MLA Thesis Research Manifesto 2018 by Cynthia Miao

VISIBILITY

Reframing Vog Through Landscape Art and Technologies

Cynthia Miao MLA 2D Thesis

VISIBILITY

Reframing Vog Through Landscape Art and Technologies

Master of Landscape Architecture Thesis Proposal

By Cynthia Miao University of California, Berkeley Committee Members: Danika Cooper Kristina Hill Walter Hood

ABSTRACT How do we make something invisible, visible? Vog, which is volcanic smog, is invisible. It originates from Kilauea Volcano located in Hawai’i, which is the most active volcano in the world and has been erupting continuously since 1983. This constant volcanic activity along with the eruption in 2008 have caused sulfur dioxide emissions to dramatically increase, leading to questions about its impact on public and environmental health. The majority of people that suffer are children, individuals that have chronic respiratory problems, and current and former smokers. Additional consequences are the deterioration of agricultural croplands, infrastructure, and livestock health, consequences of which result in millions of dollars in damages, the bankruptcy of local farmers, and increasing the state’s dependency on imported food sources. Despite these setbacks, the local residents and farmers refuse to evacuate the land. This attitude may be credited to ancient Hawaiian legends surrounding volcanoes and Pele, the fire goddess. This thesis will explore site specific land art and technologies as critical tools to promote awareness and challenge public perception about vog while providing public health benefits. The research will begin by studying the physical compositions of vog, how it affects public health, the economy, and the environment, and methods of extracting it from the atmosphere. Secondly, ancient Hawaiian legends will be studied to understand the Hawaiian’s cultural relationship to volcanoes as well as contemporary attitudes. Lastly, the travel path of vog due to wind and other natural forces will be examined to locate areas that are the most vulnerable and identifying them as potential design intervention sites. This information will be used to create a speculative design project that provides opportunities to preserve public health and renew our relationship with nature and make people begin to see the invisible.

RESEARCH STATEMENT Kilauea volcano, located on the Big Island of Hawai’i is known as the most active volcano in the world and is the nation’s greatest source of sulfur dioxide. This emitted sulfur dioxide reacts with moisture, oxygen, and aerosols in the atmosphere in the presence of sunlight to create vog—volcanic smog. Although vog has been present in the atmosphere surrounding Hawai’i since the birth of the islands, in 1983, the rift named Pu’u ‘O’o has opened up in the east causing over a 300% increase in sulfur dioxide. Since then, the volcano has been continuously erupting. In 2008, an eruption of Kilauea volcano has caused the opening in the summit called Halema’uma’u to dramatically increase to unprecedented levels of sulfur dioxide.1 (See Figure 2) Emissions are estimated to be about 3,000 to 5,000 tons per day (tpd) of sulfur dioxide in contrast to the previous 1,700 tpd. These levels vary in different areas.2

vog on the local populations and ecology in Hawai’i will be examined. Trends of historic sulfur dioxide emissions and how it is influenced by volcanic activity, trade wind patterns, sunlight, and other factors affecting vog will also be analyzed, as well as spatial modelling of its natural processes and flow. This will also include a site visit to the towns of Kilauea, Mountainview, Ka’u, and Oceanview in order to see the physical attributes of land uses, the culture of the people, and the dispersive qualities of vog. Despite the ever-present risk of another eruption and dangerous vog levels, the local community refuse to leave the area. This may be due to ancient Hawaiian legends around Pele, the volcano goddess. Pele, also referred to as “Madame Pele” or “Tutu Pele” is among the most powerful figures and is well respected among locals and visitors. She is believed to live in Kilauea volcano today and remains active as proven through constant volcanic activity. Locals and visitors often provide offerings to Pele as respect and in hopes of mercy from the next disaster.5 Hawai’i is rich in culture and tradition that is embedded within the landscape. Legends and mythology surrounding Pele and the land will be examined as a part of the larger research in understanding the cultural beliefs of the people of Hawai’i.

The increased levels of vog in the atmosphere has become a serious concern for the people of Hawai’i. Sensitive groups comprise of children under the age of fourteen, smokers and former smokers, and individuals suffering from chronic respiratory diseases such as asthma. However, when sulfur dioxide concentrations reach over 1.01 parts-per-million (ppm), the entire population is affected. Reported symptoms include respiratory difficulties, reduced visibility, sore throat, eye irritation, headaches, increased mucus production, and general lethargy.3 Vog typically travels upwards and around the source and is carried to the south-west by northeast trade winds. Areas that are the most susceptible to vog and ash fall are Kilauea, Mountainview, Ka’u, Oceanview, and Kona. Within these areas are also hundreds of acres of deteriorated agricultural crop land due to sulfur burns and infrastructure damages losing millions of dollars and the bankruptcy of local farmers.4 Case studies surrounding the health effects of

___________________________________________________ FOOTNOTES

“Fact Sheet, Volcanic Air Pollution--A Hazard in Hawai`i; Fact Sheet 169-97.” 2 PBR Hawaii & Associates, Inc., “Ka’u District Gym & Shelter: Final Environmental Assessment.” 3 Longo, “Adverse Health Effects Associated with Increased Activity at Kilauea Volcano.” 4 “Fact Sheet, Volcanic Air Pollution--A Hazard in Hawai`i; Fact Sheet 169-97.” 5 “Pele, Hawaii Goddess of Fire.” LEFT Figure 1: Context Map of the Big Island, Hawai’i 1

Kilauea volcano is expected to erupt at any moment and is being closely monitored by USGS and Hawai’i Volcano Observatory. Air quality monitors are situated along the south-east and south-west coasts in areas that are the most susceptible to vog. Volcanic emissions are measured and monitored using ultraviolet spectrometer array technology and telescope that can generate real-time vog model data and forecasts. The information and forecasts can be viewed online in order to inform the public about atmospheric hazards. When the sulfur dioxide concentrations are too high, the public are recommended to leave the area, avoid outdoor activities, and to remain indoors.6 However, an indoor air quality assessment conducted by Bernadette Longo, an associate professor of the Department of Humanities at New Jersey Institute of Technology, states that all indoor sulfur dioxide concentrations among the

homes in the Ka’u district were above the World Health Organization’s average 24-hour recommendation.7 Therefore, current solutions are not effective in protecting the health of local communities. Ka’u has been identified in an environmental assessment report by PBR Hawaii in 2012 as the most vulnerable district in the Hawai’i to vog. This environmental assessment is for the proposed Ka’u District Gym and Shelter (completed in 2016) located in Pahala, Hawai’i, just south west of Kilauea volcano. Prior to the building of the Ka’u District Gym and Shelter, there were no adequate vog shelters in the district aside from the Ka’u Hospital reserved for patients only. A 3,061 square feet multi-purpose room with the capacity of 192 people within the gym has been designated as a “vog shelter”. (See Figure 4) This room is designed with an Summit (Halema’uma’u)

Rift (Pu’u ‘O’o)

2.5

SO2 (million metric tons/year)

1.5

0.5

0 1978

1983

2008 Year Trend Analysis of SO2 Emissions 8

2016

people in and the vog out. Is there a different definition of shelter? Is there another method of providing refuge while allowing the public to understand and become aware of what is happening around them?

air filtration system and air conditioning. The recreation room also within the gym can function as an additional shelter with a capacity of 1,880 square feet that can hold 125 people. However, this room does not have air conditioning.8 This gives the total sheltering capacity of 317 people and are intended for sensitive groups only. In a demographic study in 2016 by the United States Census Bureau, there are 268 children under the ages of 14 living in the town of Pahala alone.9 Therefore, the sensitive group may be greater than the maximum capacity of the vog shelter. During periods of extreme sulfur dioxide levels, both sensitive groups and the rest of the population’s health is at risk and needs to be protected. The Ka’u District Gym and Shelter project has brought one definition of a shelter to our attention—four walls with a roof and equipped with air filtration and air conditioning—designed to keep

