Dissertation by Danielrdiazbolanos

CONTENTS 1. INTRODUCTION

1.1. Description and Justification

1.2. Objectives

1.3. Methodology

2. SECOND LANGUAGE TEACHING METHODOLOGY: LEARNING HOW TO TEACH

2.1. The Grammar-translation Method

2.2. Dogme English Language Teaching

2.3. Conclusions

3. BEYOND METHODOLOGY

3.1. Second Language Teaching: The Role of Motivation in Teachers

3.2. Teachers 2.0: The Use of ICT in Relation to Teaching Enhancement

4. STUDY AND RESULTS

4.1. On Methodology

4.2. On Motivation

4.3. On ICT

5. CONCLUSIONS

6. BIBLIOGRAPHY

APPENDIX I

1. INTRODUCTION 1.1. Description and Justification The choice of the topics presented in the current paper was motivated by my experience as a second language student and has been highly influenced by the indisputable situation that many countries, in particular Spain, present with regard to second language learning. I have always been notably curious about the fact that most students spend ten or more years of their lives in the learning of a second language, yet they are often unable to use the language afterwards, especially with communicative purposes. While a miscellaneous plethora of different justifications has been given in order to explain this aforesaid deficiency in second language learning, I cannot ignore the fact that most of these arguments are directly, and often exclusively, related to the role of the learner. However, I am more interested in whether this situation may be, to a greater or lesser extent, influenced by the role of the teacher and how they ‘guide’ learners throughout the entire process of learning. This concern is what has motivated the information provided in this paper and the subsequent fulfillment of this research. In the same way, this work has also been inspired by some of the subjects belonging to the Degree in Modern Languages offered by the Faculty of Philology at the University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria. In particular, the courses that have influenced the carrying out of this research are those belonging to Module 1 – The English language: theoretical and practical aspects and Module 6 – Instrumental, methodological, professional oriented and values formation subjects, for being directly related to the contents and ideas developed in this paper. The past decades have seen the rapid development of second language methodology and many different methods and approaches have gradually emerged as a result. Based on different educational theories and through diverse procedures, all of them have attempted to respond to learners and teachers’ needs in the process of teaching and learning a second language. In this way, there is nowadays a wide range of options available within second language teaching. For instance, some approaches are learner-centered, while others are teacher-centered. Some have reading and writing as the central focus, others seek to develop communicative competences. This great divergence among methods, as we will see later in this paper, necessarily makes us question whether there may be still something missing in second language methodology and whether or not one single method can assure success in learning.

Along with methodology, there are ‘secondary’ factors that may also contribute to the remarkable development of learning. Conventionally, motivation and the use of Information and Communications Technologies (ICT) are regarded as key aspects that have to be dealt with among students due to their potential benefits. In fact, there are now innumerable empirical studies which focus on students’ motivation or the important advantages of using new technologies in the classroom. Notwithstanding, not so much has been said about teachers’ motivation or about whether or not they are using new technologies efficiently. For such reasons, it seems interesting to delve into these questions to confirm if teachers’ performance can be enhanced, which will certainly have positive repercussions on the way learners approach the language. 1.2. Objectives This research aims to determine whether second language methodology and teachers are providing learners with the adequate means to succeed in second language learning. In this sense, the objectives of the present work are mainly three. Firstly, the primary purpose of this study is to develop an understanding of the great diversity within second language methodology and to what extent this diversity influences the roles of teachers and students throughout the learning process. Secondly, the current paper also seeks to detect deficiencies in language teaching, especially regarding motivation in teachers and the introduction and development of ICT with educative purposes. Finally, this research also intends to contrast the information provided in this paper with the opinions of second language teachers. In order to achieve these objectives, I will proceed as follows. On the one hand, I will present information concerning two particular methods in second language teaching: the grammar-translation method and Dogme. In this regard, I will be commenting on the background, principles, advantages and disadvantages of these two methods and I will provide readers with a sample experience of both in order to show how divergent second language teaching methods may be when put into practice and its ensuing relevance to language learning. In addition, this will indirectly serve as an approach to the great evolution of methodology throughout its history and a confirmation of whether or not current methods are covering new educative demands. On the other hand, I will comment on two important, yet often ignored, aspects within second language teaching: motivation in teachers and the use of ICT with regard to second !

