Approaches to learning and teaching
Geography a toolkit for international teachers Simon Armitage
Series Editors: Paul Ellis and Lauren Harris
University Printing House, Cambridge CB2 8BS, United Kingdom One Liberty Plaza, 20th Floor, New York, NY 10006, USA 477 Williamstown Road, Port Melbourne,VIC 3207, Australia 4843/24, 2nd Floor, Ansari Road, Daryaganj, Delhi – 110002, India 79 Anson Road, #06–04/06, Singapore 079906 Cambridge University Press is part of the University of Cambridge. It furthers the University’s mission by disseminating knowledge in the pursuit of education, learning and research at the highest international levels of excellence. www.cambridge.org Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9781316640623 (Paperback) © Cambridge International Examinations 2017 This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press. First published 2017 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Printed in Great Britain by CPI Group (UK) Ltd, Croydon CR0 4YY A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library ISBN 978-1-316-64062-3 Paperback Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of URLs for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication, and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate. Information regarding prices, travel timetables, and other factual information given in this work is correct at the time of first printing but Cambridge University Press does not guarantee the accuracy of such information thereafter. notice to teachers in the uk It is illegal to reproduce any part of this work in material form (including photocopying and electronic storage) except under the following circumstances: (i) where you are abiding by a licence granted to your school or institution by the Copyright Licensing Agency; (ii) where no such licence exists, or where you wish to exceed the terms of a licence, and you have gained the written permission of Cambridge University Press; (iii) where you are allowed to reproduce without permission under the provisions of Chapter 3 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, which covers, for example, the reproduction of short passages within certain types of educational anthology and reproduction for the purposes of setting examination questions.
Contents Acknowledgements
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1 Introduction to the series by the editors
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2 Purpose and context
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3 The nature of the subject
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4 Key considerations
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5 Interpreting a syllabus
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6 Active learning
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7 Assessment for Learning
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8 Metacognition
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9 Language awareness
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10 Inclusive education
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11 Teaching with digital technologies
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12 Global thinking
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13 Reflective practice
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14 Understanding the impact of classroom practice on student progress
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Recommended reading
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Index 146
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Approaches to learning and teaching in XXXXXXXXX
Acknowledgements The authors and publishers acknowledge the following sources of copyright material and are grateful for the permissions granted. Cover bgblue/Getty Images; Fig. 3.1 Wolfgang Kaehler/Getty Images; Fig 3.2 InkkStudios/Getty Images; Fig 4.1 Simon Armitage; Fig 4.2 The Studio Dog/GettyImages; Fig 4.3a Paul Souders/Getty Images; Fig 4.3b Historical/Getty Images; Fig 5.1a Maremagnum/Getty Images; Fig 5.1b Brent Clark Photography/Getty Images; Fig 6.1a Bloomberg/Getty Images; Fig 6.1b cheechew/Getty Images; Fig 6.3 Uvants2, Creative Commons 3.0; Fig 7.2a Eurasia/robertharding/Getty Images; Fig 7.2b sittitap/Getty Images; Fig 8.3 Danita Delimont/Getty Images; Fig 8.4 Robert Frenck/Getty Images; Fig 8.5 Jaroslaw Kilian/Getty Images; Fig 9.1a Simon Armitage; Fig 9.1b PedoAnton/Shutterstock; Fig 9.2 Chris Craggs/Alamy; Fig 11.1 panarba/Getty Images; Figs 11.2a, 11.2b Lindrik/Getty Images; Fig 12.1 Cultura RM Exclusive/Philip Lee Harvey/Getty Images; Fig 12.2 Š NASA; Fig 12.3 franckreporter/Getty Images Online lesson ideas: Lesson 4.2 Fig 4.4a david pearson/Alamy Stock Photo; Lesson 4.2 Fig 4.4b Paul Quayle/Alamy Stock Photo; Lesson 6.1 Fig 6.3b Simon Armitage; Lesson 10.2 within poster Wirachai/Getty Images, Antonello Turchetti/Getty Images, Thomas Imo/Photothek via Getty Images
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Introduction to the series by the editors
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Approaches to learning and teaching Geography
