C.; Hackman, H.; Peters, M.; Zuniga, X. (2013) Readings for Diversity and Social Justice. New York: Taylor and Francis.

167 Paintner, C. (2007) ʺThe Relationship Between Spirituality and Artistic Expression: Cultivating the Capacity for Imaginingʺ. Spirituality in Higher Education Newsletter, Vol 3:2.

168

Tutoring in Urban Schools: What Is and Is Not Happening Judith Cochran University of Missouri‐St. Louis

Tutoring in urban schools is constricted by economic concerns. Effective tutoring is necessary but its significant academic components are unknown. Evaluation measurements for tutoring are uneven at best. This research explores the most meaningful aspects of successful tutoring in urban schools. For the past sixteen years, the E. Desmond Lee Regional Institute of Tutorial Education (RITE) has developed, trained tutors and implemented mathematics and reading tutoring programs for K‐12 students. The research‐based Blueprint for Reading and Mathematics Success have been used in urban educational settings with trained tutors. The measures of tutoring success have been those in place in elementary, secondary schools, youth organizations and churches. The most recent findings from Gene Slay’s Boys and Girls Club and the Chinese Immersion Charter School verify the results from tutoring programs in diverse urban settings. The study’s results indicate that rapid reading gain for urban children can be obtained when research‐based training, consistent supervision and format and formalized academic connections among teachers, tutors and parents exist.

Mathematics tutoring has demonstrated more diverse results as the tutoring evaluation has been eclectic.

Implications will be presented for other programs demonstrating how to implement these findings. Measurement and sustainability issues could provide warnings for other tutoring programs.

169

Being a “Fish Out of Water”: Pre‐Service Teacher and ELL Partnership Experiences that Nurture

Judith J. Ruskamp Peru State College

The challenge for teacher educators and for teacher preparation programs today is to find ways to enable teacher candidates to successfully navigate the given relational complexities of today’s classroom. One such challenge is creating a culturally responsive classroom specifically related to responding to the linguistic and cultural differences that can exist in the learning environment. The purpose of this study is to reveal how the work of critical reflective practice as a way to study and systematically create a culturally responsive classroom can also create a culture of inquiry where they negotiate the complexities of teaching and learning experiences and begin to form and inform their own teaching identities in the process. Narrative inquiry serves as a medium for documenting and analyzing the perspectives and insights across all participants. Data was gathered and analyzed from prospective teachers engaging in critical reflective practice via collaborative autobiographies of critical incidents, classroom observations and debriefing interview sessions, a questionnaire, and a follow‐up interview over the course of their work with English Language Learners during a semester course. Findings show that prospective teachers’ engagement in critical reflection through narrative inquiry reveals both the tensions and the possibilities present within teaching and learning experiences with English Language Learners and enlarges their perspectives and understandings regarding the development of culturally

170 responsive teaching. Teacher educators and teacher education programs should strive to create cultures of inquiry that provide for critically reflective opportunities for discovering what counts as knowledge in the teaching and learning experience and to allow for the evolution of a teaching identity. A culture of inquiry provides prospective teachers with time and space to negotiate what they know with what they are experiencing in the classroom which results in reflective turns that lead to teaching practices and a teaching identity that is nurtured and sustained. The author of this article proposes a deliberate approach to this challenge, which suggests that there is real power in authentic and meaningful pre‐service teacher and ELL partnership experiences that manifest a culture of inquiry and concomitantly allow for “a fish out of water” experience which nurtures and sustains the evolution of a culturally responsive teaching identity.

171

Common Core State Standards and Teacher Preparation: State, University, and Public School Collaborations Kathy A. Smart University of North Dakota

Stuart Schneider University of North Dakota

Bonni Gourneau University of North Dakota

Pamela Beck University of North Dakota

The Common Core Standards in teacher preparation programs is a critical component in the academic groundwork teacher candidates require for success. To aid in this effort, the Department of Public Instruction offered competitive grants to teacher education programs of Higher Education in the state of North Dakota interested in enhancing the implementation of the Common Core State Standards (CCSS) with their elementary and/or secondary programs. It is important for students in the Higher Education programs to know the Common Core State Standards and more essential that they have a good grasp in the implementation process as well. The presentation will share the scope of this small project, which included two phases and five major components. In phase one, the components include 1) working with the CCSS in teacher candidates courses; 2) partnering with the public school teachers; 3) facilitating collaborative decision making exercises; 4) using the project–based instructional approaches; and 4) guiding teacher candidates in developing UbD lesson plans in which teacher candidates’ will have an opportunity to implement their understanding of CCSS. All

172 materials will become part of a repository for ease of access and continuity for use in the multiple courses. In phase two, teacher candidates will review and refine their instructional materials in their Methods course(s), and ultimately be able to incorporate these lessons during their student teaching.

The collaborative teams consisted of university faculty from College of Education and the Communication Program, and teachers from the local public schools. Qualitative methods will be used collect data from the teacher candidates and reflections from the faculty that collaborated will be documented and framed as lessons learned. This presentation will share the purpose, implementation steps across four teacher education courses. The presenters will share perspectives on the collaboration, results, and next steps.

173

Big Steps with Small Technology: Piloting Paperless in a Graduate Online Program and Creating Professional Portfolios

Kathy A. Smart University of North Dakota

Kari Chiasson University of North Dakota

This pilot study explores the collaboration of faculty who developed new methods to accomplish cumulative academic portfolios submission and review system for an online Masters program in Special Education. The faculty collaborated to streamline the process for both students and faculty in terms of efficiency, accessibility, long‐ term development and use of professional portfolios that exceeds the life of the course(s) and occurs outside of the institutions course management system. Given there are typically three basic types of portfolios in academia ~ career, assessment, and development, each with a special purpose. In addition to piloting moving to a paperless portfolio method, the faculty focused on revitalizing the course portfolio to be leveraged as a career portfolio to showcase work and supplement job applications, provide employers a better idea of students critical thinking, reflection, work products, and process skills. Well‐designed, thoughtful guides, and instructions aid students in being well organized, concise and demonstrate their clear and quality thoughts on multiple levels.

Establishing a system that utilizes a free technology tool, is easy to operate and implement was the one focus of this collaboration. Both qualitative and quantitative

174 methods will be used gain perspectives of the students on this pilot project and study will begin in summer session 2015 (May‐August). The pilot study and implementation will review the projects purpose, implementation steps, evaluation including the use of free technology tools and their viability. Further, student and faculty lesson learned will be shared during the presentation. The data will indicate concrete next steps for the faculty and the program area to implement useful technology tools to better serve students.

175

Using Real‐Time Tools to Assess Student Learning in an Online Environment

Kenneth Goldberg National University

Typical post‐secondary online academic programs conduct learning in an asynchronous environment where students and instructors participate at their convenience to support flexibility. One challenge in teaching in the asynchronous environment is providing instant assessment of learning. Traditional tests and papers can measure learning outcomes, but feedback on the assessment of learning can be delayed in the asynchronous environment. Feedback provided from virtual classrooms in a real time synchronous environment offer unique learning opportunities for the students and instructors. This research focuses on how one program adopted synchronous tools to assess learning in a real‐time environment and still maintain the flexibility desired of online programs. Best practices will be discussed on how tools can be used to measure and demonstrate basic understanding and higher orders of learning. The session will conclude with small group discussions on how participants can incorporate the practices into online courses.

176

Using Psychometric and Physiological Paradigms to Establish the Relationship of Intelligence and Perceptual Modality Preference Using Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)

Kourtland Robert Koch Ball State University

Over the past half century, educational and learning researchers have used various clinical instruments to describe characteristics related to the learning process that distinguish individual learners. Historically, most clinical and school psychologists have used intelligence tests to differentiate people by their mental abilities while educational and learning researchers have used other tests to describe learning style unique to individuals. One such theoretical approach is the biological approach, or neuroscience approach, which focuses on the brain and physical events which are a part of the nervous system. In this approach, the study of the brain has been investigated in part through ʺbrain mapping.ʺ With advanced technology this approach has become sophisticated enough to examine the living brain by non‐ invasive techniques, for instance fMRI, electroencephalography (EEG) and magnetoencephalography (MEG). By watching living brains interact with the sensory environment, the avenue through which individuals perceive the world can be monitored and evaluated as a medium for knowledge acquisition. Psychometric and physiological paradigms were once opponents of one another. Today, they are perceived as indispensable allies in our understanding of cognitive competencies.

Brain‐based assessments of intellect are now promoted as valid and useful methodologies. The correlation of neuroimaging to IQ has imperative and thought‐

177 provoking implications. Further research in the field of cognitive neuroscience is needed to more fully determine how different intelligence subtests are related to specific regions of the brain. Ultimately, this will provide a better understanding of the usefulness of test instruments to assess specific mental skills.

178

Effective Classroom Management: What Does Emotional Intelligence Have To Do With It?

Laura R. Ficarra University of Albany‐SUNY

Emily Burnham

The concept of Emotional Intelligence (Goleman, 1996) has been integral in understanding peopleʹs interpersonal and intrapersonal dealings. For classroom teachers, Emotional Intelligence has also been linked to teacher‐student relationships that are at the core of soulful teaching. Although mutually‐respectful relationships between teachers and students are essential to effective academic and social learning environments, they are insufficient in the absence of technical facility with classroom management systems and practices. With the advent of evidence‐ based classroom management practices ascertained by Simonsen, Fairbanks, Briesch, and Sugai (2008), it is more imperative that teachers utilize strategies that yield desirable outcomes for students.

In this investigation, we explored the extent to which Emotional Intelligence is related to and predictive of knowledge and competency with these classroom management practices. Results indicate that for pre‐service teachers, self‐reported Emotional Intelligence ratings were statistically significantly related to and predictive of their knowledge of and competency with certain evidence‐based classroom management practices. This trend will also be discussed by the five critical features (e.g. subscales) of this finite number of practices. Implications for

179 teacher preparation programs and practical influences on teacher‐student relationships will be discussed.

180

Using Inquiry Practices in Teacher Education Lisa Douglass Ohio University

Mathew Conley Ohio Dominican University

John Mascazine Ohio Dominican University

In this symposium we will present a variety of our practices that have been successful in teaching inquiry‐based methods in mathematics, science and reading methods courses to pre‐service teachers.

181

Assessing Pre‐service Teachersʹ Beliefs on Diversity and (Dis)ability

Lonni Gill Indiana University/Purdue University

The changing landscape of our population demands that we, as teachers address the culturally, linguistically, and economically diverse children in schools today (Teemant, 2015). Pre‐service teachers bring beliefs, experiences and prior knowledge with them into their education courses as they begin to learn how to teach. Reflecting and acknowledging what pre‐service teachers bring into the classroom is essential. This study reveals pre‐service teachersʹ initial thoughts on development, diversity and (dis)ability prior to their multicultural education class and follows their perceptions mid‐semester to analyze any changes in their belief systems regarding diverse children.

182

The Challenge: Engaging Students in Quantitatively‐Based Courses

N. Faye Angel Ferrum College

This study investigated the influence of a “challenge event” (treatment) on final grades for 95 students in an upper‐level quantitative methods course required of all business majors at a small, liberal arts college. Historically, students taking quantitative methods struggle with the critical thinking components of the course.

There were two semesters used as the control (traditional coverage of returning test) and three semesters where students were encouraged to challenge and justify responses that had been marked incorrect (treatment group). With the treatment groups, a traditional review of the returned test was not conducted. The final grades in the control group ranged from 66.34 to 70.42. After the treatment (challenge event) the final grades increased to 80.23 to 80.97. The difference in the final grades between the control and treatment groups was statistically significant with p < .000. This paper discusses the treatment (challenge event) and provides an analysis of the statistics used to test the impact of the treatment.

183

Asynchronous Online Discussions with U. S. and Hong Kong Students: A Model for Fostering Intercultural Competency

Nannette Commander Georgia State University

Peggy A. Gallagher Georgia State University

Kelly Ku

Lisa Deng

Sandy Li

Carol Ashong

Our diverse global society challenges institutions of higher learning to graduate citizens who are culturally competent. Recent research indicates that intercultural learning occurs when students directly encounter others’ experiences and feel safe to explore cultural differences (King, Perez, & Shim, 2013). To promote such learning, we present a model for fostering intercultural competency through asynchronous online discussions with students from different countries. U. S. and Hong Kong students, while enrolled at their home institution in an educational psychology class, participated in four asynchronous online discussions to analyze educational case studies. Eight groups of students (each with students from the U. S. and Hong Kong) met online to critically analyze case studies that described U. S. and Hong Kong classroom scenarios related to learning theories. Detailed directions

184 encouraged students to analyze each case from a theoretical perspective and critically evaluate strategies and interventions. Further, students were required to justify their positions from readings, research, and personal experiences. The U. S. and Hong Kong faculty instructors collaborated to align curriculum and monitor each discussion. A critical thinking rubric was used to provide individual feedback on the quality of comments and contribution to the overall discussion. Our research question was, “How did participation in the online discussions and cross‐cultural learning experience foster culturally competency for U. S. and Hong Kong students?” Results from quantitative and qualitative analysis of transcripts indicated asynchronous online discussion fostered intercultural competency in students. This study adds to the knowledge base about international collaborative online courses and presents a model for fostering cultural competency in students.

Specifics on how to establish international collaborative online courses will be included in the presentation.

185

Ways in Which Teachers Structure Reading Instruction for Bilingual Students with Disabilities: A Case Study Analysis

Nikki Logan University of Wisconsin‐Steven’s Point

This research used a single case study design to answer the question, How do teachers structure reading instruction for bilingual students with disabilities in urban elementary settings? Bronfenbrenner’s Bioecological Theory and critical race theory guided the study design and data analysis of interviews, observations, and documents to determine that teachers of bilingual students with disabilities experience unique challenges. Findings of the study include the topics of disability blindfolding; disjointed delivery; improper instruction due to assessment and progress monitoring; spatial implications; definitions impact instruction; and teachers’ personal characteristics influence reading instruction. In addition to a discussion of the salient themes, implications for practice and theory, the significance of the study, and recommendations for future research are presented.

186

The Illusion of Choice: Small Learning Communities in an Urban Setting

Niralee K. Patel‐Lye Southern Connecticut State University

Jess L. Gregory Southern Connecticut State University

The school choice movement lays the responsibility for advocating for children’s education at the feet of parents, but do parents have a choice in urban settings?

Federal grants provided opportunities for large schools to create small learning communities to afford choices to parents, but the reality is that these small learning communities created an illusion of choice and fostered tracking that has been acknowledged as limiting the educational opportunities of students.

This mixed methods study was conducted in a low‐performing urban, comprehensive high school. The study was guided by a framework which combined Lareau’s (2003) and Bordieu’s (1977, 1981) theories of social and cultural capital with theories of educational reproduction (Bourdieu & Passeron, 1994) and critical race (Dixson & Rousseau, 2006; Ladson‐Billings & Tate, 1995). This study explored whether both Assigned and Self‐Selected Small Learning Communities (SLCs) provided all students with equal access to social and cultural capital.

Quantitative data were used to determine student achievement and qualitative data were used to explore students’ and teachers’ perceptions and feelings regarding the SLCs in which they participated. The study showed that there were many ways in which SLCs were not equitable: availability of academically rigorous courses,

187 enrollment criteria and processes, mentoring services, academic support services, and co‐curricular activities.

188

Evaluating Learning Outcomes of an Asynchronous Online Discussion Assignment: A Qualitative Analysis.

Orly Calderon Long Island University‐Post

Use of learning management systems (LMS) has become prevalent across the continuum of education formats (i.e., online, blended and face to face learning). Specific asynchronous tools such as the discussion board have been shown to be effective tools for student‐instructor as well as student‐ student communication. ( Jorczak & Dupuis, 2014; Lane, 2014; Calderon, Ginsberg and Ciabocchi, 2013). However, designing learning assignments that optimize the educational value of such tools requires careful consideration of strategies to evaluate students’ learning outcomes. While some work has been done in this area (Mathews & La Tronica‐Herb, 2013; Lai, 2012; Quinlan, 2011) there is a lack of systematic analysis of such communications for the purpose of identifying dimensions that can be objectively evaluated. Current work in this area includes establishing a priori parameters (Lai, 2012) or instrumental dimensions such as length of communication instances (Brooks & Bippus, 2012). The current study utilized a post priori analysis of students’ responses to an online discussion board communication assignment in the area of social work to identify organically emerging indicators of learning for the purpose of creating an evaluation rubric for such assignments.

The participants are MSW students in the social work department at a large private university in NYS who have been enrolled in a psychopathology course during one of the following semesters, respectively: spring 2012; spring 2013.; spring 2014. Students

189 in all 3 cohorts were required to read a case study ( identical to all three cohorts) and respond to a prompt by instructor regarding the proper diagnosis and treatment plan /or next steps in addressing the issues presented in the case study. All posts were de‐ identified and coded. Content of students’ posts was analyzed using the constant comparison method, identifying units of meaning, grouping into categories and generating themes. Inter‐ rater reliability showed a high level of agreement between the two researchers on contextual categorization of the material.

The findings identify several themes with corresponding categories. For example: accuracy of response content (diagnosis, treatment plan, next steps); quality of peer interaction (agreement; constructive criticism); refection of the assignment (process reflection, material reflection) motivation (promptness of response, frequency of responses within a thread). These dimensions are used to develop a rubric for evaluating educational outcomes of online discussion learning assignments. The rubric incorporates assessment of explicit learning (e.g., content accuracy) as well as implicit learning processes (e.g., critical thinking, reflection), and aims at identifying aspects of on‐line communication that contribute added value to this format of learning (e.g., peer‐ to‐peer communication and feedback) .

Learning objectives: Participants will: 1. Identify challenges associated with outcome assessment of online discussion assignments.

2. Identify strategies for contextual analysis of students’ post on a discussion board learning assignment.

3. Practice construction of rubric dimensions and evaluation criteria.

190 4. Explore relevance of this method to their own teaching and outcome assessment of students learning.

191

“The Electronic Curriculum: Web Quests, Virtual Field Trips, Simulations, and Gaming to Learn Through Application and Development of Literacy Skills Using the World Wide Web as a Science Content Sourceʺ

Rebecca Slayden‐McMahan Austin Peay State University

Benita Bruster Austin Peay State University

Technology‐facilitated instruction allows students the opportunity to learn the principles of research through application of literacy skills and reading. This empowers them and the development of these skills promote self‐paced and intrinsically rewarding learning. Proper use of the resources of the World Wide Web literally “brings the world” into your classroom. Bringing “science concepts to life” in the science classroom is not a new notion. I believe that this is now, and has always been, the mission and purpose of “School”. Advocates for infusing the curriculum with technology always mention the opportunity for teachers to use the resources of the World Wide Web in teaching and many advocate a constructivist curriculum approach where the student is taught to critically think, conduct research, and take a major role and responsibility for learning. It is because I concur with this philosophy and belief, about how students learn, that I undertook the challenge for developing a complete electronic standards‐based curriculum for grades K‐8 using the best resources of the Internet to create online learning opportunities through literacy that are linked to literally thousands of resources.

