Contents Page Biography
2
Villa Savoye Information
3
Report Abstract
6
Plastic
7
Concept
8
Floor Structure
10
Column Structure
14
External Walls
16
Internal Walls
17
Circulation
18
Curved Walls
19
Construction Process
21
Material Properties
23
References
24
[fig. 1] Image: Abstract image of Le Corbusier (Biography.com, 2016) Reference: Le Corbusier, and Frederick Etchells. Towards A New Architecture. London: Architectural Press, 1946. Print. Page 2 | Contents
Biography
Five Points of Modern Architecture
Swiss-French architect Le Corbusier is one of the pioneers of modern architecture. With a career spanning over five decades there are defined periods of enthusiasm and style orientation. During the 1920’s Corbusier began a sequence of work on “Purist Villas” within Paris and the surrounding suburbs.
Pilotis organised in a grid bring order to the building. Elevating the building off the ground allow for cars to be parked below.
La Villa Savoye (1931) marks the end of this period of work. It can be seen as the ultimate amalgamation of the purist villas with Corbusiers’ developed architectural language forming “Total Purity”. Corbusier’s “Five Points of Modern Architecture” are a set of principles that are evident within the Villa Savoye.
Roof Gardens are a mean of bringing nature to the house. Open roof houses allow for clear views. Free Facade came with the invention of reinforced concrete frame. Walls are no longer load bearing making their design free. Free Plan as consequence of the new structure allowed the the floor plan to be designed without the confines of load bearing walls. Horizontal Windows are a result of the free facade. They allow maximum light in and as frame views.
Villa Savoye Information Villa Savoye is located in Poissy on the outskirts of Paris, France. The building was designed to sit alone in the middle of a vast lawn with the tree line as its only form of context. The building can be seen as true modernism as direct developments within industry are reflected within the design.
[fig. 2] Image: Map of France [fig. 3-5] Images: Kozlowski, Paul. Villa Savoye. Web. 9 Feb. 2016. Page 3 | Villa Savoye Information
The motorcar was the derivative point in many of Corbusiers’ designs. As expressed within the brief, access by motorcar was a “fundamental requisite”. Built within a time that celebrated advancements in industrialisation, the motorcar was such a large part of idealistic modern living that vast amounts of the plan were designed for the incorporation of such. This is no less evident in the Villa Savoye as the triple garage, placed on the ground floor, has a curved
wall designed in conjunction with a 1929 motorcar’s turning circle to allow the user to park with one turn of the wheel. The main support in the building are the concrete columns that raise the building up. The use of pilotis throughout the building allows the design to have no bearing walls. The structural system carries the floors leaving the walls to be positioned wherever. This also allows for horizontal strip windows to line the exterior walls.
Villa Savoye Information The plan is based on a central axis with the ramp taking users on a steady rise through the building. Cars play a large part in Corbusiers designs, the curved wall is formed to match the turning circle of a 1920s motorcar. With the ground floor acting as the maintenance level, the first floor holds the living quarters. Bedrooms are tucked away and closed off whilst the living space has a glazed connection with the outside terrace. [fig. 6&7] Details. Ford, E. (1990). The details of modern architecture. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press. [fig. 8] Plans. ArchDaily,. Villa Savoye Plans. 2010. Web. 9 Feb. 2016. Page 4 | Villa Savoye Information
The ramp continues above onto the flat roof which holds the sculptural curved sun trap.
The construction of the Villa is simplistic with detailing that reflects this. The floors are constructed of concrete slabs (the roof has no apparent slope) with the walls following a concrete framework with cavity walls (formed with two layers on concrete block-work) acting as infill. A concrete lintel above the window holds the block work up (lintel is suspended from the floor above). The sliding wooden windows are typical of Corbusier’s 1920s villas. They are fixed in a wooden frame on small wheels. The wooden frame is supported by metal mullion reinforcement. The base of the frame has a formed gutter that collects condensation build up and removes it via weep holes to the outside. (Ford, 1990,p.250)
Villa Savoye Information Corbusier had ambitious intentions for his projects, his idea for his purist villas were that they would be constructed of minimal material. The system of construction would follow that of an automobile, fabricated large components produced off-site with little on-site work. The idea of a components having multiple functions (insulation, waterproofing etc.) allowed for the components to be economical. Simplification in joining these components was also a concept Corbusier wanted to achieve.