This series of books is the result of close collaboration between Cambridge University Press and Cambridge International Examinations, both departments of the University of Cambridge. The books are intended as a companion guide for teachers, to supplement your learning and provide you with extra resources for the lessons you are planning. Their focus is deliberately not syllabus-specific, although occasional reference has been made to programmes and qualifications. We want to invite you to set aside for a while assessment objectives and grading, and take the opportunity instead to look in more depth at how you teach your subject and how you motivate and engage with your students. The themes presented in these books are informed by evidence-based research into what works to improve students’ learning and pedagogical best practices. To ensure that these books are first and foremost practical resources, we have chosen not to include too many academic references, but we have provided some suggestions for further reading. We have further enhanced the books by asking the authors to create accompanying lesson ideas. These are described in the text and can be found in a dedicated space online. We hope the books will become a dynamic and valid representation of what is happening now in learning and teaching in the context in which you work. Our organisations also offer a wide range of professional development opportunities for teachers. These range from syllabus- and topicspecific workshops and large-scale conferences to suites of accredited qualifications for teachers and school leaders. Our aim is to provide you with valuable support, to build communities and networks, and to help you both enrich your own teaching methodology and evaluate its impact on your students. Each of the books in this series follows a similar structure. In the first chapter, we have asked our authors to consider the essential elements of their subject, the main concepts that might be covered in a school curriculum, and why these are important. The next chapter gives you a brief guide on how to interpret a syllabus or subject guide, and how to plan a programme of study. The authors will encourage you to think too about what is not contained in a syllabus and how you can pass on your own passion for the subject you teach.
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Introduction to the series by the editors The main body of the text takes you through those aspects of learning and teaching which are widely recognised as important. We would like to stress that there is no single recipe for excellent teaching, and that different schools, operating in different countries and cultures, will have strong traditions that should be respected. There is a growing consensus, however, about some important practices and approaches that need to be adopted if students are going to fulfil their potential and be prepared for modern life. In the common introduction to each of these chapters we look at what the research says and the benefits and challenges of particular approaches. Each author then focuses on how to translate theory into practice in the context of their subject, offering practical lesson ideas and teacher tips. These chapters are not mutually exclusive but can be read independently of each other and in whichever order suits you best. They form a coherent whole but are presented in such a way that you can dip into the book when and where it is most convenient for you to do so. The final two chapters are common to all the books in this series and are not written by the subject authors. Schools and educational organisations are increasingly interested in the impact that classroom practice has on student outcomes. We have therefore included an exploration of this topic and some practical advice on how to evaluate the success of the learning opportunities you are providing for your students. The book then closes with some guidance on how to reflect on your teaching and some avenues you might explore to develop your own professional learning. We hope you find these books accessible and useful. We have tried to make them conversational in tone so you feel we are sharing good practice rather than directing it. Above all, we hope that the books will inspire you and enable you to think in more depth about how you teach and how your students learn. Paul Ellis and Lauren Harris Series Editors
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Purpose and context
Purpose and context International research into educational effectiveness tells us that student achievement is influenced most by what teachers do in classrooms. In a world of rankings and league tables we tend to notice performance, not preparation, yet the product of education is more than just examinations and certification. Education is also about the formation of effective learning habits that are crucial for success within and beyond the taught curriculum. The purpose of this series of books is to inspire you as a teacher to reflect on your practice, try new approaches and better understand how to help your students learn. We aim to help you develop your teaching so that your students are prepared for the next level of their education as well as life in the modern world. This book will encourage you to examine the processes of learning and teaching, not just the outcomes. We will explore a variety of teaching strategies to enable you to select which is most appropriate for your students and the context in which you teach. When you are making your choice, involve your students: all the ideas presented in this book will work best if you engage your students, listen to what they have to say, and consistently evaluate their needs. Effective PD
Improved teaching
Improved learning
