Strategies for Visual Research
Daniel Apt BA Design for Graphic Communication 2014 London College of Communication
Contents
2
Introduction
Discover
Delve
Determine Impact
3. Introduction
4. Issues 5. Chosen Issue
8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15.
21. 22. 23. 24.
Deliver 6. Outcome V1
Develop 7. Outcomes V2
Change of Issue Gravity of Issue Pedestrian Behaviour Risk Perception Worst-case-scenario analysis Accident Memorials Redefining Brief Outcome V3
Define 16. 17. 18. 19. 20.
Outcome Expansion TFL Communications Outcome V3.2 A/B Testing Video Pitch
Evaluating SMART Goal Outcome Impact Value
What’s Next? 25. Grab Attention 26. Outcomes V4 27. Reflection
Introduction This report documents the process I have undertaken throughout the unit Strategies for Visual Research (SVR). The brief could be summarised as: Produce design research and outcomes which address an issue in your local area. To achieve this the unit has been divided over the following key stages:
Introduction
Discover Discover is the process of intuitively exploring a new area or journey, and documenting learning and findings. Deliver Deliver is the production, implementation and dissemination of outcomes to optimum standards.
Upon deeper investigation of these stages one will come to realise that the Delve stage is the first moment in this project where substantial amounts of research must be undertaken. Prior to this one must produce numerous outcomes without any data to back anything up.
Develop Develop is the process of generating and experimenting with many ideas and concepts, transforming them into prototypes and testing them with the client and target audiences.
For me, as a design practitioner, this process is very counter-intuitive. The majority of the work conducted prior to the Delve stage became irrelevant to the project, and as such a stronger emphasis has been placed on the more fruitful stages of this project: the Delve, Define, and Determine Impact.
Delve Delve is the process of becoming deeply engaged in secondary and primary research methods to develop an in-depth understanding of the context,
One must remain thankful that this project was undertaken within an educational context: Imagine if this was a paid brief and the first three stages of a project were wasted time!
Define Define is the process of analysing and synthesising all the research carried out to date to help decide on the direction of the best route that the project should take to address the social issue. Determine Impact Determine Impact is the process of evaluating the impact that an outcome has had in comparison with the initial aim or function that is has been designed to achieve.
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Issues Discover is the process of intuitively exploring a new area or journey, and documenting learning and findings. This process of discovering and exploring was focused on my local area: Wandsworth, to be specific Garratt Lane, SW18.
Discover
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I did find that many of the discovered issues were “shallow” issues, which did not pose a serious problem to the public and the people in my local community. To prevent stalling this project I decided to focus on one of these “shallow” issues and keep “the flow going.”
Through the undertaken exploration many design opportunities were discovered. Many of the local issues were on a superficial level, and personally I found it difficult to find a problem I was personally engaged with. The discovered issues are displayed in the figures to the right. The discovered issues were relevant to a plethora of fields, including: traffic issues, social issues, and service issues.
Bottom left pin is Garratt Lane, top right pin is the London College of Communication.
Vehicles not stopping the cyclist’s advance stopzone.
Pedestrians crossing through red-lights.
Individuals sitting on gravestones.
Pedestrians not using a crossing.
Shopping trolleys being “abandoned.”
Recyling bags being left on the street.
The light being left on in my flat’s bin/bike shed.
Long wait at Garratt Lane / Mapleton Rd crossing.
Chosen Issue The issue I decided to focus on was: The long waiting time at the Garratt Lane / Mapleton road crossing. I had already noticed the time waiting for “the green man� was very long. TFL aims to make the waiting time to cross no longer than 90 seconds. (Marshall, 2009) For the specific crossing it took 85 seconds to go through the light sequence*. For a small crossing with very small amounts of traffic this was a test of patience for even the most patient individual. As a result many individuals did not wait for the green light to appear. It had become my goal to prevent the user from jumping the light of this specific pedestrian crossing.
Discover
As a designer I felt it was my calling to create an outcome which would prevent this behaviour, and engage them whilst they were waiting. To summarise my brief: Issue Pedestrians are not waiting for the green light at the Garrat Lane / Mapleton Road crossing. Client TFL, Wandsworth Council Target Audience Pedestrians
* The light sequence is the amount of time needed to go through displaying the red, (amber if applicable), and green light, before repeating its cycle.