[fig. 9-11] Images: e-architect, (2014). [image] Available at: http://www.e-architect.co.uk/paris/villa-savoye [Accessed 22 Feb. 2016]. Page 5 | Villa Savoye Information
These ideals were never executed as limitations at the time meant materials, labour and general technology were not to date with his thinking. At the time pre-cast concrete was the most suitable material to achieve these ideals. (Ford, 1990,p.259)
The construction photos show a large presence of onsite work. The vision of industrialised components or prefabricated parts are not apparent as the photos resemble a very typical construction process of that time (insitu concrete form work, block work infill, scaffolding and pulley systems). Corbusier’s thinking and push for industrialisation were obviously limited by the technology of the 1920’s. Construction has came on dramatically since then with prefabrication almost dominating the industry. If Corbusier was to re-design the Villa using present technology what methods would he use?
Report Abstract “If Corbusier was to re-design the Villa using present technology what methods would he use?� The following report will investigate this question by identifying what construction method, detailing and technologies Corbusier might have used if the Villa Savoye was to be constructed today. To keep the design as true to Corbusiers original I will neglect the obvious changes in regulation (ramp distances, insulation thickness etc.) that are likely to impede the design. Instead I will look at the far extremes of technology to produce a building that hopefully fulfils Corbusier’s intentions of component prefabrication without losing the characteristics of the Villa Savoye as well as keeping the five points of architecture as clear read as possible. Page 6 | Report Abstract
[fig. 12] The world’s first mass-produced plastic house Matt Suuronen: “Futuro” apres-ski hut, 1968 (McGuirk, 2012)
[fig. 13] House completely constructed of GFRP Monsanto: House of the Future, 1957-67 (Garner, 2015)
[fig. 14] Bio-plastic skin pavilion ITKE: ArboSkin Pavilion, 2013 (Halbe, 2013)
[fig. 15] Design of an entirely 3D printed house DUS architects: Canal House (Dusarchitects.com, 2016)
home embodies the characteristics of the 60’s. The pressed synthetic sphere resembling a UFO went into mass production however only 60 Futuro homes were ever built. The plastic home did not establish itself in the marketplace due to the high costs of production, the fire protection problems, UV degradation and the health problems associated with essentially enclosing homes in an air tight plastic bubble. (Jeska, 2008)
structural properties of this material. (Deplazes, 2005)
With the advancement of 3D printing the capabilities of 3D printing an entire house has been made a possibility. Canal House in Amsterdam is an ongoing 3 year research project by DUS architects in which they have developed sustainable plastic materials in hope that they can be used to produce a 1:1 scale house. Experiments have including looking at biobased plastics with eco concrete infill. (3dprintcanalhouse.com, 2016)
Plastic - Use in the construction industry Experimentation with plastics in the construction industry began in the 1950’s. The idea of using this lightweight material fulfilled planners fantasies of weightless cities that allowed full variety of form. “The profession was in agreement; the future of architecture belonged to synthetic materials.” (Jeska, 2008, p.14) However the possibility of using plastic for load bearing and envelope functions proved only theoretical with testing only getting to the prototype phase. A material that was so dependent on crude oil made it too unsustainable for mass production. Matt Suuronen’s Futuro hut is an example of a small scale building produced using plastic. The form, construction and idea of the module plastic Page 7 | Plastic - Use in the construction industry
Glass Fibre Reinforced Polymer (GFRP) began to be used in the 1930s as components within building materials (within concrete to produce GFRP panels). It was not until 1967 that the full architectural advantages of GFRP were discovered when Disneyland’s “House of the Future” (completely constructed on GFRP) was to demolished. The wrecking ball merely bounced off the wall proving the
With ‘sustainability’ controlling today’s construction industry there would seem to be little chance of plastic being reintroduced as a building material. However the invention of bio-plastics (derived from biomass sources) as well as its ability to maintain its properties once recycled have shown a recent rise in its use. Students and professors from the German University ITKE teamed up with a bio-plastic manufacture to design and build a bio-plastic skin for a pavilion that is made up of; recycled plastic strips, household oils and wood-pulp. The skin shares the same properties of using a crude oil based plastic and provides a degree of insulation.
Concept - Utilising plastic in construction Corbusier used concrete to create a seemingly monolithic building. The construction was mainly on-site and despite the finished look the walls were actually block work infill rendered in white stucco. Corbusier’s idea of prefabricated components never really materialised so for my concept I am proposing to utilise prefabricated components to an extent that there will be minor on-site work as erection should be so simple it could be done in a matter of days.