languages. I will explain possible mistakes that might be occurring regarding these particular factors, which may be lessening successful teaching and thus learning. Similarly, I will propose solutions and alternatives that could be used to diminish and overcome such inconveniences. In particular, I will place emphasis on the causes of motivation and demotivation in second language teachers, trying to analyze the nature of such causes. On the other hand, I will explain the advantages of incorporating ICT to the language classroom and, at the same time, I will comment on further considerations of its applications. Finally, I will analyze and comment on the results obtained from a study concerning the subjects discussed in this paper (methodology, motivation and the use of ICT with regard to second language teaching) carried out among teachers of English as a second language from the Faculty of Philology at the University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria. This study intends to reveal the views of second language teachers on these particular topics and their attitude toward them. 1.3. Methodology The methodology used in this research is a mixed methodology based, firstly, on a theoretical background with data collected and analyzed from different authors, works and sources, and secondly, on the carrying out of a study among second language teachers. In this regard, the current paper presents information concerning second language methodology, motivation and ICT. The data gathered has been used to confirm and support the hypotheses defended in this study as well as to develop the subjects dealt with throughout this paper. Finally, in order to obtain the relevant quantitative and qualitative data which was necessary to carry out this modest study, a survey was used as the main research instrument, with data being gathered via Google Drive. The survey contained twenty questions that were organized in the following way: seven questions regarding teaching and methodology, five questions on motivation, five questions about the use of ICT with regard to second languages and three questions concerning multiple intelligences. The survey was sent via email to twenty language teachers belonging to the Faculty of Philology at the University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, with results being finally collected from fourteen of them. Once the data was collected, we analyzed the results to see to what extent the ideas defended in this research are confirmed and also to ascertain the opinions of language teachers concerning the subjects developed in this paper. !

2. SECOND LANGUAGE TEACHING METHODOLOGY: LEARNING HOW TO TEACH Second language teaching methodology has undergone a large number of changes throughout history. This succession of changes and the increasing birth of many other methods and approaches have been highly influenced by “the recognition of changes in the kind of proficiency learners need” (Rodgers 2014: 3). In other words, new educative exigencies and learners’ expectations of the target language have gradually determined the nature of current methodologies. As a result, there are numerous approaches that aim at achieving the same objective i.e. learning a second language, yet through different techniques and language theories. In fact, the amount and diversity of methods in second language teaching capture quite clearly the wide variations in educative trends as well as among teachers and students during the last centuries. The following timeline may illustrate this great variety of approaches in a clearer way:

Figure 1. Second Language Teaching Methods and Approaches

! In that regard, methods and approaches to second language teaching have been on the increase, especially since the 1970s, a tendency presumably motivated by Chomsky’s1 ideas on language theory and an increasing interest in educational psychology and pedagogy (Gass 2002: 2). As new ways of approaching the target language surfaced, the experience and the role of teachers and students in the classroom became distinct from each other as well. For instance, interaction and oral communication are encouraged within the communicative approach, while students work almost in isolation and communication is hardly present when using the Silent Way. As a result, the choice of a particular method !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

Noam Chomsky: American linguist who coined the term “generative grammar” from which a later model of language and a school of linguistics emerged known as generativism. Generativism aims to explain how we learn and use languages without any special training (Danesi 2013: G). 1

