2024 Economic Issues for Women in Texas Report by Texas Women's Foundation

2024 Economic Issues for Women in Texas

Letter from the CEO

A single question has plagued me since I began my role as President and CEO of Texas Women’s Foundation (TXWF) in April of 2024…

How is it that our great state of Texas — widely recognized as having the strongest economy in the nation and reportedly, and if it were a country, it would be considered the eighth largest economy in the world1 ranks 47th out of 50 states across 25 different indicators tied to women’s economic security and success?2

As you’ll learn in this fifth edition of the Economic Issues for Women in Texas report, first published by TXWF in 2014, the persistent issues that challenge Texas women and their families pose an incredible risk for Texas. Over the last decade, we’ve seen a dramatic shift in the state’s economic landscape as women have begun participating in the workforce in greater numbers, providing for their families and driving significant contributions across all industries and sectors. Unfortunately, policy has not kept pace.

Women’s participation in the workforce is inextricably linked to access to supportive policies and accessible services, especially in the areas of health care, child care, and housing. As detailed in this report, these are not just employment benefits or “perks.” They are essential components of a robust economic system that supports a diverse and dynamic workforce and sustains Texas families. Policy interventions in areas like pay equity, paid family leave, and access to affordable child care and stable housing are imperative for fostering a more inclusive, stable, and productive workforce.

As you read this report, we invite you to join Texas Women’s Foundation in our fight to build #StrongWomenBetterWorld, by starting with a “Better Texas.” Our hope in sharing this data freely with corporate, community, and civic leaders across the state is that that you will use it to affect meaningful and lasting systemic change on behalf of Texas women and Texas families.

Effective policy, innovative public-private partnerships and intentional philanthropy are needed now to help Texas women and families thrive. Let’s get to work!

Karen Hughes White President & CEO

Texas Women's Foundation

2024 Report Highlights

The Texas economy has undergone significant transformations in the past decade with women assuming pivotal roles in driving growth and innovation. However, while Texas leads the nation in job growth,3 policies to support an increasingly diverse and dynamic workforce have not kept pace. Specifically, policies are needed to address the issues that challenge Texas women and families and pose a threat to the Texas economy: pay equity, access to leadership roles, health care/insurance, affordable child care and housing stability.

URGENT FACTS POLICYMAKERS MUST KNOW NOW

• Women are the key drivers of economic growth and innovation in Texas. By 2040, the population of women in Texas is expected to grow to 18.5 million, up from 14.7 million in 2024.4

• Over the last 10 years, an additional 1.1 million women have joined the Texas workforce (31% increase) and represent 46% of the Texas workforce.5 The majority of the state’s working women (60%) are women of color.6

• In addition, women-owned businesses in Texas employed more than 1 million people and generated $42 billion in wages 7

• Texas women have outpaced men in higher education enrollment and academic achievement, earning 58% of all college degrees awarded in Texas - 1.4 times greater than men.8

However, despite these contributions and accomplishments, the challenges for women and families in Texas persist:

• 15.3% of Texas women live in poverty, as compared to the national average of 13.7%.9 This number increases to 23% for Texas women ages 18-24. 10 Poverty rates are highest among women of color.11

• Texas women earn 83% of what their male counterparts earn, 12 and Black and Hispanic women fare even worse. The wage gap costs Texas more than $47 billion annually in lost earnings and productivity.13

• Despite outpacing men in academic achievement,14 men with bachelor’s degrees make 42% more than women with the same level of educational attainment and men with graduate degrees make 51% more.15 Closing this gap would generate $21.5 billion in economic impact in Texas.16

• And, while women comprise 46% of the Texas workforce,17 men hold 72% of the top executive positions. 18

• While one in five employer-owned businesses in Texas is women-owned,19 37% of these businesses received no funding, as compared to 16% of male-owned businesses.20

• Texas has the highest percentage of uninsured women in the nation – 17%. 21 One in four fulltime, year-round working women in Texas lacks health insurance.22

• Affordable child care is a crisis for Texas families. The cost for full-time, year-round care for one child ranges from about $8000-$9300/year.23 Failure to provide affordable child care costs the state $11.4 billion annually. 24

• One in three Texas families is housing cost burdened, spending more than 30% of their income on housing.25 Single mothers and women of color are disproportionately impacted 26

Texas Women: A Demographic Perspective

By 2040, the female population of Texas is projected to surpass 18.5 million,27 which is more than the present total populations of Tennessee, Massachusetts, and Connecticut combined.28 This would mark a substantial increase from the 14.7 million women reported in 2024.29 The economic prospects of future Texas women will depend on their access to health care, education, housing, and child care, as well as their household composition. In the following section, we elaborate on some of the demographic trends affecting women in the state.

The majority of women in Texas are women of color.30 In fact, the overall growth of Asian women of all ages in Texas has increased from just under half a million in 2012 (499,229) to just over 830,000 present day.31 Meanwhile, Latinas of all ages in Texas increased from about five million in 2012 to almost six million in 2022.32 Given these demographic trends, we can assume that the female workforce in Texas will continue to grow and diversify over time.

Policymakers must also consider other identities, such as sexual orientation and gender identity, and how these identities shape women’s experiences. There are over one million LGBT33 people in Texas,34 56% of whom identify as female.35 Of female LBGT people, 40% are raising children, compared to 17% of male LGBT people.36 LGBT people in Texas need comprehensive support, as they are more likely to be unemployed, uninsured, food insecure, and make less than $24,000 a year compared to straight, cisgender Texans.37

Chart: Every Texan Analysis of Texas Demographic Center Population Projections Estimates, 2022.

Notes: Projections in gray area. Decennial census used for 2020.

Population Growth of Texas Women by Race and Ethnicity, 2012-2022

Texas Population Projections By Sex By 2060, Over 22 Million Women Are Projected to Live in the State.

Texas Women Are the Face of Poverty

All Texans deserve economic security, yet Texas women are more likely to experience living in poverty than men, as 15% of women live in poverty, compared to 13% of men.38

Hispanic, Black, Native Hawaiian/Pacific Islander, multiracial, and American Indian/Alaska Native

women are the most likely to experience poverty when examining poverty across race and ethnicity.39 Alarmingly, Hispanic, Black, and Native Hawaiian/ Pacific Islander women are more than twice as likely to experience poverty as non-Hispanic white women.40

Texas Population in Poverty by Age, 2022

Texas Population in Poverty by Race and Ethnicity, 2022

Source: Every Texan analysis of 2022 U.S. Census Bureau American Community Survey 5-Year Estimates, Table B17001 (B, D, C, E, F, G, H, I).

Texas Women in the Workforce

The role of women in the workforce is paramount to the stability and prosperity of families across Texas, as women’s pay plays a crucial role in covering essential family expenses.41 Whether serving as sole providers or significant contributors to household income, Texas women are integral to the economic wellbeing of their families. Closing the gender wage gap and ensuring equitable access to well-paying jobs are essential steps toward fostering economic security for Texas women and their families. This section delves into the challenges women face in the workforce and highlights the critical need for policy measures that support gender equity and economic empowerment.

Women and Workforce Growth

The number of women in the workforce has consistently increased since 2012, although the share of women in the workforce has remained about 46%.42 Over the last 10 years, an additional 1.1 million women have joined the workforce as full-time, year-round workers, increasing the total to 4.6 million from 3.5 million in 2012.43

Since 2012, the composition of Texas’ working-age female population has continued to diversify. In 2012, white women made up 45% of the workingage population.44 That rate went down to 40% in 2022, signaling the increasing diversity and growth of Hispanic and Asian women of working age in Texas.45

Women in the Texas Workforce, 2012-2022

Distribution of Texas Women By Race/Ethnicity, Ages 18-64

Source: Every Texan analysis of U.S. Census Bureau 2012 & 2022 American Community Survey 5-Year Estimates via IPUMS.

“OVER THE LAST TEN YEARS, AN ADDITIONAL 1.1 MILLION WOMEN HAVE JOINED THE WORKFORCE AS FULL-TIME, YEARROUND WORKERS.”