As shown in the axonometric (next page) the building has been abstractly de-constructed into 6 elements:
To do this I have decided to supplement concrete for plastic due to its monolithic qualities and easy manipulation I feel it is an underutilised construction material that has a considerably large presence today.
The report will focus on these elements and explore the capabilities of plastic as the main material along with how they connect and disconnect to one another in the simplest manor for maximum efficiently.
With advancements in 3D printing and the use of recycled plastics in products I feel there is scope for using this as the main material in the Villa Savoye. Page 8 | Concept
A. Floor Structure B. Column Structure C. External Walls D. Internal Walls E. Circulation F. Curved Walls
Exploded axonometric
Page 9 | Concept
6 elements to be further investigated A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.
Floor Structure
Initial Concept
Initial concept is to investigate a plastic waffle slab that could be prefabricated and brought onto site.
The floor slabs will need to split into a series of components that will be transported to site by flatbed truck.
The floors have been split into components based off the dimensions of a flat-bed truck with the largest component dimension as 12m x 2.4m.
12m x 2.4m
The connection between the components will need to be strong yet be simplistic enough to connect together on site. A simplistic connection could be a circular head that clips into place like a jigsaw. Page 10 | Floor Structure
8no. flat beds (or deliveries)
The combined floors have been split into 41 components of varying lengths. As a rough estimate the entire floor slab components could be delivered to site by 8 flat-trucks.
Floor Structure Prototype 1 -1.50 scale model -Made of 2mm grey card -Laser cut components with notches for easy connection to one another -The cross bracing waffle element matches across the all the components no matter how they are connected therefore this concept could be quite strong -The flaws are that the form of the cross bracing is too wide and it buckle under pressure -The connecting circular notches work on a horizontal however they slip through if lifted vertically -Overall the idea has some strong elements behind it however it needs further testing; strengthening the waffle form and the connecting pieces
3x components connected across the way
testing bending the floor
The components are rigid horizontally however they have no rigidity vertically as the extruded circular form would slip through.
Continuing on with the extruded circular form I have decided to manipulate the shape of the join so the components connect by sliding on top of one another.
This is an example of a 2.4x2.4m component which takes the form of a ‘plastic tray’ (Corrugated polypropylene) which has two joins on each side spaced 800mm apart.
I think the circular form is a simple enough shape to bring forward and develop.
Once in position the connection will be rigid.
single component with notches or voids
Design Development
4 components come together by sliding into each other vertically
The idea is that the empty tray, which is very lightweight, will be delivered to site, fixed into place by workers and filled with insitu concrete (possibly eco-concrete) to create a solid floor slab.
This creates rigidity amongst the trays which can later be filled with concrete Page 11 | Floor Structure
Design Development
The tray components should: - be lightweight - be easy to connect - use minimal material - be easy to manoeuvre - be relatively cheap - have a strong enough tensile strength
A simplistic way of doing this would be to create a ‘waffle slab’ form of bracing that diagonally brace the sides of the tray with plastic sheets that are either moulded as part of the component or melted to the sides afterwards.
An example of biomimicry would be to extract the form used in beehives to create a honeycombed bracing. This form could be 3D printed using printers that work off a CAD drawing to produce built up layers of plastic.
A developed version of this would be to look at creating curved shafts from minimal material that can be 3D printed to have perforated faces that will maintain their tensile strength and allow for the poured concrete to weave between.
[fig. 16] Image: Materiality and strength (Pawlyn, 2011)
[fig. 17] Image: Biomimicry inspired chair (Dezeen, 2014)
However this form of bracing does not really utilise the manipulative qualities of plastic. With the technology of 3D printing any shape is possible, to really push the limits of this technology and the material it might be best to look at biomimicry as a solution for form. Biomimicry within architecture is a relatively contemporary idea. Biomimicry is not the mimicking of nature but the extraction of the principles behind it. Evolution sees how nature adapts over time to deal with harsh climates and resilient forces. These principles can be abstracted and used in architectural design.
Using corrugated polypropylene for the main body (red) should give the tray the properties of being lightweight and tough. However the tray lacks tensile strength. This can be added by adding a form of lateral bracing (grey).