can entirely transform how learning is carried out and how teachers and learners get along with the process. Methodology also plays an important role when it comes to success in second language teaching. According to Davies and Pearse (2000: 23), success in second language teaching and learning occurs when learners are able to use the target language to communicate, when the language studied is applicable to real communicative contexts. It is obvious that a good knowledge of grammar and writing should also be a priority, but there is no real use in having an impressive command of grammar when students are barely capable of exchanging a few words with another speaker of the language. Therefore, a ‘successful’ second language teaching approach should be one that provides students with the tools needed to communicate in the target language as well as an approach that allows the teacher to encourage communication throughout the entire experience of learning. Although the use and knowledge of specific methodology may be decisive when seeking success within the classroom, it is not the only feature that successful teachers are expected to have. In spite of the wide range of different opinions on this matter, some scholars agree on certain qualities that great second language teachers have. For example, they “play [their] three roles effectively – Philosopher, Guide and Friend” (Kumar 2006: 218). Good teachers have preparation and qualification, are creative and promote creativity. They have a sense of humor as well (Walker 20013: 1, 37, 93). In addition, they have competence in oral skills and use the target language all the time in the sessions. They also prioritize learner practice over teacher explanations and propose real communicative activities. Finally, they focus on what learners need rather than on the syllabus (Davies and Pearse 2000: 24). Taking everything into account, I will proceed to introduce two of the many approaches to second language teaching. By doing so, we will appreciate how different methodology within second language teaching may be and to what extent methods are more or less likely to fulfill successful teaching requirements according to what has been mentioned before. Whereas the first one – the grammar-translation method – is one of the oldest methods, the second one – Dogme – is one of the most recent approaches and still unknown to many teachers. In this way, I will provide readers with information concerning both methods: a brief introduction to the method followed by its principles, an example of how !

the experience within the classroom may develop when using each method and finally some advantages and drawbacks that might arise when teaching with these specific methods. Finally, I will be highlighting on some conclusions at the end of this chapter. 2.1. The Grammar-translation Method The grammar-translation method (GTM) gained great importance within the field of second language teaching in Europe during the 19th century. At the end of the 18th century, the grammar-translation method was imposed in Prussia (Germany) as the main method of second language teaching. In fact, among the many names attributed to this particular approach throughout history, the grammar-translation method was often called the Prussian method due to the great development that it experienced in the German kingdom. As a result, it wildly became the preferred teaching method in Germany as well as in many other European countries that followed this trend in the 19th century. Nowadays, it is still a ubiquitous method despite being one of the oldest approaches in second language teaching. This particular method dates back to the 1500s and it was originally used to teach Latin and Greek, both considered languages of great importance and prestige in the past. In fact, Latin was thought to be the key when learning second languages such as French or German among others. The reason why scholars considered Latin as a fundamental language was because those students who had learned Latin through the grammartranslation method displayed a better understanding of the target (second, third, etc.) language that they were approaching. Therefore, the same method could guarantee and facilitate the proper acquisition of the target language or, at least, this was what many scholars envisioned and propounded. In most cases, the prime objective of learning a second language some centuries ago was the comprehension of literary texts as well as the intellectual development of learners and readers, so methods such as the GTM were thought undoubtedly adequate to achieve such purposes. As a matter of fact, “it was recognized that students would probably never use the target language, but the mental exercise of learning it would be beneficial anyway” (Larsen-Freeman 2000: 13). Principles Some of the grammar-translation method’s main principles include the following: !

Mother tongue as medium of instruction. The use of the mother tongue prevails over the target language in the classroom. By using the learners’ native language,

teachers can check and revise comprehension while students are able to understand teachers effectively, following explanations with no difficulty. Communication in the target language is relegated to a second place. The usage of the target language with communicative purposes in the classroom is usually ignored. Instead, communication through the native language is accepted and encouraged between teachers and students. !

Translation as the key to success. Translation assures successful understanding of the target language as much as the reinforcement of the native language structures. Besides, translation is “easy, quick and economical” (Elizabeth 2004: 52). According to the GTM, it is possible to find translations for all the words existing in the target language.

Grammar is essential. A proper knowledge and command of grammar in the native language is not only required to approach the target language, but also essential to contrast patterns existing in both, the target language and the mother tongue. The association of different structures existing in both languages is only achievable when students possess an adequate command of grammar as grammar is presented deductively, i.e. “appl[ying] a general rule to particular instances” (Gollin 1988: 88).

The importance of comparison and good knowledge of rules. As we have already commented, learners compare structures in the native language to those in the target language, which allows them to be conscious of the patterns and rules in both languages. A good knowledge and command of rules in a language is also important as it helps learners to progress adequately and avoid mistakes.

Literature as a medium of practice. The ability to read and comprehend literary texts is often prior in importance to the usage of the language with communicative purposes. The knowledge acquired by students is often restricted to the topics discussed in the literary texts analyzed. Thus, reading and writing are more valuable skills than speaking and listening, which are normally ignored. The main goal of learning the target language is the comprehension of texts written in that language as much as using these texts to check and learn, for instance, grammar and vocabulary.