___________________________________________________ FOOTNOTES

“USGS: Volcano Hazards Program HVO Kilauea.” Longo et al., An Indoor Air Quality Assessment for Vulnerable Populations Exposed to Volcanic Vog From Kilauea Volcano. 8 PBR Hawaii & Associates, Inc., “Ka’u District Gym & Shelter: Final Environmental Assessment.” 9 Bureau, “American FactFinder - Community Facts.” LEFT Figure 2: Trend Analysis of SO2 Emission, USGS, 2016. MIDDLE Figure 3: Aerial image of Pahala, Hawai’i, Google Earth, 2017. RIGHT Figure 4: Plan of Ka’u Gym and Shelter, Mistunaga and Associates, Inc., 2012. 6 7

3,061 SF 192 people

1,880 SF 125 people

Site specific land art and technologies will be explored as critical tools to promote awareness about vog and public health. Land art has been selected because it works with the dynamic natural processes and the cultural, social, political, and economic history that is embedded with the site. Many land artists have used their works as a medium to express issues that are happening in the world. The experiential nature of these works requires the physical presence of visitors in order for the art to be complete. A German conceptual artist and politician, Joseph Beuys believed this type of art can also be called social sculpture. He argues that art, paired with social participation and popular creativity, can be used as a method of engaging the public and transforming society.10 Precedent projects

such as the Lightning Field by Walter De Maria, Fog Assembly by Olafur Eliasson, and the Carbon Pencil, by Nathalie Jeremijenko are examples of land art. These projects are experiential in quality and offers a new lens to view ephemeral processes such as lightning, fog, and smog, that are similar to vog. This thesis will draw upon several disciplines such as art, landscape, architecture, and sciences to create a speculative project that aims at three functions: (1) Promote public health by creating a refuge for the public in periods of high sulfur dioxide concentrations, (2) Educate local residents and visitors about the natural processes of vog by presenting it in a new, experiential, and tangible manner, (3) The project

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should captivate and relate the audience as a cohesive art piece embedded within the landscape. Through this type of experiential and multi-purpose installation, the intention is for the public to begin to look and interact with vog differently and renew the relationship between vog/volcanoes, and the people.

society have slowly turned the people of Hawai’i’s heads away from their cultural traditions while the increase of sulfur dioxide emissions has created health issues and daily frustrations, causing vog (and volcanoes along with it) to be looked at in disdain. In summary this thesis will aim to reframe this natural process in an educational and experiential manner that will allow people to see vog differently while providing a shelter that will protect public health through a speculative design project.

Vog is a natural and chemical process that is specific to the Hawaiian Islands. People have lived together with volcanoes for centuries and have respected the land that has given them a fertile home to grow and thrive on in its cultural traditions and stories. However, since the introduction of Western traditions and the volcanic activities in 1983 and 2008, the relationship between the landscape and the people have shifted. Western

___________________________________________________ FOOTNOTES

“A Brief Genealogy of Social Sculpture.” Figure 5: Photography of vog envelopping the city of Honolulu, Hawai’i. Source: giantspeck on imgur.com.

BELOW

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RESEARCH QUESTIONS

How can land art and technologies be used as a method to promote public health and awareness about the negative and positive effects of vog? What are the methods of extracting sulfur and other pollutants from the atmosphere in technologies and plants? How do we create site specific and culturally appropriate design for the people of Hawai’i?

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ABOUT SITE Residing in the archipelago in the central Pacific Ocean and 2,000 miles from the nearest continent is a row of islands known as the Hawaiian Archipelago. Each island of this chain is home to one or more volcanoes created by the Hawaiian hot spot on the Pacific Plate. Currently, the Hawaiian hot spot is under the Big Island of Hawai’i which is steadily growing. The Hawaiian volcanoes are called shield volcanoes, characterized by two types: Pahoehoe, smooth and wavy surfaces, or A’a, rough and spiny surfaces. Unlike other highly eruptive volcanoes, the Hawaiian volcanoes erupt basalt, which when molten, produces a highly fluid liquid. The smooth liquid magma pouring out forms a gently sloping base and with years of wind and water erosion, forms the mountains seen today.

well known in traditional Hawaiian mythology and are told to be caused by the activity of the revered fire goddess, Pele. According to legend, Pele was born in Honua-Mea, Tahiti and was one of fourteen children born to Haumea, an ancient Earth goddess, and Kane Milohai, the creator of the sky, earth, and heavens. There are many variations in stories of how Pele first came to the Hawaiian Islands, but the most common tells of her exile by her father due to her temper. She eventually fought with her elder sister, the water goddess, Na-maka-o-Kaha’i whose husband Pele seduced. Her eldest brother, Kamohoali’i, the king of sharks, lent her a canoe which she used to sail across the Pacific Ocean. Meanwhile she carried her favorite little sister, Hi’iaka, in egg-form, until landing in Hawai’i. When Pele first arrived, she stuck her o’o stick deep into the earth of Kauai. However, she was attacked by her elder sister and fled to O’ahu where she dug the crater known today as Diamond Head. She fled to several other islands in a similar manner until happily settling down in the Halema’uma’u Crater located at the summit of Kilauea Volcano where she lives to this day. This area is known as the “Navel of the World”, Ka Piko o ka Honua—where the gods began creation.12

The tropical climate of Hawai’i means the state experiences warm to hot and moist year-round and are often characterized by lush vegetation. In the case of Hawai’i, the lush vegetation is also credited to the nutrient-dense products originating from the volcanoes that create fertile soils. Although predominantly classified as tropical, there exists many different types of climates depending on latitude and surrounding features. Weather in Hawai’i is very consistent with only two seasons, summer (kau) from May to October, and winter (hooilo) from November to April. Hawai’i’s has north-east dominant trade winds but can shift according to the disruption of mountains, hills, and valleys.

___________________________________________________ FOOTNOTES

“A Brief Genealogy of Social Sculpture.” Pele, Hawaii Goddess of Fire.” LEFT Figure 6: A timeline of the genesis of Hawai’i through Hawaiian legends. 11 12

The island of Hawai’i is one of the world’s largest volcanic islands with an area of 4.030 square miles and is made up of five volcanoes: Kilauea, Mauna Kea, Hualalai, Mauna Loa, and Kohala. Kilauea, located southeast of the island, is the youngest and the most active of the Hawaiian volcanoes and has been erupting continuously since 1983. Its eruptions are

The ancient Hawaiians would bring offerings to Kilauea to show respect to Pele and as a result, she provided protection. Today, Kilauea sees over almost two million visitors annually. In 2016, reported spending by visitors in nearby communities are $159,195,500 which supports 1,917 jobs in the local area, and had a $199,923,400 cumulative benefit to the local economy.13

___________________________________________________ FOOTNOTES

“Big Island Now.” Figure 7: What is vog? Diagram explains the source of vog, its direction of dispersion, and the gasses and particles that makes up vog.

BELOW

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY This thesis looks to analyze the historical and modern trends of volcanic gas emissions, the natural processes that effects its deposits and chemical change, the effects of volcanic ash particles on soil, water, atmosphere, and public health, the cultural implications and public attitudes of volcanoes and vog, as well as the aesthetic experience that influences human behavior and attitudes. In order to answer these questions, the research methods of climatology, biogeochemistry, sociology, and environmental psychology will be used. I. MODELLING

III. CASE STUDIES

Biogeochemistry use scientific modelling to aid in studying and translating the chemical physical, geological, and biological processes that influences the natural environment. The discipline focuses on the cycles of carbon, nitrogen, sulfur, and phosphorus, which are prominent in the composition of vog. Scientific modelling of these processes such as where it is created, its travel path, where it is being deposited, what it is affecting, and its physical cycle will be used to understand, define, and visualize the processes of volcanic gas emission, its natural flows, and its environmental impacts.

Lastly, Environmental psychology’s research method of using case studies that observe the human interaction with the natural and built environment will be used in order to understand human and political response to volcanic hazards, the effects of environmental stress on humans, as well as effective methods of engaging the public. Such case studies will include, the response of volcanic hazards from Hawai’i and other similar cases, and landscapes that influence, engage, and change public perceptions of natural processes and ecology. These topics will include educational landscapes, kinetic landscapes, cyborg landscapes, land art, and art installations.