Cognitive psychologists, coaches and sports writers have noted how the aggregation of small changes can lead to success at the highest level. As teachers, we can help our students make marginal gains by guiding them in their learning, encouraging them to think and talk about how they are learning, and giving them the tools to monitor their success. If you take care of the learning, the performance will take care of itself. When approaching an activity for the first time, or revisiting an area of learning, ask yourself if your students know how to: • approach a new task and plan which strategies they will use • monitor their progress and adapt their approach if necessary • look back and reflect on how well they did and what they might do differently next time. 5
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Approaches to learning and teaching Geography
Effective learners understand that learning is an active process. We need to challenge and stretch our students and enable them to interrogate, analyse and evaluate what they see and hear. Consider whether your students: • challenge assumptions and ask questions • try new ideas and take intellectual risks • devise strategies to overcome any barriers to their learning that they encounter. As we discuss in the chapters on Active learning and Metacognition, it is our role as teachers to encourage these practices with our students so that they become established routines. We can help students review their own progress as well as getting a snapshot ourselves of how far they are progressing by using some of the methods we explore in the chapter on Assessment for Learning. Students often view the subject lessons they are attending as separate from each other, but they can gain a great deal if we encourage them to take a more holistic appreciation of what they are learning.This requires not only understanding how various concepts in a subject fit together, but also how to make connections between different areas of knowledge and how to transfer skills from one discipline to another. As our students successfully integrate disciplinary knowledge, they are better able to solve complex problems, generate new ideas and interpret the world around them. In order for students to construct an understanding of the world and their significance in it, we need to lead students into thinking habitually about why a topic is important on a personal, local and global scale. Do they realise the implications of what they are learning and what they do with their knowledge and skills, not only for themselves but also for their neighbours and the wider world? To what extent can they recognise and express their own perspective as well as the perspectives of others? We will consider how to foster local and global awareness, as well as personal and social responsibility, in the chapter on Global thinking. As part of the learning process, some students will discover barriers to their learning: we need to recognise these and help students to overcome them. Even students who regularly meet success face their own challenges. We have all experienced barriers to our own learning at some point in our lives and should be able as teachers to empathise and share our own methods for dealing with these. In the
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Purpose and context chapter on Inclusive education we discuss how to make learning accessible for everyone and how to ensure that all students receive the instruction and support they need to succeed as learners. Some students are learning through the medium of English when it is not their first language, while others may struggle to understand subject jargon even if they might otherwise appear fluent. For all students, whether they are learning through their first language or an additional language, language is a vehicle for learning. It is through language that students access the content of the lesson and communicate their ideas. So, as teachers, it is our responsibility to make sure that language isn’t a barrier to learning. In the chapter on Language awareness we look at how teachers can pay closer attention to language to ensure that all students can access the content of a lesson. Alongside a greater understanding of what works in education and why, we as teachers can also seek to improve how we teach and expand the tools we have at our disposal. For this reason, we have included a chapter in this book on Teaching with digital technologies, discussing what this means for our classrooms and for us as teachers. Institutes of higher education and employers want to work with students who are effective communicators and who are information literate. Technology brings both advantages and challenges and we invite you to reflect on how to use it appropriately. This book has been written to help you think harder about the impact of your teaching on your students’ learning. It is up to you to set an example for your students and to provide them with opportunities to celebrate success, learn from failure and, ultimately, to succeed. We hope you will share what you gain from this book with other teachers and that you will be inspired by the ideas that are presented here.We hope that you will encourage your school leaders to foster a positive environment that allows both you and your students to meet with success and to learn from mistakes when success is not immediate.We hope too that this book can help in the creation and continuation of a culture where learning and teaching are valued and through which we can discover together what works best for each and every one of our students.