Source: Every Texan analysis of U.S. Census Bureau 2014-2022 American Community Survey 1-year Estimates, Table B24040 (excluding 2020 due to experimental methodology during the COVID-19 pandemic).

Percent of Workforce That is Female, 2022

Shifting Demographics: Single Women in the Texas Workforce

Texas women also reflect diverse lifestyles, with more than half identifying as single due to being divorced, separated, widowed, or never married.46 In Texas, 32% of women age 15 and older have never been married.47

Along with these changing personal dynamics, we’ve seen a significant demographic shift in the workforce in the last eight years, with more than 700,000 women — approximately the population of Nashville, Tennessee — now in the working age group (ages 25-64).48

This growth suggests that as more women remain single or delay marriage, their participation in the labor market becomes increasingly vital to Texas’ economic landscape.49

At a regional level, women as a percentage of the overall workforce (full-time, year-round) varies by county. Urban areas, such as those around Austin, Dallas, and Houston, generally offer more diverse employment opportunities, especially in industries like technology, education, health care, and business, which often employ a higher percentage of women.

Some rural counties may have fewer opportunities in these fields, resulting in a lower percentage of women participating in the workforce.

The variation in women’s workforce participation across Texas counties reflects a complex interplay of urbanization, industry type, educational opportunities, cultural norms, and the availability of supportive services such as child care for working women.

Ammar o A i Amarillo

P El Paso E Paso

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Source: Every Texan analysis of 2022 American Community Survey 5-Year Estimates, Table S2404.

Women’s Representation Across Texas Industries

In 2022, workforce demographics across various industries in Texas showcased significant variations in gender representation. Notably, women were predominantly represented in the "educational services, and health care and social assistance" sector, where they made up about 72% of the workforce.50 This high percentage reflects the traditional association of women with caregiving and educational roles.

Additionally, women held over half of the positions in the “finance and insurance, and real estate, rental and leasing” industry, accounting for 54% of its workforce.51 The “arts, entertainment, and recreation, and accommodation and food services” also saw a substantial female presence, with women making up 47% of workers.52

Women are still significantly underrepresented in industries such as “transportation, warehousing, and utilities” and “agriculture, forestry, fishing,” where they make up only 23% and 18% of the workforce, respectively. Women’s representation is lowest within the construction industry where they make up only 10% of the workforce. This reflects substantial gender disparities in fields traditionally dominated by men.53

Expanding industry representation across the state’s diverse sectors is a promising opportunity for community leaders and policymakers. By analyzing this data, Texas can make strategic investments to boost women’s participation in the workforce, foster equitable growth, and ensure that women are better represented in all industries.

Women’s Representation by Industry in Texas, 2022

Source:

Female Workforce Occupations

It’s essential to examine the roles that women predominantly occupy within each industry. Women are overwhelmingly represented in “health care support occupations,” with 85% of these roles occupied by women, reflecting a strong female presence in caregiver and support roles within the health care sector.54 Similarly, “office and administrative support occupations” and “personal care and service occupations” show high female

representation at 73% and 72%, respectively; these data indicate sectors where women have established strong footholds.55 On the other end of the spectrum, “installation, maintenance, and repair occupations” and construction and extraction occupations” both have the lowest percentages of female workers at 4% and 3%, respectively, underscoring ongoing gender disparities in traditionally male-dominated fields.56

Occupations by Share of Women Working Full-Time & Year Round 2022

Service-providing occupations have the highest shares of women workers, while more manual labor occupations have much lower shares.

Occupation

Source: Every Texan analysis of U.S. Census Bureau 2022 American Community Survey 5-year Estimates, Table S2402.

Overall, women tend to work in office and administrative support; education, legal, community service, arts, and media; and health care positions more than men.57 Men are more likely to work in construction and extraction; computer, engineering, and science; and sales positions.58 Women and men are similarly represented in the management, business, and financial occupations when all occupations under this broader category are grouped together.59

This occupation-specific breakdown not only reinforces earlier observations about industry trends but also highlights the persistent gender disparities that shape labor market participation in Texas. While women have established a strong presence in health care, administrative, and support roles, their underrepresentation in fields like construction, engineering, and repair indicates barriers that remain. Targeted efforts to promote gender diversity in these male-dominated sectors could be instrumental in achieving a more equitable workforce across the state.

Women in Leadership Positions

From 2012 to 2022, the share of women in management occupations has only marginally increased by 3%.60 In 2012, women made up approximately 37% of the workforce in management occupations, which grew to about 40% by 2022.61 The total number of women in this occupation grew from 363,925 to 582,948. Among top executive positions in Texas, the share of women in these positions rose from 25% in 2012 to roughly 28% in 2022.62 In 2022, 68,209 women held top executive positions, which is up from 38,920 women in 2012.63 While there has been a small increase in the share and number of women in top executive positions, men continue to dominate the share of top executive positions; men accounted for 72% of top executive positions in 2022.64

“WHILE THERE HAS BEEN A SMALL INCREASE IN THE SHARE AND NUMBER OF WOMEN IN TOP EXECUTIVE POSITIONS, MEN ACCOUNTED FOR 72% OF TOP EXECUTIVE POSITIONS IN 2022.”

Women in the Workforce in Leadership Positions, 2012 and 2022

The share of women in management occupations has marginally increased since 2012. Of those women in Management Occupations, women remain significantly underrepresented as Top Executives.shares.

Source: Every Texan analysis of U.S. Census Bureau 2012 and 2022 American Community Survey 1-Year Estimates, Table B24020.

Women-Owned Businesses

Women own over one million businesses in Texas.65 Of all businesses in Texas, women own 39%, and an additional 3% are equally owned by women and men.66 Women-owned firms that do not employ people (nonemployer firms) brought in over $30 billion in revenue in 2020. Nonemployer firms owned equally by men and women made an additional $5 billion.67

Of women-owned businesses in Texas, about 98,000 are employer firms, or businesses that employ people.68 In Texas, women own about 1-in-5 employer firms.69 Women-owned employer firms employed about one million people in 2021, and firms owned equally by women and men employed an additional 655,000 people.70 In total, women-owned employer firms paid out over $42 billion71 in wages in 2021, and employer firms equally owned by both men and women paid out an additional $27 billion.72

While women clearly contribute significantly to the Texas economy, data show that women business owners receive less financing than their male counterparts, and women of color receive even less.73 In 2022, 52% of male business owners who applied for financing received all requested funding, while only 36% of women who applied received all requested funding.74 Additionally, 37% of women business owners who applied for financing received no funding, while only 16% of men who applied received none.75 These rates are even more concerning for women of color — 45% of women of color applicants received no funding, while only 22% received all requested funding.

“WOMEN BUSINESS OWNERS RECEIVE LESS FINANCING THAN THEIR MALE COUNTERPARTS, AND WOMEN OF COLOR RECEIVE EVEN LESS.”

Apprenticeships as Pathways to Workforce Participation

Apprenticeship programs can offer women a pathway to high-growth, high-demand jobs in Texas.76 However, women are severely underrepresented in apprenticeship programs according to Registered Apprenticeship Partners Information Database System (RAPIDS).77 In 2024, there were a total of 28,230 active apprenticeships, but women made up only 5,549.78 Additionally, women of color tend to be overrepresented in apprenticeship programs in fields with the lowest median wages, such as child care workers.79

Funding Received for Small Business Owners in Texas by Gender, 2022

Source: Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas analysis of 2022 Small Business Credit Survey, Federal Reserve Banks.

POLICY RECOMMENDATIONS

• Lawmakers should encourage policies that support women’s full participation in the workforce by addressing systemic barriers, including the high cost of child care.

• Policymakers should recognize and mitigate the specific challenges single women and mothers in the workforce face by implementing paid family and medical leave initiatives, which will enable women to take time off for adoption, medical care and family caregiving without sacrificing their work.