II. TREND ANALYSIS

IV. FIELD RESEARCH

This research method is borrowed from climatology, which is the study of local and regional climate patterns including trade winds, precipitations, and temperature. It considers past trends to predict future patterns and climate change and the interactions between the atmosphere, oceans, and land surface (vegetation, topography, and land use). The trend analysis will be used to study the past volumes of volcanic gas emissions emitted by Kilauea Volcano historically and presently. The trends of trade winds, solar radiation and precipitation will also be analyzed to identify areas that are the most susceptible to vog and volcanic ash deposits such as communities, streams, forests, agricultural land, etc.

Data from the research methods in sociology and cultural anthropology will be used such as interviews, related literature, and ethnographic studies to understand the perceived influences of vog, its health effects on populations, as well as public attitudes and cultural behaviors. Series of research on the health effects of the local populations in Hawai’i through interviews have been conducted by Bernadette Longo and will be referenced in this thesis. In addition to interviews, literature about the ancient Hawaiian and current views of the volcano will be studied to understand previous and current behaviors and policies surrounding the volcano and volcanic hazards. ___________________________________________________ FOOTNOTES RIGHT

Figure 8: Research Methodology Chart

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY FLOW

BORROWED DISCIPLINES

BIOGEOCHEMISTRY

CLIMATOLOGY

ENVIRONMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY

CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY

SPATIAL MODELLING

TREND ANALYSIS

CASE STUDIES

FIELD RESEARCH

MODELLING OF VOG’S PHYSICAL CYCLE

STUDY PAST VOLUMES OF VOLCANIC GAS EMISSIONS FROM KILAUEA VOLCANO

REVIEW PRIOR STUDIES ABOUT HEALTH EFFECTS OF VOG ON HAWAI’I POPULATIONS

SITE VISIT

COMPARE HISTORIC EMISSION TRENDS TO CURRENT TRENDS

COMPARE RESPONSE OF VOLCANIC HAZARDS IN HAWAI’I WITH SIMILAR REGIONS

MODELLING OF VOG’S NATURAL FLOW

MODELLING OF VOG’S IMPACTS

STUDY TRADE WIND TRENDS STUDY SOLAR RADIATION TRENDS STUDY PRECIPITATION TRENDS

19 19

RELATED LITERATURE

ETHNOGRAPHIC STUDIES

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY SPATIAL MODELLING

Figure 9: Solar Radiation

Figure 10: Wind Speeds

LEGEND LEGEND

LEGEND Mean Annual Solar Radiation (W/m2) 130 - 160

Wind Speed(mps) (mps) Wind Speed 12.5

160 - 175 150 - 190 190 - 205

1.0

205 - 220 220 - 235 235 - 250 250 - 265 265 - 280 280 - 300 SO2 reacts with aerosols, moisture, and oxygen in the atmosphere in the presence of sunlight. Areas that receive the most mean annual solar radiation is Mauna Kea volcano and the areas surrounding Kilauea volcano.

Vog flow varies with wind pattern and speeds. Areas that receive the greatest wind speeds is around Kilauea volcano and at the South Point. In the Kona district, the wind speed slows down. Vog is typically seen in the Kona district during periods of low wind speeds.

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Figure 12: SO4 Aerosol Concentrations On December 6 LEGEND SO4 Advisory Levels Hazardous Very Unhealthy Unhealthy Unhealthy for Sensitive Groups Moderate Acceptable

Figure 11: SO2 Concentrations On December 6 LEGEND SO2 Advisory Levels Hazardous Very Unhealthy Unhealthy Unhealthy for Sensitive Groups Moderate Acceptable

This diagram shows the SO2 concentration levels from the Vog Measurement and Prediction Project (VMAP) on December 6, 2017. Ka’u district and areas immediately around Kilauea Volcano have hazardous levels of SO2 that affect all populations.

This diagram shows the SO4 aerosol concentration levels from VMAP on December 6, 2017. Similar to Figure 11, Ka’u district and areas immediately around Kilauea Volcano have hazardous levels of SO4 that affect all populations.

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RESEARCH METHODOLOGY TREND ANALYSIS

Figure 13: SO2 Emission Levels from Air Quality Monitors The following charts from the State of Hawai’i, Department of Health looks at SO2 emission trends from December 1, 2016 to December 7, 2017. Towns that seem to have the highest SO2 concentrations are Pahala and Ocean View, both of which are immediately south west of Kilauea volcano and are located in the Ka’u District. LEGEND SO2 Levels (ppm)

Affects few people

Affects sensitive groups

TREND ANALYSIS

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK This thesis examines the relationship between the local people of Hawai’i and their unique volcanic environments through the aesthetic realm in art, installations, and design interventions. Several theories have been identified that will be relevant in framing this thesis: the Avante-garde, Minimalism, Post-Minimalism, Land Art, Site Specificity, Social Sculpture, and Sculpture in the Expanded Field.

THE AVANT-GARDE AND SOCIAL SCULPTURE

This thesis stems from a similar ideology of Avant-garde and social sculpture about using design as a method of engaging the public and changing perceptions about vog and volcanic landscapes that are so often overlooked or perceivably non-existent.

The Avant-garde originates in France around the 1850s and is applied to radical approaches to art that challenges existing ideas, processes, and form. Henri de Saint-Simon was one of the pioneers of this movement and believed that art can influence society, alongside scientists and industrialists. He wrote:

MINIMALISM Minimalism is primarily an American movement that originated in New York City in the late 1960s and is characterized by a highly simplified form of beauty and honesty.16 The importance element of this theory is not the designer’s expression but rather the medium and the design itself.17 This thesis draws on minimalistic ideals of proposing a design removed from any expressive content that will allow viewers to experience the work more intensely without the usual distractions of composition, colors, etc. The design will incorporate elements that are found in nature such as volcanic ash and soils, and basic materials such as metal, wood, concrete, etc. By doing so, the design focuses the viewer on the presence of vog itself in order to develop new ideas and attitudes towards it.

WE ARTISTS WILL SERVE YOU AS AN AVANT-GARDE, THE POWER OF THE ARTS IS MOST IMMEDIATE: WHEN WE WANT TO SPREAD NEW IDEAS, WE INSCRIBE THEM ON MARBLE OR CANVAS. WHAT A MAGNIFICENT DESTINY FOR THE ARTS IS THAT OF EXERCISING A POSITIVE POWER OVER SOCIETY, A TRUE PRIESTLY FUNCTION AND OF MARCHING IN THE VAN OF ALL THE INTELLECTUAL FACULTIES!14 The Avant-garde movement is relevant because it identifies art as a powerful instrument in influencing societal values and ideas. Similarly, in the 1960s was another movement advocated by the German conceptual artist and politician, Joseph Beuys called social sculpture. The concept behind this theory is that life is a social sculpture that human activity shapes through language, thoughts, actions, and objects. Beuys believes social participation and popular creativity will lead to the transformation of society.15

___________________________________________________ FOOTNOTES

Tate, “Avant-Garde – Art Term.” “A Brief Genealogy of Social Sculpture.” 16 Minimalism | Art Movement.” 17 “Introduction to Minimal Art - Understanding Minimalism.” LEFT Figure 8: I Like America and America Likes Me, Artwork by Joseph Beuys, 1974. 14 15

POST-MINIMALISM AND PROCESS ART

SCULPTURE IN THE EXPANDED FIELD

As a reaction of Minimalism in the late 1960s which obsessed over pure geometric forms and highly finished works, Post-Minimalism explored the “anti-form”. Unlike Minimalists, Post-Minimalists presented materials in a manner that seemed un-composed and unworked, revealing the character of the material. Process Art emerged out of the art movement and focuses on the event and act of creation, therefore leading to projects that work with time, ephemerality, and site-specificity.18 This thesis also deals with the same driving elements of time, the ephemerality of wind and volcanic ash, how it effects the culturally specific site of Hawai’i.