The electronic curriculum has one hundred (100) web quests on different topics

192 containing three our four activities per web quest. Through the great and somewhat limitless resources available to us, as teachers and learners, we can “travel to remote places”, “travel forward or backward in time”, and involve ourselves in a virtual way in lifelong learning without time constraints and other limitations of real world settings. The “curiosity and imagination of the child” is fed as he or she becomes an astronaut, sails on the Beagle with Darwin, or work in a lab alongside Albert Einstein. As conceptual understanding emerges the learner additionally develops an appreciation for knowledge and an intrinsic reward for the efforts involved in learning that just may grow into a profession or the passion of a lifetime!

193

The Inclusion Classroom: Differentiated Instruction

Rebekah Dyer Grand Canyon University

The Inclusion Classroom: Strategies for working with both regular and special education students in one classroom. This session will include the definition of the inclusion classroom and rights of students with disabilities to participate in school with their non‐disabled peers. In addition, the presenter will discuss differentiated instruction strategies and give specific examples that could be used in the inclusion classroom.

194

Disruption in Higher Education: Economics and Technology

Robert E. Waller Columbus State University

Pamela A. Lemoine Columbus State University

Michael D. Richardson Columbus State University

Today’s college graduates will change careers multiple times, each change requiring access to lifelong learning with additional education being required at each career change. Access to higher education will be a necessity for job mobility and economic success. The challenge for traditional universities whose concentration historically has been the production of knowledge in the form of human capital, research, and scholarship is to be able to tap into the expanding need for lifelong learning. While the need for education is growing, the sustainability of all the forms of postsecondary education is a concern. Fundamental systemic change in higher education has been slow to develop, particularly with regard to teaching and learning. New methods of teaching and learning are necessary if higher education is to survive and prosper.

195

Principalship: Still an Attractive Career?

Robert E. Waller Columbus State University

Pamela A. Lemoine Columbus State University

Thomas Hackett Columbus State University

Michael D. Richardson Columbus State University

Throughout the United States, there is a demand for effective qualified principals. Applicants are available, but finding candidates who can address the complex issues and demands faced by principals is becoming more and more difficult for school officials. Finding high quality applicants who will be rated and ranked in their performance based on the performance of students and teachers is daunting. With principal evaluations based on student and teacher performance, potential candidates see no incentive to move into the administrative ranks, thus many schools opened this school year without principals or with acting principals. Certified candidates are available, but hiring personnel are finding out there is a definite difference in “qualified” and “certified”.

196

Contemplative Explorations in the Origins of Human Schooling

Ron Tinsley Stockton University

J.M. Stephens’ book, The Process of Schooling: A Psychological Examination, published

by Holt, Rinehart, and Winston in 1967, summarizes his of work developing theory that fully accounts for the emergent human phenomena of schooling. Stephens declared, “We ought to know the forces that bring schools and schooling into existence. We also ought to know, in some detail, the forces and mechanisms that lead the schools to continue to accomplish that which they have in the past” (1967, p. 3).

Stephens noted that by 1949, “the theory of spontaneous schooling was largely roughed out,” and, that he then “spent the next 20 years trying to achieve a satisfactory test of the theory, and trying to bring it to the attention of scholars in the field” (Stephens, v).

But he was never able to test his theory or get scholarsʹ attention.

In attempt to gather evidence that might either confirm or contradict Stephens’ theory, the current study is designed to elicit, document, and analyze different individuals’ self‐ generated theories for how and why schooling first emerged among humans. Action research methodology is followed in leading groups of participants with no knowledge of Stephens’ work through an inquiry process in which they theorize what circumstances, conditions, or occurrences could have led to the emergence of schooling practices among humans long ago.

197 Theories generated through the inquiry process will be analyzed and coded for qualitative comparison with specific elements proposed in Stephens’ theory of spontaneous schooling to establish the degree to which individuals with no knowledge of Stephens’ theory independently generate theories similar to his using only their own minds.

198

Faculty Training in the SIOP Model to Enhance ESL/ENL Students’ Learning Experiences in Higher Education

Sally A. Creasap Capital University

In recent years more and more educators look at teaching models that have proven to be effective in preparing to work effectively with students who are culturally, racially, and linguistically diverse. Application of the Sheltered Instruction Observation Protocol (SIOP) teaching model has been documented as one of the effective ways to both scaffold instruction for English language learners as well as to enhance one’s overall quality of lesson delivery. The SIOP is a research‐based observation instrument that has been shown to be a valid and reliable measure of planning, instruction and assessment (Guarino, Echevarria, Short, Schick, Forbes, & Rueda, 2010). All features of the SIOP model are aligned with current research on instruction for ELLs. They include eight interrelated components: lesson preparation, building background, comprehensible input, strategies, interaction, practice/application, lesson delivery, and review/assessment. Using instructional strategies connected to each of these components, instructors are able to design and deliver lessons that attend to both the academic and linguistic needs of English learners as well as the rest of the students in one’s classroom.

This presentation will discuss the results of an innovative educational program where several faculty members from Education, History and Psychology departments received training in the Sheltered Instruction Observation Protocol (SIOP). These faculty members will then promote new learning communities both on their university campus

199 and beyond (K‐12 teachers in local school districts) by means of revising the current pedagogical practice and implementing the elements of the SIOP effective teaching model.

200

Using Interactive Notebooks with Pre‐Service Teachers

Sandy R Jay Utah Valley University

Lynda R Williams Utah Valley University

This study examines whether pre‐service teachers will use interactive notebooks beyond their science methods course. Does the use of interactive notebooks with pre‐ service teachers in a science methods course influence later use of the tool in those teachers’ elementary classrooms? The first phase of the study involved contacting former pre‐service teachers through a survey, to identify if they were using interactive notebooks and to justify the importance of interactive notebooks in the classroom as well as benefits to their students or lack of importance of this tool in their classroom.

The second phase will involve interviewing a sample of students surveyed to determine the influence interactive notebooks are playing in their classrooms. So far the preliminary finding of the study has shown that 70% of former students contacted are using interactive notebooks, 76% have shared this tool with colleagues, and 99% feel this tool was effective in their teacher preparation class. The conclusions are limited because the study is incomplete, but the implications are that this tool is being realized outside the college science methods course and is also impacting elementary students.

201

Promoting STEM Literacy with Problem‐based Learning: The GlobalEd 2 Project

Scott W. Brown University of Connecticut

Kimberly A. Lawless University of Illinois‐Chicago

Lisa Lynn

Jeremy Riel

Sarah Newton

Kamila Kamila Brodowinska Bruscianelli

Meng Wang

Addison Zhao

Shiyu Song

James Oren

Nicole Powell

Using a problem‐based learning (PBL) approach, the GlobalEd 2 (GE2) Project utilizes an interdisciplinary approach to STEM literacy. Leveraging technologies available in middle grade classrooms, GE2 engages classrooms of students as teams in simulated negotiations of international agreements on issues of global concern, such as water and food resources. The impact of student interactions within the simulation on STEM

202 literacies of 420 7th and 8th grade students across two states are presented. Results indicate that after participation in a GE2 simulation, students increased their STEM writing self‐efficacy and the quality of their written scientific arguments.

203

Team Teaching in a Distance Education Context: Practical Strategies

Sean Camp Utah State University

Susan Egbert Utah State University

This presentation provides a how‐to guide for designing and implementing team‐ taught courses in the distance education (IVC) environment, including practical strategies for effective planning, preparation, curriculum‐ and technology‐related issues; dynamics inherent in real‐time course delivery; and incorporating a self‐ reflective process for ongoing evaluation and course improvement.

204

Assessing the Enacted Curriculum: Teaching Physical Education in Ghanaian Primary Schools

Seidu Sofo Southeast Missouri State University

Eugene F. Asola Valdosta State University

Alice Atubiga

Cynthia W. Attorkwe

The extent to which the enacted curriculum in primary physical education (PE) aligns with the Ghanaian national PE curriculum is unknown. Using the enacted curriculum conceptual framework, this study assessed the enacted PE curriculum in primary schools in Ghana. Participants included a purposive sample of 296 (147 males and 149 females) primary school teachers from four regions of the country: Greater Accra, Northern, Upper East, and Upper West. The Physical Education Enacted Curriculum Scale (PEECS), a 4‐point Likert scale (0‐3), served as the main data source. It assessed the extent to which teachers taught major content/topics in the Ghanaian Physical Education syllabi for primary schools (P 1‐6) as “A Major Focus,” “A Minor Focus,” Touched Briefly,’ or “Not Taught.” Results showed that 11.8% did not teach a lesson in PE the entire academic year. Only 23.6% of participants taught PE twice a week, as required by the state. At least 50% of the teachers in P 2‐6 did not teach or touched briefly most of the major topics in the PE syllabi for their respective classes. Pearson correlation analyses indicated significant positive relationship between number of years teaching a class and mean score on the PEECS (r = .163; p = .005). Independent t‐Test

205 analyses suggested no significant gender differences in mean PEECS scores. One‐Way ANOVA measures indicated significant differences among regions (F = 7.026; p = .000) and grade levels (F= 2.705; p = .021). The enacted curricula in most of the classes were not aligned with the national PE syllabi, perhaps due to the sport‐oriented nature of the content and the teachers’ inadequate professional preparation in PE.

206

Ethical and Legal Challenges Among School Specialty Professionals

Sherrie Foster Tennessee Tech University

This presentation will focus on the research aimed at obtaining information relevant to ethical and legal challenges faced by school guidance counselors and school psychologists in the twenty‐three county mostly rural region of middle Tennessee.

Data is expected to be used to improve coursework for these licensure‐prep concentrations in the graduate level training program; specifically to better prepare those seeking licensure on methods to successfully resolve ethical and legal challenges presented within the public school systems.

Subjects were selected non‐randomly from among the targeted counties through purposeful sampling. A letter of introduction was sent to all chosen school systems’ administration for permission to survey those holding these specific licenses. A survey was then e‐mailed to each of the identified personnel to be returned anonymously for statistical analysis.

Foundational coursework for those concentrations leading to licensure focus on nationally formulated Code(s) of Ethics and laws which impact these professions.

However, it is also critical to determine specifically what types of challenges occur locally so that instructors can better prepare students to identify, acknowledge and resolve the issues occurring in the University’s service area, in the school systems where most of the graduating licensees intend to practice. Research is not yet completed, but

207 is expected to be relevant to the larger population of those involved with school specialty professionals. It is also suspected that many changes to coursework will be recommended to maintain credibility among coursework and licensure preparation programs. This presentation is relevant to all involved with any level of education.

208

Pros and Cons of Student Evaluations: Are Teachers Held Hostage?

Shirley H. Walrond Austin Peay State University

This presentation, Pros and Cons of Student Evaluations: Are Teachers Held Hostage?, focuses on student evaluations of teachers/professors and the accountability of both parties. Some colleges de‐emphasize student evaluations, rationalizing that studentsʹ opinions are only suggestions for improvement. In addition, they believe that some students use their anonymity to criticize teachers for personal reasons. In other colleges, more emphasis is placed on student evaluations linking them to retention and promotion of teachers. This rationalization is based on the premise that, overall, students are good indicators of teacher performances. What are the pros and cons of each system? This presentation will provide both sides, as the debate continues.

209

Using Bloom’s Taxonomy Web 2.0 Tech Tools in the College Classroom

Sonya Vierstraete Southwest Minnesota State University

Wendy Schoolmeester Southwest Minnesota State University

Introduction/Reflection Technology is shaping our society and schools. The impact of technology is far reaching, encompassing lands, cultures, genders, and ages from young children holding iPads to efforts to learn their ABCs to senior citizens utilizing iPads to stay in touch with distant family members. With the increase of technology usage and advancements, people are continually growing in knowledge and comfort with technology, including learners in schools. Considering the integration of technology in life and in education, students attending college in the 21st century are tech savvy. The question is ‐ Are their professors?

Purpose of the Study The purpose of this study was to examine the use of Web 2.0 technology tools during instruction by professors at a rural Minnesota university. Research questions guiding this study were as follows:

1. How cognizant are college professors of Web 2.0 tools?

2. What is the level of integration of Web 2.0 tools in the college classrooms?

3. What do professors believe is the impact of Web 2.0 tools on student learning?

210 Significance of the Study

As professors of education are expected to stay current with new technologies to

be able to demonstrate for teacher candidates the importance of implementing tech tools in their classrooms, how does this correlate with university professors from different disciplines? This study found the knowledge and use of Web 2.0 tools by professors of various disciplines at the college level. The significance of the study was to provide professors with knowledge of Web 2.0 tools to allow their students to be more engaged in the learning process and to advance technology integration throughout education.

Review of Literature

Education as we know it from years ago has changed. It is changing. It is no

longer the “sit and get” theory based on a society of the past with focus on reading, writing, and arthritic only; education instead is focusing on communication, collaboration, critical thinking and problem solving, and creativity and innovation.

Student Learning

Communication, collaboration, critical thinking and problem solving, and

creativity and innovation are considered the 4 Cs in education today. They are the expectations for learners for life beyond the classroom. “Using the 4 Cs to engage students is imperative. As educators prepare students for this new global society, teaching the core content subjects must be enhanced by incorporating critical thinking, collaboration, communication, and creativity” (NEA, 2015, p. 3). Implementing the 4 Cs into the teaching and learning process is critical. It is required. According to President Obama, “I’m calling on our nation’s governors and state education chiefs to develop standards and assessments that don’t simply measure whether students can fill in a bubble on a test, but whether they possess 21st century skills like problem‐solving and

211 critical thinking and entrepreneurship and creativity” (NEA, 2015, p.5). National and international leaders are counting on learners, or rather, citizens to be engaged and possess the skills to aid in society’s success.

Considering the advancement of technology and the call for improved life skills,

what changes are needed to meet the needs of the learners and the society? Education must support, sustain, and improve technology and likewise, technology must support, sustain, and improve education. With the tech savvy generation growing up, the dilemma is “as students are more likely to express themselves through texts and tweets, schools must find a way to keep up with this new tech‐savvy generation” (Kirton, 2015, p.11). Educators must acknowledge and respond to the changes in technology in our schools.

Web 2.0 Tools According to John Stocks in a National Education Association publication, we need new tools to support educators in the classroom as they implement new strategies to enhance the 4 Cs – communication, collaboration, critical thinking, and creativity (NEA, 2015). What are these new tools supporting the teaching and learning process of the 4 Cs? Web 2.0 tools are considered a possible solution. “Web 2.0 is about revolutionary new ways of creating, collaborating, editing and sharing user‐generated content online. Itʹs also about ease of use. Thereʹs no need to download, and teachers and students can master many of these tools in minutes. Technology has never been easier or more accessible to all” (Discovery Education, 2015, para 1).

Although some may question if Web 2.0 tools are replacing teachers and teaching, they are enhancing student learning and engagement. According to Todd Conaway, an instructional designer at Yavapai College, “None of these tools can replace the passion you have for your content or for teaching, but they can help you

212 demonstrate that passion and carry it forward to your online students” (Bart, 2009, para 4). To improve student learning, educators need to demonstrate and live out their passion in their teaching. “Your passion will also help you become absolutely relentless in the pursuit of excellence” (Burgess, 2012, p.10). Web 2.0 tools can truly enhance teaching and learning. “When technology works well in the classroom, it does so because it doesn’t really change anything. It just allows teachers to do the things we already do, but in an easier and more streamlined way” (Kirton, 2015, p.15).

Even with active support for Web 2.0 tools in the classroom, critics continue to speculate that technology is taking over the profession of teaching. It is the responsibility of educators to integrate technology in purposeful and meaningful ways.

“Educators need to strike the right balance between incorporating devices into lessons when necessary and keeping students focused on the task at hand” (Kirton, 2015, p.17).

With existing criticism surrounding the use of technology in education, educators should consider the right balance and make conscious decisions about the integration of technology into their teaching. According to Killory “Technology is fantastic and embracing it is a good thing, but it shouldn’t necessarily be a juggernaut that dictates the learning process. Don’t discount seemingly ‘old school’ methods just because the latest technology is flashy and modern. Just as a teacher should ask students to develop a questioning attitude, it is paramount for teachers to question their choices, too” (Kirton, 2015, p.17).

Technology, in particular Web 2.0 tools, can benefit the teaching and learning process if integrated in mindful and intentional ways. With thoughtful implementation, technology can serve as a valuable tool in the classroom, aiding in the teaching and learning process to allow learners opportunities to grow in ways not even imaginable to the school setting of the past.

213 Methodology The researchers provided a professional development session on Web 2.0 tools for faculty members. The session was called, “An Orange A Day Makes Best Practices Stay.” The researchers emphasized the ABCs of student learning with focus on Bloom’s Taxonomy – activating prior knowledge, building on the knowledge, and considering the knowledge gleaned. The researchers shared seven Web 2.0 tools: polleverywhere, animoto, kidblog, vokiavatar, glogster, tagxedo, and skype in efforts to support student learning. Based on the level of awareness and considering possible interest in the area of Web 2.0 tools, the researchers developed and administered a survey using Survey Monkey.

To determine the understanding of Web 2.0 tools by college professors, the researchers sent out an online survey regarding Web 2.0 Tools. The survey instrument consisted of eight overall questions aimed to answer the three guiding research questions for the study.

1. How cognizant are college professors of Web 2.0 tools?

2. What is the level of integration of Web 2.0 tools in the college classrooms?

3. What do professors believe is the impact of Web 2.0 tools on student learning?

The survey was sent to 153 Faculty Members including full‐time and adjunct, or contingent faculty, using Survey Monkey. The response was rate of 12.4% with 19 completing the survey.

214 Results

The participants involved in the study included both full‐time and adjunct

faculty members at a rural university located in southwestern Minnesota. The survey response rate was approximately 12.4% overall with approximately 68% of the respondents being female and 26.32% of the respondents had 11‐15 years of higher education teaching experience. The majority of the respondents at 89.47% were full‐ time faculty, and 83.33% of the respondents were from the College of Arts, Letters, and Sciences. The demographics of the participants are shown in Table 1.