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The nature of the subject
The nature of the subject
The nature of Geography Geography is an eclectic subject, built around the analysis and synthesis of information concerning the world in all its facets. We can express the range of the world’s geography most simply as ‘human’ and ‘physical’. However, this is perhaps to create too much of an artificial division between the natural environment, its process and features, and the human environment. In reality these areas of Geography are interrelated and certainly highly complex. Even the most remote location is still touched by human impact.
Figure 3.1: Antarctica and the changing ice mass. Human impact reaches to every part of the globe.
Lesson idea ONLINE 3.1: Questions about the environment Use Lesson idea 3.1 to challenge your students to consider the ways in which people are having an impact on locations around the world. Use images (such as Figures 3.1 or 3.2) to prompt their discussions.
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Approaches to learning and teaching Geography
Figure 3.2: An aerial image from just south of Phoenix, Arizona, USA showing irrigation in the desert landscape (taken from Google Maps using the ‘Earth’ view).
If Geography means ‘Earth writing’, our study of it must reflect a desire to interpret the world and to understand our own place in that world. We do this by examining issues and locations from small-scale, localised study to the regional level and then to macro-scale, global matters such as atmospheric circulation and climate change. All along, our challenge is to help our students connect to these issues and locations and to relate them to their own circumstances. If we can capture some of this in our classes, we will have done a good job.
The language of Geography Geography should be the most accessible of all subjects – we all experience geography every day. Sometimes it is good to study theories and ideas in Geography lessons, but our subject’s strength is in the application of these ideas to the world
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The nature of the subject around us. Students need to see the rationale for their study, whether the topic is of glacial landscapes and processes, or models of urban development and morphology (such as Hoyt’s Model or Christaller’s Central Place Theory). We must always be able to answer the student’s question, ‘What’s the use of that?’ in a way that shows the academic challenge of the subject and also its application to our world. We will revisit some of these theories and ideas in Chapter 5 Interpreting a syllabus.
Figure 3.3: Christaller’s Central Place Model. The theory asserts that urban settlements function as central places that provide services to surrounding areas.
Bring the outside in No Geography teacher should teach about a location without ‘taking the students to it’ – as closely as possible. Images, video clips and relevant news and online articles have largely replaced the static textbook study. So, if you are going to ask for anything by the way of a special resource for your classroom, ask for a large enough screen on which to project clear images (a computer projector is ideal). Blackout blinds can help the immersive learning experience. Try to decorate the walls of your room and even the corridors with images from locations that you are studying – every space in your school is a learning space.
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Approaches to learning and teaching Geography
Teacher Tip Always refer to a map in some way when mentioning places. Anchor knowledge in ‘place’ and cultivate the understanding of the importance of a location’s context.
Many schools now have reasonable or even excellent internet connec tions and the ability to project images or video in the classroom. Sources of information found on social media are also making their way into lessons, so we are more connected than ever before and we must use this in the classroom where we can. If you are teaching about change in another part of the world and you happen to know someone who lives there, is it possible to arrange a video link? If that isn’t practical, can a contact take an image and email it with a couple of comments? Teacher Tip Geography teachers should feel able to lead the way in using the global connectivity that the internet brings. Geography is the ultimate global subject! Be adventurous in your use of the world of resources and request that your school understands your need for global connectivity wherever possible because it is part of Geography.
Take the classroom outside – the importance of fieldwork More will be said of this in Chapter 10 Inclusive education. However, we can add great value to the educational experience of our students if we make the most of the local environment in which the school is situated. Short excursions as well as more substantial day-trips or residential visits ensure that students appreciate the application of what they are learning within the classroom.