Page 12 | Floor Structure
Take for example the form of seashells. Seashells are hollow shapes with thin layers of ribbed shell that curve and fold. The shells organic form is strong when pressure is applied yet its mass is relatively light. Stresses form on the outside so the shell (which needs to be light for transportation) causing an the shell to evolve to deal with this. The principles that can be taken from this are the low amount of materiality that can be used in a structure to allow for large volumes.
Floor Structure Prototype 2 -1.50 scale model -Made of PLA (Polylactic Acid) -3D printed components -Taking forward the idea of bracing the sides using a bio-mimicry inspired design -Due to the limited capabilities of the University’s 3D printer the idea of creating an organic shape that allows the concrete to bind together did not entirely work. Instead I had to compromise and create a more rigid cross bracing however the idea still remains. -As demonstrated the circular notches work when slotted into each other to create a rigidity across the connected floor.
4x components slotted together
one square example of a component
Floor Structure Prototype 3
image to show the bracing and circular connections
Structural Model -1.50 scale model -Made of PLA (Polylactic Acid) -3D printed components -Snowcrete (white concrete) infill -To create rigidity across the floor and provide insulation a method could be to use concrete within the floor structure -The concrete would be pumped into the floors once they are in position on site
section of floor with concrete infill
Page 13 | Floor Structure
-1.100 scale model -Made of 5mm acrylic and 8mm plastic dowels -The model shows the columns re-imagined as circular plastic tubes (PVC) that run the length of the building -Using large scale plastic tubes as columns, the longest 12m, which can all be transported to site -The columns are lightweight and can be fixed into place using a small crane -The floors will have circular slots that allow for the columns slide through -The lightweight floors can be propped up and fixed into the column (junction to be further investigated) -Once the floors are in place concrete will be pumped into the tubes to create rigidity -The PVC tubes will have a smooth, scratch resistant surface on the inside
image of the villa model from the front
Column Structure
Initial Concept
Initial concept is to investigate alternatives to the reinforced concrete columns. Using the same method as the floor construction the columns could be constructed by a mesh of plastic.
The 250 x 3200mm columns have been split into a series of smaller flat components that could be laser cut out of large sheets of acrylic with the scrap later shredded and used as insulation.
The mesh of plastic could then be wrapped in a form of plastic sheeting as a finish (polypropylene mould). The mesh could then act both in compression and tension.
Page 14 | Column Structure
The idea involves a small amount of on-site construction as the pieces will be put together by slotting the longer pieces into the grooves on the discs. This should make them rigid in theory.
Column Structure Prototype 1 -1.10 scale model -Made of 2mm grey card -Laser cut components -Components did not slide into the grooves as planned -Due to the gaps between the discs there is little rigidity therefore the column appears flimsy do not serve its purpose as a load bearing column -Possible solutions would be to add more discs or to re-think the structure -Due to the overall failure of this prototype a further study of column structures will be undertaken
elevation of the columns shows alternating grooves
elevation of column with only 3 discs inserted
testing adding pressure
Column Structure Prototype 2 -1.10 scale model -Made of a 2mm thick 30mm diameter clear acrylic tube & 6mm diameter white acrylic tube -This model explored using a tubular column. -Using plastic tubes for columns will allow the columns to be lifted and moved into position easily on site -The columns need to connect to the floors, a method of doing this would be to drill holes through the columns and connect a smaller tube through which would hold the floor -Cracks appeared during making the model which shows the 1:1 model might have a tendency to do the same. -A solution would be to use a rubber seal between the two intersecting tubes. -Once the columns are in place the will be filled with concrete along with the floor components to create rigidity and provide insulation. plastic tube connection (column & floor)
Page 15 | Column Structure
crack in tube once drilled through
concrete infill
External Walls
Initial Concept
External Wall Prototype 1
The concept for the external walls is to create a sandwich panel construction consisting of plastic boxes with insulation that are at either side of a continuous sheet of transparent acrylic.
elevation of a section of the external wall
This simple construction could cause drainage issues as well as junction problems leading to thermal bridging etc.
Page 16 | External Walls
wall build up shows that insulation needs to be tested -1.20 scale model -Made of 2mm white card and 5mm polycarbonate -Sandwich panel construction -The white card represents plastic sheeting that is used to construct the sandwich panels -The panels can be 12m long with studs every 1m -The insulation used between the studs will need to be further investigated -The polycarbonate panel is the full height of the wall and will need to be separated out into component sizes for delivery to site by truck. -Overall the prototype is a success, areas such as the capping/flashing, insulation properties and connections will need to be explored in the next model
Internal Walls
Initial Concept
[fig. 18] Blue Wall (Kozlowski)
A white opaque acrylic will be used for the majority of interior walls with exception of a few coloured walls.