Table 1. Demographics of Survey Participants Characteristic

Number

Percentage

Gender

Male

6

31.5%

Female

13

68.42%

Higher Education Teaching Experience

0‐2 years

1

5.26%

3‐5 years

2

10.53%

6‐10 years

4

21.05%

11‐15 years

5

26.32%

16‐20 years

3

15.79%

21 + years

4

21.05%

Faculty Position

Full‐Time

17

89.47%

Adjunct/Contingent Faculty

2

10.53%

215 College within the University

College of Arts, Letters, and Sciences

15

83.33%

College of Business, Education, and Professional

3

16.67%

Studies *The total number of the participants was 19 or approximately 12.4% of the total population invited to participate in the study. The figures in the table omit missing data (e.g. no response was provided).

The participants were asked if they had attended the researchers’ professional

development session held on campus in January of 2014. The majority at 78.95% indicated that they had not attended the session. For participants who had attended the researchers’ professional development workshop, 66.7% had not integrated Web 2.0 tools in their teaching prior to the session attendance. In the past year, 31.58% of the participants have incorporated Web 2.0 tools into their teaching. The participants involved in the professional development and Web 2.0 tools integration may be found in Table 2.

Table 2. Participants Involvement in Professional Development and Web 2.0 Tools Question

Yes

No

Question 1.

21.05%

78.95%

Did you attend the professional development session on campus at SMSU on January 9, 2014 titled An Orange a Day

216 Makes Best Practices Stay presented by Dr. Wendy Claussen‐Schoolmeester and Dr. Sonya Vierstraete?

Question 2.

33.33%

66.67%

31.58%

68.42%

If you attended the PD session, did you integrate Web 2.0 tools in your teaching prior to attending the session?

Question 3.

In the past year, have you incorporated Web 2.0 tools in your teaching?

For the participants who had incorporated Web 2.0 tools in their teaching in the

past year, 50% had integrated one or two Web 2.0 tools while 50% responding had incorporated three to five Web 2.0 tools. No participants had incorporated six or more Web 2.0 tools into their teaching. Table 3 illustrates these results.

Table 3. Participants Integration of Web 2.0 Tools in Teaching Question 4.

1 or 2 Web 2.0

3 – 5 Web 2.0 Tools 6 + Web 2.0 Tools

217 Tools If you have

50%

50%

0%

incorporated Web 2.0 tools in your teaching, please indicate how many tools you have implemented?

Participants were asked to respond using a Likert Scale to their level of

understanding of Web 2.0 tools. Using a weighted average, integration was identified as the highest level of understanding at 3.67 while the belief of Web 2.0 tools impacting student learning had a weighted average of 2.82. The participants understanding of Web 2.0 tools may be found in Table 4.

Table 4. Understanding of Web 2.0 Tools Question 5.

Weighted Average

Level of Participants’ Understanding of Web 2.0 Tools Integration of Web 2.0 Tools into Teaching

3.67

Knowledge of Web 2.0 Tools

3.5

Comfort Level Using Web 2.0 Tools

3.39

Participants Belief of Web 2.0 Tools Impact on

2.82

Student Learning

218 Discussions

Web 2.0 tools can be valuable assets to the classroom at any level. At the

conclusion of the study, it was determined that college level professors do not widely use Web 2.0 tools in their own teaching. There was evident interest of learning more about Web 2.0 tools based on the attendance at the professional development workshop.

Teachers need to be purposeful with their selection of tools to implement in their classes. Teachers need to consider the content and what tools best match the pedagogy style needed to meet the needs of the learners ‐ regardless of their age and level.

A limitation of the study was the small response rate of the survey. The timeline of the survey possibly created a limitation for the study. The survey was sent to the faculty in April of the spring term perhaps to close to the end of the term. If a future study were to be replicated, it would be recommended to administer the survey at another time during the academic year.

Based on input from both the survey and the presentation at the professional development workshop, college professors from various disciplines were interested in learning about Web 2.0 tools although somewhat hesitant and uncertain regarding the topic. Follow‐up professional develop to allow professors opportunities to implement Web 2.0 tools in their teaching would be recommended. Professors need to move beyond the learning phase and move into the implementation phase. Web 2.0 tools can enhance the teaching and learning process if a mindful selection of tools are incorporated into the teaching repertoire.

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222

Are They Ready?: Teacher Candidate Dispositions

Susan Davis Southeast Missouri State University

Dianne Lawler Arkansas State University

The use of disposition forms to identify positive teacher behaviors have become components of many teacher education programs. The researcher has provided these disposition forms as a means of self‐analysis for students during junior and senior level coursework; however; are teacher candidates able to accurately rank their own dispositions? Teacher dispositions have been an area of research interest for well over a decade. The desired dispositions are easily identifiable, but the struggle comes in how these dispositions are measured. The purpose of this paper is to provide research to determine if teacher candidates self‐identify areas of needed growth in regard to positive teacher dispositions. Research methods include a self‐assessment questionnaire. Teacher candidates are given a form of desired teacher dispositions and asked to self‐assess, by ranking on a Likert scale, their dispositions at the beginning of a course with a field component. These same students were asked to re‐assess at the end of the course. Preliminary results indicate that students, on both the pre‐ and post‐ assessments, rank themselves very highly on the desired dispositions. Implications of this research may be that teacher candidates lack the critical evaluation tools necessary to self‐rank their own dispositions. By determining if teacher candidates lack these tools, teacher education programs can make program adjustments in order to facilitate more critical self‐evaluation and self‐reflective practices in order to strengthen programs.

223

Say, What?

Susan Dean Gilbert Lee‐McRae College

Robin Buchanan Lee‐McRae College

Pam Vesely Lee‐McRae College

Lynn Swann Lee‐McRae College

Online discussion web‐board communities have the potential for providing pre and in‐ service teachers’ as well as other disciplines, access into and practice with the complex intersection of educational communities and electronic technologies, thus narrowing the digital divide. These class‐based web‐board discussion forums create community that endure transfer which can later manifest in teaching practices that put the student and their primary discourses at the center thus allowing for teachers’ authentic, meaningful connections between theory and practice. This presentation, and its materials, are informed and grounded in feminist theory as iterated in Mary Field Belenky, Blythe McVicker Clinchy, Nancy Rule Goldberger, and Jill Mattuck Tarule’s 1986 text, Women’s Ways of Knowing (WWK), as well as constructivism and best practices for the socially constructed “classroom” as per Vygotsky’s 1978 text, Mind and society: The development of higher mental processes.

In this presentation will demonstrate how to create an online environment that exposes students to, among other things, a multiplicity of discourses, allowing for contained but robust interactive online discussion, which have the potential to shape, develop,

224 deepen, and expand students’ understandings of course material that is authentically born out of extended relational contact and the ability to use the technology to construct ideas and frame them in a way that is clear and representational. Our approach is four‐ pronged process: the rubric‐guided initial writing responses and postings to shared reading/viewing materials, the rubric‐guided reading and responding to others postings, a rubric‐guided self‐reflection, and finally, the professor’s rubric‐guided assessment of students’ discussion.

225

Developing Inquiry for Pre‐Service Teachers

Susan Williams Texas A&M University‐Commerce

Debra Lee Texas A&M University‐Commerce

To help preservice teachers become both good classroom observers and reflective practitioners, they were assigned a teacher inquiry project to complete during their year‐long student teaching experience. This study examined preservice teachers’ beliefs about research and inquiry. The goal was to help teachers become more reflective in order to become more effective classroom teachers. The results indicate that most preservice teachers believed inquiry helped them to gain necessary practice‐based knowledge which would help them to become more effective classroom teachers in the future.

226

Strong Writers are Strong Thinkers: Strategies that move our Students to Write and Think

Suze Gilbert Middle Tennessee State University

“Writing well is not just an option for young people—it is a necessity.” (Graham and Perin, 2007, 3). There are numerous studies that demonstrate the importance of teaching students to write well. Our students need to be equipped to write well, not only to be better prepared for college, but also to be prepared for a workforce that is demanding employees who can write and communicate clearly. Even with this evidence, Langer and Applebee (1978) found that “American children do not write frequently enough, and the reading and writing tasks they are given do not require them to think deeply enough.” (4). I propose that we can turn the tide on the writing deficit in our classrooms by moving writing to the forefront. This session will share writing strategies that will assist educators in building better adolescent writers: strong writers who are strong thinkers. We will discuss ways to build writing experiences across the curriculum that will move our students to deeper thinking and learning in all content areas.

References

Graham, Steve, and Dolores Perin. 2007. Writing Next: Effective Strategies to Improve Writing of Adolescents in Middle and High Schools. A Report to the Carnegie Corporation of New York. Washington, DC: Allieance for Excellent Education.

227 Langer, J.A., and A.N. Applebee. 1978. How Writing Shapes Thinking: A Study of Teaching and Learning. Urbana, IL: National Council of Teachers of English.

228

(Dis) Connections Between Reflective Field Experience Assignments and a Social Justice Paradigm for Pre‐Service Teachers

Tedi T. Gordon Athens State University

This presentation explores my reflections on discerning the connections between a field experience assignment I gave to my students and the social justice paradigm promoted in the class content and instruction. To my surprise, the experiences of pre‐service teachers and the resulting assumptions they made were full of misconceptions conveyed in their reflections about their placement at an urban school.

I employ “being‐in‐place” (Cannatella, 2007, p. 622) as a theoretical framework in order to analyze the written assignment of 20 preservice teachers. This informal analysis of the pre‐service teachers’ field experience reflections about school culture used a qualitative methodology. Use of the qualitative software program QSR International’s Nvivo9 (2010) helped organize the data into the conceptual categories needed for the study. I assumed that teaching and learning about issues related to diversity, equity, equality, reform, finance, and school law (the content of a foundations course) that students would gain new socially just perspectives. This learning would transfer into not only understanding, but also enacting, behaviors that would reflect such a philosophy. The findings suggested that negative stereotypes were reinforced and resulted in fear, anger, frustration, and a lack of efficacy in their role as teacher. These findings were a catalyst to overhauling my foundations course in order to provide instruction for students to reflect on professional, disciplinary, and pedagogical practices through a social justice lens.

229

The Influence of Horticultural Activities on Preschool‐Aged Children’s Peer Interaction and Task Engagement

Teri Rouse Chesnut Hill College

There is great concern by teachers, school administrators and parents regarding the increase in the number of preschool‐aged students who exhibit challenging behavior in early childhood settings (Benedict, Horner & Squires 2007). A need for early intervention procedures that focus on young children who may be at risk for developing patterns of challenging behavior is evidenced. Research has also documented that early intervention programs, as well as complementary alternative therapies, have been successful in providing children with opportunities to develop age appropriate academic, physical, social, and behavioral skills (Boso, Emanuele, Minazzi, Abbomonte, & Politi, 2007). Complementary alternative therapies include art, music, movement or horticultural activities. The activities suggested for this study incorporated the use of plants and/or plant materials in a variety of non‐invasive activities that provided an opportunity for everyone in the class to participate. Twenty students and six adults from two preschool classrooms participated over a 16 week period. The researcher sought to uncover if horticultural activities would encourage task engagement. These activities were modeled by the researcher who was not a horticulture therapist. The results were promising. It was determined through the course of the study that, task engagement and positive peer interactions increased after the implementation of the horticultural activities.

Keywords: Horticulture, horticulture therapy, horticultural activities, school gardening, Positive Guidance, Positive Behavior Support (PBS).

230

Social and Emotional Learning through Service‐Learning

Terry A Silver University of Tennessee‐Martin

In this day of strong accountability and high stakes testing, many educators neglect the personal growth, respect and sense of community that is vital to the maturation of students. Social and Emotional Learning (SEL) opens the door for students to grow and succeed as responsible adults. Research shows that students who understand and show respect, build a sense of community among themselves, the teacher and with the larger community are more successful students at test time. A proven successful way to bring SEL to life is through Service‐Learning. This interactive workshop will build the relationship between SEL and Service‐Learning. Participants will follow the model to design a Service‐Learning project and relate it to the components of SEL. Come to this workshop if you want to dig into a Service‐Learning activity and grow it into a significant learning experience for the students.

231

Is Inclusion an Appropriate Education for Postsecondary Special Education Students?

Thomas L. Black Middle Tennessee State University

While inclusion of students with disabilities in general education classes is the predominant educational model in schools today, there continues to be debate among some if it is the best option for students with severe disabilities. This study reviewed professional literature and research studies on inclusion in public schools, with a primary focus on inclusion for postsecondary special education students between the ages of 18 and 22. Interviews were also conducted with postsecondary students and their families to gain their insight and perspectives of their own experiences in special education. The inclusion of students with disabilities in regular education classrooms is the most widely accepted and practiced method of special education instruction today.

In fact, it is expected that students with higher incidence disabilities such as learning disabilities, ADHD, and communication disorders among others, are educated with their typical peers. However, there is still debate on whether inclusion is the best model for teaching students with more severe disabilities such as intellectual disabilities and autism For years, special education policy and practices have been influenced by legal mandates, particularly the principles of free appropriate public education (FAPE), least restrictive environment (LRE), and parental rights and participation. Additionally, special education practices have long been driven by the concepts of individualized education and age‐appropriate education. Since scholars on both sides of the inclusion debate commonly refer to these same special education principles to support their viewpoints, it is clear that their definitions are open to interpretation. The purpose of

232 this study is to determine if inclusion is the best educational model for postsecondary students with severe disabilities based on the principles of FAPE, LRE, and the concepts of individualized and age appropriate education. This position will be determined through a review of articles and research both for and against inclusion, curriculum and instructional strategies for students with severe disabilities, and postsecondary education outcomes. Additional consideration will come from interview and survey results from postsecondary age special needs students and family members. Results of this study will indicate whether inclusion is the most appropriate model and placement for postsecondary age students with moderate to severe disabilities as defined by the principles of appropriate education and least restrictive environment.

233

Program Assessment: Itʹs Not Rocket Science

Toni E. Fogarty California State University, East Bay

Academic program assessment has been the topic of numerous books, journal articles, workshops, and professional conferences. Many careers in academic administration and consulting, and well as the rise of 3rd‐party assessment data management tools and programs have occurred due to program assessment and its growing requirement by accrediting bodies. Since the work of program assessment is generally done by faculty, it has also been the source of angst for many faculty, some of whom view program assessment as one more meaningless task on an already overflowing plate of work.

Some faculty regard program assessment with suspicion, viewing it primarily as a way for administration to monitor and evaluate faculty ‐ with the goal of giving faculty more work, reducing or eliminating faculty participation in shared governance, or dispensing with tenure‐track lines in favor of hiring part‐time lecturers. Some faculty are opposed from a philosophical point of view, viewing program assessment as a part of the encroachment of mechanistic managerialism into education, the loss of faculty autonomy and status as professionals, and the McDonaldisation of education.

In this session, I will discuss a step‐by‐step blueprint for conducting program assessment that will meet the demands of accrediting bodies, from developing program learning outcomes to “closing the loop.”

234

Integrating Curriculum Through MythBusters

Tracey R. Huddleston Middle Tennessee State University

Making learning relevant and meaningful has become a must for classroom teachers.

Identifying innovative ways to accomplish this task can be challenging however taking advantage of popular television shows can provide unique opportunities. Using the popular show MythBusters, this presentation will demonstrate how students can select a myth, state a hypothesis and then complete the experiment to either prove or disprove the myth. Each myth buster project, conducted by a small group of students, is videotaped. The students explain the myth to be experimented, the process involved and includes an analysis of the findings with a detailed conclusion of the myth. The presentation will demonstrate how this project provides a rich opportunity for cross curricular integration. Math, writing, reading and science are most often integrated within each project. The extent or depth of specific skills within each content area vary depending upon the grade level or myth involved. Examples of student generated videos illustrating their myth buster experiment will be shared during the presentation.

In addition, participants will receive examples of projects correlated with specific curriculum standards.

235

Problem‐Based Learning in Teacher Education Lecture Courses: Student Understanding, Confidence, Skills, and Reflections

Vincent R. Genareo Iowa State University

Renée Lyons (student) Clemson University

Considerable research exists regarding problem‐based learning (PBL) as a pedagogical strategy in teacher education. However, few studies identify how PBL implementation affects preservice teachers’ knowledge about PBL, skills and confidence gains, and teaching efficacy. In this study, two sections of preservice teachers learned about PBL. In one section (n = 100), participants learned “traditionally,” including reading, lecture, and notes. In the other section (n = 110), participants experienced components of the PBL process in a three‐week project in which students interviewed teachers, generated problems, collaborated, researched, and presented findings. All participants completed pre/post surveys about their knowledge, skills, and confidence. The PBL group completed five pre/post reflective sheets about their confidence in PBL‐specific tasks.

Their post‐survey also included rankings of what they believed were the most beneficial learning components of the PBL process. Analyses included descriptives, independent samples t‐tests, and paired‐samples t‐tests. Findings showed gains in skills, confidence, and efficacy between the “traditional” and PBL groups were highly significant, with the PBL groups’ end means significantly higher on all but the the usefulness of group work.

Significant confidence growth occurred in each stage of the PBL process (p < .001), meaning PBL participants felt more confident in tasks by doing them. The PBL

236 participants indicated that performing research most contributed to their learning.

Supplemental readings helped them learn most about PBL, while the textbook was least helpful. Implications for higher education, teacher education, and future research are presented, as the findings question traditional pedagogy’s effect on preservice teachers.

237

Transforming Ourselves During Our Doctoral Journeys: A Phenomenological Look at the Experiences of Students, Candidates, and Graduates of an EdD Program

W. Edward Bureau Drexel University

On the surface, students experience doctoral programs as a series of courses to be taken and markers of progress to be met, such as comprehensive exams and defenses. What they may experience, particularly if they are in a community‐based approach with a scaffolded academic architecture, are transformations in how they see themselves as learners, researchers, and emerging scholar‐practitioners. Such transformations have not been deeply investigated, leaving us to wonder how to build deep, individual, transformative learning into doctoral programs.

Thus, the purpose of this phenomenological research is to gather in the experiences of students, candidates, and graduates of an EdD program operated in Sacramento, California by Drexel University. Data is gathered through in‐depth interviews and via detailed note taking and artifact gathering during over 70 proposal hearings and dissertation defenses. Primary coding methods used are descriptive and in vivo to render out patterns of transformative experiences from the data set.

While the research is continuing, results do show that transformations can be linked to experiences within a scaffold of learning that is the curricular architecture of the EdD. More particularly, cultivators of change appear to be seeing oneself as a researcher, adopting the language of research, and transformative experiences, such as “the data was talking to me!” during field research. Such emerging findings, as well as others, point us toward doctoral learning that is holistic, transformative, and systemic in

238 design. The research beckons us to generative conversation about how doctoral programs, themselves, can be transformed.