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The nature of the subject Fieldwork can be as simple as teaching a very similar lesson but outside and ‘on location’ so that the students can see, hear, touch and even smell the issues being taught. This can be developed by interacting with that environment through making sketches and taking photographs and video, which can be annotated with explanations. Further still, students can engage with the environment and the issues being taught through measurements (e.g. using a clinometer to measure slope angles on beaches, using a measuring tape to calculate the wetted perimeter of a river channel, or taking decibel readings for noise pollution). Specialist equipment is not always necessary; methods such as land-use surveys, environmental quality measurements and questionnaire surveys may form part of human or physical Geography fieldwork. Many mobile phone platforms will run applications for items such as: compass, clinometer, decibel meter, altimeter, GPS and more.
Problems or solutions? Some students comment that Geography seems to be very problemfocused. There are so many problematic issues in the world to study and address that the subject can cause students to become disheartened. Sometimes we need to be careful to shift our students’ attention onto solutions. For example, when teaching about pressing issues such as climate change or poverty, you might ask the students to recommend their top solutions. This challenges students to consider important questions, such as: a What is the easiest ‘win’? – the solution with the biggest positive impact in the quickest time, achieved most cost-effectively. b Are some problems simply worth accepting? – their solutions are too complex, too slow or too expensive to entertain. Lesson Idea ONLINE 3.2: Solutions or problems? In Lesson idea 3.2, students are asked to identify the top five geographical problems in their locality and their country, then challenged to come up with their top five positive actions (solutions) that can be taken in that same location. Which are easier to identify, the problems or the ‘solutions’? Then consider why it is sometimes harder to agree on solutions than on the identification of problems.
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Approaches to learning and teaching Geography
Teacher Tip The Copenhagen Consensus Centre website is useful and thought-provoking on this issue. Give your students opportunities to access resources which present a range of views. Leave a selection of books, newspaper articles or website links on display in your classroom so students can help themselves, perhaps during a lunchtime. Think about starting a Geography club so your students can share their reading.
summary • Make the most of the diversity of topics within the study of Geography and their connections with other subjects too. • Make the most of the practical aspect of Geography and study, both inside and outside the classroom. • Be positive – humankind faces problems but we can encourage our students to look at the many encouraging developments and possible solutions.
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Key considerations
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Approaches to learning and teaching Geography
As you think about how you are going to teach Geography, it may be helpful to consider something about how the subject is viewed in different parts of the world and how it has evolved over time.Texts such as Johnston (1991) and Matthews and Herbert (2008) provide a helpful overview. If you do not have a national curriculum for Geography you will have to be careful in your choices. As well as taking a topic-based approach – to be discussed in Chapter 5 Interpreting a syllabus – I have always found that it is helpful to include some regional Geography, studying a range of human and physical aspects of particular countries including your own. Including the ‘home location’ gives an overview of the place in which the students are living and helps them to be able to look at many aspects of their own physical and human environments, and to explain and interpret them. It is, however, important to study contrasting environments as well. The following is a suggestion of some of the main considerations that you will need to reflect on as you develop your Geography teaching, together with some ideas that you might like to use in your own classroom.
Never stop asking questions Teaching about extreme environments, or anywhere very different to where you live, can be a challenge. Give the students a challenge too – remember, it is all about helping them to ask great questions. Once they begin to do that, they will be hooked.
Figure 4.1: A view somewhere over Siberia. It is February. Imagine you are going to parachute into this location. What are you going to find?
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Key considerations
Establish a fair view of the world When students imagine a map of the world they typically see that map being centred on their location (by longitude). When you have students from North America, Europe and South-East Asia in the same class, they may imagine the world centred on these locations. We all see the world through the lens of our own experience – it is our world view. It could be called our positionality : where we are, who we are, when we are. All of our views of events and change are heavily influenced by our positionality and, as teachers, we need to recognise that this may have a profoundly distorting view on the world and on world issues.
Figure 4.2: An alternative view of Australia. It is only by convention that north is placed at the top of most maps.
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Teacher Tip Make sure your students are using accurate and up to date information about the places they study. This includes making sure that students are well-informed about their own country and location, about which they can easily make assumptions.