• Policymakers should develop and implement data-driven strategies to adapt to industry shifts across Texas, tailoring their efforts to regional demands to effectively support and enhance women’s participation in the workforce.

• Industries experiencing a decrease in women’s participation, such as the “information” industry, should invest in programming and systems that support and empower women to thrive in these fields.

Texas Women and the Wage Gap

The Persistent Wage Gap Costs Texas $47 Billion Annually

Despite strides toward gender equity, significant disparities persist between the earnings of women and their male counterparts. The updated data from 2022 underscore these challenges, emphasizing both the crucial role of women in the workforce and the systemic hurdles they face in achieving wage parity.

In 2022, women in Texas working full-time yearround earned 83% of what men earned in median weekly earnings, matching the national average.80 One study found that if all Texas working women were paid comparably to men, we could reduce poverty for working women by 43% in the state and save the state over $47 billion annually.81

Significant gender pay disparities are evident in almost all occupations and are most pronounced in occupations dominated by men.82 Occupations with the largest gender pay gaps are farming, fishing, and forestry; legal; and sales occupations, whereas occupations more commonly held by women, such as community and social services and personal care and service occupations, are much closer to gender pay parity.83

Texan Median Annual Income, 2022

Source: 2022 ACS 5-Year Estimates, Table: B20017 (B through H).

Wage disparities are especially pronounced among different racial and gender groups. Hispanic, American Indian/Alaska Native, and Black women earn significantly less than their male counterparts and other racial groups. Hispanic women, for instance, earn a median hourly wage of $16.92 compared to $20.83 for Hispanic men.84 Similarly, Asian/Pacific Islander women –– while earning more than other women of color at $31.25 per hour –– still face a substantial gap compared to Asian/Pacific Islander men with the highest median wage of $41.67.85 These disparities illustrate the ongoing struggle for wage equality across gender and racial lines in Texas.

The distribution of workers by wage categories further highlights gender disparities. A

Share of Workers by Median Wage of Occupation, 2022

While 27% of women work in occupations with median incomes of less than $20K, only 4% of women work in occupations with median incomes more than $75K.

substantial proportion of women are employed in occupations earning less than $20K annually, whereas only a small fraction of men work in these lower wage brackets.86 Conversely, only a few women find themselves in the highest wage category ($75K+), indicating that more men hold high-paying roles.87

Even with varying levels of educational attainment, women consistently earn less than men. This gap is evident across all educational categories but is particularly pronounced among those with a bachelor’s or graduate degree. These findings indicate that higher education does not necessarily close the gender wage gap. Understanding why such a large wage gap exists in that educational attainment bracket requires further research.

Texas Workers’ Median Hourly Wage, 2022

Hispanic Women make a median hourly wage of $16.92 while Asian/Pacific Islander Women make a median hourly wage of $31.25. Source:

POLICY RECOMMENDATIONS:

• Lawmakers can strengthen and rigorously enforce equal pay laws to ensure women, particularly women of color, are paid equitably across all sectors.

• State and federal lawmakers can increase the minimum wage in Texas to ensure all Texans earn a wage that sustains a living.

• Business and philanthropic leaders and policy makers can support education and training programs for women in the state, with a focus on preparing them for living-wage jobs.

Education: Foundation for Workforce Development and Growth

Higher education is a key driver of job opportunity and economic security. In Texas, the pursuit of higher education correlates with increased earnings for women, highlighting the critical role of academic advancement in enhancing financial stability.88

While women lead the way in educational attainment overall, they are still less likely to attain the advanced degrees necessary for the highest-paying fields.89 Black women have the lowest rates of earning a bachelor’s degree or higher, highlighting the need for targeted policy to make educational attainment more accessible for these women.

This section explores how women are faring in educational attainment and provides policy recommendations for how lawmakers, philanthropic leaders, and employers can better support women in pursuing higher education.

Higher Education and Texas Women

In 2023, Texas women continued to outperform men in higher education, earning 58% of all degrees awarded.90 This trend was consistent across all types of higher education institutions, from twoyear colleges to both public and private universities. Women also led in enrollment numbers, with 801,652 women attending higher education institutions compared to 597,927 men in 2023.91 Women from all racial backgrounds in Texas have shown higher rates of enrollment and degree completion compared to men since 2014.92 This is particularly notable among Hispanic and Black communities.93

Across Most Racial Groups Women Earn More Bachelor’s Degrees Than Men

As a percentage of overall respective racial/ethnic group in Texas, 2022

For instance, Hispanic women earned 1.5 times more degrees than Hispanic men.94 Similarly, Black women earned nearly twice as many degrees compared to Black men.95 Despite outpacing men in degrees earned, challenges persist for women of color specifically. Hispanic and Black women still have lower rates of holding a bachelor’s degree or higher — 19% and 30%, respectively — compared to 41% for white women and 58% for Asian women.96 This underscores the ongoing need to address barriers that hinder educational attainment for women of color in Texas.

Source: Every Texan analysis of 2022 U.S. Census Bureau American Community Survey, 5-year estimates. Table S1501.

Women Still Face Challenges in their Educational Journeys

Despite the increasing number of women earning degrees, many still struggle to break through the glass ceiling. While women excel in obtaining degrees up to the master’s level, fewer women have obtained the credentials required for the highest-paying careers.97 Even when women attain advanced degrees, they are still not compensated as well as their male counterparts.98 In fact, data show that the more educated a woman is, the wider the pay disparity between her and her male counterpart.99

The challenge of rising college tuition adds another layer of complexity. As costs increase, accessing higher education becomes more difficult for everyone, but particularly for people from disadvantaged backgrounds. This financial barrier disproportionately affects women, especially those who are already struggling to overcome historical and systemic educational disparities.

Texas women are achieving remarkable progress in higher education, however, disparities in educational attainment among racial groups, the advanced-academic glass ceiling, and rising tuition fees highlight the critical need for targeted support and policies. These measures would help ensure that all women can achieve their full academic and economic potential –– regardless of race, background, or life circumstance. This is not just a matter of fairness but a crucial factor in the overall economic health of our state, given that educated women play a key role in the vitality and resilience of their communities.

Average Yearly Tuition and Fees for Higher Education in Texas by Institution Type Tuition and Fees Continue to Rise for Community Colleges and Public Universities

Source: Texas Higher Education Coordinating Board. Texas college tuition and fees data for public universities and community colleges 2018-2022.

POLICY RECOMMENDATIONS

• State legislators should address college affordability by increasing funding of TEXAS Grants and College Promise programs to support women, particularly women of color, who have been burdened by high student loan debts as they enter the workforce.

• State and federal policymakers can alleviate the burden of student loan debt for numerous Texans by expanding student loan forgiveness programs and canceling a set amount of debt.

Child Care: Essential for Texas Families and Workforce Productivity

Child care fuels Texas’s economy by allowing women to work outside of the home. In 2019, the Texas Legislature required districts to provide full-day pre-K for eligible 4-year-olds in the state. While this helps women with child care costs once their children are of preschool age,100 Texas must continue to implement policies that support Texas women, especially women with young children under 4 years old.

The challenges and disparities in child care access significantly affect women’s participation in the workforce and, by extension, the economic landscape of the state. This section lays out the current landscape of child care access in Texas and provides data and recommendations on how best to expand access to affordable, quality child care.

Child Care Expenses in Texas Still Pose a Challenge

As reported in our 2014 Economic Issues for Women in Texas report, child care costs continue to burden Texas women.101 A significant percentage of Texas children live in households where all available parents work, making child care a necessary expense. The cost of child care in Texas, however, is daunting. Year-round, full-day care for an infant is approximately $9,360 — nearly a quarter of the median income for a single mom in Texas.102 This cost is comparable to a year’s tuition at a Texas public university.103 For women earning minimum wage ($7.25/hour), full-day child care expenses consume more than half of their daily earnings.104 The situation is slightly better for those earning $15 an hour, yet child care still takes up about a quarter of their daily wages.105

“YEAR-ROUND, FULL-DAY CARE FOR AN INFANT IS APPROXIMATELY $9,360 — NEARLY A QUARTER OF THE MEDIAN INCOME FOR A SINGLE MOM IN TEXAS. THIS COST IS COMPARABLE TO A YEAR'S TUITION AT A TEXAS PUBLIC UNIVERSITY.”