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Outcome V1 Deliver is the production, implementation and dissemination of outcomes to optimum standards. For me it is very counter-intuitive to go from an issue to an outcome, without substantial amounts of research. Regardless I progressed through this project in the designated manner, as this process could lead to experiencing a new manner of working. In the SVR sessions we were pushed to create a very “finished� outcome, and as such even less time could be spent on research. I created a quick touchpoint matrix to understand how one could engage the user. For me the strongest touchpoint was the pedestrian crossing button.
Deliver
One of the best examples of a concurrent activity was the usage of a custom pedestrian crossing interface. A mockup was designed by students at HAWK university, Germany. (Haberman, 2012) See bottom left image.
Waiting Area
Through this example I decided to create a game which could be played through the use of only one button.
Road
As part of my research I learnt how to program a game in HTML5, and looked at more concurrent activites of games which could be operated through the use of one button. Outcome V1 A game which can be operated with one button. Very simple programming architecture, can be changed to other platforms like Arduino.
A mock-up of an interactive crossing interface. Image courtesy of YouTube. Click for video.
Before Crossing
During Crossing
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After Crossing
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Button
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Sound
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A touch-point matrix visualising on which levels a user interacts with a pedestrian crossing.
Games which can be operated with one button.
Game-play shot of Outcome V1. Click to open and press spacebar to play (or tap on touchscreen device).
Outcomes V2
Develop
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Based on feedback from my Problem Based Learning Group (PBL) I was advised that a game might not be rewarding enough to play. Obviously when one creates only one outcome, one’s mindset is perceived to be narrow-minded. As a result I wanted to diversify the types of outcomes I had. Through the usage of the Edward de Bono’s CoRT techniques, including the Concept Challenge, and Stepping Stones. I created three new concepts:
Create a campaign under the motto of ‘Have a Kit-Kat; Have a Break.’ Reward the user for keeping their finger on the button till timer finishes. Reward with a Kit - Kat.
The process used to create new concepts.
The adult equivalent to “lollipop ladies”: a bouncer only allows pedestrians to cross at the right moment.
“Scare” pedestrians by creating an awareness that crossing the road can be dangerous.
Change of Issue Feedback on my outcomes was not positive, mainly because my issue was not worth exploring. As a result, the outcomes were solving an irrellevant issue. Through the SVR sessions I tried to find the bigger issue. What was happening at the Garratt Lane / Mapleton Road crossing was simply a symptom of a much larger problem: Pedestrians are taking risks everyday. Using the same methods as during the Discover stage, I wanted to quickly verify if this was an issue. I based my judgements on the Governmental Rules for Pedestrians.
Delve
Going outside I listed a plethora of examples were this issue was being illustrated: • • • • •
Not looking before crossing. On the phone. Ignoring red lights. Crossing outside crossing zone. Not using any crossings.
These examples were demonstrated by a wide range of audiences, including: • • • •
Teenagers Adults Elderly Parents (including pram!)
One of the examples, an eldery couple crossing without the use of a designated crossing.
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Gravity of Issue To confirm that this was an issue worth exploring I gathered information from numerous statistics, and news. Here were some of the findings: • 51% of all 2012 road fatalities were pedestrians (TFL, 2012). • As a pedestrian one is more likely to be knocked down on a pedestrian crossing, than off one. (Holdsworth, 2013) • Three pedestrians died in one day (Holdsworth, 2013) • Pedestrian mobile phone injuries double in five years (Hills, 2013) • The top 10 causes of pedestrian fatality are (Parnell-Hopkinson, 2013): Pedestrians on a pedestrian crossing 25% Drunk pedestrians 23% Pedestrians not on a pedestrian crossing 19% Pedestrians hit by buses/coaches 17% Pedestrians hit by speeding vehicles 16% Pedestrians hit by HGVs 14% Pedestrians hit by motorcycles 7% Pedestrians hit by vehicles while on a footpath 6%
Delve
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Through these statistics I had come to realise that the project’s issue was indeed very real and serious. Not only on a national scale, but also on a local scale. Upon closer investigation I discovered charity organisation See Me, Save Me, which had published a casualty map, as displayed on the bottom right of this page. It was shocking to discover how many accidents had occurred in my local area. In my 10 minute walk to the train station I passed numerous accident sites*, of which 4 had ended in a fatality, and over 14 were a serious injury!
Figures as released by TFL.
The See Me, Save Me Casualty Map of my local area.