Rosalind Krauss, an art theorist and critic, published Sculpture in the Expanded Field in 1979. In this article, Krauss traces the change in the definition of sculpture in the nineteenth century during the modernist movement from a monument to an art form. She calls these sculptures ‘nomadic’—being without a ‘site’ and for the first time falling between the categories of ‘not-landscape’ and ‘not architecture’. With the shift, art form and sculptures can fall within a spectrum of landscape and not landscape, and architecture and not architecture. This article is pivotal in the art world that freed artists to be able to explore and blur the boundaries of art in combinations with other disciplines, thus creating an expanded field.20

Land art, also known as Earth Art is a form of process art that involves the awareness of man’s relationship with the natural world through landscape interventions and constructions. The materials used are extracted directly from nature such as water, soil, stones, etc., making the intervention short-lived.19 Some renown land artists include Walter De Maria and Olafur Eliasson whose works will be examined as precedents in this thesis in order to examine the use of materials, expression of materiality, form, and surrounding opinions.

___________________________________________________ FOOTNOTES

“Post-Minimalism Movement, Artists and Major Works.” “Earth Art Movement, Artists and Major Works.” 20 Krauss, “Sculpture in the Expanded Field.” BELOW Figure 9: Sculpture in the Expanded Field. Diagram by Rosalind Krauss. RIGHT Figure 10: Robert Smithson at Spiral Jetty (1970), Great Salt Lake, Utah, April 1970, From Troublemakers, Photograph by Gianfranco Gorgoni. 18 19

SITE-CONSTRUCTION

LANDSCAPE

ARCHITECTURE

MARKED SITES

COMPLEX

AXIOMATIC STRUCTURES

NON-LANDSCAPE

NON-ARCHITECTURE

SCULPTURE 26 26

NEUTER

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PRECEDENT PROJECTS The following three precedents have been selected because the medium that is being used is an ephemeral process and phenomenon alike vog, and its combinations of art, landscape, architecture, and technologies. Through Rosalind Krauss’ expanded field, each precedent has been analyzed through diagrams regarding its structural form, materials, methods of construction, and its experiential quality.

Selected Projects: The Lightning Field by Walter De Maria Fog Assembly by Olafur Eliasson Carbon Pencil by Natalie Jeremi Jenko

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THE LIGHTNING FIELD BY WALTER DE MARIA Walter De Maria, an American land artist sited the Lightning Field in New Mexico desert, an ideal and remote site with frequent thunderstorms. His intention through his design was to provoke the viewer to think about the earth and their relationship to the universe by creating an intense and physical experience. De Maria planned for there to be no more than six visitors on the site at the time with a mandatory stay of 24 hours. He found this to be a necessary in order for individuals to fully experience his design.

Axiometric Form

Rods spaced at 220 feet intervals in a grid pattern

Plan

Materials

400 Rectangular high-grade steel plates with pointed square steep bars

Construction

Rods are manufactured at different lengths to achieve even elevation due to varying topography

Elevation

Axon 31

FOG ASSEMBLY BY OLAFUR ELIASSON In 2016, the Icelanic-Danish land artist, Olafur Eliasson was commissioned to create an artistic intervention at the Palace of Versailles in France. Fog Assembly was designed to shift the visitor’s perception of place through an exploration of time, space, and society. In this project, Eliasson does this by using haze technology to mimic the qualities of fog and making it tangible for people to experience in a new method. He believes that,

Art can reevaluate what it means to be in a picture and being in a space. The difference between thinking and doing… I would claim that art and culture is proving that one can create a kind of space that is both sensitive to individuality and collectivity. It’s about the causality and consequence. It’s very much about the way we link thinking and doing… And right in between thinking and doing is experience. Experience is about responsibility. Having an experience is taking a part in the world. Taking a part in the world is really about sharing responsibility. So, art in a sense is holds an incredible relevance in the world we are moving into, particularly right now.

Axiometric Form

16 Rods evenly spaced to create a 30m diameter ring

Plan

Materials

4.5m High metal stealings, spotlights, water, nozzles, wood, hose, pump

Construction

Installed haze technology that uses a water pump system and nozzles to create artificial fog clouds

Elevation

Axon 33

CARBON PENCIL BY NATALIE JEREMIJENKO

Nathalie Jeremijenko is an artist and engineer that pulls elements from disciplines such as art, engineering, environmentalism, and biochemistry to create projects and experiments that raise social change. Her projects such as the Carbon Pencil uses new technologies that promote user interactions and begins dialogues about important environmental challenges. The Carbon Pencil in particular is a proposed installation onto existing buildings that extract smog from indoor and outdoor and compresses the pollutants into a pencil. This allows a physical measurement of the volumes of pollutants extracted per day and makes the information tangible for the general public. Within the installation is also an urban farm.

Site Construction Plan

Materials

A “urban space station” and solar chimney is installed on the roof and side of the existing building

HVAC system, solar panels, open-source hardware

Elevation

Construction

Axon

Using a trusset truss system that allows for easy, inexpensive, and easy construction

SIGNIFICANCE AND CONTRIBUTION This thesis looks to expand the field of landscape architecture as a tool for social activism and public health awareness. A hybridized approach is proposed that calls upon several disciplines such as landscape architecture, art, architecture, public health, and atmospheric sciences to collaborate to create a single sculpture. The medium of landscape can be associated with more than plants and the earth, but rather with the sky as well. Landscape architecture has the responsibility of bridging gaps and creating new relationships between the people and the surrounding environment. The sky and atmosphere are often forgotten, yet important pieces in the environment that needs to be considered in order to build a cohesive design. In this case, vog is a part of the environment and needs a multidisciplinary approach because it deals with natural processes in the air and on ground, public health and safety, society, and culture. Because of the dynamic nature and relationships of vog, the people, and the landscape, a singular disciplinary approach is not viable. By combining disciplines and expanding the field of landscape architecture, a more meaningful adaptive approach is proposed.

a change in their perceptions towards it. By bringing this issue to the limelight, it may provoke people, the government, and scientists to take an active approach towards addressing the air pollution issue and taking responsibility towards their own health. Changes are beginning to be seen in the Ka’u district with the construction of the Ka’u District Gym & Shelter in Pahala, Hawai’i that provides refuge for a selected few individuals. However, there is a lack of protection for the rest of the thousands of residents that are impacted by vog. Through careful monitoring of Kilauea volcano, scientists are predicting that another eruption may happen again in the near future. In the event of another eruption, the sulfur dioxide concentrations will once again spike to toxic levels, affecting all populations in the area and even other islands. Evaluating previous emission trends provided by USGS and the Hawaii Volcano Observatory, there is over a 300% increase in sulfur dioxide concentrations with every volcanic activity that will take decades, even centuries to decrease. This poses as a serious threat to public health and the public needs to be aware of the consequences and be provided with a protected shelter and a proactive method of coping with the air pollution.

The speculative project for this thesis is designed with the intention of providing a solution that explores new ideas of arts, sciences, and technologies, that is different from the conventional approach that entails avoiding the air pollution issue. Vog is a chemical process is embedded within the ecology of Hawai’i that will persist in the daily lives of the local people and will never disappear completely. This project uses the ideology of social sculpture and art activism to reframe vog in a manner that relates to and makes individuals aware of the environment and their relationship to it. Through participatory interaction, people will begin to notice vog which may influence

ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY VOLCANO SCIENCE, ECOLOGY, & GEOLOGY

other vascular plants in the process of preparing and using volcanic ash for the succession of other vegetation.

Fernández Caldas, E., and Dan H. Yaalon, eds. Volcanic Soils: Weathering and Landscape Relationships of Soils on Tephra and Basalt: Selected Papers of the “Congreso Internacional De Suelos Volcánicos”: La Laguna, Tenerife, Canary Islands, Spain, July 1984. Catena Supplement 7. Cremlingen, W. Germany: Catena Verlag, 1985.