Cost of Year-Round, Full-Day Child Care in Texas by Age of Child, Texas 2023

Limited Child Care Access Restricts Women’s Workforce Participation

Child care is also an essential factor in economic mobility, especially for those women who work beyond the school day hours or nontraditional hours. The demand for afterschool programs far exceeds supply, with only 15% of school-age children in Texas attending these programs.106 For every child in an after-school program, there are three more waiting to get in.107 Additionally, the state saw a significant loss of child care providers between March 2020 and September 2021 due to the COVID-19 pandemic,108 which resulted in many areas becoming child care deserts — places where the demand for child care exceeds available resources.

Child Care Deserts in Texas by Zip Code, 2024

A zip code should not determine whether a family has access to quality, affordable child care, though this is unfortunately the case in Texas.109 The lack of affordable child care negatively impacts Texas women and their families and hurts the economy.

Despite the increasing availability of programs like Texas Rising Star, which aim to improve child care quality, a significant gap in access remains; of the children in need of subsidized child care, only a fraction find placement. This gap also leads to broader economic repercussions; the child care crisis for Texas infants and toddlers is estimated to cost the state economy around $11.4 billion annually.110

“THE CHILD CARE CRISIS FOR TEXAS INFANTS AND TODDLERS IS ESTIMATED TO COST THE STATE ECONOMY AROUND $11.4 BILLION ANNUALLY.”

Source:

Universal Pre-K Expansion

There is a dire need for universal pre-K in Texas. In 2022, only 44% of children ages 3 to 4 enrolled in school, an increase of 1% since 2012.116 The potential economic benefits of universal preschool in Texas are immense, estimated at over $5 billion annually.117

In Texas, 242,975 children (30% of 3- and 4-yearolds) are enrolled in public pre-K.118 Among these, 84% are economically disadvantaged and more than one-third (36%) are classified as Emergent Bilingual or English Learners (EB/EL).119 Additionally, 54,002 children benefited from funded enrollment slots in Texas' Head Start preschool programs in 2022, highlighting the critical need for expanded access to early education to support diverse and underserved populations.120

Quality, affordable child care is the cornerstone that enables women to participate fully in the workforce. By addressing women’s needs through better policy frameworks, Texas could unlock substantial economic growth and ensure a more inclusive and equitable economic future. The policy recommendations will support women across the state and foster a more robust and resilient economy.

Texas Children Participating in Pre-K by Program Type, 2022-23 School Year

The Impact of Paid Family Leave in Texas

About 72% of workers in Texas do not have access to paid family leave through their jobs.111 This absence of paid leave disproportionately affects women and families, especially those of color. For instance, Black women in Texas are more likely to be the primary earners in their households compared to women of other races,112 with 76% of Black mothers serving as breadwinners, in contrast to 44% of white mothers.113 The financial impact of unpaid leave is significant, with a typical worker losing over $3,300 in wages for taking just four weeks off.114

Texas stands to benefit from paid leave policies. If women in Texas participated in the labor force at rates comparable to those in countries with paid leave policies, the state could see an annual economic boost of approximately $19.1 billion.115

Source: Texas Education Agency. TPEIR report: Texas public prekindergarten programs and enrollment Ages 3 and 4 (20222023). Accessed 4/24/24.

“IF

WOMEN IN TEXAS PARTICIPATED IN THE LABOR FORCE AT RATES COMPARABLE TO THOSE IN COUNTRIES WITH PAID LEAVE POLICIES, THE STATE COULD SEE AN ANNUAL ECONOMIC BOOST OF APPROXIMATELY $19.1 BILLION.”

POLICY RECOMMENDATIONS:

• Lawmakers should commit to fully funding universal pre-K programs and expanding access to quality child care facilities, particularly in underserved areas.

• Legislators should increase subsidies for child care to lower-income families and provide incentives for child care providers to meet higher quality standards.

• Legislators can support home-based child care providers that offer flexibility to support working women and students with nontraditional work and school schedules.

• Employers can implement policies and work arrangements that support families, such as offering paid family leave, dependent care reimbursement accounts, flexible scheduling, remote working options, and empowering employees with more control over their work.

Health Care Access: Vital for Texas

Families and Workforce Sustainability

Ensuring that women have adequate health care coverage not only supports their own and their family’s health, it also enhances their productivity and stability in the workplace. Reliable health insurance removes barriers to entering and remaining in the workforce and helps prevent absenteeism once in the field.121

While there have been some recent wins in terms of women’s health care –– including the federal government’s allowance of 12 months continuous Medicaid coverage for eligible postpartum women, and Texas passing a law to exempt feminine hygiene products from sales tax –– challenges persist. Texas has completely banned abortion, including medication abortion, with the only exception being if the woman’s life is at risk.122 Additionally, depending on the outcome of current legal challenges, recent state legislation limiting the authority of localities will negatively impact Texans by removing local ordinances that differ from state policies — including local, paid sick and family leave ordinances, affordable housing ordinances, and more.

As the female population continues to grow in the state, addressing the health care needs of Texas women will become increasingly crucial. Ensuring all women have access to health care, including contraception and reproductive care requires urgent action.

Health Coverage for Texas Women

Health insurance coverage rates among Texas women reflect both progress and ongoing challenges. Currently, 17% of Texas women are uninsured, which marks an improvement from 22% in 2012.123 Despite this, women across all working conditions face significant gaps in access to employer-based health insurance, with 1-in-4 full-time, year-round female workers lacking this benefit.124

Hispanic women face the most considerable challenges with 26% lacking insurance –– nearly triple the rate of non-Hispanic white women.125 Disparities across age groups also demonstrate areas where Texas can improve policies to ensure the state’s female workforce has access to the health care they need. For example, 23% of Texas women of working age (19-64 years) are uninsured, which is higher than the 11% national average.126

The intersection of earnings and insurance coverage in Texas highlights the important role of stable employment in accessing health care. According to census data, women with lower incomes face significant challenges in obtaining health insurance; those earning less than $10,000 annually represent 61% of all uninsured women in the state.127 This rate of uninsured, low-income women notably exceeds that of their male counterparts, of whom 45% are uninsured in the same earnings bracket.128 While these figures highlight the challenges uninsured low-income women face, understanding their economic status within the broader context of the Federal Poverty Level (FPL) further illustrates the disparities in access to health care and economic stability. Among Texas women who work full-time and year-round, those living below 100% of the FPL are the most likely to be uninsured.129 These statistics underscore the critical role that adequate wages play in securing health care coverage and enhancing overall well-being and economic stability for women.

Health Care Policies Support a More Productive Workforce

In Texas, the absence of paid sick leave disproportionately affects women, particularly those in part-time positions, who are more likely to take time off to care for sick children.130 In 2023, a typical Texas worker who takes four weeks of unpaid leave off incurs a financial loss of over $3,700.131

Lack of paid sick leave compounds the high incidence of medical debt within communities of color, where 21% carry such debt compared to 17% in white communities.132 The median medical debt in collections stands at $884 for communities of color, underscoring a significant financial burden that impacts health and economic stability.133 These factors collectively hinder women's ability to participate fully and healthily in the workforce, calling for policies that address both health coverage and financial barriers to care.134

Texas Uninsured Rates for Women Working Full-Time, Year-Round by Income Level, 2022

Low-Income Full-Time Women Workers in Texas Face the Highest Uninsured Rates.

Source: Every Texan analysis of U.S. Census Bureau American Community Survey 2022 5-Year Estimates Public Use Microdata Sample.

2024 Federal Poverty Guidelines for the 48 Contiguous States and D.C.

Source: United States Department of Health and Human Services.

Note: Household sizes above four are provided by the Department of Health and Human Services: https://aspe.hhs.gov/topics/poverty-economic-mobility/poverty-guidelines.