*Accidents which occured 2000–2010
Pedestrians Behaviour
Delve
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I wanted to gain more data in regards to pedestrian behaviour. I visited five different pedestrian crossings. I measured the percentages of pedestrians which went through a green light, and percentages which went through a red light. I also spoke to pedestrians about why the went through red lights, with some surprising results: e.g. “I feel bad for stopping the traffic.�
The ratio of pedestrians going through a red, or green light. The bigger the circle, the more people it concerned.
I feel bad for stopping the traffic Everybody does it in London I'm in a hurry I know I can cross without getting hit Waiting Takes Too Long Because he/she went
Reasons pedestrians stated for ignoring a red light.
Risk Perception To understand why this pedestrian behaviour existed one needed to understand how pedestrians perceive the risks they take. I wanted to measure what pedestrians knew about the following subjects: • How many pedestrians died last year. • How many pedestrians were seriously injured last year. • Where is one most likely to get in an accident/be knocked down? • Which mode of transportation has the most casualties? e.g. bikes, cars, etc
Delve
The results were stricking. There is a complete disconnect from reality. The average pedestrian knew nothing about any of the current statistics. Not only that, but guesstimates of the figures were almost six times lower than reality. Also there was a disconnect with reality concerning the aspects one can see in the bottom right of this page.
1200 1000
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Actual Serious Injuries Predicted Serious Injuries
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Actual Deaths
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Predicted Deaths
400 200 0
This led me to gain my biggest insight throughout this project: Pedestrians are taking risks because they perceive their decisions—consciously and subconsciously—to be saver than they actually are.
What pedestrians think Cyclists make up the majority of all road fatalities. Wrong. Actually pedestrians do. As a pedestrian, you are most likely to be knocked down when you cross without the use of a predestrian crossing. Wrong. Actually you are more likely to be knocked down at a pedestrian crossing.
Worst-case-scenario analysis I first came across this analysis method in an online video: One Guy With A Marker Just Made The Global Warming Debate Completely Obsolete (2013) I am unaware of the name for this analysis method, I’ve decided to coin it Worst-case-scenario analysis, upon explanation I hope you’ll agree it is an apt name. Explaining this method in a vernacular manner works best: “One always make decisions, and these decisions will have a best case scenario, and a worst case scenario. If one analyses these scenarios, for each decision one can make, one is able to compare each decision’s worst case scenario.”
Using worst-case-scenario analysis there are two decisions a pedestrian can make: wait for the green light, or ignore the red light. If one decided to do either of these options, there will be a chance for the outcome of that decision to be a worst case scenario or a best case scenario. Looking at all the possible outcomes, it’s safe to say there is no logical reason to choose to ignore the red light, the worst case scenario is so detrimental in compression with the benefits of a best case scenario. The motto Better safe, than sorry seems to apply here.
Delve
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Wait for green light
Ignore red light
Best case scenario
Cross safely
Cross safely Save time
Worst case scenario
Need to wait Lose time Be late
Cause accident Get hurt Die
Accident Memorials As the statistics show, many accidents occur in London, not only for pedestrians, but also for cars, cyclists, motor-cyclists and more. Many of these accidents happen, and then become a thing of the past, and often forgotten. I looked in to numerous accident sites where there were memorials set in place. These memorials were a glimpse in to the past, and put the past in a present context.
Delve
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One of the most vocal groups are cyclists, due to inherent risks of cycling in London accidents and deaths are heavily criticised and publicised. There actually was a moment where six cyclists died in two-weeks. (Walker, 2013) Pedestrian accidents are not as heavily publicised, and as a result I took inspiration from cyclist memorials. One of the most striking memorials were Ghost Bikes. At the accident site a bike is locked to a post, and sprayed white. It reminded me of an urban tombstone. Other examples included formal memorial sites, and TFL boards appealing for witness information.
The site where London cycle courier Henry Warwick was killed. © Benjamin Hughes
A memorial for the fatality on CS2.
One of London’s ghost bikes, based at Old Street–Goswell Road Junction.
TFL gathering post-accident information. Image courtesy of BBC (2013)
Redefining brief
Delve
Throughout the project my brief and issue were changing. Through the delve stage I have been able to realise what the real issues and barriers were, and as a result I redefined my brief.
Issue Pedestrians are ignoring red lights, and are taking risks at pedestrian crossings, the most likely place for an accident to occur.