Macdonald, Gordon A., and Agatin Townsend Abbott. Volcanoes in the Sea: The Geology of Hawaii. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1970. Macdonald and Abbott provide an in-depth background behind the volcanic geology of each island in Hawai’I, the life stages of Hawaiian volcanoes, historic eruptions, and the materials created by it. Also discussed is the influencial relationship between volcanoes and wind, ice, ocean, ground water, etc., as well as earthquakes and tsunamis. Many descriptive illustrations are provided showing historic images of the summit and the aftermath of eruption, maps of historic lava flows, volcanic rocks and materials, rock alterations, cross sections, etc. This book will be helpful in understanding the scientific workings of Kilauea volcano as well as its effects on Hawai’i.

This book is a compilation of selected papers on the study of volcanic soils from different parts of the world such as New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, Spain, Central Italy, the Canary Islands, and Canada. The articles provide in-depth studies about the different factors such as rainfall and how it affects soil production and composition, as well as how its classified. Results in a study titled “Surface Charge Characteristics of Volcanic Ash Soils from the Southern Highlands of Papua New Guinea” identifies the importance of cation and anion retention as factor in design and as a way to evaluate the productivity of volcanic soils.

Martí, Joan, and Gerald Ernst, eds. Volcanoes and the Environment. Cambridge, UK ; New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005.

Jongmans, A. G, N van Breemen, S. R Gradstein, and F van Oort. “How Liverworts Build Hanging Gardens from Volcanic Ash in Costa Rica.” CATENA, Soil aggregation in arid and semi-arid environments, 44, no. 1 (May 18, 2001): 13–22.

Volcanoes and the Environment is comprised of selected articles that cover information about the physical behavior of volcanoes, its geological cycle, and its effects on the atmosphere and climate. Other articles of relevance to this thesis is the effects of modern volcanic activity on animals, vegetation, the environment, the economy, and people, and what are the modern industrial uses of volcanic materials. John S. Edwards, an author of the chapter, “Animals and Volcanoes: Survival and Revival” talks about several vertebrates that have adapted to the volcanic regions of Hawaii. Another mention of Hawaii is in a later chapter that talks about the volcanoes role on the economy.

This case study introduces Nardia succulent, a pioneer liverwort that grows in boulders and vertical cliffs layered up to 15 cm thick with volcanic ash. When the pioneer liverwort is covered by a thin layer of ash, the plant forms new shoots which stabilizes the volcanic ash and enhances phosphorus retention and enriches the material. This process prepares and creates new soil that is appropriate for the growth of other vegetation. The article proves the necessity of Nardia succulent or

Shoji, Sadao, Masami Nanzyo, and Randy Dahlgren. Volcanic Ash Soils: Genesis, Properties, and Utilization. Developments in Soil Science 21. Amsterdam; New York: Elsevier, 1993.

VOLCANO HAZARD, MONITORING & PUBLIC HEALTH “Computer Model Developed for Predicting the Dispersion of Vog,” November 9, 2015. https://phys. org/news/2015-11-dispersion-vog.html.

This book provides in-depth scientific descriptions of volcanic soils, including the geographic distribution of volcanic ash soil, characteristics, soil genesis that factors in climate, human activity, and topography, and its productivity and utilization. Also included is a case study of how Japan utilizes and manages volcanic ash soils in the form of vegetable and wetland rice farming in different regions. This source will be useful in understanding how volcanic soils are created, what factors need to be controlled to maximize yield, and how the soil needs to be treated prior to utilization. Included are the benefits of volcanic soil (Andisols) and its limitations for growing crops.

This article published in 2015 reveals a new computer model for predicting vog has been developed by scientists from the UH Manoa School of Ocean and Earth Science and Technology (SOEST) under Dr. Steve Businger and with researchers at the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory. The technology is an ultraviolet spectrometer array that observes and measures near real-time volcanic gas emissions and generates online vog model data and forecasts. According to Businger, the model is sufficiently accurate in predicting volcanic gas emissions and will prove to be helpful in keeping the public informed about health hazards.

Tortini, R., S.M. van Manen, B.R.B Parkes, and S.A. Carn. “The Impact of Persistent Volcanic Degassing on Vegetation: A Case Study at Turrialba Volcano, Costa Rica.” International Journal of Applied Earth Observation and Geoinformation 59 (July 2017): 92– 103.

Elias, Tamar, and A. Jeff Sutton. “Volcanic Air Pollution Hazards in Hawaii.” USGS Numbered Series. Fact Sheet. Reston, VA: U.S. Geological Survey, 2017. http://pubs.er.usgs.gov/publication/fs20173017. This article by USGS was a 2017 update of the air pollution caused by the eruption of Kilauea volcano in 2008. According to the author, the amount of SO2 released increased after the 1983 eruption, and again in 2008. A table of the SO2 trends from 1978 until 2017 is included. Since the last eruption, SO2 emissions have decreased but are still greater than historically recorded. However, the report advises owners of older homes with rainwater-catchment systems should be cautious of lead, copper, and zinc contamination from vog. Kilauea volcano has a regional impact and can also influence the net cooling of the climate. According to atmospheric scientists, continuous eruptions will have a greater effect on climate than ever before.

This study looks beyond the infrequent eruption of volcanoes and focuses on long-term degassing of volcanoes through high-resolution satellite monitoring. Turrialba volcano located in Costa Rica has been studied to assess the sulfuric dioxide, emissions, and its impact of surrounding vegetation. Researchers have coincided the decline in vegetation health downwind to be directly correlated with the increased levels of SO2. The vegetation kill zone can be seen in satellite images provided in the case study. This study proves the effectiveness of using satellite imagery to monitor the trends of volcanic degassing and its effects as well as shows the vulnerability of croplands to exposure of volcanic emissions.

“Fact Sheet, Volcanic Air Pollution--A Hazard in Hawai`i; Fact Sheet 169-97.” USGS. Accessed September 20, 2017. https://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/fs169-97/.

Longo, Bernadette M. “Adverse Health Effects Associated with Increased Activity at Kilauea Volcano: A Repeated Population-Based Survey.” ISRN Public Health 2013 (2013): 1–10. doi:10.1155/2013/475962.

USGS has partnered with several organizations to create this web article about Kilauea volcano and its volcanic materials. This source outlines the chemical reactions between SO2 and other pollutants, oxygen, and atmospheric moisture to create vog, and how it affects the people living in Hawaii. According to this article, the accumulation of SO2 in the air has exceeded Federal health standards over 85 times since 1986 in areas surrounding Kilauea. Illustrations study the prevailing trade winds and the flow of vog. This information is helpful in identifying susceptible neighborhoods and opportunities for intervention.

This report is a continuation of a population-based survey done prior to the 2008 eruption of Kilauea volcano which increased vog levels that surpasses the national air quality standard for SO2. Prior to 2008, surveyed participants have reported cardiorespiratory effects. The updated report states that half of the surveyed participants have reported shortness of breath, sinus congestion, eye and skin irritation, hypertension, etc. Reported responses also include the degradation of agriculture and livestock and greater health effects with higher exposure to vog. Due to the public concerns about Kilauea volcano’s continuous activity, the report recommends greater action to improve public health in areas with degassing volcanoes globally.

Hillman, S. E., C. J. Horwell, A. L. Densmore, D. E. Damby, B. Fubini, Y. Ishimine, and M. Tomatis. “Sakurajima Volcano: A Physico-Chemical Study of the Health Consequences of Long-Term Exposure to Volcanic Ash.” Bulletin of Volcanology 74, no. 4 (May 2012): 913–30.

Longo, Bernadette M., Anita Grunder, Raymond Chuan, and Annette Rossignol. “SO2 and Fine Aerosol Dispersion from the Kilauea Plume, Kau District, Hawaii, USA.” Geology 33, no. 3 (2005): 217–220.

Scientists have studied Sakurajima volcano in Japan, which has been repeatedly producing volcanic emissions, alike the activity of Kilauea volcano. The urban areas around Sakurajima volcano have been repeatedly covered by volcanic ash which exposure local population to the hazardous material. Volcanic ash samples were taken at different events and found the material produced is highly variable. A basic toxicology test was performed to found that the potential development of haemolysis, the rupture of red blood cells, was low. However, this is highly dependent on the frequency and duration of exposure. Although Kilauea volcano’s ash composition may be different, this study shows that although there is a low risk of haemolysis, from exposure to ash, precaution still needs to be taken.