POLICY RECOMMENDATIONS:

• Texas should join the majority of other states in expanding Medicaid access to adults in the coverage gap making below 138% of the FPL.

• Texas should use all available tools to streamline and simplify Medicaid and CHIP enrollment for women and their families by fixing policies that create a high administrative burden on the state and often result in incorrect coverage and care denials.

• Texas should re-institute funding for qualified enrollment assistance programs to help women navigate the correct health coverage and cost-savings options for their families.

• Texas should reinstate automatic enrollment from Medicaid for Pregnant Women into Healthy Texas Women and implement further measures to assist eligible postpartum mothers in retaining Medicaid coverage or moving to private or Affordable Care Act coverage for which they qualify. This will help eligible Texans retain coverage and avoid care gaps.

• Government and philanthropic organizations can support funding initiatives that ensure uninterrupted access to all contraceptive options for women, including long-acting methods.

• State and local legislators can make paid sick leave an earned benefit that is available to more working women, so they can go to the doctor or stay home when they or their children are sick.

• Similarly, private sector employers can enact policies to provide paid sick days. For women, the inability to earn paid sick days has particularly devastating consequences.

Housing: Security for Texas Families and Workforce Stability

Stable, secure housing is a critical foundation for female participation in the Texas workforce, especially as Texans navigate the challenges of an ongoing affordable housing crisis. With heightened eviction filings during the pandemic and housing instability across the state,135 Texas must ensure all women and families have access to safe, affordable housing.

In Texas, 1-in-3 households (32%) are housing cost burdened –– meaning they spend 30% or more of their monthly income on rent, mortgage payments, or other housing costs.136 This varies by housing tenure, with more than half of renter households in the state (51%) experiencing housing cost burden compared to one-fifth (22%) of owner-occupied households.137 These challenges intersect significantly with workforce participation, especially for women who are disproportionately represented in lower-wage jobs and thus more vulnerable to housing instability.

The housing crisis also reflects disparities along racial and ethnic lines, with almost half (46%) of Black households and over one-third (35%) of Hispanic/Latino households experiencing housing cost burden, compared to roughly one-quarter (27%) of white households.138

More Americans live in family and household structures that go beyond the “traditional” nuclear family with two working parents and children.139 Of women-headed households in Texas, 17% are single mothers, 5% are multigenerational households, 1% are married to or cohabitating with another woman, and 28% are living alone (42% of women living alone are over 65).140 Marriage is no longer the central driving force behind many women’s housing and financial decisions. As more and more women delay marriage further into adulthood, there could be considerable ramifications for housing affordability.141

Housing Cost Burden for Texas Renters and Homeowners, 2022

More than half of Texas renters are housing cost burdened, and half of those are severely cost burdened. Homeowners experience rates roughly half that of renters, but are still experiencing increased housing costs.

“OF THE 3.5 MILLION COST BURDENED HOUSEHOLDS IN THE STATE, 33% HAVE CHILDREN IN THE HOME.”

Source: Every Texan analysis of 2022 American Community Survey 1-Year Public Use Microdata Sample.

Even with two full-time working adults, 9% of Texan households are still housing cost burdened, but non-traditional households face much higher rates.142 Of the 3.5 million cost burdened households in the state, 33% have children in the home. Single mothers and grandparents raising grandchildren show the highest rates of cost burden at 56% and 47%, respectively.143 There are 886,333 single mothers and 37,364 households where grandparents raise their grandchildren in Texas.144 Of the household types examined, the highest rates of housing cost burden were among Black women who are living with a same-sex partner or spouse (70%), single mothers (65%), or living alone (63%).145 This finding details the need for an intersectional approach to housing policy. Households with children tend to have higher rates of housing cost burden across the board, but women of color who live alone experience considerably high rates of cost burden.146 Given the housing cost burden experienced by all households in Texas, especially those headed by women of color, it is important to explore the ways that housing affects the economic stability and workforce participation of women throughout the state.

Housing Cost Burden Rates for Households with Children by Race/Ethnicity of Householder, 2022

Source: Every Texan analysis of U.S. Census Bureau 2022 American Community Survey 1-year Public Use Microdata Sample. Note: “Cost burden” is defined as a household spending 30% or more of their

Homeownership Opportunities for Women

Homeownership remains the primary wealthbuilding strategy for American households. For decades, however, homeownership has remained inaccessible for many families, particularly families of color. Improving access to homeownership will lead to increased housing stability, which in turn can lead to better health and education outcomes for women and their families.147

As the shape of American households shifts, so does the face of homeownership. Increasingly, women who live alone own a higher share of housing than their male counterparts.148 In Texas, women who live alone or without a spouse own 21% of

Share of Owner-Occupied Housing by Household Type and Race/Ethncnicity, 2022

Source: Every Texan analysis of U.S. Census Bureau 2022 American Community Survey 1-Year Public Use Microdata Sample.

Note: Married couple may include same-sex married couples.

owner-occupied homes, almost twice the rate of men living alone or without a spouse.149 As women increasingly become the primary breadwinners in their households, they are also more likely to own property.150 Married couples still own the highest share of homes in the state, but single women occupy 32% of Black-owned homes and 22% of Hispanic-owned homes.151

While these results suggest positive movement for Black and Hispanic women in accessing home ownership, the overall rates of homeownership by race remain starkly divided. White households own their homes at a rate of 71%, compared to only 41% of Black households.152

householder, no spouse or alone

Female householder, no spouse or alone

Married Couple

Male

Rental Housing Challenges

Many factors contribute to a household’s decision to rent or own, but renters are more often financially constrained. Despite a brief eviction freeze during the height of the COVID-19 pandemic, eviction rates have now risen to pre-pandemic levels.153 As eviction filings increase, so does the number of unhoused people. Even if eviction rulings do not increase, the filings themselves often force people out of their homes. Despite the state’s strong economy, in 2023 there were an estimated 27,000 people experiencing homelessness in Texas — roughly 5% of the national total.154

Rental assistance programs at federal, state, and local levels are insufficient given the growing number of families struggling with rent. Over the last 20 years, the population of very low-income renters in the U.S. has increased from 4.4 million to 19.3 million, yet only 25% receive any aid.155 Additionally, affordable rental units have declined significantly; while the overall number of rental units has increased, those priced under $1,000 per month have decreased by 389,000 between 2012 and 2022.156

“IN

POLICY RECOMMENDATIONS:

• Texas can help increase homeownership for women of color by creating more affordable housing options and opportunities for economic advancement. State officials should support the creation of affordable rental units with larger numbers of bedrooms for families with children so that all women, but especially single mothers who are most likely to be costburdened, have a quality and affordable place to live.

• The state and philanthropic entities can allocate resources for legal mediation services for women and families facing eviction and aid families seeking property tax relief –– two issues that disproportionately impact women of color.

• Public Housing Authorities and other community housing partners can prioritize the allocation of funds for transitional housing for survivors of family violence.

• Philanthropy can fund programs that support women’s access to affordable and accessible housing and home ownership.

Policy Recommendations Overview

Texas has significant potential, but to fully realize it, focused investments in its women and families are crucial. These policy recommendations, coupled with robust public-private partnerships, intentional philanthropy and the recognition of the intersection of race, ethnicity, gender, and identity, are essential to creating equitable opportunities that enable women across Texas and fuel a thriving state economy. Texas lawmakers and business and community leaders can secure the state’s economic future by analyzing the data in this report and acting on these recommendations.

Promote Economic Participation for Texas Women

• Lawmakers should encourage policies that support women’s full participation in the workforce by addressing systemic barriers, including the high cost of child care.

• Policymakers should recognize and mitigate the specific challenges single women and mothers in the workforce face by implementing paid family and medical leave initiatives, which will enable women to take time off for pregnancy, adoption, or medical care without sacrificing their work.

Enhance Workforce Equity Through Equal Pay

• Lawmakers can strengthen and rigorously enforce equal pay laws to ensure women, particularly women of color, are paid equitably across all sectors.