Lesson Idea ONLINE 4.1: Mental mapping Lesson idea 4.1 challenges your students to draw their location simply as they envisage it in their minds. This is called ‘mental mapping’.
Keep up to date The eruption of Mt St Helens, USA in 1980 was a landmark in the study of volcanology. The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development in Rio de Janeiro 1992 was a key moment in the evolution of ideas and politics of sustainability. However, these moments are now ‘old’ to the current generation of students. They are still very important events to reference but Geography teachers need to represent our subject, from volcanic eruptions to sustainability initiatives, as it is now. If you decide that there are good reasons for studying an older example, it is worth bringing it up to date by looking at that same location in the present as well.Your choice of case study is important (see Figures 4.3a and 4.3b), so consider which will bring the greatest engagement and relevance to your students as well as helping their understanding of geographical processes.
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Key considerations
Figure 4.3a: Eyjafjallajรถkull, Iceland 2010.
Figure 4.3b: Mt St Helens, USA 1980.
Which of these locations would you choose to study with your students?
Teacher Tip Many teachers recommend using social media or online news feeds to access the most current information. Alternatively, look out for TV programmes and newspaper articles that can help you keep up to date.
Handle hazards and disasters sensitively The geography of hazards and disasters is a compelling area of study for many students. With so many major population centres at or near tectonic boundaries, in tropical cyclone zones or on densely crowded slopes, natural disasters are important topics of study. Add to that climate change, population pressure, industrial expansion and conflict, and there is a heady mix of problems for the Geography student. However, we need to be aware of two important issues.
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a Studying real-world natural, or indeed human-induced, disasters for academic ends poses serious moral questions. In the midst of factfiles of knowledge and understanding of management techniques we must not omit empathy. b We cannot understand how to manage the human conditions without appreciating the physical processes.
A checklist of ideas and considerations that many students find challenging Based on personal experience and in dialogue with colleagues, this is a checklist for ideas that are important for geographical understanding but for which students need practice and consistent reminders to appreciate. You might follow this up with reference to the article by Taylor (2008) (see Recommended reading). 1 The scale of geographical features. Appreciating the size of a lateral moraine or the depth of a glacial trough is difficult if students have never seen such landforms. The approximate similarity in shape between roche moutonnée, drumlin and a crag and tail is a challenge, and students will benefit enormously if they can appreciate the scale. In human Geography, the scale of a place such as Greater Tokyo may present similar conceptual challenges. 2 Distances, especially in countries that are very different in size. Map projections can be particularly unhelpful here and I strongly recommend a careful choice of the world map projection that you choose for your classroom wall. Size and distance is relative in students’ minds. The concept of ‘close by’ is likely to be very different in Kazakhstan, Australia or Canada compared to Singapore or the UK. 3 Ideas of sustainability, interdependence and globalisation. These are challenging, largely because of their potential complexity and the fact that they are such wide-reaching concepts. 4 Physical processes that you can’t necessarily see or encounter. I am thinking here of atmospheric processes but the same could be applied to soil processes or basal slippage of glaciers. Understanding 20
Key considerations how low and high pressure systems function, or how air moves between latitudes in general circulation, is a challenge. It can be more difficult than understanding the essentially visible process of longshore drift or the deposition on a river’s slip-off slope. 5 Handling subjective methodology and information. For example, how to attempt to make a subjective method such as environmental quality surveying more objective. This has implications for fieldwork methods (such as environmental quality surveys) and for the interpretation of development data (such as quality of life indices). 6 The relationship between theory and reality. Appreciating the purpose of geographical models such as central place theory or urban models is part of the challenge because they may seem abstract and far from reality.
Lesson idea ONLINE 4.2: Investigating globalisation Lesson idea 4.2 asks students to carry out an investigation based around the idea of globalisation. They use a set of questions to consider two versions of ‘western foods’.