Aerosol and SO2 samples were collected in the Kau district located about 37-74 km downwind from the eruption site of Kilauea volcano. These samples were compared to a nonexposed control site in Hawi, Hawaii. Researchers credit the decrease of SO2 with altitude due to quicker oxidation and the likelihood of diurnal wind patterns to carry volcanic materials towards other areas that will also promote oxidization. Although this study was done prior to the 2008 eruption and does not reflect current levels of volcanic emissions, what if useful to discover is the effects of wind patterns and the process of oxidization to mitigate the volume sulfuric oxide and aerosols in the air.

Longo, Bernadette M. “The Kilauea Volcano Adult Health Study.” Nursing Research 58, no. 1 (2009): 23– 31.

Loughlin, Susan C., R. S. J. Sparks, Sarah K. Brown, Susanna F. Jenkins, and Charlotte Vye-Brown, eds. Global Volcanic Hazards and Risk. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press, 2015.

This article is the first of Longo’s series of studies done on the public health effects of Kilauea volcano. Environmental sampling of Kilauea’s volcanic gas was done to determine exposure level. Secondly, the respiratory health effects in 335 adults living in exposed neighborhoods were compared to non-exposed communities. Results show that the surrounding and indoor concentrations of volcanic air pollution exceed the World Health Organization’s recommended levels. Findings also indicate statistically increased odds of developing cough, phlegm, rhinorrhea, sore and dry throat, bronchitis, etc. associated with volcanic gas exposure. Participants results also indicate that current and former smokers and those with chronic respiratory diseases are the most vulnerable to emission levels.

This book gives an overview about volcanic hazards and its impact globally, on local health, the aviation industry, and the methods that different countries use to forecast eruption. A particular chapter titled “Volcanic Ash Fall Hazard and Risk” uses an ash fall risk assessment to quantify the hazard, identify plausible impacts such as wind speeds and direction, and estimates areas that are vulnerable to ash fall. This chapter will be helpful in identifying potential key intervention sites for my thesis. The book also provides useful graphics such as a global map of ash fall thickness in relationship to wind direction and the probability of ash fall loads given the magnitude of the eruption. Nelson, Scot, and Kelvin Sewake. “Volcanic Emissions Injury to Plant Foliage,” 2008.

Longo, Bernadette M., Wei Yang, Joshua B. Green, Frederick L. Crosby, and Vickie L. Crosby. “Acute Health Effects Associated with Exposure to Volcanic Air Pollution (Vog) from Increased Activity at Kilauea Volcano in 2008.” Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health, Part A 73, no. 20 (August 31, 2010): 1370–81.

This case study studies impacts of volcanic emissions to plants on the Big Island by Kilauea volcano. The authors explain that plants tend to flourish on the northern and eastern areas near the volcano due to the north-east trade winds that blow the volcanic pollutants to the south-west. As a result, the plants and agriculture in the path of the trade winds have reported damages by local farmers. Due to the increased output of sulfur dioxide from Kilauea volcano, the reported damages have been steadily increasing. Areas with the greatest reported damages are areas immediately surrounding Kilauea, Pahala, and Hawaiian Ocean View Estates. Included in this case study are also a list of plants and crops, both native and non-native that are impacted by volcanic emissions.

This study uses a “within-clinic retrospective cohort design” to compare the number of visits for acute illnesses 14 weeks prior to the increased volcanic emissions of Kilauea volcano and 14 weeks after high vog exposure. The article also analyzes the effects of low and high exposures for groups designated by age, gender, race, and smoking status. Reported findings show that there is a statistically significant positive correlation between high vog exposure and medical patient diagnosis for headache, acute pharyngitis, cough, and acute airway problems. Other discoveries propose that greater vog exposure is also associated with increased morbidity in the general Hawaiian population.

PBR Hawaii & Associates, Inc. “Ka’u District Gym & Shelter: Final Environmental Assessment.” County of Hawai’i, Department of Public Works, April 2012.

The compiled articles in this book provides a range of relationships between humans and volcanoes, taking historic and contemporary precedents. One study highlights the people of Hawaii and their perception of volcanic hazards and their response to a potential eruption through a series of surveys and interviews. The article also provides insights to the influence of Hawaiian spiritual beliefs of Hawaiian communities in contrast to Japanese, Filipino, and Caucasian, which may elicit different attitudes towards volcanic activity. Other chapters provide case studies on the effects of volcanic activity on human occupancy, vegetation, agriculture, water, culture, and the economy.

An environmental assessment report has been prepared for the Ka’u District Gym & Shelter located in Pahala, Hawaii that has opened in 2016. The report describes Ka’u to be the district that is the most impacted by vog, therefore a vog shelter has been proposed in the building of the gym. The shelter, which is the multipurpose room within the gym, will be equipped with special air purifiers and air conditioning and will be able to hold 192 people within the sensitive group during periods of high vog. Along with this report are other information about Pahala including tax map key, historical significance, demographics, soil types, etc.

“Sulfur Dioxide Effects on Health.” National Park Service. Accessed October 13, 2017. https://www. nature.nps.gov/air/aqbasics/understand_so2.cfm.

Scarpa, Roberto, and Robert I. Tilling, eds. Monitoring and Mitigation of Volcano Hazards. Berlin ; New York: Springer, 1996.

The National Park Service has published an online article explaining that the Hawaii Volcanoes National Park is unique to other national parks because it receives periodic high concentrations of sulfur dioxide. These concentration levels exceed any other national parks and even most urban areas. The article moves on to explain how sulfur dioxide effects public health, and national parks. Links to other sources regarding sulfur dioxide forecasts and health effects are also provided.

This reference provides an in-depth overview of the many different methods of predicting volcanic hazards and mitigation in the form of case studies. Such methods include remote sensing, satellite monitoring, and seismic and ground-deformation studies coupled by different ways of diagramming volcanic activity. Case studies include the study of volcanic gas’ chemical compositions and what factors control it. This source will be helpful for understanding the impact of volcanic eruption on other civilizations and the methods in which they mitigate hazardous events and materials. A case study of especial relevance to my topic is titled “Detection of Explosive Eruptions and Regional Tracking of Volcanic Ash Clouds with Geostationary Meteorological Satellite (GMS).” This article talks about how to detect and track ash clouds following eruptions and areas that are in danger of fallout hazards downwind.

“USGS: Volcano Hazards Program HVO Kilauea.” Accessed September 20, 2017. https://volcanoes. usgs.gov/volcanoes/kilauea/multimedia_maps.html. The USGS Volcano Hazards Program provides the latest updates and data on Kilauea volcano through satellite imagery and can be traced back up to 5 years. The website provides a historic background, its environmental impacts, and the physical changes of the volcano caused by each eruption event dating back to 1924. Each event is illustrated with a map of the eruption and fallout deposit zones. Also provided are GIS shape files of recorded lava flows, the steepestdescent lines, and geochemistry of Kilauea volcano. This

Sheets, Payson D., and Donald K. Grayson, eds. Volcanic Activity and Human Ecology. New York: Academic Press, 1979.

source will be helpful in understanding the historic and current trends of Kilauea volcano in order to create an adaptive design.

so, one can make conscious design decisions that are culturally sensitive. Jarosz, Andy. “Life in the Shadow of a Hawaiian Volcano.” Accessed October 29, 2017. http://www. bbc.com/travel/story/20130729-life-in-the-shadowof-a-hawaiian-volcano.

HAWAIIAN CULTURE “Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park Tourists Spend Nearly $2 Million.” Big Island Now. Accessed October 2, 2017. http://bigislandnow.com/2017/04/20/ hawaii-volcanoes-national-park-tourists-spend-nearly2-million/.