• State and federal lawmakers can increase the minimum wage in Texas to ensure all Texans earn a wage that sustains a living.

• Business and philanthropic leaders and policy makers can support education and training programs for women in the state, with a focus on preparing them for living-wage jobs.

Provide Support for Women’s Educational Advancement

• State and federal policymakers can alleviate the burden of student loan debt for numerous Texans by expanding student loan forgiveness programs and canceling a set amount of debt.

Invest in Universal and Subsidized Child Care Programs

• Lawmakers should commit to fully funding universal pre-K programs and expanding access to quality child care facilities, particularly in underserved areas.

• Legislators should increase subsidies for child care to lower-income families and provide incentives for child care providers to meet higher quality standards.

• Legislators can support home-based child care providers that offer flexibility to support working women and students with nontraditional work and school schedules.

Expand Health Coverage and Access

• Texas should join the majority of other states in expanding Medicaid access to adults in the coverage gap making below 138% of the FPL.

• Texas should re-institute funding for qualified enrollment assistance programs to help women navigate the correct health coverage and costsavings options for their families.

• Government and philanthropic organizations can support funding initiatives that ensure uninterrupted access to all contraceptive options for women, including long-acting methods.

Support Working Women Through Paid Sick Leave Policies

• State and local legislators can make paid sick leave an earned benefit that is available to more working women, so they can go to the doctor or stay home when they or their children are sick.

• Similarly, private sector employers can enact policies to provide paid sick days. For women, the inability to earn paid sick days has particularly devastating consequences.

Promote Housing Stability

• Texas can help increase homeownership for women of color by creating more affordable housing options and opportunities for economic advancement. State officials should support the creation of affordable rental units with larger numbers of bedrooms for families with children so that all women, but especially single mothers who are most likely to be cost-burdened, have a quality and affordable place to live.

• Public Housing Authorities and other community housing partners can prioritize the allocation of funds for transitional housing for survivors of family violence.

• Philanthropy can fund programs that support women’s access to affordable and accessible housing and home ownership.

Policy Review: A Decade of Change

In the last decade, the policy landscape in Texas has changed, with some laws that will improve the lives of Texas women and others that will hinder women’s well-being and workforce participation.

Policies Positively Impacting Women and Mothers:

• The federal decision to allow 12 months of continuous Medicaid coverage for eligible postpartum women in Texas may help address the state’s high rates of maternal mortality, especially among Black women, by providing extended access to care.157,158

• State employees now receive eight weeks of paid parental leave for birthing parents and four weeks for non-birthing parents.159 While this is only for state employees, we hope more localities or companies will follow suit.

• In 2019, the Texas Legislature required districts to provide full-day pre-K for eligible 4-yearolds in the state, which helps women with child care costs once their children are of preschool age.160

• The Crown Act, passed in 2023, prohibits workplace and educational discrimination based on hair texture or protective hairstyles by race. However, discrimination continues through loopholes in the legislation, and much work remains to address the discrimination Black women and people face in the workplace.161

• The exemption of feminine hygiene products from sales tax (2023) reduces the financial burden on women for medically necessary products. This is a positive step, and we hope more states follow suit and adopt similar measures.162

Policies Negatively Impacting Women and Mothers:

• State preemption over local ordinances threatens local paid sick leave, affordable housing ordinances, and other policies that benefit working women. If upheld, this legislation will have a direct, negative impact on women’s ability to balance work and family life.

• Recent state legislation that limits access to reproductive care and family planning options will have a negative effect on women’s ability to participate in the workforce and their future economic opportunity.163

• The ban on Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion (DEI) initiatives (2024) harms women and girls by eliminating programs designed to promote equity in education and the workplace. This law weakens inclusivity efforts and negatively affects women and all Texans.

Conclusion

This report details the pivotal role women play in the Texas workforce and economy, particularly in the areas of growth and innovation. It also underscores the critical need to invest in removing the barriers that stand in the way of women’s consistent and productive participation in the workforce and ability to impact both their families and the state's economy. In addition to legislative and state policies, employers must also take a proactive role in creating equitable work environments by implementing family-friendly policies, promoting pay equity, and supporting diversity, equity, and inclusion initiatives.

The data and policy recommendations in this report serve as a foundation for action, providing guidance for community leaders, policymakers, employers, corporations, and philanthropic organizations. When both public and private sectors work together to support Texas women and families, we invest in a brighter future for all Texans.

This report was produced by Texas Women’s Foundation in partnership with Every Texan.

Texas Women’s Foundation is a catalyst for positive change across the state, with a focused mission and vision to empower strong women to build a better world. A community-supported organization, Texas Women’s Foundation invests in the 14.7 million women and girls who call Texas home. Through research, advocacy, programs and grantmaking, we advance economic and leadership opportunities for women, girls and families to build stronger, more equitable communities for all.

To support Texas Women's Foundation, visit txwf.org/donate

This report was co-authored by the Every Texan Research and Data Team: Coda Rayo-Garza, Director of Research and Data; Kaitlan Wong, Senior Research and Data Analyst; Sarah Serpas, Senior Research and Data Analyst; and Sammy Cervantes, Data and Policy Analyst with support from Research and Data Intern Sofia Calderon.

Since its founding in 1985, Every Texan has expanded opportunity and equity for Texans of all backgrounds. Based in Austin, Texas, Every Texan is a nonprofit organization that researches, analyzes, and advocates for public policies to expand equitable access to quality health care, food security, education, and good jobs. Learn more at: everytexan.org

Methods

Data Sources

Population estimates referenced throughout the report primarily come from the U.S. Census Bureau. All sources are listed at the end of the report. Data summaries utilizing American Community Survey microdata were analyzed in R. Definitions and notes are included as necessary to clarify the data and ensure accurate interpretation. These additions provide important context, highlight key assumptions, and enhance the overall understanding of the information presented.

Labels and Language Surrounding Race, Ethnicity, and Gender

Going forward, white, Black, and Asian are non-Hispanic throughout the report unless otherwise specified. Throughout this report we default to demographic terms used by data sources. For example, the U.S. Census Bureau uses “Hispanic or Latino.” In all other cases we use the term Latina to refer to women of Latin American descent. We recognize that individual women may identify as Hispanic, Latina, Latinx, Latine, or another way. “Asian” includes Asian Indian, Chinese, Vietnamese, Filipino, Korean, Japanese, and other Asian per the U.S. Census Bureau. “Other” typically includes Native Hawaiian/Other Pacific Islander, American Indian/Alaska Native, and two or more races, not broken out due to low numbers (unless otherwise specified).

We recognize that gender is not binary and acknowledge that the intersection of gender, race, ethnicity, class, sexuality, ability, and citizenship status shape people’s lived experiences. Our use of the term women is inclusive of all women—transgender women, cisgender women, genderqueer women and all other individuals that identify as women. We recognize that most data sources are limited to a binary disaggregation of “male” and “female,” and thus obscure and leave out the experiences of non-cisgender women.

Endnotes

1 Texas Economic Development Corporation. Texas' Economic Strength and Growth. Accessed 11/14/24 at https://businessintexas.com/why-texas/economic-strength/

2 McCann, Adam. (February 26, 2024). Best & Worst States for Women. WalletHub. https://wallethub.com/ edu/best-and-worst-states-for-women/10728

Texas Workforce Commission

3 Texas Workforce Commission. (2024, March 8). Texas Labor Market Growth Continues into 2024. https://www. twc.texas.gov/news/texas-labor-market-growth-continues-2024

4 Texas Demographic Center, Population Projections Program – 2022 Release.

5 Every Texan analysis of U.S. Census Bureau 2012-2022 American Community Survey 1-Year Estimates, Table B24040 (excluding 2020 due to experimental methodology during the COVID-19 pandemic).

6 Every Texan analysis of U.S. Census Bureau 2012 and 2022 American Community Survey 5-Year Estimates, via IPUMS Microdata.