It is of paramount importance to define your goals clearly, I decided to employ the SMART method (Bogue, 2005).
Insight Pedestrians are taking risks because they perceive their decisions to be saver than they actually are.
Ergo, the goal needed to be Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Realistic, and Time-Based. This resulted in the goal displayed to the right.
Client TFL, Wandsworth Council Target Audience Pedestrians Goal The outcome must reduce the amount of pedestrians which cross through red lights, at the Wandsworth High St (next to Tesco). This outcome must be deployed before 6th of January, 2014
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Outcome V3
Delve
As set out in the Redefining Brief stage the outcome needs to: “The outcome must reduce risk-taking behaviour through informing and creating an awareness of the risks.� To achieve this I wanted to make the current information real. Taking inspiration from Ghost Bikes I created these miniature memorial sites. At the location something happened. These memorials allowed pedestrians to put the figures in context, as they geographically present at the actual accident site. Mock up of Outcome V3.
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Outcome Expansion Define is the process of analysing and synthesising all the research carried out to date to help decide on the direction of the best route that the project should take to address the social issue. At this stage I had developed several outcomes. I had four possible routes to choose from: 1 x Outcome V1 3 x Outcomes V2 1 x Outcome V3 For me it was easy to deem Outcome V3 as superior over Outcome V1 and Outcomes V2. This was because Outcome V3 was the only outcome which was designed with substantial amounts of research.
Define
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Due to the project’s ordering of key stages, I was in an uncomfortable position: Only Outcome V3 was well researched. Ideally I would have the chance to select from several outcomes. I decided to quickly create a new outcome: Outcome V3.2. Through quick and informal conversation with pedestrians, students, and design practitioners (I met at the Mentorship event) I came to realise that some people found that Outcome V3 was of bad taste.
Outcome V1
Outcome V2
I needed to quickly create a “good taste” outcome, which will be documented in the following pages.
Outcome V2
Outcome V3
Outcome V2
TFL Communications To examine concurrent activities of “good taste” communication I looked at the project’s potential client: Transport for London (TFL). “Every day, TfL provides transport services for more than 10 million people across the Capital.” (TFL, 2011) As a result their communications must be of good taste, as TFL serves a multitude of different demographics.
One could notice different communication styles for each target audience. If the target audience was a large group of the public, e.g. commuters using escalators or trains, the message was clear and “tame.” Its visual style was minimal, and the message was straight forward. Usage of visual metaphors were used. Communication design aimed at younger members of the public featured more striking imagery, often in combination with photography. Examples of this are the Stop. Think. Live. or Cabwise campaigns.
Define
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Outcome V3.2 As my outcome’s target audience was Pedestrians, a very large group of the public, I intended to adopt styles from TFL’s communication designs: • • • •
A simple slogan Use of clear typography Usage of Johnston as typeface. Mono-colour background.
As I felt Better Safe than Sorry applied to the worst-case-scenario analysis I conducted, I felt it could be put to good use in this outcome.
Define
Better safe than sorry. Last year 69 pedestrians died and 1054 were seriously injured. Take care when crossing.
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A/B Testing Now I was in a more comfortable position, where I had two outcomes which had been created with the use of research: Outcome V3 and Outcome V3.2. To decide which direction and outcome to pursuit I decided to use and adapt A/B Testing, a research method often used in User Experience Design, a field I am very interested in pursuing upon graduation. “A/B testing is a method of testing for an advertising campaign that involves two different versions of a web page to see which is more effective.”
Define
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For our project we are not testing or comparing web pages, but prototypes of Outcome 3 and Outcome 3.2. Its effectiveness will be measured by the reduction of “red light jumpers”, in comparison with the control group.
64%
36%
55%
45%
68%
32%
Prototypes were deployed on Wandsworth High St (next to the Tesco). The measurements I conducted were: • 15 minutes without any outcome. • 15 minutes with Outcome V3. • 15 minutes with Outcome V3.2. The effect was not as convincing as I had hoped. 9% more pedestrians waited for the green light when Outcome V3 had been deployed. Still, if this scheme could lead to a 7% decrease of fatalities and injuries that would be a great outcome.
No Outcome
Outcome V3
Passed through red light
Outcome V3 prototype.