Andy Jarosz features photographs by Sameena Jarosz of Kilauea Volcano and its effects of lava flows. Within photographs, tourists are seen hiking adjacent to lava beds and are encouraged to poke at the flowing lava with a stick, causing it to catch on fire. The captivating and mysterious beauty of volcanic lava are captured within this article and photographs, hinting at both the interest of tourists and locals. The author also mentions Cheryl Adler, a resident of the town of Kalapana located near the volcanoes, lost half of her 21-acre farm to lava flow and had to evacuate her home. In 2001, she returned to maintain her remaining fruit trees despite the risk of future eruptions. Others have even built new homes over the previous ones that were lost. This story begins to show the local attitudes and resilient nature towards volcanic disasters.

This article cites the Annual Park Ranking Report for Recreation Visits in 2016 from the National Park Service that states 1,887,580 visitors to Hawai’i Volcanoes National Park in 2016 spent $159,195,500 in nearby communities. This is a major economic income for the local community that supports 1,917 jobs and had a cumulative benefit of $199,923,400. According to Park Superintendent Cindy Orlando, there has been an increase in visitation since the beginning of 2016, which is the 100th year anniversary of both the National Park Service and Hawai’i Volcanoes National Park. This article proves the importance and economic impact of volcanoes to local communities.

Pearce, Margaret, and Renee Louis. “Mapping Indigenous Depth of Place.” American Indian Culture and Research Journal 32, no. 3 (2008): 107–126.

Fisher, Richard V., Grant Heiken, and Jeffrey B. Hulen. Volcanoes: Crucibles of Change. Princeton, N.J: Princeton University Press, 1997.

This article explains the importance of indigenous mapping as a method of protecting cultural sovereignty and communicating knowledge to that outside of the community. Pearce and Louis use Hawai’i as an example of the consequences of using Western mapping techniques to translate indigenous knowledge and how it leads to the warping of knowledge and meaning throughout time. Interestingly, the ahupua’a, an ancient Hawaiian method of land use and management is used where historically, the boundaries of ahupua’a are dynamic and changes with season and time. However, through Western mapping, the boundaries are seen as static when it is not. Today the mapping of ahupua’a

Fisher, Heiken, and Hulen studied the science and mysteries of volcanoes through the human lens. They cover not only the science behind volcanoes, but its effect on human life. The authors introduce volcanoes as a feared entity but at the same time enhancing human life and its role in religion and psychology. This book is useful in understanding the relationship between humans and volcanoes historically and presently and how volcanoes have shaped society and culture. Volcanoes have always played an important role in Hawaiian stories and needs to be considered to understand the local attitudes towards it. By doing

still remains in the Western realm. The authors advocate for the movement back to indigenous mapping and present several methods of how to make this possible.

Lokman, Kees. “Cyborg Landscapes: Choreographing Resilient Interactions Between Infrastructure, Ecology, and Society.” Journal of Landscape Architecture 12, no. 1 (January 2, 2017): 60–73.

“Pele, Hawaii Goddess of Fire: Hawaiian Legend / Mythical Realm.” Mythical Realm, August 22, 2016. http://mythicalrealm.com/mythical-gods-legends/ pele-goddess-of-fire-hawaii/.

Lokman introduces the cyborg landscape as a hybrid system that combines biotic and abiotic systems to create a dynamic interaction between infrastructure, ecology, and urbanisms. He believes that the profession of landscape architecture has already been operating in this framework and urges that it is necessary to adapt this approach in order learn from experiences and adapt for the future. This article will be helpful for this thesis because it deals with a dynamic system (volcanic gas, wind, etc.) that continues to change. In order to react to such a system, the proposed design needs to also be multifunctional and dynamic.

This online article is a short collection of stories surrounding Pele, the Hawaiian goddess of fire and volcanoes. Among the stories is how Pele arrived at Hawaii and proceeded to create each island from the oldest, Kaua’i to the youngest island of Hawai’i. She finally settled and made a home in Kilauea Volcano where she lives happily today. The strength of mythical beliefs told through stories that persists to today is part of what makes Hawaiian culture unique and needs to be recognized in site specific design.

THEORY, LAND ART, & DESIGN

TECHNOLOGY & DESIGN

Andrews, Max, Royal Society of Arts (Great Britain), and Arts Council England, eds. Land Art: A Cultural Ecology Handbook. 1st. ed. London: RSA : Arts Council England, 2006.

Cantrell, Bradley E., and Justine Holzman. Responsive Landscapes: Strategies for Responsive Technologies in Landscape Architecture. Routledge, 2015.

Andrews begins by describing art as a framing device for visual and social experience that reveals the complicated problems and our relationships to the world. Land itself is a combination of history, culture, agriculture, community, and religion, and without this intimacy, the land becomes a mere abstraction. Andrew criticizes that contemporary art has no genuine context. He believes that art can have a ripple effect of political and social activism with the strongest activist art in the center and rippling outwards through the act of doing and seeing, action and vision, construction and perception. This book reinforces this thesis’ goals of using land art as a method of public activism to promote public health.

Responsive Landscapes is a compilation of international projects that explores various methods of integrating responsive technologies into landscape architecture. The selected works within this book are dynamic and evolve in response to change (wind movement, sound frequency, touch, etc.). Such projects strive to facilitate new relationships between abiotic and biotic processes and can be an effective method of engaging and educating the public about the dynamic environmental processes that surrounds them. The use of responsive technologies can be a viable method of not only facilitating public interactions, but can be extended to the regional management and monitoring of volcanoes as well.

Asensio Cerver, Francisco, and Francisco López Pavón, eds. Landscape Art. World of Environmental Design 8. Barcelona: s.n., 1995.

Projects. Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press : for sale by the Supt. of Docs., U.S. Govt. Print. Off, 1977. Beardsley begins by defining the difference between earthworks and land projects. Earthworks are projects that are constructed of earth while land projects or land art are a general term for projects that are inextricably bound to their sites. He explains that this book is a collection of selected projects that are examples of art that engages with the landscape and are altered over time do to the unique dynamic processes of the site. This engagement is called site specificity and provides a “focused experience of place”.

Landscape Art is a collection of contemporary land art projects. One of the projects feature in the book is the East/West Arbor & Gift Gardens designed by Jody Pinto. In this garden, Pinto designs an open-air structure—a neutered form of architecture coupled with a garden of native plants to symbolize the relationship between Washington D.C. with other cities from Germany, Russia, Ireland, and China. This project is relevant because it falls within Rosalind Krauss’ expanded field where the structure represents “not architecture” in combination with landscape elements to create an art sculpture.

“Earth Art Movement, Artists and Major Works.” The Art Story. Accessed October 16, 2017. http://www. theartstory.org/movement-earth-art.htm.

Beardsley, John. Earthworks and beyond: Contemporary Art in the Landscape. 4th ed. New York: Abbeville Press, 2006.

This online article is a general overview about the emergence of the Earth Art Movement from Conceptualism and Minimalism and the movement’s relationship with social sculpture. Key Ideas and dominant characteristics of this movement such as materials, how it is used, and the relationship with the earth is identified. Artists such as Robert Smithson, Arte Povera, and Joseph Beuys are used as examples of influential artists in Earth Art.

In this book of selected works, Beardsley timelines the development of land art from the Avant Garde, to the new urban landscape. Beardsley creates a few presumptions. The first is that the people’s relationship to the landscape is a significant and sacred expression of culture. Landscape is rich with man-made forms and in combination with symbolic form can create differentiated and evocative places. His second presumption is that the entire history of form building in the landscape has led to contemporary work. The third presumption is alike Rosalind Krauss’ Sculpture in the Expanded Field in that the boundaries of art has blurred. The last presumption is specific toward the American relationship with landscape where there seems to be an impulse to exploit the landscape with the urge to nurture and protect nature for both its beauty and the feeling of morality. Among the selected works are the Lightning Field by Walter De Maria.

Fagone, Vittorio, and László Beke. Art in Nature. Milano: Mazzotta, 1996. Two important questions are asked at the beginning of the book: “What is the position of the world of art with respect to nature? What is art’s position with respect to the expansion of technology (of processes and production)?” With the development of technology, computer models are able to simulate a new representation of nature, thus creating “second nature”. The selected works within this book are examples of a new awareness of the environment and the methods

Beardsley, John. Probing the Earth: Contemporary Land

that are used to intervene in the landscape are unique. Examples of projects are the Spiral Jetty by Robert Smithson, Eart Forms by Gill Russell, and Burning Wood, by Frans Krajcberg.