7 Every Texan analysis of 2021 Annual Business Survey (ABS), Table AB2100CSA01.

8 Texas Higher Education Coordinating Board (2024). DataBridge. https://databridge.highered.texas.gov/ degree-dashboard/

9 Every Texan analysis of U.S. Census Bureau 2022 American Community Survey 5-Year Estimates, Table S1701.

10 Every Texan analysis of 2022 U.S. Census Bureau American Community Survey 5-Year Estimates, Table B17001 (B-I).

11 Ibid.

12 U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2024, February 5). Women’s Earnings in Texas – 2022. https://www.bls.gov/ regions/southwest/news-release/womensearnings_texas. htm

13 Shaw, E., & Mariano, H. (2021). Narrow the Gender Pay Gap, Reduce Poverty for Families: The Economic Impact of Equal Pay by State. Institute for Women’s Policy Research.

14 Every Texan analysis of U.S. Census Bureau 2022 American Community Survey 5-Year Estimates, Table S2001.

15 Every Texan analysis of U.S. Census Bureau 2022 American Community Survey 5-Year Estimates, Table B20004.

16 Every Texan calculation of wage gap using 2022 American Community Survey 5-Year Estimates.

17 Every Texan analysis of U.S. Census Bureau 20122022 American Community Survey 1-Year Estimates, Table S2403. (Excludes 2020 due to data unreliability).

18 Every Texan analysis of U.S. Census Bureau 20122022 American Community Survey 1-Year Estimates, Table B24020.

19 See note 7.

20 Perlmeter, E. R. (2023, December 1). Women business owners in Texas get less financing than men do. Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas. https://www.dallasfed.org/cd/ communities/2023/2307

21 Every Texan analysis of U.S. Census Bureau 2022 American Community Survey 5-Year Estimates, Table S2701.

22 Every Texan analysis of U.S. Census Bureau 2022 American Community Survey 1-Year Estimates, Table B27012.

23 Every Texan calculation based on Texas Institute for Child & Family Wellbeing (2023) Texas child care market rate survey.

24 Pedigo, S., Gilliam, L., & Belk, C. (2023). How Policymaking Can Address Urgent Child Care Challenges and Opportunities in Texas. LBJ Urban Lab, LBJ School of Public Affairs, The University of Texas at Austin.

25 Every Texan analysis of U.S. Census Bureau 2022

American Community Survey 5-Year Estimates, via IPUMS Microdata.

26 Ibid.

27 See note 4.

28 Every Texan analysis of U.S. Census Bureau 2022 American Community Survey 1-Year Estimates, Table DP05.

29 See note 4.

30 Ibid.

31 Every Texan analysis of U.S. Census Bureau 2012 and 2022 American Community Survey 1-Year Estimates, Table B01001(B, C, D, H, I).

32 Ibid.

33 Note: The Williams Institute uses the term LGBT, as reflected in this report. We recognize that the term LGBT is not fully inclusive and leaves out certain groups, as individuals may identify as lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer, questioning, intersex, asexual, genderqueer, gender nonconforming, or another way.

34 Movement Advancement Project. (2022). Texas’ Equality Profile. https://www.lgbtmap.org/equality-maps/profile_state/TX

35 The Williams Institute, UCLA School of Law. (2019). LGBT Demographic Data Interactive. https://williamsinstitute.law.ucla.edu/visualization/lgbt-stats/#density

36 Ibid.

37 Ibid.

38 Every Texan analysis of 2022 U.S. Census Bureau American Community Survey 5-Year Estimates, Table B17001.

39 Every Texan analysis of U.S. Census Bureau 2022 American Community Survey 5-Year Estimates, Table B17001 (B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I).

40 Ibid.

41 Glynn, S. J. (2021, March 29). Breadwinning Mothers Are Critical to Families’ Economic Security. Center for American Progress. https://www.americanprogress.org/ article/breadwinning-mothers-critical-familys-economic-security/

42 Every Texan analysis of U.S. Census Bureau 2012-2022 American Community Survey 1-Year Estimates, Table S2403. (Excludes 2020 due to data unreliability).

43 See note 5.

44 Ibid.

45 Every Texan analysis of U.S. Census Bureau 2012 and 2022 American Community Survey 5-Year Estimates via IPUMS.

46 Every Texan analysis of U.S. Census Bureau 2022 American Community Survey Estimates, Table DP02.

47 Ibid.

48 Every Texan analysis of U.S. Census Bureau 2014 and 2022 American Community Survey 5-Year Estimates, IPUMS microdata.

49 Jacobsen, L., Mather, M, and Dupuis, G. (2012) “Household Change in the United States,” Population Bulletin 67, no. 1. Population Research Bureau. https:// www.prb.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/us-household-change-2012.pdf

50 Every Texan analysis of 2022 American Community Survey 5-Year Estimates, Table S2404.

51 Ibid.

52 Ibid.

53 Ibid.

54 Every Texan analysis of U.S. Census Bureau 2022 American Community Survey 1-Year Estimates, Table S2402.

55 Ibid.

56 Ibid.

57 Ibid.

58 Ibid.

59 Ibid.

60 See note 18.

61 Ibid.

62 Ibid.

63 Ibid.

64 Ibid.

65 Every Texan analysis of 2020 Annual Business Survey Company Summary, Table AB2000NESD01.

66 Ibid.

67 Ibid.

68 See note 7.

69 Ibid.

70 Ibid.

71 Ibid.

72 Ibid.

73 See note 20.

74 Ibid.

75 Ibid.

76 Texas Workforce Commission. Texas High Growth Report Summary 2021. https://www.twc.texas.gov/sites/ default/files/ogc/mtg22/commission-meeting-material-01.25.22-item8a-highgrowthreport-summary-twc.pdf

77 Apprenticeships USA via https://www.apprenticeship. gov/data-and-statistics/apprentices-by-state-dashboard

78 Ibid.

79 Young Invincibles. (2022, April 20). Texas Apprenticeship Report. https://www.younginvincibles.org

80 See note 12.

81 Institute for Women’s Policy Research. Narrow the Gender Pay Gap, Reduce Poverty for Families: The Economic Impact of Equal Pay by State. https://iwpr. org/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/Economic-Impact-ofEqual-Pay-by-State_FINAL.pdf

82 Every Texan analysis of U.S. Census Bureau 2022 American Community Survey 1-Year Estimates, Table S2411.

83 Ibid.

84 Every Texan analysis of U.S. Census Bureau 2022 American Community Survey 5-Year Estimates, IPUMS Microdata.

85 Ibid.

86 Every Texan analysis of U.S. Census Bureau 2022 American Community Survey 1-Year Estimates Public Use Microdata Sample.

87 Ibid.

88 Ibid.

89 Every Texan analysis of U.S. Census Bureau 2022 American Community Survey 5-year estimates, Table S1502.

90 See note 8.

91 Texas Higher Education Coordinating Board, DataBridge Enrollment Data, June 19, 2024. https:// databridge.highered.texas.gov/expanding-enrollment-across-communities-and-institutions/

92 Texas Women’s Foundation. (2014). Economic Issues for Women in Texas 2014. https://www.txwf.org/PDF/ Economic-Issues-for-Women-in-Texas_Texas-Womens-Foundation_May-2014.pdf

93 Every Texan analysis of U.S. Census Bureau 2022 American Community Survey 5-year Estimates, Table S1501.

94 See note 8.

95 Ibid.

96 See note 93.

97 See note 89.

98 See note 15.

99 Ibid.

100 Texas Education Agency (TEA). 2021. “Pre-K Programs FAQs.” https://tea.texas.gov/academics/early-childhood-education/prekprogramsfaqs.pdf

101 See note 92.

102 Every Texan calculation based on Texas Institute for Child & Family Wellbeing (2023) Texas child care market rate survey. https://txicfw.socialwork.utexas.edu/2023texas-child-care-market-rate-survey/ Median income data from U.S. Census Bureau American Community Survey 2022 5-Year Estimates, Table S1903.