[fig. 19] Green Wall (Kozlowski)
These walls could be made using coloured acrylic to match Corbusier’s colour palette.
[fig. 20] Pink Wall (Kozlowski) Le Corbusier used colour to create certain atmospheres with his buildings. The use of green on the ground floor was to blend the lower floor with the tree-line behind to give the impression the villa was floating above. Page 17 | Internal Walls
An alternative would be to include LED lights within the wall build up or place them in a channel to reflect light through the plastic. This will allow the walls to change colour.
Circulation
Initial Concept
Staircase could be split into 3 sections and transported on a flat-bed truck.
Taking measurements of a flat-bed truck as 12m x 2.4m the stairs and ramps could be split into a series of components that could be prefabricated and brought to site. The curved staircase could be made of sheets of acrylic with the curved piece being heat bent by a kilm within the factory. The interval landings and ramp could be constructed of a similar construction style as the floor slabs have been. The connections to the rest of the floors will need to be further explored.
Page 18 | Circulation
Curved Walls
Initial Concept
One of the most impressive parts of the Villa Savoye are the curved elements. However as the investigation had proved the curves were achieved by a concrete frame with block infill. An idea to investigate could be to use acrylic sheets moulded around a grid-shell structure to form a continuous curve that could later be filled with insulation.
Corbusier used flat glass with a series of vertical mullion positioned at angles to create the curved wall. Although the intention is to create a transparent wall the mullions block this. Using the same method as described above the sheets of acrylic could be transparent, this will create a continuous unbroken transparent wall.
Page 19 | Curved Walls
Curved Wall Prototype 1 -1.20 scale model -Made of 5mm polycarbonate -Due to the properties of polycarbonate it can be bent to form curves at different angles -The transparent plastic holds rectangular slots of air which hold an insulation value close to glass -The price of polycarbonate panels are cheap and the material itself is very durable -The vertical joins give the same impression as the vertical mullions of the curved glass wall -Although this product is successful it is best to test alternatives
elevation of a section of the curved wall
image to show the wall with slight curve
image to show the wall with larger curve
Curved Wall Prototype 2 -1.50 scale model -Made of 5mm acylic -Bent using a heat gun and circular mould
image showing a curve
Page 20 | Curved Walls
image showing a curve
view from above showing the curved wall
Construction Process - Floor Components Delivery
Construction Process - Floor Component Assembly
Construction Process - Column Positioning
Construction Process - Floor Positioning
-Prefabricated floor components are delivered to site by flat-bed trucks -The floors are lightweight and can be carried by a few people between the truck and site position -They are connected together using the circular node connections creating a rigid floor
-Each floor is assembled on top of one another with careful positioning so the voids between line up
-Lightweight tubular columns are delieved to site and placed into position onsite by slotting them within the circular slots in the floor components
-A crane will need to be used to lift the floors into position along the column -The columns have holes drilled into them at required intervals (prefab) -Smaller tubes are slotted into the columns horizontally to allow the floors to rest upon -Concrete is then poured into the columns and pumped into the floor components to provide rigidity
Page 21 | Construction Process
Construction Process - Circulation Positioning
Construction Process - External Wall Fixing
Construction Process - Curved Wall Positioning
Construction Process - Complete
-A crane will need to be used to pick the circulation components off the flat-bed truck -The components will be fixed to one another using the circular node connection (explored as part of the floor component models)
-A crane will be used to pick the prefab external wall panels off the flat-bed truck -The components will be fixed to the floor slabs using a simple connection method (the circular node connection could be explored)
-A crane will be used to pick the curved wall elements off the flat-bed truck -The components will be fixed to the floor slabs using a simple connection method (the circular node connection could be explored)
-This concludes the construction process of the 6 elements that have been explored
Page 22 | Construction Process
Structural Materials - Plastics
Material: Acrylic Properties: Stiff and Brittle Use in building: Interior Walls, Exterior Walls, Curved Elements
Material: Polyvinyl sheet (PVC) Properties: Stiff, strong, tough, resistant to scratching Use in building: Columns
Material: Polycarbonate Properties: Lightweight, tough, stiff, not very strong Use in building: Alternative to glazing
Material: Arboblend plastic Info: Bioplastic made from wood pulp is a sustainable alternative to oil based plastics Use in building: Could be used for walls as an alternative to acrylic
Material: Extruded Polyethylene (XPE) Properties: lightweight, excellent acoustic properties, excellent moisture resistance, good compression resistance Uses: layer in acoustic floors, packaging U-Value: 220mm for 0.15W/m2K Use in building: An alternative to using concrete in the floor components
Material: Polyurethane (PUR) Properties: good insulation performance, lightweight Uses: thermal insulation available as board or spray U-Value: 150mm for 0.15W/m2K Use in building: Used to seal conections
Material: Hempcrete Info: Eco-concrete made of hemp Uses: To increase the structural strength of the plastic Use in building: A sustainable alternative to standard portland cement
Insulation Materials
Material: Extruded Polystyrene (XPS) Properties: lightweight, very rigid, excellent water resistance Uses: ground floor, flat roofs, heavy duty floor insulation U-Value: 220mm for 0.15W/m2K Use in building: Sheets can be used in walls between acryic panels to provide insulation Page 23 | Material Properties
References
Image References
Literature
[fig. 1] Biography.com. (2016). [online] Available at: http:// www.biography.com/people/le-corbusier-9376609 [Accessed 9 Apr. 2016].