Outcome V3.2
Passed through green light
Outcome V3.2 prototype
Video Pitch For me pitching or explaining your ideas is one of the most important skills a designer can have. “Your idea is only as good as you can communicate it.” A certain amount of convincing is necessary to show your outcome is good. For most of my pitches I employ the Why, How, What method. This is the opposite to the more common What, How, Why method: where one first explains what your idea is, secondly how your idea works, and lastly why your idea works. The opposite, the Why, How, What pitch It is based on Simon Sinek’s talk How great leaders inspire action (2010).
Define
I felt a simple, graphical style would work best for my pitching style. If one uses visual metaphors, the idea becomes more important, than how things actually look like. It’s the same reason why sketching is so important within design: “It separates concepts from details.” (Lamp, 2011) For this reason I used a simple graphical style, which had been used for my Green Week Audition Tape, and its style was praised by Senior Lecturer of Typography Martin Ashley. The video was created with After Effects, software I had no prior experience with. I felt that this project could be an opportunity to learn something new.
The final video. Click to activate.
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Outcome what has changed as a result of the output?
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Output what are you putting out there into the World?
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It must be noted that when using the Uscreates’ Impact Diagram Outcome V3.2 would be considered an output.
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Uscreates’ Impact Diagram at a glance
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Using Uscreates’ Impact Diagram (Uscreates, n.d.) I would attempt to measure Outcome V3.2’s outcome, impact, and value.
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The reduction of the amount of pedestrians which crossed through a red light
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“The heuristic evaluation is a method of inspection of the service usability based on a predefined set of criteria that the evaluators follow during the analysis.” (Service Design Tools, n.d.)
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Due to having a specific goal, Heuristic Evaluation was a suitable tool to determine the outcome’s impact:
e.g. NHS
The outcome must reduce the amount of pedestrians which cross through red lights, at the Wandsworth High St crossing (next to the Tesco). This outcome must be deployed before 6th of January, 2014
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To be able to assess if the outcome is achieving its SMART goal it is worth reiterating:
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Determine Impact is the process of evaluating the impact that an outcome has had in comparison with the initial aim or function that is has been designed to achieve.
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Outcome By using a similar process to the A/B testing undertaken in the Define stage the outcome would be measured. To improve the accuracy of the findings, the amount and duration of the measurements were increased. 30 minutes with Outcome V3, 30 minutes without. The measurements took place on three days: 3rd, 4th, and 5th of January. All measurements were taken in the same order, starting at 9am.
Determine Impact
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The outcome was a lot more prominent than the initial A/B test. With Outcome V3 in use, the ratio of pedestrians going through red lights had reduced by 12%. The large difference between these measurements, and the initial A/B measurements can be explained by the following two arguments:
59%
41%
47%
53%
• These measurements are more accurate, as they have taken place for longer durations, and on multiple occasions. • Pedestrian behaviour could differ greatly before and after Christmas.
No Outcome
Passed through red light
Outcome V3
Passed through green light
Impact With Outcome V3 in use, the ratio of pedestrians going through red lights had reduced by 12%. As mentioned by Holdsworth (2013), 25% of accidents happen at pedestrian crossings. To determine the impact, the following three assumptions have been made: • The outcome we have seen at one crossing, is similar to the outcome at other crossings. • Accidents which happened at pedestrian crossings were caused by pedestrians going through red lights. • The ratio between fatalities, serious injuries, and slight injuries at a pedestrian crossings is equal to the London average.
Determine Impact
With Outcome V3 in use, the following will be prevented: • • • •
3 fatalities prevented 53 serious injuries prevented 207 slight injuries prevented. 263 total accidents prevents prevented
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6000 5000 4000
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Pedestrian casualties across London. 1500 1200 900 600
When no outcome was in use 59% of pedestrians (at Wandsworth High St.) went through a red light, with Outcome V3 in use 47% of pedestrians went through a red light. This means that there are 20%* less pedestrians going through red, ergo 20% less pedestrians to cause accidents.
300 0
Casualties at pedestrian crossings.
Casualties at pedestrian crossings, with Outcome V3 in use.
*(1 - 47/59) x 100 ≈ 20%
Value
outcome
• A better understanding of risks in traffic. • Friendlier interactions between commuters, due to less risk-taking.
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pedestrians are taking risks
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• NHS savings, due to reduction of fatalities and injuries. • Metropolitan Police savings, due to reduction of accidents.
input
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Through introducing Outcome V3, one must keep innovating, and keep adapting to pedestrians. It’s ironic, the value of Outcome V3 will partly be that they will become numb to it, and start ignoring it.