Memorization of words in isolation. Students usually learn long lists of vocabulary. Memorization is hence needed and useful. Words in isolation and their translation are learned and memorized in order to understand what is written in the texts the students analyze.

Experience The table below illustrates a sample lesson plan designed according to common activities presented in different works dealing with the grammar-translation method. Following this table, I will explain how these activities are carried out throughout the lesson in more detail. Timing: 60 minutes Procedure Teacher Activity Student Activity T provides SS read a text in students with a English provided text in English by the teacher T asks students SS ask questions and answers regarding the text questions T gives SS SS read the comprehension questions and write questions about down the answers the text in English

Stage

Teaching aids

Interaction2

Textbook Handouts

−

T-SS

Textbook Handouts

−

T-SS

T corrects mistakes if needed

SS read answers aloud

Textbook/ Handouts

−

T gives SS a list of vocabulary in English

SS translate vocabulary from English to French

−

Textbook

−

Textbook/ − Handouts T-SS 5 − !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 5

SS learn about similarities T explains regarding similarities vocabulary and regarding find examples vocabulary following the same pattern T explains a point SS listen to the of grammar explanation and (present use the textbook as continuous) a guide T calls on students SS provide and asks for examples of translations and grammar and examples translate if needed T gives exercises SS do exercises on on grammar grammar T corrects SS read answers

Skill(s)3 Reading − Reading Writing

− Writing Reading

Reading

−

− Writing Reading

Interaction will not be taken into account when it is not carried out in the target language. Speaking and listening will not be considered as skills either in those cases where the target language is not being used. 2 3

Timing: 60 minutes Stage

Teaching aids

Interaction2

Textbook/ Handouts

−

Procedure Teacher Activity Student Activity mistakes if needed aloud T provides SS SS memorize with a list of vocabulary at vocabulary home

Skill(s)3

Reading

Table 1. Grammar-translation Method - Lesson Plan

! 1. Students are given a text in English to read. The teacher asks them to translate the text or certain excerpts into the native language, e.g. French. 2. The teacher asks in French (mother tongue) whether there are questions or doubts. Some students raise their hands and ask for the meaning of unfamiliar words, for example, ‘depict’. The teacher gives them the equivalent of such words in French, e.g. ‘dépeindre’. 3. Students are required to read some comprehension questions about the passage. These are presented in English and the answers are expected to be in English as well, so we assume that some writing instruction in the target language has been done in previous levels. When they are finished, they read their answers aloud and the teacher corrects them when mistakes are done. 4. The following activity concerns vocabulary presented in the form of a long list of new words in English that they have to translate into French. Some words are new, some others are not; sometimes only translation is required; sometimes finding synonyms and antonyms is also a common task. The teacher then explains certain similarities between patterns in the mother tongue and the target language as Freeman explains with the example of cognates (in this case being Spanish the mother tongue): “The English ‘-ty’, she says [the teacher] for example, often corresponds to the Spanish endings –dad and –tad […] the word ‘possibility’ […] is the same as the Spanish posibilidad” (LarsenFreeman 2000: 12). Now, students have to find examples that follow these similarities and, once again, mistakes are corrected. 5. The last stage of the class regards grammar. In this case, students work on the present continuous. They use the textbook to read the rules concerning this point of grammar while the teacher explains and compares it to French grammar. The teacher also provides examples and translates them into French or calls on students to do it. Once !

explanations are done, some exercises are given (fill in the gaps, choose the right answer, etc.). Students have to answer often by associating the structures in the text they read at the beginning of the class with the rules they have just read along with their own knowledge of grammar in the native language. Once more, they are required to read their answers aloud. The teacher asks students to state the grammar rules and mistakes are corrected. 6. Finally, students are provided with another list containing vocabulary and idioms with their equivalents in French to memorize for the following class. They close their textbooks and leave the class knowing that they will have to memorize vocabulary and rules of grammar to be able to understand the following lessons and future written texts. The bar graph below intends to show a general overview of the degree of practice within the classroom (red bars) and the approximate degree of acquisition (brown bars) of the four skills when using this particular teaching approach.