239

Teaching Well in a Learner’s Market – Student‐Centered Instruction in Online Learning

Wendy Cowan Athens State University

Bridgette Chandler Athens State University

Research on constructivist, learner‐centered teaching indicates that it helps students learn more and understand better (Felder & Brent, 1996). Furthermore, students learn more when collaborating and exploring with other students (Vygotsky, 1978). Teaching is not something that can only be done by a professor. Students need to be involved and participate in the process. Constructivist activities should promote multiple perspectives, knowledge construction and collaboration, problem solving, and exploration (Murphy, 1997).

Additionally, in a constructivist model, learner‐centered course, participants develop skills that can be used in current or future careers. Prospective employers prefer people who know how to take responsibility for their learning (The Conference Board, 2013) and have identified a list of skills that are essential for success as citizens and workers in the 21st century (Partnership for 21st Century skills, 2013) The ʺAre they really ready to work reportʺ results suggest that graduates of all levels are lacking in professionalism, teamwork and communication skills, and other 21st century skills as well. The Partnership for 21st Century Skills has identified a list of skills critical for todayʹs graduates. In addition to mastery of content, this list includes lifelong skills that must be practiced and refined while learning content.

240 To reinforce these necessary lifelong skills, it is essential that course designers construct online classrooms that foster inquiry and higher order thinking. Although it may appear easier to use a constructivist model in a traditional land‐based classroom, it is also possible to implement such a model into a virtual classroom as well.

Recommendations for implementing begin with course design ‐ whereby content is chunked into inquiry‐based lessons delivered using the PAR model of learning (Petty, 2009). New material is ʺpresentedʺ with adequate detail to intrigue without exhausting the topic, followed by questions for students to answer. Assignments require ʺapplicationʺ of content and presentation of findings via a variety of digital tools. A teacher‐led ʺreviewʺ includes summary and clarification of key points.

The second recommendation is to create an environment that fosters communication and collaboration; both require that positive, trusting relationships be built. There are a variety of asynchronous and synchronous communication strategies that help achieve this goal. Last but not least, to build a productive, energetic and enthusiastic learning community the instructor must also use a variety of strategies to set the tone for interaction.

Attendees will participate in trust and relationship building activities using digital technologies as well as outline and share a lesson, applicable to their field, following the PAR model.

After participating in this workshop, participants will be able to • Design a constructivist model online course • Design an inquiry‐style lesson following the PAR model for learning • Implement a variety of relationship building strategies in an online classroom

241

High‐Stakes Testing: Standards, Ethics, and Trends

Linda Mabry Washington State University

Standardized achievement test scores have raised urgent, sustained concern that U.S. education lags far behind that of other industrialized countries. Less well known is that research has documented many unintended consequences of high‐stakes testing, including studentsʹ loss of motivation and access to opportunities, teachersʹ deprofessionalization and attrition, narrowing of curricula, and the diminishment of best practices in classrooms. Trends over the past quarter‐century reveal a concentration of education policies around test‐driven accountability, an intensification of high stakes, an increase in testing at the expense of time and resources for instruction, and the migration of teachers out of tested grades and the profession. Many standardized testing practices violate standards for educational testing, of which there are several, including standards for accountability systems accountable. This presentation will bring to light trends in achievement testing over Americaʹs 100‐year history of standardized testing and will connect the dots between policies and procedures and testing standards. As an example, the assessment system of the state of Nebraska will show how practitioner input can improve large‐scale assessment, support educational best practices, and adapt to the increasing social realities of ethnic diversity and child poverty. Few educators are aware of the existence of standards for testing, effectively limiting their opportunity to engage in accountability policy‐making or in procedural implementation of high‐risk student achievement testing. This presentation offers information designed to improve testing policy by enhancing broader understanding of assessment history, standards, trends, and research‐

242 documented issues in order to strengthen multi‐level working relationships between educators and measurement specialists.

243

Pedagogies of Place / Geographies of Experience

Ellyn Lyle Yorkville University

Abstract Drawing from the literature of place‐based education and teacher identity, this paper explores the multiple ways that place informs perspective and practice. First, I consider the potential of place‐based approaches to overcome the often hegemonic and ubiquitous educational agendas developed elsewhere in favour of an approach that uses the local as a starting point. Then, in connecting perspectives to practice, I explore the ways agency can be invoked to encourage a fundamental reconceptualization of curriculum. Finally, I discuss the role of place‐based approaches in the development of teacher identity and the values we hold as scholar‐practitioners.

Keywords: Place‐based education; Teacher Identity; Critical Qualitative Inquiry

I am a creature of the land. I know neither why nor how I remain soulfully connected to it, but I often wonder if it is born of the same irreducible chemistry that leads people to fall in love. I do not fancy myself a romantic. Every once in a while, though, I run headlong into my naiveté and remind myself that underneath my garments of realism there resides an idealist. These ideals are easier to maintain in a world that continuously struggles to renew itself than they are in a classroom. Maybe that’s why I am drawn to the study of place. It reminds me of our ability to heal; it restores hope. Baldwin et al. (2013) say that “place matters because it encourages new ways of questioning and being in the world” (p. 2). They extend its import by explaining that places are “mirrored reflections of history, values, interests, power

244 relations, and meanings…those real and imagined spaces… densely occupied…[and] personally felt” (p. 9). With such deep implications for informing our perspectives, we are called to consider how the places we inhabit affect the ways we engage with teaching and learning (Gruenewald, 2008).

Acknowledging the fundamental role of place, and the multiple ways it informs how we come to knowledge, place‐based educators understand the spaces we live as the looms on which our inner fibres are woven. These same scholars extend this notion to include the potential of place‐based approaches to overcome the sense of rootlessness and displacement becoming pervasive in environments increasingly characterized by mobility and globality (Gruenewald, 2008; Sheldrake, 2001; and Wilhelm, 2007). Place‐ based educators argue that integrating studies of place within the curriculum has the potential to maximize student learning experiences through “multidisciplinary, experiential, and intergenerational learning that is not only relevant (Gruenewald, 2008, p.315) but also provides a more effective framework for content learning to occur (Ball and Lai, 2006 and Bartholomaeus, 2013). Akinbola (2005) and Israel (2012) maintain that this same frame can be extended to promote cultural understanding and the pursuit of social justice. In this way, place‐based education uniquely encourages multiple perspectives while embracing the humanity of self and other.

As a perspective, place‐based education aims to overcome the often hegemonic and ubiquitous educational agendas developed elsewhere in favour of an approach that uses the local as a starting point (Bartholomaeus, 2013). It emphasizes lived experience as a vehicle to transport students to deeper understandings of both regional and global affairs while encouraging them to imagine possibilities for change (Israel, 2012; and Sobel, 2004). According to its advocates, these possibilities for change are born of agency, a central investment of place‐based education (McInerney, 2011). Specifically,

245 placebased approaches encourage teachers and students as active participants in meaning making by seeing them as producers of knowledge, rather than mere consumers. Hearing echoes of critical pedagogues like Freire, Kincheloe, Shor, and Lewis in this philosophical undergirding, I was not surprised to uncover literature that stands “against policies and practices that disregard place and leave the assumptions about the relationship between education and the politics of economic development unexamined” (Gruenewald, 2008, p. 309). A critical pedagogy of place, then, challenges us to consider the connection between the kind of education available and the places we populate. Ultimately, critical place‐based education seeks the dual objectives of “decolonization and reinhabitation” (Gruenewald, p. 308).

Connecting perspectives to practice, Lane‐Zucker (2004) calls for a “fundamental reimagining of the ethical, economic, political, and spiritual foundations upon which society is based and…[argues] this process needs to occur within the context of a deep local knowledge” (p. iii). In this way, perspectives and practices synergistically reside in personal examinations of relationships with the geographical contexts in which we live.

While I’ve had the pleasure of living in many locations, place, for me, remains the small island in the Gulf of St. Lawrence where I spent my childhood. Islands are unique in that they are about knowing our boundaries without being limited by them and accepting change even as we resist it. Islands pretend certainty while embracing ambiguity. They are the illusion of constancy and the reality of transience. Islands are special kinds contradictions, but they endure.

I’ve thought deeply about my relationship with the Island – how it has written on my soul. I have come to recognize that outer landscapes shape our inner ones. In that way, I, too, am an Island – my form, my way of being in the world, shaped by my experiences. Conkling (2007) refers to this as the tendency of Islandness to become “a

246 part of your being, a part as deep as marrow, and as natural and unselfconscious as breathing” (p.198).

This has deep implications for the development of identity. Tran and Nguyen (2013) discuss identity as being “anchored in the intersection of the individual teacher’s educational beliefs and practices, institutional policies, sectoral boundaries, and the socio‐cultural economic and the political context in which their profession is embedded” (p.199). They argue that “the process of being and becoming” teachers involves knowing ourselves inwardly as much as engaging with the professional world (p.201). McInerney, Smith, & Down (2011) and Walkington (2005) also discuss the development of teacher identity as beginning with an exploration of the personal and taking shape in the professional.

Because teaching emerges from whom we are, it’s imperative that I am mindful of the ways in which my personal values manifest in my teaching. I understand these tendencies as falling loosely under four themes: communication, responsiveness, integrity and critical consciousness. As teachers, we are generally pretty good at articulating our expectations and providing feedback. Perhaps more subtle, though equally central, is careful listening. I wonder if we hear our students with the same clarity that we speak to them? Although we often have outcomes that must be met, there are multiple pathways that will lead us to them. A commitment to deep and continuous communication helps us to create engaging and successful learning experiences. This became particularly evident to me in my relationship with horses. In partnership with horses, I must communicate across a language barrier, even a species barrier, so it is imperative that I invest really deeply in understanding the needs and fears of the other so that I can put these fears aside and move together. Each of us needs the other to listen deeply, being attentive to body language, and to have a calm,

247 focussed assurance. We each need the other to be consistent – to be both strong and considerate. In short, we need to be our best selves if we are to learn together (Irwin, 2007).

Responsiveness is born of my commitment to communication. It is validating for learners as it fosters voice and agency. It frames their experiences in a way that concurrently encourages them to seek meaning in their learning and collaboratively inform its development. In doing so, it also encourages accountability. In co‐authoring their learning, students are sharing ownership in the learning.

At the heart of integrity in learning is a commitment to honesty, fairness, and respect.

Each of us, teacher and student, is a learner at heart. We approach scholarship with unique experiences and knowledge that can enrich each other and augment our own learning. I acknowledge the power inherent in my role as teacher but remain mindful that it does not overshadow the opportunity to learn with my students. Weale (1991, p.

81) warns that any repudiation of who we are can be “a serious and soul‐destroying failure.” I felt this keenly as a high school student. It was a quiet struggle, though – the kind that goes unnoticed by the outside world and, in doing so, increases the sense of alienation. I was an excellent student. I knew exactly what I had to do to excel and complied even as it chipped away piece after piece of who I was. I remember one incident in particular…I had enough credits to graduate so I opted to enroll in an elective agriculture course. The same day I submitted my course selections, I was called to the office and told that such a class was beneath me and would appear a blemish on an otherwise exemplary transcript.

I agreed to take another course in lieu but felt something bruise inside me. I am the daughter of a farmer and a teacher, which is perhaps why I am drawn to both land

248 and learning. How could one calling marginalize the legitimacy of the other? What left me unable to evoke agency in resisting practices that oppress? I recall that experience as fundamental in the development of my teacher identity and my scholarship – both of which make central lived experience.

Place has also taught me the importance of critical consciousness. Growing up on the land demands an awareness of how our actions impact others and the future. On the land, this consciousness was ecological. Evident in crop rotation, minimal use of pesticides, buffer zones, and soil conservation, we learned that we must preserve resources for future generations. As a teacher, this critical consciousness manifests in untangling positions of power and advocating for equitable practices. While Bartholomaeus (2013) maintains that place as social and ecological consciousness is an important vehicle for change, Gruenewald (2008, p. 314) cautions us that “educational theory that synthesizes ecological and social justice concerns is still in an early stages of development” and the tensions between ecologically critical positions and socially critical ones remain unresolved. Despite their residual tensions, socially critical and ecologically critical positions come together to encourage students to be more active in promoting a socially just and sustainable world (Ball and Lai, 2006; and Delind and Link, 2004). Several scholars extend this notion to point to the apathy, particularly evident in Western societies, of students who are unconnected to their surroundings (Wilhelm, 2007). Not only does this dividedness have implications for engagement and motivation in learning, it also results in a sense of rootlessness and dislocation in our future citizens (Sheldrake, 2001).

Palmer (2004) discusses this type of dividedness as a personal pathology that emerges when we are young and first discern the incongruence between “life’s bright promises and its shadowy realties” (p. 14). By adulthood, we learn to create portals to

249 move “between the public world of role and the hidden world of soul (p. 15). This willful acceptance of incongruence deepens the dividedness so that we are apart even from Self.

Palmer implores us to listen to our “inner teacher whose guidance is more reliable than anything we can get from a doctrine, ideology, collective belief system, institution, or leader” (p. 25). He assures us that we can dispense of living half lives and “thrive amid the complexities of adulthood by deepening our awareness of the endless inner‐outer exchanges that shape us and our world and the power we have to make choices about them” (p. 49).

Like several scholars, I maintain that our lived experiences deeply inform our practices. As a child, I spent every free moment soul deep in the land. While my sisters sought the company of friends or the excitement of town, I wanted only to be closer to the mingling scents of iron‐clad soil and salt air. Each of us inhabits place and, in that inhabitation, we change each other. Being attentive to why we behave in certain ways and make particular decisions help us to be more critically conscious. From this wide‐ awake space, we are better able to understand ourselves in the teaching and learning experience.

Author Biography Ellyn Lyle is an avid gardener and voracious reader of life and learning opportunities.

With deep connections to the land and animals, she embraces metaphor to untangle lived experience as a way to inform teaching and learning. She began her career in secondary English classrooms before moving toward adult education and organizational contexts where she championed critical education practices and leadership for social change. She currently teaches in university. Ellyn holds a PhD in

250 Education with a focus on transdisciplinary practice. Her research interests include: the role of reflexive inquiry in practitioner development; narrative; education for social justice; pedagogies of place; adult education; and organizational learning.

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251 doi:10.1080/13504620802193572 Herodotus. (2008). The Histories. London, UK: Oxford University Press.

Irwin, C. (2007). Horses don’t lie. Winnipeg, MB: Great Plains.

Israel, A. L. (2012). Putting geography education into place: What geography educators can learn from place‐based education, and vice versa. Journal of Geography, 111(2), 76‐81. doi:10.1080/00221341.2011.583264 Knapp, C. E. (2012). Place‐based education: Listening to the language of the land and people. Pathways: The Ontario Journal of Outdoor Education, 25(1), 4‐12.

Lane‐Zucker, L. (2004). Forward. In D. Sobel Place‐based education: Connecting classrooms and communities. Great Barrington, MA: Orion Society.

McInerney, P., Smyth, J., & Down, B. (2011). Coming to a place near you: The politics and possibilities of a critical pedagogy of place‐based education. Asia‐Pacific Journal of Teacher Education, 39(1), 3‐16. doi:10.1080/1359866X.2010.540894 Palmer, P. (2004). A hidden wholeness: The journey toward and undivided life. San Francisco, CA: Jossey‐Bass.

Sheldrake, P. (2001). Spaces for the sacred: Place, memory, and identity. Baltimore; MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.

Sobel, D. (2004). Place‐based education: Connecting classrooms and communities.

Great Barrington, MA: Orion Society.

Tran, L., & Nguyen, N. (2013). Mediating teacher professional identity: The emergence of humanness and ethical identity. International Journal of Training Research, 11(3), 199‐212. doi:10.5172/ijtr.2013.11.3.199 Walkington, J. (2005). Becoming a teacher: Encouraging development of teacher identity through reflective practice. Asia Pacific Journal of Teacher Education.

33(1): 53‐64.

252 Weale, D. 1991. Islandness. Island journal 8: 81‐82.

Wilhelm, J.D. (2007). Meeting the challenge: Creating engaging and powerful contexts for literacy learning. English in Australia, 42 (1): 11‐20.

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Using Psychometric and Physiological Paradigms to Establish the Relationship of Intelligence and Perceptual Modality Preference Using Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)

Kourtland Robert Koch Ball State University

Over the past half century, educational and learning researchers have used various clinical instruments to describe characteristics related to the learning process that distinguish individual learners. Historically, most clinical and school psychologists have used intelligence tests to differentiate people by their mental abilities while educational and learning researchers have used other tests to describe learning style unique to individuals. One such theoretical approach is the biological approach, or neuroscience approach, which focuses on the brain and physical events which are a part of the nervous system. In this approach, the study of the brain has been investigated in part through ʺbrain mapping.ʺ With advanced technology this approach has become sophisticated enough to examine the living brain by non‐invasive techniques, for instance fMRI, electroencephalography (EEG) and magnetoencephalography (MEG). By watching living brains interact with the sensory environment, the avenue through which individuals perceive the world can be monitored and evaluated as a medium for knowledge acquisition. Psychometric and physiological paradigms were once opponents of one another. Today, they are perceived as indispensable allies in our understanding of cognitive competencies. Brain‐based assessments of intellect are now promoted as valid and useful methodologies. The correlation of neuroimaging to IQ has

254 imperative and thought‐provoking implications. Further research in the field of cognitive neuroscience is needed to more fully determine how different intelligence subtests are related to specific regions of the brain. Ultimately, this will provide a better understanding of the usefulness of test instruments to assess specific mental skills.

255

Using Video Games, PBL, and SCCT to Design High School Science Curriculum that Promotes Learning and Science Career Choice

Margaret Zidon University of North Dakota

Richard Van Eck University of North Dakota

The number of STEM majors needed for our future workforce is growing, yet fewer students choose to major in STEM areas and most are underprepared. Research suggests that one reason students to not seek further education in science is that they have negative attitudes towards the subject. High school may be key to addressing these problems because it is the last intervention opportunity before students go to college or enter the workforce. Video games have been shown to increase science, yet the relative scarcity of science games makes it difficult to implement them as a significant part of the curriculum. Further, there is little evidence that positive attitudes alone will influence career choice. These problems can be overcome by integrating commercial games into the curriculum, using problem‐based learning strategies, and using social cognitive career theory as a framework to transform positive attitudes into career decisions. The presenters have significant practical and research experience in games for learning, problem‐based learning, secondary education, and career counseling. They will share their theoretical, research, and practical experience in combining these approaches to design high school science curriculum to promote problem solving and science career decisions.

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MULTIDISCIPLINARY PROCEEDINGS

Where Are All the Women in Educational Leadership?