Social
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I also decided to talk to an expert: a traffic marshal (named Etwal) at Oxford Circus. He was aware of the issue, and was glad to hear my outcome was changing pedestrian behaviour. He noted that people will pay attention to the outcome now, but will start to ignore it in the future.
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3 fatalities prevented 53 serious injuries prevented 207 slight injuries prevented. 263 total accidents prevented.
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• • • •
value
There are a plethora of consequences and benefits. These can be divided in to social, and economic value.
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As determined in the Impact stage, the following would have been achieved with Outcome V3 in use.
Determine Impact
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Grab Attention The traffic warden’s words stuck with me. It could be summarised as: After a long enough exposure to Outcome V3, pedestrians would start to ignore it. The need to constantly grab pedestrians’ attention would become more and more difficult. As a result it would help to use techniques from another industry which tries to grab people’s attention: Advertising.
What’s Next?
Also the usage of fear in the messaging could be an interesting route to take in the future. Although the video is satirical, John St.’s ExFEARiential video shows how immersible and frightening methods of communication can leave a lasting message.
Through Catherine I looked in to Ambient Advertising, something which could be of use for future outcomes. “Ambient advertising is about placing ads on unusual items or in unusual places you wouldn’t normally see an ad.” (Lum, 2012)
An example of ambient advertising. Image courtesy of Creative Guerilla Marketing.
Although ExFEARiential is a satire, the usage of fear in communication design could lead to unique campaigns.
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Outcomes V4
What’s Next?
Design is an endless process: when one finishes an outcome, new insights arise, and one can continue to improve and innovate. I decided to still expand my outcomes, and see what one could create if one would continue designing. Inspired by ambient advertising and ExFEARiential, I tried to imagine what future outcomes could look like. I decided to create a further two outcomes: Outcome V4.1 and V4.2 Outcome V4.1 would be an example of ambient advertising. It would feature an ambulance positioned on the road, with the text “take care, else you’ll win a free ride” written on the road. Outcome V4.2 uses fear to get its message across. It will stage a car crash in front of pedestrian’s eyes. After the crash has taken place, posters will be displayed with the message “Don’t let this be you.”
Outcome V4.2, image courtesy of CollisionSafety.net
A mockup of Outcome V4.1
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Reflection This project has been surprisingly challenging. Especially at the start of the project I had trouble being passionate and interested in my project. I believe passion, interest, and dedication are of paramount importance when working on design, especially when working alone. During the initial stages of the project I lacked just that. For me this apathy was due to working without research. Research is key to me as a designer. If no research is conducted, I do not even consider my work to be design. It would merely be classified as “pretty things.” Without research one can not make informed decisions, as a result I was not confident about any of the work I had done and created.
What’s Next?
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Luckily this project has had a few merits: I have used research methods from User Experience, a field I am interested in pursuing after graduation. Data-based research methods were used like A/B testing. I also learnt how to use After Effects, not that I will see myself using this very often, but I am always happy to learn something new. And lastly I got to experience social design, not only through my own project, but also through the projects of my peers. Through this I have come to realise social design is not something I am interested in. It might sound harsh, but I find it hard to be passionate about issues like “I do not speak to my neighbours.” or “People do not make use of our public park.”
Outcome V1
Outcome V2
Outcome V2 Better safe than sorry. Last year 69 pedestrians died and 1054 were seriously injured. Take care when crossing.
Outcome V2
Outcome V3
Outcome V3.2
Working in this manner was so counter intuitive for me, that I only found an interest in this project as of the Delve stage.
Outcome V4.2 Outcome V4.1
Bibliography Fruin, J (1971) Pedestrian planning and design, n.d.: Metropolitan Association of Urban Designers and Environmental Planners. Gibson, D. (2009) The Wayfinding Handbook: Information Design for Public Places, Princeton: Princeton Architectural Press. Gothelf, J (2013) Lean UX: Applying Lean Principles to Improve User Experience, Sebastopol: O’Reilly Media, Inc. Timmermans, H. J. P. (2009) Pedestrian Behavior: Models, Data Collection and Applications, Bingley: Emerald Group Publishing.
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Bogue, R. (2005). Use S.M.A.R.T. goals to launch management by objectives plan. Available: http://www.techrepublic.com/article/use-smart-goals-tolaunch-management-by-objectives-plan/. Last accessed 10th of January 2014.
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