Le Corbusier, and Frederick Etchells. Towards A New Architecture. London: Architectural Press, 1946. Print. Ford, E. (1990). The details of modern architecture. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press. Deplazes, A. (2005). Constructing architecture. Basel: Birkhäuser. Pawlyn, M. (2011). Biomimicry in architecture. [London, UK]: Riba Publishing. Jeska, S. (2008). Transparent plastics. Basel: Birkhäuser.
[fig. 3-5] Kozlowski, Paul. Villa Savoye. [online] Available at: http://www.fondationlecorbusier.fr/corbuweb/ morpheus.aspx?sysId=11&sysLanguage=fr-fr&sysParentId=11&sysParentName=home&clearQuery=1 [Accessed 9 Feb 2016]. [fig. 6&7] Ford, E. (1990). The details of modern architecture. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press.
Websites
[fig. 8] ArchDaily,. Villa Savoye Plans. 2010. Web. [Accessed 9 Feb. 2016].
3dprintcanalhouse.com. (2016). 3DPRINTCANALHOUSE by DUS Architects. [online] Available at: http://3dprintcanalhouse.com [Accessed 4 Apr. 2016].
[fig. 9-11] e-architect, (2014). [image] Available at: http://www.e-architect.co.uk/paris/villa-savoye [Accessed 22 Feb. 2016]. [fig. 12] McGuirk, J. (2012). Futuro – the ideal home that wasn’t. [online] the Guardian. Available at: http:// www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2012/ may/10/futuro-ideal-home-wasnt [Accessed 5 Apr. 2016]. [fig. 13] Garner, M. (2015). House of the Future at Yesterland. [online] Yesterland.com. Available at: http:// www.yesterland.com/futurehouse.html [Accessed 5 Apr. 2016]. [fig. 14] Halbe, R. (2013). ArboSkin spiky facade made from bioplastics by ITKE | architecture. [online] Dezeen. Available at: http://www.dezeen.com/2013/11/09/ arboskin-spiky-pavilion-with-facademade-from-bioplastics-by-itke/ [Accessed 5 Apr. 2016]. [fig. 15] Dusarchitects.com. (2016). DUS Architects Amsterdam - 3D Print Canal House. [online] Available at: http://www.dusarchitects.com/projects.php?categorieid=housing [Accessed 5 Apr. 2016]. [fig. 16] Pawlyn, M. (2011). Biomimicry in architecture. [London, UK]: Riba Publishing.
Page 24 | References
[fig. 17] Dezeen. (2014). Chair by Lilian van Daal replaces upholstery with 3D-printed structure. [online] Available at: http://www.dezeen.com/2014/08/05/biomimicry-3d-printed-soft-seat-chair-by-lilian-van-daal/ [Accessed 9 Apr. 2016]. [fig. 18-20] Kozlowski, Paul. Villa Savoye. [online] Available at: http://www.fondationlecorbusier.fr/corbuweb/ morpheus.aspx?sysId=11&sysLanguage=fr-fr&sysParentId=11&sysParentName=home&clearQuery=1 [Accessed 9 Feb 2016].