Yvette P. Bynum, Auburn University‐Montgomery Culturally Responsive Counseling and Collaboration for Students with Special Education and Other Needs York Williams, West Chester University Musical Conversations: Lyrics to Lick Bullying Shelly Hudson Bowden, Auburn University‐Montgomery Gilbert Dueñas, Auburn University‐Montgomery Carolyn Corliss, University of Mobile Community Engagement Scholars Program Strengthens Academic Service‐Learning Experience for University Faculty and Students Sara Lamb Kistler, West Chester University Jodi Roth‐Saks, West Chester University Issues Surrounding Child Abuse and Neglect and Their Impact on Classroom Learning: Development of an On‐line Module for Teachers Sara Lamb Kistler, West Chester University Laura Erhard Fiorenza, West Chester University Comparative Efficacy of Three Interventions on Cognitive Test Anxiety Margaret D. Kasimatis, Carroll University Meg E. Goerdt, Carroll University David D. Simpson Kenyan Female Entrepreneurs and Negotiation Education: Exploring Efficacy Development Utilizing Distance Learning Judith Richards, California Lutheran University Veronica Guerrero , California Lutheran University Allison Domicone, University of California‐Berkley Education Majors’ Views on White Privilege and Unseen Majority Group Power Franklin T. Thompson, University of Nebraska‐Omaha Multidisciplinary Coaching P‐20 Enrique A. Puig, University of Central Florida Sandra L. Robinson, University of Central Florida Edward H. Robinson, University of Central Florida Elizabeth Crunk, University of Central Florida Do Low‐Income Individuals Know How to Handle Legal Issues? Evidence from the 2014 Legal Needs Study Update Arina Gertseva, Washington State University Danna Moore, Washington State University Promoting High Impact Learning through Experiential Education: Community‐Based Projects in a Graduate Marketing Class with Integration of Essential Learning Outcomes Diane M. Holtzman, Richard Stockton College of New Jersey Carra Leah Hood, Richard Stockton College of New Jersey

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The Organizational Culture of Crossfit Theresa A. Moore, Daytona State College

Applying Personal Construct Theory to Engage Undergraduate Students and Advance Critical Thinking Joseph A. Mayo, Gordon State College

How Does the Use of Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) Affect the Well‐Being of College Students?

Austin T. Winger, University of North Dakota Myrna R. Olson, University of North Dakota

Transitioning From Professional Practice / Corporate Field To The Academia: Challenges, Benefits, Lessons Learned And Best Practices From Lived Experiences.

Bellarmine Ezumah, Murray State University Majority Culture Privilege: Increasing Self Awareness without Activating Resistance During Diversity Training

Gerard A. Love, Slippery Rock University Travis L. Watson, Gateway Rehabilitation Center

Battle of Hunting An Elephant: Coordinated Behavioral Analysis Keith Cheung, University of Windsor

Practices That Distinguish Effective From Ineffective Leaders: Doing More of the Right Things Ken Zakariasen, Kent State University

Ethics in Social Science Research: Organizational Codes, Policy, and Regulation Linda Mabry, Washington State University‐Vancouver

Winslow Homer and The Demi‐Monde: A Multidisciplinary Study Concerning Illicit Female Sexuality Marie Louden‐Hanes, University of Findlay

Sustainable Aquaponics: A Multi‐Disciplinary Tool for Education, Food Production, and Research William Wayne Falls, American InterContinental University

Phil Reasons Women, Faith and Identity Formation

Margaret J Weber, Pepperdine University Building an Authentic Workplace Community through Social Media

Matthew J. Ripper, Siena Heights University

Community Benefits Districts: Nonprofit Governance Using Social Capital and Cross‐organizational Collaboration Matthew Ripper, Siena Heights University

Cultivating Mindfulness: An Assessment of Publications and Further Research of Zikr Meditation and its Effects on Mindfulness

Christopher Adams, Eastern Illinois University Emily Nofsinger, Eastern Illinois University

Nusrat Farah, Eastern Illinois University Jaysinha Shinde , Eastern Illinois University

When it Feels Like Bullies are Taking Over the Workplace Patricia Holt, Armstrong State University

Students with Pediatric Cancer: A Prescription for School Success

Genevieve Howe Hay, College of Charleston Martha Nabors, College of Charleston

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258

Where Are All the Women in Educational Leadership?

Yvette P. Bynum Auburn University‐Montgomery

Historically women in education are disproportionately represented at the highest positions of educational leadership, especially in comparison to the number who begin careers as teachers. Feistritzer (2011) reported eighty‐four percent of the teaching work force were women, however, only twenty‐four percent of superintendents were women (Kowalski, McCord, Petersen, Young, & Ellerson, 2010). The number of female superintendents has been increasing over the years; 6.6 % in 1992, 13.2 % in 2000 (Glass, Bjork, & Brunner, 2000) and 24% in 2010 (Kowalski, et al, 2010). But, the nation’s 14,000 district superintendents are still overwhelmingly white and male (Gewertz, 2006). In one rural southern state in 2009 of the 133 superintendents, 22% were women (State Department of Education, 2009). Grogan (2000) believed the need for increased knowledge and skills to help make sense of the immense amounts of information in the position of superintendent is an important concern of the 21st century leader. It is suggested that the US public school superintendents are understood to be a male’s role, and women who inhabit this role will inevitably have difficulties caused by their femininity (Skrla, 2000). One of the reasons for the lack of women in upper level administration is the lack of mentoring, formal or informal, for women to advance in careers or who are aspiring to the position of school superintendent. Hence, mentoring becomes essential in providing guidance and support for women who seek to become a superintendent.

259 Purpose The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of career and psychosocial mentoring functions on the careers of women superintendents currently serving in a southern state by exploring both informal and formal mentoring relationships and the way these relationships serve as effective tools on the position attained and career development.

Research Methods A researcher developed survey instrument and demographic questionnaire were used to measure career and psychosocial mentoring functions. An independent panel of experts, a pilot study, and statistical analysis were used to substantiate the validity of the instrument. Internal reliability was assessed using Cronbach’s Alpha test. A population of 28 (N=28) female superintendents and/or assistant superintendents participated in the study.

Findings The results of this study showed that career mentoring functions and psychosocial mentoring functions had a statistically significant impact on the careers of female superintendents. It can be concluded that the career mentoring functions, in particular coaching, and psychosocial mentoring functions, acceptance/confirmation, helped influence the career development of female superintendents.

Implications for Research and Practice Findings from this study indicate that (a) mentoring relationships have the potential for female administrators to make successful career advancement, (b) it is important to identify and assess the nature of professional and personal growth by establishing mentoring relationships, and (c) assessing the effectiveness of current

260 mentoring programs should be a priority. The need for more women in the superintendent’s role is highlighted in this study due to the small survey population.

261

Culturally Responsive Counseling and Collaboration for Students with Special Education and Other Needs

York Williams West Chester University

Special education includes a variety of disciplines across the educational setting and involves many professionals with intersecting duties and tasks. A number of team members and related service providers may communicate and collaborate in order to identify and meet the needs of students with learning disabilities. While many Individual Education Plan (IEP) team members play multiple roles in the educational life of a student with a special education need, the purpose of this presentation is to clarify the role of school counselors whose primary duty, among many others, is to be culturally responsive and inclusive collaborators across the school setting for identified students.

This session will participants to be able to: 1. Define characteristics of culturally and linguistically diverse (CLD) students with special needs.

2. Define the role of a culturally competent school counselor.

3. Identify strategies to include CLD students with special education needs and their families in the educational decision‐making process Rogoff (2003) maintained that culture is complex and dynamic and that it is much more than holidays, foods, and customs, that is i.e., token gestures: It reflects our beliefs, how we learn, what we value, and the ways we interact with others. In addition, culture is not a static or unitary construct. Simply put, students do not just

262 have one culture, but multiple cultures. Unfortunately, some views of culture tend to stereotype individuals and box them into categorical identities (e.g., students who are poor, black, immigrant, learning‐ disabled,; Latino, or low‐ achieving). A comprehensive definition of culture must include variables across race, ethnicity, language, sexual orientation, age, social economic status (SES), disability, and ability.

Gay (2000) defined culturally responsive teaching (CRT) as using the cultural knowledge, prior experiences, and performance styles of diverse students to make learning more appropriate and effective for them and to meet the needs of diverse students by relating pedagogy and practice to their strengths and needs. Gay (2000) also described culturally responsive teaching as having these characteristics:  Acknowledges the legitimacy of diverse cultures across language, dispositions, habits, attitudes, and lifestyles  Builds upon collaborative partnerships between the home, school, and community of the student  Entails learning styles and differences  Entails diversities of one’s self and others, beyond tolerance  Incorporates multicultural literatures, media, artifacts, religions, topics, and other values associated with the culture of discussion in order to invoke meaningful dialogue For school counselors, CRT requires the aforementioned in addition to understanding the unique role that “the learning disability” and ability plays in the lives of students who are eligible for special education, English language learners (ELL) services, and/or gifted education (Ford, 2013; Williams, 2008). English language learners (ELL) are students who are typically unable to communicate fluently or learn effectively in

263 English, and who often come from non‐English‐speaking homes and backgrounds, and who typically require specialized or modified instruction in both the English language and in their academic courses. Gifted students are usually characterized as those who show evidence of high performance capability in areas such as intellectual, creative, artistic, or leadership capacity, or in specific academic fields, and who require enrichment, acceleration, or access to a compacted curriculum. This session will identify how school counselors can become culturally responsive by adopting CRT pedagogy and practice in order to meet the unique academic and socio‐emotional needs of students receiving special education ‐ beyond the disability.

264

Musical Conversations: Lyrics to Lick Bullying

Shelly Hudson Bowden Auburn University‐Montgomery

Gilbert Dueñas Auburn University‐Montgomery

Carolyn Corliss University of Mobile

In our role as classroom teachers, we know that the act of bullying has been around for a very long time. Yet, bullying has not been necessarily a conversation we might have had with our students. Instead, it has been ignored because it goes unseen by us. The need to identify, address, and put a stop to bullying has become a timely social and cultural conversation we must have in our classrooms. In this article, we discuss, in true David Letterman style, a Top Ten List of musical lyrics to initiate classroom conversations concerning bullying.

265

Community Engagement Scholars Program Strengthens Academic Service‐Learning Experience for University Faculty and Students

Sara Lamb Kistler West Chester University

Jodi Roth‐Saks West Chester University

Abstract The presentation will provide a description of the Community Engagement Scholars (CES) Program at our university and offer assessment data demonstrating the benefits of the Program. Community Engagement Scholars are student leaders who assist faculty who are teaching or developing service‐learning courses. Faculty apply to the Program and recruit their own Scholar. Scholars are appointed for one semester and receive a $500 scholarship. Scholars spend approximately six hours per week supporting the faculty member’s work, for example, by preparing an orientation or training, collaborating with community agency staff or leading a reflective dialogue in the classroom or in the community. The Office of Service‐Learning and Volunteer Programs provides an orientation for faculty and Scholars focused on best practices in academic service‐learning and the aims of the Program. To assess the Program and get feedback on ways to improve the Program, at the end of fall 2014 and spring 2015 semesters the faculty, Scholars, and students in the courses were surveyed. Faculty reported that overall the Scholars did an excellent job working with community partners, setting up logistics for service projects, and leading reflective conversations.

266 The Scholars became peer leaders, and benefited in many ways in their work with the students, as well as with the faculty member. Of the 195 students surveyed in spring 2015, 77 percent agreed or strongly agreed that the community service and service‐ learning experience of the course helped them see how the subject matter they learned could be useful in everyday life.

Introduction What is Service‐Learning?

Academic service‐learning is a teaching method that combines community service with curricular goals as it focuses on critical, reflective thinking and civic responsibility.

Service‐learning programs involve students in organized community service that addresses community needs, while developing their academic skills, sense of civic responsibility, and commitment to the community. Definition of the Service‐Learning Faculty Work Group, West Chester University, March 2013 Components of Service‐Learning 1. Academics: Course content and service experience are integrated. Effective service‐ learning is intentional and built into the course syllabus.

2. Service: Service‐learning experience addresses a genuine need in the community and is reciprocal.

3. Reflection: Reflecting on the service‐learning experience leads to a deeper understanding of course content and civic engagement.

4. Civic Responsibility: Service‐learning experience promotes civic responsibility and promotes lifelong active citizenship.

Furco Diagram (Handout) Benefits of Service‐Learning

267 ‐Builds critical thinking skills ‐Enhances academic performance ‐Fosters engaged learning ‐Promotes active citizenship ‐Improves self‐esteem and self‐concept ‐Develops a service consciousness ‐Exposes to diversity and global society ‐Teaches leadership skills ‐Retains students ‐Increases sense of social responsibility ‐Provides career exploration and insight The Community Engagement Scholars (CES) Program Begun in the 2014‐2015 academic year, the CES Program aims to deepen university and community partnerships while enhancing and strengthening the service‐learning experience for West Chester University students and faculty. Community Engagement Scholars are trained student leaders who assist faculty who are teaching or developing service‐learning courses or who are involved in community‐based research projects.

Faculty apply to the Program and recruit their own Scholar. Scholars are appointed for one semester and receive a $500 scholarship. The Office of Service‐Learning and Volunteer Programs provides an orientation for faculty and Scholars focused on best practices in academic service‐learning and the aims of the Program. Scholars spend approximately six hours per week supporting the faculty member’s work.

Scholar Roles and Responsibilities ‐Work collaboratively with faculty in the classroom to engage students in meaningful

268 service‐learning projects ‐Help foster an atmosphere in the classroom and on campus where students feel empowered to participate in public service ‐Meet weekly with faculty collaborator to discuss the progress of the action plan for integrating service‐learning into the curriculum ‐Actively participate in orientation with faculty sponsor ‐Coordinate with non‐profit agencies about class presentations, logistics, and orientation for student volunteers ‐Maintain regular communication with faculty, students in the course, and non‐profit agencies ‐Create a list of each student’s service project and number of hours served ‐Coordinate a ride share program for students serving at the same community partner ‐Prepare reflection activities for students throughout the course ‐Coordinate student presentations at the end of the semester ‐Participate in paraprofessional workshops on such topics as resume building, financial literacy, time management, and active citizenship ‐Meet with the Office of Service‐Learning and Volunteer Programs staff periodically to discuss progress Service‐Learning Course Sections Involved in CES Program Public Speaking, Arts and Sciences, Communication Studies Strategic Social Media, Arts and Sciences, Communication Studies History of Mathematics, Arts and Sciences, Mathematics Consumer Behavior, Business and Public Affairs, Marketing Environmental Politics and Policy, Business and Public Affairs, Political Science

269 Foundations in Reading, Education, Literacy Community Nutrition, Health Sciences, Nutrition Stewardship and Civic Engagement, Honors Program Methods Survey Instruments (Qualtrics) Administered in Spring 2015 (Available on Request) ‐Faculty Survey of the Community Engagement Scholars Program ‐Community Engagement Scholar Participation Survey ‐Student Satisfaction Survey Participants Faculty 4 Scholars 5 Students Enrolled in Course Sections 195 Quantitative Data (Handout) Student Satisfaction Survey Themes 1. Experiential Learning 2. Academic Performance 3. Retention 4. Active Citizenship 5. Diversity 6. Communication Qualitative Data‐Sample Comments Faculty ‐This was a great program and I would not have been able to do my project without the help of my CE scholar!

270 ‐The CES program was well organized and promoted positive experiences for the scholar. The scholar helped encourage and engage students in the service learning process.

Scholar ‐As a Community Engagement Scholar I was able to develop my communication and leadership skills through talking to professionals in the community as well as my peers and faculty partner. The growth and experience I was able to have during my time as a CES was extremely beneficial to my future endeavors within the health profession. I am confident that I will continue to use the skills learned as a CES as I mature and grow into an active member of my community.

Student ‐The service learning project helped me development throughout this course/semester.

It made me think about issues I donʹt normally think about on a day‐to‐day basis. ‐I feel like I am not just learning, I am also helping the community. It is more effective than to only work and learn out of a textbook. I enjoy the hands on learning. ‐By doing service I had the chance to step out of my comfort zone. ‐I feel excited to be helping out an organization as volunteer work. I am gaining valuable experience and getting an insight on what it may be like to hold a professional position like this. It is helping me relate to other classes as well (advertising).

Conclusion Following discussion of the Community Engagement Scholars Program and the quantitative and qualitative data collected from the triad of faculty member, Scholar, and students enrolled in the courses, participants will have the opportunity to share their experiences with service‐learning and programs such as this one as well as ways

271 they believe the CES Program could be enhanced and the research study strengthened.

References Astin, A., & Sax, L. (1999). Long‐term effects of volunteerism during the undergraduate years.

The Review of Higher Education, 22(2), 187‐202.

Eyler, J.E., & Giles, D.E. (2001). Beyond surveys: Using the problem solving interview to assess

The impact of service‐learning on understanding and critical thinking. In A.

Furco & S.H.

Billig (Eds.). Service‐learning: The essence of the pedagogy. Greenwich, CT:

Information Age.

Moley, B., McFarland, M., Miron, D., Mercer, S., & Ilustre, V. (2002). Changes in college

students’ attitudes and intentions for civic engagement as a function of service‐

learning

experiences. Michigan Journal of Community Service Learning, (9)1, 18‐26.

Pascarella, E., Ethingon, C., & Smart, J. (1988). The influence of college on humanitarian/civic

involvement values. Journal of Higher Education, 59(4), 413‐437.

Sara Lamb Kistler is an associate professor in the Department of Early and Middle Grades Education and the Linguistics Program at West Chester University. She teaches education and linguistics courses and supervises student teachers in grades K‐8.

Among her current research interests are community service and service‐learning in higher education and bullying prevention. She has shared her research in scholarly

272 journals and at regional, national, and international conferences.

Jodi Roth‐Saks is the Director of the Office of Service‐Learning and Volunteer Programs at West Chester University. She holds a Master of Arts degree in Education with a focus on Student Affairs in Higher Education from the University of Connecticut.

273

Issues Surrounding Child Abuse and Neglect and Their Impact on Classroom Learning: Development of an On‐line Module for Teachers

Sara Lamb Kistler West Chester University

Laura Erhard Fiorenza West Chester University

This presentation will provide a description of a state‐level endeavor on school safety and the prevention of violence whose goal is to give pre‐service and in‐service teachers critical background knowledge on non‐academic factors that influence children’s ability to learn and thrive in the classroom. A series of on‐line modules are being developed by university faculty across the state system of higher education to be used in teacher preparation programs or for professional development of practicing teachers. The first three modules—on bullying prevention, grief and loss, and domestic violence—are in the final stages of production. The presenters are developing another module on an area of shared expertise, the topic of child abuse and neglect. Definitions and statistics will be reviewed for physical neglect and for physical, emotional, and sexual abuse.