Don’t assume Recently a student in my Year 9 (8th grade) class commented that Wuxi New Town (just part of the vast and expanding central Chinese area around Chongqing) ‘wasn’t too far’ from Beijing. On a global scale, the student was right. However, she had completely failed to appreciate the size of China (Wuxi is around 1500 km from Beijing) in comparison to the UK. Teacher Tip Never assume knowledge of place! Students often find aspects of place, scale and distance quite challenging. Try to make sure that easy comparisons are made with their home location in order to minimise this kind of problem.
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summary • There is no reason why your students should share each other’s or your perspectives on the world. We all have our unique positionality. • Keep up to date. Geography is a ‘live’ subject. • As you will be well aware, the world is complex. Use students’ prior knowledge but be careful not to make assumptions.
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Interpreting a syllabus
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Approaches to learning and teaching Geography
Syllabuses for public examination contain key information about the division of skills, knowledge and understanding expected of students in the examination. T his allows the teacher to see the relative importance of the different assessment components and to plan accordingly.
Skills versus knowledge There is a debate in Geography, as in all subjects, about the nature of the balance between skills and knowledge. The argument for knowledge goes something like this: facts are important because we need a factual or knowledge basis for any statements and decisions. The argument for skills says: it is the ability to use knowledge that is more important, especially because factual knowledge changes so quickly and is more readily accessible due to technological advances. In that context, students and teachers should never become slaves to the syllabus. The syllabus is, however, the guide for the overall route that needs to be followed.
Translating the examination syllabus We should consider how we plan for: • terminology – the language of Geography • key concepts – the main ideas which will facilitate learning • examples – the case studies which illustrate our arguments. It is possible to start teaching a topic with any of these elements, according to the learning of your students, their interests, motivations, engagement, specific needs and abilities. However, the inclusion of an example early on will establish the connection of academic study with the real world. If we apply these ideas to the Cambridge IGCSE unit on population and settlement, we could start with establishing the terminology of the topic before attempting to introduce an example. If we do this, we will be able to make more productive use of the concepts of population 24
Interpreting a syllabus structure (by gender and by age), changes over time in the demographic transition, over- and under-population, and population density. Alternatively we might start with the concept of ‘over-population’ and use this as a basis for establishing why there could be too many people in a given location for the resources that are available. On the other hand, an example could be introduced right from the start and through this example you could introduce the terminology and key concepts.
Case studies Case studies are tours of a given location. The ‘expert guide’ approach is one that I favour. The level of detail is right when the student can act as a knowledgeable tour guide. However, it is also important that this factual content should have a context of relevant concepts and ideas. The case study is the illustration to the argument that the student makes. I tend to describe this to my students as a ‘sandwich’ approach. Too much filling (the case study) and the sandwich will collapse (it will not have enough structure and argument). Too little filling and the sandwich will lack interest (there is not enough illustration to your argument). Teacher Tip It’s a good idea to be as consistent as possible in the way in which you introduce case studies. You might adapt a grid – something like that shown in Table 5.1.
Event Date Location
Impact (environment, economy and society)
Response
Cause Short term Long term Immediate Longer term
Table 5.1: A grid for hazard management case studies.
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Approaches to learning and teaching Geography
Choosing topics Where you have a choice of case studies, consider the following issues: 1 Can you choose something that is close to your school or in its area so that it is familiar? (E.g. if your school is in a rural location, study the evolution and change in rural settlements or agricultural systems.) 2 Can you choose something that is from a substantially contrasting physical or human environment from your school’s location? (E.g. as I live in Cambridge, UK I feel it is important to teach my students about much more extreme physical environments, such as hot and cold deserts; compare Figures 5.1a and 5.1b.) 3 There is great value in teaching students about the geography of their country so that they can have a fair attempt to explain the majority of physical and human landscapes that they might encounter. Of course, if you live somewhere the size of Russia this might be quite a challenge! However, this principle can be adapted usefully to your own circumstances.
Figure 5.1a: University city, Cambridge, UK.