103 Every Texan calculation based on Texas Institute for Child & Family Wellbeing (2023) Texas child care market rate survey. https://txicfw.socialwork.utexas. edu/2023-texas-child-care-market-rate-survey/ Average tuition from Texas Higher Education Coordinating

Board (2022). https://www.txhigheredaccountability.org/ AcctPublic/InteractiveReport/ManageReports

104 Every Texan calculation based on Texas Institute for Child & Family Wellbeing (2023) Texas child care market rate survey. https://txicfw.socialwork.utexas.edu/2023texas-child-care-market-rate-survey/ Daily living wage for one adult and one child from MIT Living Wage Calculator, Living Wage Calculation for Texas, accessed 4/18/24 at https://livingwage.mit.edu/states/48 105 Ibid.

106 Texas Partnership for Out of School Time. TXPOST Strategic Plan: 2020-2023. Accessed 4/23/24 at https:// www.txpost.org/

107 Afterschool Alliance. Texas After 3pm. Accessed 4/23/24 at https://afterschoolalliance.org/AA3PM/data/ geo/Texas/overview

108 Children at Risk. (2020, June 1). Texas Child Care Closures. Accessed 4/23/24 at https://childrenatrisk.org/ child careclosuremap/

109 Fletcher, N. (2023, June 8). Access to Affordable High-Quality Child Care is Scarce. Children At Risk. Accessed 4/23/24 at https://childrenatrisk.org/ child-care-desert-analysis-2023/

110 First Five Years Fund. Child Care and Early Education in Texas 2023 Fact Sheet. Accessed 4/23/24 at https://www.ffyf.org/states/texas/

111 National Partnership. (2023, February). Paid Leave Means A Stronger Texas. Accessed 11/8/24 at https:// nationalpartnership.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/ paid-leave-means-a-stronger-texas.pdf

112 Shaw, E., Mason, C. N., Lacarte, V., & Jauregui, E. (2020). Holding Up Half the Sky: Mothers as Workers, Primary Caregivers, & Breadwinners During COVID-19. Institute For Women’s Policy Research. Accessed 4/25/24 at https://iwpr.org/holding-up-half-the-sky-mothersas-workers-primary-caregivers-breadwinners-duringcovid-19-2

113 See note 111.

114 Ibid.

115 Ibid.

116 Every Texan analysis of U.S. Census Bureau 2022 American Community Survey 1-Year Estimates, Table S1401.

117 Center for American Progress. (2021, December 14). Texas Early Learning Fact Sheet 2021. Accessed 4/24/24 at https://www.americanprogress.org/article/early-learning-in-the-united-states-2021/

118 Texas Education Agency. TPEIR report: Texas public prekindergarten programs and enrollment Ages 3 and 4 (2022-2023). Accessed 4/24/24 at https://www.texaseducationinfo.org/ViewReport.aspx and Every Texan analysis of U.S. Census Bureau 2022 American Community Survey 5-Year Estimates, Table B09001.

119 Texas Education Agency. TPEIR report: Texas public prekindergarten programs and enrollment

Ages 3 and 4 (2022-2023). Accessed 4/24/24 at https:// www.texaseducationinfo.org

120 U.S. Department of Health & Human Services. Head Start ECLK. 2022. https://eclkc.ohs.acf.hhs.gov/data-ongoing-monitoring/article/head-start-program-facts-fiscal-year-2022

121 Lofland JH, Frick KD. Effect of health insurance on workplace absenteeism in the U.S. workforce. J Occup Environ Med. 2006 Jan;48(1):13-21. doi: 10.1097/01. jom.0000194150.06359.ab. PMID: 16404205.

122 Guttmacher Institute. 2024.” Interactive Map: US Abortion Policies and Access After Roe” https://states. guttmacher.org/policies/texas/abortion-policies

123 Every Texan analysis of U.S. Census Bureau 2012 and 2022 American Community Survey 5-Year Estimates, Table S2701.

124 Every Texan analysis of U.S. Census Bureau 2022 American Community Survey 1-Year Estimates, Table B27012.

125 Every Texan analysis of U.S. Census Bureau 2022 American Community Survey 5-Year Estimates Public Use Microdata Sample.

126 Ibid.

127 Ibid.

128 Ibid.

129 Ibid.

130 KFF. (2021, December 17). Paid Leave in the U.S. Accessed 4/25/24 at https://www.kff.org/womens-health-policy/fact-sheet/paid-leave-in-u-s/

131 Every Texan analysis of US Bureau of Labor May 2023 Statistics State Occupational Employment and Wage Estimates via https://www.bls.gov/oes/current/ oes_tx.htm

132 Urban Institute. (2023). Debt in America: An interactive map. Accessed 4/25/24 at https://apps.urban.org/ features/debt-interactive-map/?type=overall&variable=totcoll Data is from February 2022.

133 Ibid.

134 West, S. (2023). “Dangers and Deaths Around Black Pregnancies Seen as a ‘Completely Preventable’ Health Crisis.” KFF Health News. https://kffhealthnews.org/ news/article/dangers-and-deaths-around-black-pregnancies-seen-as-a-completely-preventable-health-crisis/

135 Texas Women’s Foundation. (2022). Economic Issues for Women in Texas 2022. https://txwf.org/research/

136 See note 25.

137 Ibid

138 Ibid.

139 See note 49.

140 See note 84.

141 See note 49.

142 See note 84.

143 Ibid.

144 Ibid.

145 Ibid.

146 Ibid.

147 Texas Department of Health and Human Services. (2022). ”Housing as a Social Determinant of Health and the Housing Ecosystem in Texas” https://www.hhs.texas. gov/sites/default/files/documents/january-2022-jcafsagenda-item-8.pdf

148 Fry, R. (2023). “Single Women Own More Homes than Single Men in the US, but that Edge is Narrowing.” Pew Research Center. https://www.pewresearch.org/ short-reads/2023/06/12/single-women-own-morehomes-than-single-men-in-the-us-but-that-edge-is-narrowing/

149 See note 84.

150 Fry, R et. al. (2023). “In a Growing Share of U.S. Marriages, Husbands and Wives Earn About the Same.” Pew Research Center. https://www.pewresearch.org/social-trends/2023/04/13/in-a-growing-share-of-u-s-marriages-husbands-and-wives-earn-about-the-same/

151 See note 84.

152 Ibid.

153 Harvard Joint Center for Housing Studies. (2024). “America’s Rental Housing.” https://www.jchs.harvard. edu/sites/default/files/reports/files/Harvard_JCHS_ Americas_Rental_Housing_2024.pdf

154 US Department of Housing and Urban Development. (2023). “The 2023 Annual Homelessness Assessment Report (AHAR) to Congress.” https://www. huduser.gov/portal/sites/default/files/pdf/2023-AHARPart-1.pdf

155 See note 150.

156 Every Texan analysis of U.S. Census Bureau 20122022 American Community Survey 1-Year Estimates, Table B25063.

157 BK. 2024. “Feds approve 12 months of Medicaid coverage for low-income Texas moms.” The Texas Tribune. Jan. 17, 2024. https://www.texastribune.org/2024/01/17/ texas-medicaid-postpartum/

158 See note 134.

159 Posson, A. 2023. “Texas Adopted Paid Leave Benefits for State Employees. Counties and Cities Can Do the Same.” Every Texan. https://everytexan.org/2023/11/29/ texas-adopted-a-paid-parental-leave-benefit-for-stateemployees-counties-and-cities-can-do-the-same/

160 See note 100.

161 Bourgeois, J. W., & Henderson, H. (2023, November 28). The CROWN Act hasn’t ended hair discrimination in Texas. Brookings. https://www.brookings.edu/articles/ the-crown-act-hasnt-ended-hair-discrimination-intexas/

162 Bendix, A & Murphy, J. 2024. “States have been eliminating taxes on period products for years. Here’s where you’ll still pay them.” NBC News. https://www.nbcnews. com/health/womens-health/where-tampons-pads-period-products-are-taxed-map-rcna132874

163 See note 122.