Predictive parental risk factors, physical and behavioral indicators, and intervention and reporting will also be discussed, as well as real classroom and school scenarios.

The audience will be engaged through the use of a handout that will signal several pauses in the presentation to encourage sharing of experiences and offering comments or recommendations to improve the project.

274

Comparative Efficacy of Three Interventions on Cognitive Test Anxiety

Margaret D. Kasimatis Carroll University

Meg E. Goerdt Carroll University

David D. Simpson

Test anxiety is adaptive if it motivates students to study, but high levels of test anxiety often impair performance. We examined the comparative efficacy of three interventions for test anxiety management: traditional systematic desensitization, expressive writing, and a blend of desensitization and expressive writing. The literature reflects a confusing variety of treatment approaches and few controlled studies. This study included a wait list comparison group and addressed another gap in the literature: understanding state and trait components of test anxiety. Four‐week workshops offered training in a specific anxiety management intervention, plus tips for efficient studying and test‐taking strategies. Self‐referred undergraduates completed pre‐/post measures: Cassady & Johnson’s Cognitive Test Anxiety Scale and Speilberger’s State‐Trait Anxiety Inventory.

As hypothesized, expressive writing, systematic desensitization, and blended interventions all significantly decreased test anxiety scores, but with a significant main effect for groups: traditional desensitization and blended interventions led to greater reductions of test anxiety than did expressive writing. Also as hypothesized, both state and trait anxiety showed significant reductions: although state and trait anxiety scores

275 were reduced with all three interventions, the systematic desensitization was significantly more effective in reducing both state and trait anxiety than were expressive writing or blended interventions. These findings add to the body of controlled studies supporting desensitization treatment strategies for test anxiety in undergraduates. And by adding to our limited understanding of state and trait aspects of test anxiety, we can further improve our interventions for undergraduates and, perhaps next, high school students.

276

Kenyan Female Entrepreneurs and Negotiation Education: Exploring Efficacy Development Utilizing Distance Learning

Judith Richards California Lutheran University

Veronica Guerrero California Lutheran University

Allison Domicone University of California‐Berkley

Entrepreneurial higher education includes the study of desired skills, knowledge and competencies necessary at various stages of the continuum, plus effective pedagogies to address varying learning styles and modes of delivery. Aspiring female entrepreneurs and leaders commonly lack key business skills that their male counterparts develop from experiences and expectations of the cultural environment. This skillset includes negotiation efficacy, a competency that may be pivotal for Kenyan women, especially those held back by poverty, which seek to launch and sustain a new venture. During the launch period financing and acquisition of resources require astute negotiation skills to maximize the investment needed to establish a business. Entrepreneurs who are unable to secure the needed resources may never be able to move their venture beyond the conceptual stage.

Studies show that women face greater challenges than men in securing venture financing. Greater negotiation efficacy could prove valuable for female entrepreneurs. This study will explore educational training to Kenyan women via

277 distance learning, to improve negotiation self‐efficacy to maximize outcomes and avoid leaving unclaimed value on the negotiation table.

278

Education Majors’ Views on White Privilege and Unseen Majority Group Power

Franklin T. Thompson University of Nebraska‐Omaha

The teaching of white privilege in multicultural courses causes much controversy.

This study, which utilizes survey research, seeks to uncover from a student perspective whether or not the topic of white privilege should be included in teacher preparation curriculum. Respondents (N=777) entered a state mandated multicultural course with moderate acceptance of the concept. The introduction of an eclectic, critical pedagogy brand of multicultural instruction helped students make significant pretest‐to‐posttest gains in mean scores (t(771)=‐21.906, p<.0005).

There was also increased pretest‐to‐posttest acceptance of two other variables: (a) “Many whites miss the bigger race relations picture (t(776)=‐12.005, p<.0005), and (b) “Discussions about racism are still relevant in Post‐Obama America (t(777)=12.434, p<.0005). Effect sizes (d) were large (0.93), approaching medium (0.46), and medium (0.51) respectively. A smaller subgroup (N=229) of initial opponents of the white privilege concept made an even greater pretest‐to‐posttest change in mean scores: (t(228)=‐25.980, p<.0005, d=1.94).

A balanced curriculum approach was utilized by highlighting many forms of majority‐group privileges above and beyond skin color. Future teachers must understand how power and privilege plays itself out on different levels, and that, unfortunately, skin color has become the most controversial and resisted form of

279 those privileges. The end purpose is not to focus on white skin per se, but on the sociology of how power is wielded. This research demonstrates that students are not as fragile as we think they are, and that when taught with a fair‐and‐balanced approach, critical multicultural education is not only accepted – it can be a liberating experience for education majors.

280

Multidisciplinary Coaching P‐20

Enrique A. Puig University of Central Florida

Sandra L. Robinson University of Central Florida

Edward H. Robinson University of Central Florida

Elizabeth Crunk University of Central Florida

Current work environments demand far more than specific cognitive skills and knowledge. The capacity to navigate a complex work environment in an increasingly international competitive bio‐technical age necessitates individuals to be self‐regulating, self‐directed, self‐motivated, and self‐accountable.

Consequently, P‐20 learning environments need to enable students to learn in a real‐world context that allows equitable and just access to quality materials and resources both face to face and online. The issue at hand is what conditions for learning need to be in place to support the development of individuals to be self‐ regulating, self‐directed, self‐motivated, and self‐accountable. With core standards coming to the forefront at a national level in education, career and college readiness is currently receiving a lot of attention. During this interactive session a micro‐ ethnography (observations, focus groups, discourse analysis) will be presented highlighting the need for supporting the development of multidisciplinary coaching across the disciplines, from mathematics to medicine and reading to science, in an

281 era of increasing expectations for accountability. Presenters will address redefining competency coaching on a continuum of learning, and the establishment of an international center focused on improving literacy acquisition and instruction across all disciplines that have an economic impact on health and personal finance.

282

Do Low‐Income Individuals Know How to Handle Legal Issues? Evidence from the 2014 Legal Needs Study Update

Arina Gertseva Washington State University

Danna Moore Washington State University

Previous studies presented evidence of weak legal competency among the general public and specific groups, yet what has not been fully understood is how widespread is deficiency of legal awareness among the most vulnerable sub‐groups of individuals residing in poverty. Drawing on empirical data from the 2014 Legal Needs Study Update that targeted low‐ and very low‐income individuals, this paper presents evidence that clearly indicates that legal problems are extremely common among low income individuals. At the same time, we also found that a substantial number of low income people are not aware that their problem has a legal remedy and face their civil legal problems without legal assistance.

Disadvantaged groups that were less likely to be aware of their legal problems were people of Hispanic origin, males, youth as well as seniors, immigrants, and part‐time employees. On contrary, groups such as Native Americans, people caring for a dependent, veterans, persons with a disability, persons who have been previously incarcerated, homeless, and victims of domestic violence and sexual assault were more likely to be aware of their legal problems.

Legal awareness appear to be related to a problem‐solving behaviour but had no impact on the rates of resolution of problems. The results of this study demonstrate that public

283 legal education does not reach out to groups in society considered to be in special need of it, and thus, their capacity to mobilize law on their behalf is very limited.

284

Promoting High Impact Learning through Experiential Education: Community‐Based Projects in a Graduate Marketing Class with Integration of Essential Learning Outcomes

Diane M. Holtzman Richard Stockton College of New Jersey

Carra Leah Hood Richard Stockton College of New Jersey

Abstract Higher education is shifting from solely basing students’ learning outcomes on how students recall facts and principles—cumulative and linear‐ to “deep learning” outcomes such as providing students with opportunities to apply knowledge, think critically, as well as providing more active and interactive learning experiences (Fink, 2013) . The impetus for this shift has roots in the public’s concern about the quality of student learning; this factors in concerns about the rising cost of higher education, the increased time it takes for students to complete their degrees, feedback from the leaders in the business community and from legislators who question the readiness of graduates for employment (Hart, 2014; “Prepared for the Job”, 2014; Fischer, 2014; Shavelson, 2010).

As a result of this accountability movement, faculty and administrators at colleges and universities are asked to prove that students integrate knowledge and skills from across the curricula, apply those skill‐sets in real‐world environments and are prepared for the workforce. One example of stakeholders’ concerns is presented the recent report by Hart Research Associates for The Association of American Colleges and Universities (2014) which states: 80% of the employers responding to their study

285 indicated that it is very important for graduates to demonstrate their ability to apply learning in real‐world settings; only 23% of the employers think graduates are very well prepared to apply knowledge and skills in real‐world settings; and 60% of the employers believe that all college students should be expected to complete a significant applied learning project before graduating.

In addressing these concerns from higher education stakeholders, the use of experiential projects and exercises in capstone projects or through service learning opportunities can provide high‐impact learning; this high‐impact learning reflects students’ cumulative and integrative learning and provides them with workplace experiences. Students engaged in experiential learning, whether through service learning or community‐centered capstone projects, are involved in “deep learning” (Kuh, 2008; Kolb & Kolb, 2007). It is through this “deep learning” of students’ engagement with “hands‐on” projects in the community, for example, where students can integrate the knowledge, skills, and competencies gained from academic and personal experiences and apply these to help solve problems within the community.

This integration of knowledge, skills, and abilities by students strongly relate to the Essential Learning Outcomes (ELOs) that graduates should attain after completion of their college education (Association…Essential…., 2015).

This presentation will discuss the use of an experiential learning project in a graduate level Marketing Communication and Social Media Class and how that project: 1) addresses students’ learning in terms of the Essential Learning Outcomes of Creativity and Innovation; 2) provides students with active learning in working with community partners; 3) involves community partners joining with the professor in providing feedback to students on their assigned hands‐on projects; and 4) shares a

286 model developed at Richard Stockton College of New Jersey that facilitates learner‐ centered implementation of ELOs in courses and assignments.

Background of the ELOs and the project One way institutions have responded to 1) the requirements for outcomes assessment of student learning made by accrediting organizations, 2) as well as the employers’ demands for personnel in higher education to prepare students with 21st century knowledge, practical skills, and intellectual abilities is to identify college‐wide learning outcomes. The American Association of Colleges and Universities (AAC&U) created its Liberal Education and America Promise (LEAP) initiative in 2005 to provide a mechanism for college and universities to begin this kind of work (Association…Liberal…, 2015). According to AAC&U’s LEAP website, over 100 liberal arts colleges and universities have incorporated LEAP essential learning outcomes (Association….Essential…, 2015) and the LEAP Valid Assessment of Learning in Undergraduate Education (VALUE) rubrics (Association…VALUE…, 2015) for institutional assessment.

The faculty, administration, and professional staff at Richard Stockton College of New Jersey (Stockton) recognized the importance of the LEAP initiative; however, rather than adopt LEAP essential learning outcomes (ELOs), they identified ten ELOs that addressed the particular types of learning experiences offered on the campus in both academic and co‐curricular contexts.. Some of Stockton’s ELOs replicate LEAP’s; some are unique to Stockton’s mission. For instance, Stockton’s ELOs include: communication skills, quantitative reasoning, teamwork and collaboration, information literacy and research skills, creativity and innovation, adapting to change, critical thinking, ethical reasoning, global awareness, and program competence. These ELOs

287 were collaboratively derived through campus‐wide conversations and professional development, with funding support from the college’s administration. This effort built on existing learning outcomes, and rather than creating an additional layer of assessment, Stockton’s approach has led to gradual but increasing commitment to Stockton’s ELO initiative. Over the past two years, the college administration has funded a professional development opportunity to support efforts to integrate ELOs into courses, assignments, and out‐of‐classroom types of learning experiences, an opportunity that provides a model for intentional outcomes‐focused pedagogy across disciplines and co‐curricular learning activities.

Assessment of the Creativity and Innovation ELOs Teachers aiming to integrate ELOs into real‐world learning experiences may confront particular difficulties. However, the model for ELO integration provided through the professional development opportunity aids course design, execution of assignments and course exercises, as well as assessment of course projects involving community engagement. In the Marketing Communications and Social Media MBA class, students work with regional small businesses and non‐profit organizations to create integrated marketing communication plans. By using the model for ELO integration, teachers of this elective graduate course, which is offered once a year in the fall semester for MBA students and for students in other graduate programs, can effectively blend course and program outcomes, offer students meaningful assignments, and support the work of local small businesses and community organizations.

By the end of the semester, students complete a major assignment—creation of an integrated marketing communication plan using social media. This project could be added to students’ portfolios to highlight students’ communication skills, professionalism, teamwork, program competence, critical thinking, and

288 creativity/innovation. Many of these are measurable ELOs, which align with the Assurance of Learning assessments needed for the School of Business AACSB. Although the project encompasses many ELOs, the areas assessed in the MBA class focused on creativity and innovation in solving the marketing problems of the community partners.

As part of this project student teams worked with representatives from external organizations about the marketing challenges the organizations faced. Students then developed marketing strategies that were integrated in terms of design, message strategy and social media. These experiences provided the graduate students opportunities to hone their skills, acquire new skills, and deepen their relationships within the community as well as with non‐profit organizations and small businesses.

Importantly, it also required students to think creativity in solving the marketing problems faced by the community members and developing innovative ways to address the problems using marketing principles as well as social media.

After meeting their clients, the student teams narrowed the scope of the marketing challenges they would be addressing and determined which strategies, types of marketing collateral (fliers, brochures) and forms of media would be used to address the marketing issues. Through these projects, students refined their professional interactions as they applied theories and lessons into real‐world situations. Students learned the importance of flexibility and understanding in working with the clients. In addition students gained additional experience in communicating with the clients through different channels such as emails and phone calls. In addition to these skills, students also developed collaborative teamwork skills in addressing the marketing issues, planning and writing the integrated marketing communications plan, and presenting the plan to the clients and to the class.

289 ELO focus The ELO assessed in this class was Creativity and Innovation; the focus in the course was to assess students’ knowledge and skills in the development of creative solutions to marketing problems, to determine students’ competencies in applying marketing concepts, and to connect the marketing principles with their creative solutions. This assessment information would help guide revisions of the instructional methods as well as course content and was essential since the course does not have any pre‐requisites of marketing, advertising or social media. It was important in the course to assess students’ ability, after their introduction to marketing and social media concepts in the course, to note how they connected marketing and social media principles to actual solutions and products in creative/novel ways. Also the feedback provided direction on where the instruction and the project had strengths and where there were weaknesses that could be improved when the project was revised and refined.

The assessment of the creativity/innovation ELO worked well with the marketing plan project since students had to 

address a marketing problem faced by the organization and provide multiple approaches for addressing that problem in their marketing strategies



generate creative solutions to the problem



have solutions align with marketing principles and strategies within a real‐world setting



create and design marketing collateral such as brochures, ads, fliers, and social media outreach that sent an integrated marketing message.

290 Essential Learning

Evidence of attaining the learning goal:

Outcomes

Creativity and

Demonstrated through recommended tactics in the IMC

Innovation:

plans for the external stakeholders:

Creativity involves

1) creation and design of advertisements, fliers,

the process of

brochures, and social media [ex: web sites, FaceBook

building new or

pages, blogs] to solve marketing problems

transforming existing

2) brainstorming and idea generation with the client to

experiences.

determine strategies to take in addressing marketing

Creativity

problems

is defined as the

3) connecting marketing principles with proposed

complex, human capacity to generate ideas, take risks, and recognize opportunities that are useful in cultivating understanding, solving problems, stretching boundaries, making new connections, and expressing ourselves to others.

solutions for the clients

291 Creativity and Innovation ELO Rubric Lev

Level

Leve

el 1

2

l 3

Aw

Comp

Skill

are

etent

ed

Recognize the importance of creative pursuits and 1.1 Recognize and

Capacity to generate new ideas and express 2.1 Create a novel or

Independently, or collaboratively synthesize 3.1 Extend a novel or

identify existing

unique idea,

unique idea,

connections among

question, format,

question, format, or

1.2 Identify one or more

2.2 Connect ideas or

approaches for solving 1.3 Complete an

solutions in novel 2.3 Identify multiple

expanding upon or

articulate ideas or 3.3 Identify multiple

approaches for

approaches for

solving the problem, 2.4 Incorporate new

solving the problem 3.4 Actively seeks out

assignment while minimally

3.2 Transform and

extending the

directions or

potentially risky

Findings and Closing the Loop:  Of the 8 team projects and 2 individual projects, 6 team projects and the 2 individual projects scored with the majority of the assessment at the “skilled level”; 1 team projects scored, overall, with the majority of the assessment at the “competent” level and 1 team project scored with the majority of the assessment at the “aware” level.

292  After applying the rubric to the finished projects, the integrated marketing plans that ranked at the “competent level” did not have multiple approaches for solving the external partners’ marketing problems‐only the minimum amount of collateral was used (brochures, ads, and social media); likewise at the “aware level” students did not identify the multiple approaches nor did they connect the ideas or solutions that applied to the marketing problem expressed by the community partner. Composition of teams with some students not having marketing or advertising backgrounds were factors that may have contributed to the “competent” and “aware” rankings on the marketing plan project.  “Closing the Loop”: from applying the rubric to the students’ final projects, I was able to identify the areas in which additional instruction and experience needed to be offered. Based on the results of the assessment in the last academic year:  additional readings and a more comprehensive review of basic marketing concepts have been added and basic advertising principles were addressed within the first quarter of the semester before the project begins.  In addition, from the results, more case studies are presented throughout the term in order to provide additional experiences and discussions in creative thinking to solve marketing problems.  Likewise, in addition to the case studies, students’ progress in developing the marketing plans is reviewed in class sessions allowing feedback from the students—not only from the instructor‐‐ on developing novel approaches and identifying multiple approaches to solving real‐world marketing problems.  Assessment will take place again when the course is offered to determine if the “Closing of the Loop” activities provided students with a stronger

293 background to brainstorm and generate ideas, and develop collateral, that helps solve the marketing problems of the community members and to more strongly connect marketing principles with proposed solutions.

References Association of American Colleges & Universities. (2015, January). Liberal Education & America’s Promise. Washington, DC: Author. Retrieved from https://www.aacu.org/leap Association of American Colleges & Universities. (2015, January). Essential Learning Outcomes. Washington, DC: Author. Retrieved from http://www.aacu.org/leap/essential‐learning‐outcomes Association of American Colleges & Universities. (2015, January). VALUE rubric development project. Washington, DC: Author. Retrieved from http://www.aacu.org/value/rubrics.

Fink, L.D. (2013). Creating significant learning experiences: An integrated approach to designing college courses. San Francisco, CA. Jossey‐Bass.