Kwon, Miwon. “One Place after Another: Notes on Site Specificity.” October 80 (1997): 85–110. Kwon, alike Rosalind Krauss and Robert Smithson criticizes the severed state of modernist art from the site, thus calling it “nomadic art”. Early artists have also criticized the lack of site and have transformed the perspective of art and reframing it towards site specificity where the work becomes a part of the site. It then becomes important for the viewer’s physical presence to complete the work. The concern with the disassociation with site is that the art piece is incomplete without its political, social, economic, and cultural implications that come with site. Three paradigms of site specificity are identified: phenomenological (human experience), social/institutional (of the time and place), and discursive (continuous, expansive). These types of art that responds to social issues in collaboration with audience groups have the power to impact contemporary life.

Grande, John K. Art Nature Dialogues: Interviews with Environmental Artists. Albany: State University of New York Press, 2004. This book by John Grande is a collection of interviews with environmental artists. In these interviews, the social histories of each project, design intentions, and interests of artists are revealed and discussed. Some of the interviewed artists are David Nash, Patrick Dougherty, Gilles Bruni and Marc Babarit, Jerilea Zempel, and so much more. This book about land art is unique because aside from reading about how outsiders view land projects, we are able to learn more about the artists themselves and why land art has become an important medium to convey thoughts, experiences, and advocacy. Kosky, Jeffrey L. Arts of Wonder: Enchanting Secularity-Walter de Maria, Diller + Scofidio, James Turrell, Andy Goldsworthy. Religion and Postmodernism. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2012.

Lailach, Michael, and Uta Grosenick. Land Art. Basic Art Series. Köln ; London: Taschen, 2007. Lailach has selected world renown land art projects such as the Lightning Field by Walter De Maria, the Double Negative by Michael Heizer, and Sun Tunnels by Nancy Holt. Each project is coupled with a brief one-page description of the intent, construction, experience, along with photographs. Lailach also cites Sculpture in the Expanded Field by Rosalind Krauss where he agrees with her opinion that land art must not be removed from its environment and displayed in a museum or gallery. Art cannot be without the landscape in which it has been born and inspired by. This art is defined a “heterotopias” by Michel Foucault are defined as “a kind of effectively enacted utopia in which the real sites, all the other real sites that can be found within the culture, are simultaneously represented, contested, and inverted.”

Kosky begins his book with the provocative thought of the “disenchantment” of the world and the change in the view of nature through the increased intellectualization and rationalization of the age. Thanks to knowledge and technology, the world is no longer seen as mysterious and immeasurable but through science it can now be calculated. However with the increased rationalization, the feelings of charm and captivation disappear. Kosky asks the question, “can the spell of modern disenchantment be broken?” He proceeds to use significant artwork such as the Lightning Field by Walter De Maria as examples of when wonder is brought back in to the world.

McFadden, Jane. Walter De Maria: Meaningless Work. London: Reaktion Books, 2016.

Gaylie emphasizes in her writing the role of a garden as more than an aesthetic feature. The learning garden is a tool and classroom for students to learn about the environment and to transform attitudes towards nature and the community. The book talks about the process of building a campus learning garden to create an awareness and stewardship towards ecology. This source will be useful in grounding the basic needs and programming for creating a successful learning environment and design. It will be helpful in informing my project that proposes to use landscape architecture as a catalyst of education and consciousness of the natural processes of volcanoes and its role in the environment.

This book written by McFadden follows the timeline of Walter De Maria’s works and dissects the project through its construction methodology and experiential intent. One of the primary works talked about is the Lightning Field where she talks about the subtle siting of the stainless steel poles that is meant to articulate nature (lightning) rather than capture it. Alongside this investigation are interview comments from historians, other artists, writers, etc. about the experience and critism about the project. One of the critics is John Beardsley, the author of several land art books, who claims the project is too controlled and that viewers will only see what is allowed to see.

Hale, James, Corrine Knapp, Lisa Bardwell, Michael Buchenau, Julie Marshall, Fahriye Sancar, and Jill S. Litt. “Connecting Food Environments and Health Through the Relational Nature of Aesthetics: Gaining Insight Through the Community Gardening Experience.” Social Science & Medicine 72, no. 11 (June 2011): 1853–63.

EDUCATIONAL LANDSCAPES Bendt, Pim, Stephan Barthel, and Johan Colding. “Civic Greening and Environmental Learning in Public-Access Community Gardens in Berlin.” Landscape and Urban Planning 109, no. 1 (January 2013).

This article studies the process of how connections are made between people and the environment by studying 67 participants and their interactions with 28 urban gardens. Findings show that the process can be summarized by first the aesthetic experience, the emotional connection, and lastly participation in the garden that promotes awareness, learning, and stewardship. These three steps are fundamental in creating a relationship between people and place and as a result will improve public health behaviors. This article is unique to other articles about community gardens within this bibliography collection because it speaks directly to the visual role of gardens and its effects on people.

This case study analyzes the role of public-access community gardens in Berlin in environmental learning. Four gardens were accessed and found that there were self-developed social and physical structures embedded within each garden that allows for varying degrees of community interactions. The article concludes that public-access community gardens coupled with programming that intertwines gardening with social, political, and economic practices can promote learning and create community identity in degraded neighborhoods. This case study is helpful in providing successful and non-successful precedents of urban gardens and programming that will inform design decisions in my proposal. Gaylie, Veronica. The Learning Garden: Ecology, Teaching, and Transformation. New York: Peter Lang, 2009.

Jagger, Susan, Erin Sperling, and Hilary Inwood. “What’s Growing on Here? Garden-Based Pedagogy in a Concrete Jungle.” Environmental Education Research 22, no. 2 (February 17, 2016): 271–87.

Takahashi, Nancy. “Educational Landscapes: Developing School Grounds as Learning Places. Volume 3. Building Blocks to Better Learning Series.,” 1999. https://eric. ed.gov/?id=ED428530.

This case study follows the genesis of a learning garden at a university started by a small group of teacher education and graduate students and some faculty. Shared in the article are the experiences and stories of individuals that has experienced the learning garden. Through the users’ narrative, thematic dimensions were made clear: the aesthetic dimension, the affective dimension, and the community dimension. In addition, this feedback allowed reflection for how individuals remember and conceptualize his/her experiences, ask questions, and generate new ideas. This point supports the theory written by Hale, Knapp. Bardwell, Buchenau, Marshall, Sancar, and Litt and also shows that the learning garden can be incorporated into higher education.

Takahashi recognizes that there is a growing concern about the environment and the need to bring environmental awareness into the school curriculum. She suggests that the schoolyard has been underutilized and holds tremendous opportunity to be redesigned as an educational landscape that can be tied into the teaching curriculum and will shape school culture. This book is helpful because it includes examples of build landscape projects from the United States and Britain in the form of perspectives and floor plans as well as how to integrate the design into the curriculum. Also shared is the current attitudes about school grounds and the incorporation of children’s desires for their learning environment.

Moore, Robin C., and Nilda Cosco. “Developing an EarthBound Culture through Design of Childhood Habitats.” In Conference on People, Land, and Sustainability: A Global View of Community Gardening, Nottingham, UK, 2000. https://naturalearning.org/sites/default/ files/EarthboundChildren.pdf. Moore and Cosco stresses that childhood is the most critical stage in human development and argues that the biological health of the planet is directly linked to children’s health. They argue that in order to stimulate positive growth, children need to interact with nature in order to build a strong connection with and to learn about the biosphere. Not only will this be beneficial for childhood development, it would also help create an earth-bound culture. This article is of relevance to my project because children are especially vulnerable to pollutants in the air such as vog that can impede development. Therefore, it is important to educate children early about such processes and the appropriate attitudes and actions to take.

Cynthia Miao Master of Landscape Architecture University of California, Berkeley