Figure 5.1b: Hot arid desert, Arizona, USA.
Understanding your own location and studying contrasting ones is an important aspect of a good programme of study.
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Interpreting a syllabus
Fieldwork Plan your fieldwork expeditions carefully to allow you the best chance of seeing and engaging with the world outside the classroom while considering the timing during the year. Although we like to think we go out in all weathers, the reality is that enjoyment of the fieldwork is related to the comfort of the day – we don’t want it to be memorable for the wrong reasons.You may need to consider the hours of available daylight or the heat of the midday sun, and even the timing of the tides if you are visiting coastlines. Studying the beach profile when the tide is fully in is not possible; however, if the tide is in the process of coming in, it could be extremely dangerous. Make sure that your students understand enough of the processes and concepts before they go into the field. They need a framework in which to place what they see and what they do, and to be able to recognise the ideas that they have covered in class. If this is not in place, the trip will lose focus and impact.
Geographical skills Skills of map work and image interpretation are usually best achieved when they are integrated into the programme of study. Maps at the appropriate scale (usually 1:25000 or 1:50000) can be shown at almost any stage when dealing with physical and human environment topics such as rivers, coasts or settlement morphology. Understanding how to interpret a map requires practice, perhaps even more so with satellite navigation and GPS systems being used more widely. Teacher Tip Some of your students may not have studied much Geography as a discrete subject: it may have been merged with their study of science and general humanities. Don’t assume that students know what they are about to study in Geography.
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Lesson idea ONLINE 5.1: Ten suggestions on how to develop map skills Use Lesson idea 5.1 to help students understand how geographical skills can be developed, remembered and applied.
Taught on their own and then with only occasional reference, skills will become abstract ideas so it’s helpful to consider how your programme of study or scheme of work is going to reference them along the way. Creating a planning grid to complement the syllabus (see Table 5.2) is a good medium-term planning strategy. Topic
Idea
Processes Main Example Digital Geographical content opportunities skills
Table 5.2: An overview planning grid.
Synergies across the curriculum ‘We’ve done Global Warming already in Chemistry and Biology, and for our assembly last year and now we are doing it again, but you’re calling it Climate Change!’ Have you heard that cry from your students? I suspect it is more common than it should be. We need to make sure our students are getting the best deal and build on the knowledge they have gained in other subject areas. ‘But wouldn’t that be easier on a spreadsheet?’ Here we also have the opportunity to build on skills learnt elsewhere, for example graphing or statistical methods in Mathematics. Teacher Tip Where you work will influence how you work. Choosing to work in a department base may be very convenient, but are you missing important transdisciplinary conversations, for example with the mathematics department who are keen to teach the use of statistics and the presentation of data, or
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Interpreting a syllabus with the biologists who are teaching ecological succession and wanting to use an example that you as a Geographer could also develop? Once you have had these conversations you may need to revisit your programme of study to reconsider the order of teaching. You might even be able to team up with a colleague in another subject and team-teach a group; perhaps introducing a topic on housing solutions in cities together with an engineering, science or design teacher to explain the extent to which sustainable materials might be used.
Lesson idea ONLINE 5.2: Mapping the Equinox Lesson idea 5.2 asks students to correlate average temperature against latitude on the equinox, so helps students understand the relationship between insolation and temperature across the world. Skills developed include data gathering, statistics and correlations.
Planning for coursework Consider the timing of any coursework that you do so that it is manageable for your support to individual students and small groups within the class, and is also complementary to any coursework that is being set in other subjects. It might also need to align with the timing of your fieldwork. Establishing the rationale of any data collection in advance is important. This will allow students to write better-reasoned methodologies that come from more carefully considered aims and hypotheses. Writing coursework can act as effective revision for the unit as well as for the acquisition of marks for external assessment. Teacher Tip Encourage students to underline terminology that they use in their analysis. They will be able to see more easily if their work is of suitable, technical quality.
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