Fischer, K. (2015). A college degree sorts job applicants, but employers wish it meant more. The Chronicle of Higher Education. Retrieved on January 28, 2015 from http://chronicle.com/article/The‐Employment‐Mismatch/137625/#id=overview Hart, Peter D. Research Associates, Inc. (2015, January 20). Falling short? College learning and career success. Retrieved on January 31, 2015 from http://www.aacu.org/leap/public‐opinion‐research/2015‐survey‐results Kolb, A. Y. & Kolb, D. A. (2007). Experiential learning theory: A dynamic, holistic approach to management learning, education and development. Department of Organizational

294 Behavior Working Paper, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland. Retrieved on January 15, 2015 from http://www.learningfromexperience.com/media/2010/08/ELT‐Hbk‐MLED‐LFE‐ website‐2‐10‐08.pdf Kuh, G. D. (2008). High impact educational practices: What they are, who has access to them, and why they matter. Washington DC: Association of American Colleges and Universities.

Prepared for the job (2014, May/June). Biz Ed. Retrieved on January 28, 2015 from http://www.bizedmagazine.com/en/archives/2014/3/research/prepared‐for‐the‐ job/ Shavelson, R.J. (2010). Measuring college learning responsibility: Accountability in a new era.

Stanford, CA. Stanford University Press.

295

The Organizational Culture of Crossfit Theresa A. Moore Daytona State College

This presentation will present an analysis and discussion of Crossfit, one of the most popular new types of fitness centers, and their success in developing a strong organizational culture that has create a cult‐like following. I will identify specific organizational culture elements Crossfit excels at implementing in their organizations. I will highlight key learning outcomes that business managers in other fields can use or adapt for their needs.

296

Applying Personal Construct Theory to Engage Undergraduate Students and Advance Critical Thinking Joseph A. Mayo Gordon State College

Abstract Personal construct theory has been used by clinicians and educators to examine personal construct systems. In the context of teaching life‐span development and the history of psychology, I report on my use of this approach as a heuristic tool for organizing course content, challenging students to think critically, and sparking active participation in the learning process. I also discuss implications for using personal construct theory in the undergraduate curriculum, including links to assessment and computer applications.

Teaching undergraduate courses presents special challenges to even the most experienced educators. In addition to concerted efforts to cover a wide array of information in an organized and comprehensible fashion, instructors continually search for ways to promote higher‐level learning while stimulating students’ classroom participation and enthusiasm for the subject matter. As a vehicle for accomplishing these educational aims in the undergraduate classroom, an innovative pedagogical strategy that I have discovered to be effective highlights dichotomous meaning dimensions within the parameters of Kelly’s (1955) personal construct theory.

Kelly (1955) defined personal constructs as hierarchically linked sets of bipolar meaning dimensions (e.g., central‐peripheral) that each person uses to organize and

297 interpret knowledge. Although Kelly originally used personal‐construct elicitation as a therapeutic technique in clinical settings, applications of personal construct theory also have been observed in classroom environments (e.g., Tobacyk, 1987). Not only are bipolar constructs an integral component of various texts that may be used in undergraduate courses, but it is also readily possible for instructors to formulate such meaning dimensions on their own.

Drawing both from meaning dimensions embodied in the thematic content of textbooks and from self‐generated bipolar constructs, I have used personal construct theory to facilitate learning in my own undergraduate psychology classes. A technique that I have found particularly useful involves a rating grid in which students rate each element (person, object, event, or problem to solve) via a Likert‐type scale anchored by two construct poles.

Over a decade ago, I began systematically investigating the pedagogical efficacy of personal construct theory in teaching life‐span development (Mayo, 2004b) and the history of psychology (Mayo, 2004a). I will summarize the instructional methodologies and salient findings of these investigations in the paragraphs that follow, along with implications for using personal construct theory in the undergraduate curriculum.

Although I have continued to rely effectively on personal construct theory in my own classroom practices, I have recently decided to revisit the topic from a research perspective in teaching history of psychology. As part of the forthcoming discussion, I will intersperse selected components of a resulting manuscript that I am now in the preliminary stages of completing (Mayo, 2015).

Life‐Span Development

As part of an independent two‐group design, I compared student performance in

two course sections of life‐span development receiving personal construct assignments

298 (PC condition) with similar performance in a control condition consisting of two other course sections in which I gave no such assignments (Mayo, 2004b). In order to establish equivalency between groups, in place of the PC assignments, I assigned students in the control condition 150‐250 word synopses pertaining to the core features of the work of each of the same developmental theorists addressed in the PC condition. Over two semesters, I randomly assigned intact classes to either the PC (n = 72) or control (n = 66) condition. Based on age, gender, college GPA, and SAT performance, there were no appreciable differences between these conditions. Moreover, except for the presence or absence of the PC assignments, the two conditions were identical with respect to lecture content, testing format, and other pertinent instructional variables.

In teaching classes assigned to the PC condition, I selected 10 leading representatives

of 7 major developmental theories as the elements on which to focus my instruction.

The theories and corresponding contributors were ethological (Konrad Lorenz); contextual (Urie Bronfenbrenner); psychodynamic (Sigmund Freud and Erik Erikson); learning (B. F. Skinner and Albert Bandura); humanistic (Abraham Maslow); cognitive (Jean Piaget and Lawrence Kohlberg); and sociocultural (Lev Vygotsky). Applying personal construct theory, I devised bipolar constructs relative to important developmental issues: heredity‐environment, continuity‐discontinuity, stability‐change, internality‐externality, unidimensionality‐multidimensionality, and testability‐lack of testability. I lectured on these constructs at the start of the course and reviewed them intermittently throughout the remainder of the semester. I obtained the first three constructs from developmental issues presented in Santrock’s (2002) text, whereas I created the final three constructs on my own.

I instructed students to rate separately the positions of each developmental theorist

on each bipolar construct. Employing a series of 7‐point rating scales, students printed

299 an X on the corresponding line within each rating continuum that best matches the corresponding theorist’s views. If students deemed a construct as inapplicable to a particular theorist’s stance, they printed not applicable across the rating continuum for that dimension. See Table 1 for a sample of a student‐completed rating grid.

After completing a rating grid for each developmental theorist, I asked students to

summarize the aggregate results of their rating‐grid assignments by compiling a comprehensive matrix that categorized the perspectives of all 10 theorists. Refer to Table 2 for a sample of a student‐completed comprehensive matrix.

I assigned both the individual ratings and the comprehensive matrix as take‐home

assignments to be completed independently by each student. I then used the comprehensive matrices as focal points for a 75‐minute, whole‐class discussion at the conclusion of the semester. This discussion served to prepare students for a comprehensive final exam that emphasized important similarities and differences among the targeted developmental theorists.

I used academic performance on the comprehensive final exam as the dependent

measure for use in objective testing. In order to minimize the possibility of experimenter effects in composing and grading the final exam, I selected 50 multiple‐choice questions from conceptually based test‐bank items. The results of an independent‐groups t‐test showed that students exposed to the PC assignments (M = 82.69, SD = 9.71) significantly outperformed those students who did not receive this educational intervention (M = 75.97, SD = 11.25), t (136) = 2.66, p < .005.

In the PC condition, I also asked students to rate how helpful the PC assignments

were in contributing to their successful learning. I assessed attitudes by means of a four‐ item survey, with each item linked to a 5‐point Likert‐type scale with anchors at 1 (not

300 helpful) and 5 (very helpful). Students expressed predominantly favorable perceptions of these assignments on all four items: organizing course content (M = 4.24, SD = .78); improving conceptual understanding (M = 4.17, SD = 1.03); stimulating participation in the learning process (M = 4.06, SD = .87), and providing academic challenge (M = 3.88, SD = 1.06). In the final portion of the survey, I invited students to submit open‐ended comments about the PC assignments. With approximately 80% of students responding, the most frequently made comments were that they enjoyed completing the assignments (64% of respondents) and would recommend the use of PC assignments in other college classes, including history, comparative politics, and art and music appreciation (52% of respondents).

History of Psychology In reviewing the relevant literature, I uncovered a single anecdotal report on the application of personal construct theory in teaching the history of psychology. Tobacyk (1987) provided students with the names of great figures throughout psychology’s history (elements that comprise the columns of the grid) and a teacher‐generated list of bipolar meaning dimensions (constructs that comprise the rows of the grid) that he used to organize course content (e.g., conscious vs. unconscious). Afterward, he required students to evaluate each great figure with each bipolar construct in working, row‐by‐row, through the grid.

Borrowing from Tobacyk’s (1987) prior classroom application of personal construct theory, I adapted and expanded his approach in teaching a history of psychology course that followed the intellectual roots of psychology from antiquity through the present. Although the information that I report here pertains to a more pilot‐based classroom application of personal construct theory (Mayo, 2004a), I am currently completing research that integrates a more strictly controlled examination of personal

301 construct theory in this same class (Mayo, 2015). In particular, I am in the process of gathering data that includes a history of psychology class with more traditional pedagogy as a control condition to serve as a systematic comparison to otherwise equivalent classes involving varying types of PC assignments. Once all data are collected, I will undertake both quantitative and qualitative analyses as a means of identifying the heuristic contributions of personal construct theory relative to the control condition.

Returning to the earlier pilot investigation (Mayo, 2004a), I divided the course into three instructional units. I then generated a list of bipolar constructs on which students rated the positions of 24, pre‐selected contributors (8 per unit) to pre‐scientific psychology (e.g., Aristotle, Rene Descartes, John Locke, and Immanuel Kant), the early years of scientific psychology (e.g., Wilhelm Wundt, William James, Sigmund Freud, and John B. Watson), and the chronological development of psychology’s principal specialty areas over the past century (e.g., Kurt Lewin, Gordon Allport, Noam Chomsky, and Carl Rogers). Using Lundin’s (1996) text as a frame of reference, I selected the first six constructs to represent deep‐rooted issues in the intellectual history of psychology: mind‐body, nature‐nurture, subjectivism‐objectivism, holism‐ elementalism, free‐will‐determinism, and utility‐purity. In contrast, I designed the final two constructs (verity‐falsity and major contribution‐minor contribution) in an attempt to ascertain students’ personal views of each contributor’s work. In rating the degree of perceived truth embodied in each contributor’s perspective, I asked students to consider socio‐historical factors in the backdrop of both contemporary times and the times in which the contributor lived. In the case of major versus minor contribution, I asked students to similarly assess each contributor’s legacy to the historical evolution of psychology.

302 I asked students to rate the intellectual, philosophical, or theoretical stance of each contributor as take‐home assignments in each unit of the course. I employed a series of 11‐point rating scales in order to permit students a wide range of variability in their rating choices. I required that students work independently in completing each assignment. In recording their construct‐specific ratings on each grid, I asked students to print an X on the appropriate line within each rating continuum—somewhere between lines 1 and 11—that most closely approximates the perspective of each contributor. I instructed students to use not applicable ratings in those instances where contributors failed to address a given construct.

Different from the more conventional application of personal construct theory that I have described earlier in my life‐span development classes, I also asked students to offer written justification for each of their construct ratings. This added approach allowed for greater depth and clarity in examining each student’s degree of critical analysis of the relevant content. Refer to Table 3 for an exemplary student‐completed rating grid.

I also allotted 30‐45 minutes for whole‐class discussion immediately after students completed each of the three unit‐based PC assignments. During these discussions, students shared their analyses and critiqued their classmates’ expressed views.

I established reliability of data analysis through inter‐rater agreement in terms of the completed student rating grids. Approximately 25% of the data set, randomly drawn, was analyzed independently by the author and a colleague. Inter‐rater judgments produced 90% agreement.

By means of visual inspection that involved qualitative assessment of raw grid data, I examined each student’s knowledge constructions as a separate within‐student

303 measure. I also completed an open‐ended analysis across students’ grids, searching for dominant themes and patterns that highlight similarities and differences in knowledge construction.

I scored the PC assignments on a traditional grading scale of 0‐100%. As part of this

scoring process, I offered students constructive written feedback regarding the underlying logic and connection between their numerical ratings and accompanying written justifications.

At the conclusion of the semester, I assessed students’ attitudes toward the PC assignments by means of an anonymous survey containing a 7‐point, Likert‐type rating scale [highly effective (7) to highly ineffective (1)]. In addition, the survey included questions that required students not only to comment on the major advantages and disadvantages of the assignments, but also to indicate whether or not they would recommend the assignments for use in other college classes. Survey results show that students’ perceptions of the PC assignments were overwhelmingly favorable. Students’ numerical ratings are shown in Table 4. In support of the positive numerical ratings, the majority of students surveyed indicated that they would recommend similar assignments in other undergraduate courses within psychology and other disciplines, including history, the humanities, and the natural and physical sciences.

The most frequently cited benefits to learning pertained to how useful these assignments were in (1) offering a conceptual backdrop from which to evaluate the work of a wide range of contributors to the historical development of psychology and (2) allowing the preferred opportunity to justify numerical ratings.

Implications for the Undergraduate Curriculum Altogether, the learning outcomes that I have observed in my own undergraduate classes suggest that personal construct theory represents a useful pedagogical strategy

304 (Mayo, 2004a, 2004b; see also Mayo, 2008, 2010 for additional related discussion).

Consistent with Tobacyk’s (1987) conclusions in evaluating the instructional value of personal construct theory, the use of bipolar constructs “helps in achieving a more sophisticated level of understanding than that obtained by the mere memorization of material” (p. 111). When conjoined with opportunities for classroom discussion, personal construct theory also invites active participation in the learning process.

The expansive array of bipolar meaning dimensions inherent in the subject matter of psychology courses makes personal construct theory a promising heuristic tool across the undergraduate psychology curriculum. Personal construct theory is especially well‐ suited to those undergraduate psychology courses where a list of bipolar constructs forms an integral part of available texts and/or may be easily formulated by instructors, students, or both. The broad range of such meaning dimensions within the content of the history of psychology renders this course ideally suited to applications of personal construct theory. The same conclusion can also be drawn with respect to the subject matter of other undergraduate disciplines (e.g. history, political science, the humanities, and the natural and physical sciences) from which content‐applicable meaning dimensions can be readily ascertained. A particularly inviting opportunity for using personal construct theory can be found in interdisciplinary course offerings that combine the requisite meaning dimensions (e.g., psychopathology of political leadership, theatre and mass communication, ethics and public policy, and international economy and applied mathematics). In that the underlying goal of interdisciplinary coursework is to universalize rather than compartmentalize knowledge, personal construct theory may potentially serve as a unifying organizational framework from which to more clearly demonstrate the connections across fields of study.

305 In place of a provided construct form of a PC assignment where the teacher supplies students with a list of basic meaning dimensions on which to rate pre‐determined elements, students also can generate and apply constructs—with or without instructor prompting. In a history of psychology class, for example, students may begin by assessing the perspective of a single intellectual contributor for whom they have generated a series of constructs in the form of short‐phrase descriptions (emergent poles) and their bipolar opposites (implicit poles). By repeating this process with other contributors, students can create an anchoring point from which to compare and contrast the views of an increasingly wider range of individuals. This elicited construct approach resembles the concept known as laddering (Bannister & Mair, 1968), a platform for deeper construct elicitation involving the evaluation, modification, and interconnection of ideas. As Tobacyk (1987) commented about the elicited construct technique in teaching the history of psychology, this strategy assumes greater student familiarity with course content. I plan to adopt the elicited construct approach as part of my research design in teaching a forthcoming history of psychology class (Mayo, 2015).

I will then compare the relative success of this approach to that of the provided construct strategy used in an otherwise equivalent course section of this same class.

Accurately assessing students’ conceptual systems is often difficult, time‐ consuming, and limited in scope (Fetherstonhaugh & Treagust, 1992). As a versatile assessment tool, personal construct theory can be used not only to “provide snapshots of construct systems at a given point in time” (Winer & Vazquez‐Abad, 1997, p. 366), but also to assess changes in dynamically evolving conceptions across time. In examining evidence of students’ conceptual change, it may prove useful to link this information to Carey’s (1985) distinction between weak restructuring (new connections

306 among existing concepts) or strong restructuring (changes occurring in core concepts) of an person’s conceptual systems over time.

Computer applications of personal construct theory are also available for classroom use in eliciting and interpreting students’ rating grids. After teaching students how to enter their own rating‐grid data by means of user‐friendly computer programs, computerized grid analysis may be used by teachers and learners alike to gain additional insights into students’ conceptual frameworks—particularly in the absence of written and/or oral justifications of construct ratings. One such computer program is WebGrid‐III (Gaines & Shaw, 2005), a web‐based implementation of personal construct theory. Using a sample grid associated with contributors to the early decades of scientific psychology (completed for extra credit by a student in one of my history of psychology classes), I will demonstrate the outcomes of WebGrid‐III grid elicitation and interpretation. Since this example involves 8 bipolar constructs on which 8 contributors (elements) are rated on 11‐point continua, Figure 1 illustrates an 8 X 8 X 11 rating‐grid display.

Using the data set depicted in Figure 1, WebGrid‐III affords different grid‐analysis possibilities, obtained from both cluster analysis and principal‐components analysis procedures. As shown in Figure 2, the cluster‐analysis technique (named FOCUS Clustering) not only permits inferences to be drawn on whether two constructs are applied similarly to different elements, but it also compares how different elements are rated on the same constructs.

Figure 3, in turn, shows the results of a principal components analysis (called PrinCom Map), which plots the constructs and elements in providing a visual overview of how they relate to one other.

307 References Bannister, D, & Mair, J. M. M. (1968). The evaluation of personal constructs. London: Academic Press.

Carey, S. (1985). Conceptual change in children. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Fetherstonhaugh, T., & Treagust, D. F. (1992). Students’ understanding of light and its properties: Teaching to engender conceptual change. Science Education, 76, 653‐672.

Gaines, B. R., & Shaw, M. L. G. (2005). WebGrid III [Computer program]. Alberta, Canada:

Knowledge Science Institute. Available at: http://tiger.cpsc.ucalgary.ca/

Kelly, G. A. (1955). The psychology of personal constructs (Vols. 1‐2). New York: Norton.

Lundin, R. W. (1996). Theories and systems of psychology (5th ed.). Lexington, MA: Heath.

Mayo, J. A. (2004a). A pilot investigation of the repertory grid as a heuristic tool in teaching

historical foundations of psychology. Constructivism in the Human Sciences,

9, 31‐41.

Mayo, J. A. (2004b). Repertory grid technique as a means of comparing and contrasting

developmental theories. Teaching of Psychology, 31, 178‐180.

Mayo, J. A. (2008). Repertory grid as a heuristic tool in teaching undergraduate psychology. In Dunn, D. S., Halonen, J. S., & Smith, R. A. (Eds.), Teaching Critical Thinking in Psychology: A Handbook of Best Practices. Boston: Blackwell Publishers.

Mayo, J. A. (2010). Constructing undergraduate psychology curricula: Promoting authentic learning and assessment in the teaching of psychology. Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association.

Mayo, J. A. (2015). Personal construct theory revisited in teaching history and systems of psychology. Manuscript in preparation.

308 Santrock, J. W. (2002). Life‐span development (8th ed.). Boston: McGraw‐Hill.

Tobacyk, J. J. (1987). Using personal construct theory in teaching history and systems of psychology. Teaching of Psychology, 14, 111‐112.

Winer, L. R., & Vazquez‐Abad, J. (1997). Repertory grid technique in the diagnosis of learner difficulties and the assessment of conceptual change in physics. Journal of Constructivist Psychology, 10, 363‐386.

Table 1

Sample of a Student‐Completed Grid in Life‐Span Development THEORIST: Sigmund Freud Ratings 1

2

3

4

5

6

7

1. heredity

X

environment

2. continuity

X

discontinuity

3. stability

X

change

4. internality

X

externality

5. unidimensionality

X

multidimensionality

6. testability

X

lack of testability

309

Table 2 Sample of a Student‐Completed, Repertory Grid Matrix with Six, 7‐Point Construct Continua (Life‐Span Development)

______________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________

1

2

Ratings

3 4 5 6 7

1. heredity L F M

P E Ba, Br, K, S environment

2. continuity Ba, L, S, V M E, F, K, P 3. stability

F, L

discontinuity

Ba, Br, E, K change

M, P, S, V 4. internality K, L F, P M Ba E

Br, S, V externality

5. unidimensionality F, L, S Br, K P E, M Ba, V

multidimensionality 6. testability Ba, L, S Br, V K, P

F, M lack of testability

____________________________________________________________________________________________________________

310 Note. An alphabetized list of the abbreviated names of developmental theorists (elements) is Ba = Bandura; Br = Bronfenbrenner; E = Erikson; F = Freud; K = Kohlberg; L = Lorenz; M = Maslow; P = Piaget; S = Skinner; and V = Vygotsky.

311 Table 3 Exemplary Student‐Completed Grid with Written Justifications for Construct Ratings

(History of Psychology) Contributor’s Name: Aristotle Ratings 1 1. mind 2. nature

2

3 4

5

6

7

8

9

10 11

X body X nurture

3. subjectivism

X

objectivism 4. holism

X elementalism

5. free will

X determinism

6. utility

X purity

7. verity

X falsity

X minor

8. major

contribution contribution Justifying rationale for each construct rating: 1. Aristotle was both a realist and a naturalist. His later view was essentially monistic, believing that the psyche is not separable from the body. Yet his early writings gave future Christian theologians adequate material to justify their dualism.

2. Although he wrote much on biological topics, Aristotle did not believe that the human psyche is born with knowledge. Instead, he felt that human beings arrive at intellectual understanding through their environmental experiences.

3. Aristotle possessed a scientific and empirical outlook that emphasized the value of inductive

312 reasoning, where you generalize from observed cases. He viewed psychology as an objective science that relies on experimentation and observation of behavior.

Nonetheless, he never fully distanced himself from the metaphysical concerns of Greek Hellenic thinking.

4. Aristotle believed that form and matter are inseparable. While form accounts for a person being human rather than another type of animal, matter makes that person the unique individual that he or she is. Aristotle also viewed the psyche as a functional process of the steps involved in thinking, rather than a physical or mental essence located somewhere within the body.

5. Aristotle believed that reasoning was limited only to human beings as the top level of the hierarchy of psyches. Since reason’s function was to know and reflect, it refined the information gained from our senses. So, Aristotle probably would have argued that reasoning allows for the human capacity to make informed choices in life based on input from the senses. However, Aristotle’s view is more directly connected to environmental determinism, seeing psychology as a natural science of behavior in response to environmental manipulations.

6. Even though Aristotle sought to explain behavior through natural causes, he lived in a time in history where his theories were too far ahead of his contemporaries. Therefore, Aristotle’s viewpoints could not be fully appreciated or applied in his own lifetime, but his far‐reaching theories would become very useful in the development of modern, naturalistic psychology.

7. Aristotle’s writings include obvious myths and errors and are sometimes as primitive as the non‐technological times in which they were written. Generally, though, his theories have stood the test of time and are amazingly similar to the views expressed in modern, scientific psychology.

8. In my opinion, Aristotle made a major contribution to the eventual development of psychology as a science, in spite of being wrong in some of his best guesstimates. In many ways the “father of psychology” as we know it today, Aristotle’s writings provide us with the first systematic account of psychology from the perspective of how we sense, perceive, reason, learn, remember, and develop.

Table 4 Students’ Numerical Ratings of Rating‐Grid Assignments in the History of Psychology __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________ _________________ Survey item

M __________________________________________ _________________ How effectively do the rating grid assignments:

1. Provide a context for organizing course content?

6.55 .76 2. Facilitate understanding of course material?

6.25 1.02 3. Increase the motivation to learn?

6.00 1.38 4. Offer intellectual challenge?

5.90 5. Encourage participation in the learning process?

6.35 .81 6. Stimulate interest in the subject matter?

5.70 1.51 ______________________________________________________________________

SD

1.21

How Does the Use of Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) Affect the Well‐Being of College Students?

Austin T. Winger University of North Dakota

Myrna R. Olson University of North Dakota

New information and communication technologies (ICTs) (e.g., smartphones, other mobile devices, social media) are being developed at a rapid pace. The use of these technologies has undoubtedly changed the way that humans interact with one another. The purpose of this research was to investigate how college students’ use of ICTs affect their relationships, mental health, and other aspects of wellness. This explanatory sequential mixed methods study included an online survey of undergraduate and graduate students (quantitative). Based on survey results, participants were purposively selected for follow‐up interviews (qualitative). As another qualitative method, the primary researcher conducted informal participant observation on the campus of a Midwestern research university. It was hypothesized that certain ICTs (e.g., texting, social media) would negatively impact college students’ ability to communicate meaningfully with different groups of people (e.g., friends, family, professors, classmates, coworkers). In addition, certain ICTs were expected to provide efficient means of relaying concrete and concise messages (e.g., email, texting).

By considering the advantages and disadvantages of various modes of communication, the overall effect of ICT use on college students’ well‐being was explored. During the presentation, findings from this study will be discussed, and suggestions for further research on technology and mental health will be provided.

Transitioning From Professional Practice / Corporate Field To The Academia: Challenges, Benefits, Lessons Learned And Best Practices From Lived Experiences.

Bellarmine Ezumah Murray State University

People constantly navigate their career path, some transition from professional field to the academia and vice versa. For such transition to occur seamlessly and successfully, certain factors should be considered in the process of systematic planning that weighs both the pros and cons of such change in one’s career. This chapter highlights five cases of such transition from various fields including human resources, management, journalism, and healthcare industry, to the academia. The participants comprised men and women of various age groups and from various countries and backgrounds. They shared their concerns and challenges and proffer ways they negotiated and addressed those concerns. Equally, the participant offered practical tips on how one can successfully transition from professional field to academia and maintain a fulfilling career.

Majority Culture Privilege: Increasing Self Awareness without Activating Resistance During Diversity Training

Gerard A. Love Slippery Rock University

Travis L. Watson Gateway Rehabilitation Center

A diversity training approach aimed at increasing self awareness as a cultural being, discovering bias, and understanding privilege from a majority culture perspective is outlined using the Canada‐ Mexico Assessment technique. Participants will be introduced to this technique as a starting point for self discovery and will increase knowledge of the theory for self appraisal during training. This unique approach jump starts awareness of innate ethnocentric monoculturalism sans the significant resistance typically experienced by majority culture participants. The result of this approach is greater personal transformation and sensitivity to the experience of historically marginalized group members in terms of race, religion, and sexual orientation. Results from use of the model in a graduate level training program will be presented and discussed.

Battle of Hunting An Elephant: Coordinated Behavioral Analysis

Keith Cheung University of Windsor

Entrepreneurs are unspoken heroes always trying to do things in a strange way. As to customer acquisition, standard economics may not well explain their behaviors. A gap exists between what theory predicts how they should act and what they seem to do. The seeming “wrong” decisions are derived from the cognitive biases. While the brain perceives realities helping for survival, it can be a devil calling for irrationality. A simple partial equilibrium framework of uncertainty is used to demonstrate the results.

Practices That Distinguish Effective From Ineffective Leaders: Doing More of the Right Things

Ken Zakariasen Kent State University

A 2012 article entitled “Leaders and emotional intelligence: A view from those who follow” describes how educational leadership exercises completed by MPH students identified positive leadership practices, either being practiced or needing to be practiced, the results demonstrating a clear relationship between leadership effectiveness and emotional intelligence (EI)‐related practices. This finding was confirmed by our 2014 research that additionally investigated the relationships between effective and ineffective leadership, and a number of related practices. A cohort of twenty‐five full‐ time working adults, who are also full‐time MPH students, began the program in 2013. This relatively intense program utilizes learning units tailored to fit their work schedules. The program director administered a “most effective/least effective” (ME/LE) leadership exercise prior to any leadership class sessions. Additionally, all individuals rated their ME/LE leaders’ effectiveness for persuasiveness, authenticity, credibility, and the five practices of exemplary leadership (Kouzes and Posner). There were 11 sets of comparisons between effective and ineffective leaders for these practices. A matched pairs statistical analysis (p<0.01) was performed for each practice’s ratings. All comparisons between effective and ineffective leaders were highly significant. However, the magnitude of the differences was surprising, e.g., ME=8.24/10 vs LE=3.60/10 for persuasiveness.

Effective leaders were ranked as effective for persuasiveness, authenticity, credibility, and for setting the example, creating a shared vision, challenging the status quo, enabling their subordinates and celebrating successes. Ineffective leaders were ranked as ineffective for all of these factors. The results for these factors, and those related to EI, identify numerous avenues for improving leadership effectiveness.

Ethics in Social Science Research: Organizational Codes, Policy, and Regulation

Linda Mabry Washington State University‐Vancouver

Explicit attention to research ethics originates with the Nuremberg Trials of Nazi war criminals after World War II when so‐called ʺmedical experimentsʺ performed upon concentration camp victims were cloaked as ʺscience.ʺ Thereafter, the United Nations, World Health Organization, and many professional research organizations have promulgated codes of ethics. These codes provide for little enforcement of ethical practice, typically relying on membersʹ willingness to adhere to the groupʹs stated principles. By contrast, the U.S. government, following its 1978 Belmont Report, does regulate researcher conduct regarding human subjects (i.e., participants in research projects). U.S. policy requires that research designs be approved by Institutional Review Boards (IRBs) at institutions accepting federal funding, and funding has been withheld across entire institutions when violated by a single researcher (e.g., Johns Hopkins University, 2002). Difficulties arise in the uneven interpretation and application of federal regulations, the obstruction of some research approaches by federal or local IRB requirements, and the globalization of research. The involvement of multiple agencies from multiple countries in research in developing countries has left impoverished people more susceptible to dangerous drug trials (for example) than U.S. citizens are. This presentation offers a comparative analysis of different codes of ethics, showing consistent focus on ʺprotection from harmʺ and on ʺinformed consentʺ but variations in procedural requirements, in the acceptability of deception and coercion, and in enforcement. Broader understanding of the landscape of research ethics is intended to encourage awareness, reflection, and more sensitive research practice.

Winslow Homer and The Demi‐Monde: A Multidisciplinary Study Concerning Illicit Female Sexuality

Marie Louden‐Hanes University of Findlay

The richest discoveries related to the work of American artist, Winslow Homer, (1836‐1910) are found in contextual studies where visual images are read as part of the text. In this presentation, we shall see that Homer was a careful and sensitive observer of his environment recording with skill and insight the nineteenth‐century American experience. He described himself as a realist claiming his subjects were suggested by the city life that surrounded him. A principal theme identified in the images created when Homer was a young graphic artist and painter in the urban centers of Boston and New York City was urban women. In 1857 when Homer began his career in Boston, women, for various reasons, were more visibly part of the urban landscape than in the past. One of the chief reasons contributing to this new dimension concerned illicit sexuality. In this socially and sexually deceptive but fertile environment that nourished the raw vitality of the city, there were rich possibilities for the realist Homer to explore. While research, publications, and presentations concerning the life and work of Homer are extensive, the richest discoveries are found in contextual studies where images are decoded and relationships between image and symbol are formed and where visual images are read as part of a text. Today, Homer’s reputation is that of a keen observer of nature, but it will become evident in this presentation that Homer was aware of and responded to the social and sexual dynamics of urban women with revealing insight.

Sustainable Aquaponics: A Multi‐Disciplinary Tool for Education, Food Production, and Research

William Wayne Falls American InterContinental University

Phil Reasons

Aquaponics is a synergy between hydroponics & aquaculture. Systems demonstrate multi‐ science concepts: micro‐ecosystem, nitrogen cycle, water quality chemistry & testing, fish & vegetables growing techniques, reproduction cycles of plants & animals.

By combining plant/ fish culture results in a more natural, environmental friendly food production process than traditional agriculture/ aquaculture. Instead of using synthetic fertilizers and the few inches of topsoil remaining on our land to grow agricultural crops, in aquaponics, the fish waste is used to fertilize plants. Plants purify the water for the fish, allowing valuable resources to be recycled and utilized more efficiently. There is no effluent discharge requiring costly filtration or wastewater treatment, and although it is an aquatic system, it only utilizes 3% to 5% of the water that traditional land based agriculture requires for irrigation. This means that you can operate an aquaponics system in resource limited regions, from dry infertile lands to urban settings, without the need for cultivable land or vast water resources. Resources are being strained beyond sustainable limits. Aquaponics offers an economically viable, environmentally sustainable and socially responsible alternative to producing superior quality food locally and more in tune with nature. We are learning and teaching others how to move from linear consumption or production processes, to cyclical ones, specifically designed and tuned for perpetuation of basic resources and life supporting systems.

Women, Faith and Identity Formation

Margaret J Weber Pepperdine University

In the years since the advent of the “Arab Spring,” issues of women’s roles and rights within religious frameworks have been brought to the forefront. Mona Rishmawi, in the Office of the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights, posited “the role of religion in our communities and societies is the issue of the future.” Identity formation for women remains a complex, yet important issue; there is little comparative research on the impact of religion on women’s identity formation, in particular research that examines this issue across religions, cultures, political and geographical boundaries.

As changes in political, legal and social understandings of religion are made in countries across the globe, there is a need for a scholarly exploration of the identities and roles of women of faith particularly within public, professional, religious, and familial life. Much of the interface dialogue that has occurred has been dominated by men and in the 1970’s was even referred to as “dialogue between men of living faiths.” King argues that women are largely missing from the dialogue around religious beliefs, practice, dogma, cultural understandings, political and economic implications in the religious arena. The challenge of gender is the challenge of otherness (King, 1998).

Given that women have largely been absent from the dialogue on religious faith, there is little research on the issue of identity formation in the private and public spheres. This project will provide the foundation for future research on the discrete roles of women of faith as well as current and future efforts to empower women in their disparate roles.

Building an Authentic Workplace Community through Social Media

Matthew J. Ripper Siena Heights University

Once initially introduced into the workplace, social media gained a reputation for being a distinct marketing tool, passively grabbing consumer information as they “liked” or “friended” or “followed” some particular product or service or trend. Recent research, explored in the literature, showed that social media is quite possibly more than a simple marketing tool. As a matter of fact, it may be a contributing factor to building a new type of workplace community, one that felt both realistic and interactive at the same time. This use of social media and authenticity is explored further in the following literature. By contributing to both the building of community and the feeling of authenticity, the use of social media in the workplace revealed workers’ feelings of belonging to an internal, socially connected community.

Community Benefits Districts: Nonprofit Governance Using Social Capital and Cross‐organizational Collaboration

Matthew Ripper Siena Heights University

This research looked at the Community Benefits District as a strategy to bring communities together using social capital and cross‐organizational collaboration. The for‐profit, nonprofit, and public sectors together sought a unified goal of building community. CBDs are sections of economically challenged city blocks within an urban area, which are managed by a nonprofit‐based, voluntary board. The CBD had three objectives: 1) safety, 2) sanitation, and 3) economic development. District taxes were added to absorb the CBD’s initiatives, administrative costs, and other expenses. Some modifications to the model and a case study were introduced by the researcher to support the literature.

Cultivating Mindfulness: An Assessment of Publications and Further Research of Zikr Meditation and its Effects on Mindfulness

Christopher Adams Eastern Illinois University

Emily Nofsinger Eastern Illinois University

Nusrat Farah Eastern Illinois University

Jaysinha Shinde Eastern Illinois University

Meditation is an ancient practice that is used to achieve an unparalleled amount of health benefits.

Among those advantages, meditation is widely associated with increased mindfulness. The purpose of the present research is to survey and assess other studies that inspect the connection between meditation techniques and the effects on mindfulness. Researchers looked at meditation as an independent variable and mindfulness as the dependent variable. A review of publications that looked at mindfulness as a dependent variable yielded consistent results, that meditation, including several varieties of techniques (such as Mindfulness‐Based Stress Reduction, ‘Om’ Meditation, and Brahma Kumaris Rajayoga Meditation), cultivates mindfulness. Researchers also participated in a field study observing, logging, and implementing the ancient Sufi tradition, Zikr Meditation, and witnessing its effects on mindfulness. Through personal experience and communication with other members, there appears to be a positive relationship between Zikr Meditation and increased mindfulness. Due to limitations of this study (including little to no quantitative data and no control of variables) further, empirical research must be conducted to produce statistically relevant conclusions.

When it Feels Like Bullies are Taking Over the Workplace

Patricia Holt Armstrong State University

Most of the time, bullies do not grow up and grow out of their negative behavior patterns. These mindsets and behavior problems follow them into the workforce. This session will review the behaviors associated with bullying, discuss how and when it invades the workplace, and provide suggestions for eradicating the conduct associated with bullies.

Students with Pediatric Cancer: A Prescription for School Success

Genevieve Howe Hay College of Charleston

Martha Nabors College of Charleston

Due to medical advances, many students with acute chronic illnesses, like pediatric cancer, are able to attend school. The professional literature reflects the need for reform of educational strategies for children facing cancer treatment and who will be absent for extended periods of time. In order to promote successful educational services and the reintegration of students into school, it is vital for multidisciplinary teams and families to collaborate effectively. This presentation will provide a plan to promote successful integration of students with cancer within regular classrooms.