Figure 2. Grammar-translation Method - Practice and Acquisition of the Four Skills

As the chart shows, writing and reading are the most developed skills with the GTM, while listening and speaking have a very little active use. This is due to the use of the mother tongue over the target language within the classroom. The reason why both bars are at the same level in the case of reading and writing is because students are likely to achieve the same target competences in those areas as the amount of practice allows a better acquisition. In contrast, the acquisition is lower in the case of listening and speaking because, even if listening and speaking were practiced in the class (which is not common in

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this method), students would not probably acquire the same level of competence since practice in those areas is practically non-existent. As can be expected, the experience within the classroom, and especially concerning the teaching procedure, does not seem the most appealing way to approach a second language, at least for students. If we were to analyze the roles of teachers and students, we could clearly state that there is a huge gap between both participants (teacher-students) and their functions. In other words, teachers control every aspect of learning while students remain passive. This situation may lead to ignore workgroup and lessen creativity and independence in learners. Besides, the advantages of this method may become eclipsed when compared to its disadvantages, which is particularly interesting if we consider the fact that the GTM is still a ubiquitous method as mentioned before.

Pros and Drawbacks Some of the main advantages of using the grammar-translation method as an approach to the target language are the following: !

The grammar-translation method is a less time-consuming way of teaching the target language for translation facilitates the whole comprehension process. It is easier thus faster for students to simply find the equivalent of a word in their mother language than trying to guess its meaning, which does not always provide the right answer.

Through translation, the teacher can assure the correct understanding of written texts so, in theory, the acquisition of the language is more accurate: â&#x20AC;&#x153;The learners are able to learn many items of English by comparison with mother tongue. That makes learning more clear and firmâ&#x20AC;? (Elizabeth 2004: 53).

Reading and writing are well-developed skills due to the practice in the classroom. As we already explained, the main purpose of the grammar-translation method is to capacitate students to read and understand written texts.

The GTM helps teachers to test the progression of students easily throughout the different activities and corrections that are presented and done in class.

With the GTM, teachers with less experience concerning teaching of second languages can teach in a less laborious way, as they are the ones who decide what, when and how everything should be done. Therefore, teachers have an active role and authority in the class, while learners remain more passive.

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On the contrary, this method presents some important downsides that might lessen and question its adequacy as a second language method: !

The GTM completely ignores the practice of oral skills, i.e. communication. Whilst this method is primarily focused on developing different skills such as reading and writing (literacy), speaking and, to a certain extent, also listening are less practiced. Since being capable to communicate is one of the main objectives of learning a second language, the grammar translation method fails to provide students with the necessary skills for future situations in which oral communication is indispensable.

The GTM does not promote peer work or student-student interaction. In this sense, the benefits derived from working in pairs and groups are lost and the experience may become monotonous since interaction is missing.

The use of the mother tongue in the classroom does not facilitate the acquisition of good oral skills in terms of pronunciation. Due to the slight, often non-existing, practice of speaking as we already mentioned, students face several difficulties when using the target language with communicative purposes. If we add that pronunciation is scarcely developed because of the use of the mother tongue as the medium of communication within the classroom, we may conclude that the grammar translation method does not cover some essential areas of learning, e.g. communication.

While the GTM is certainly a less time consuming way of teaching, it is also a timeconsuming way of learning, what reflects once more the contrast between teachers and students. The never-ending translations of texts and repetitive exercises make lessons a tedious experience, which may lead to demotivation, and a lack of enthusiasm in the students.

The GTM accepts as certain the fact that everything belonging to the target language can be translated into the mother tongue. This is hardly certain for there are many expressions and words that even nowadays cannot be translated literally into our language. This problem may also lead to humorous misconceptions and awkward misunderstandings, as students tend to think in the mother tongue first, and then utter or write what they have previously translated in their mind.

While it is true that reading and writing are highly developed with this method, which is doubtlessly an advantage, it is also true that this is due to repetitive and mechanical procedures. As it may happen with translation, this recursive way of learning/teaching does not encourage learners.

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The GTM often becomes inefficient for those students who are hopeless at memorization therefore at a disadvantage if compared to other students. If the whole process of learning is based on memorizing patterns and vocabulary, those who fail to achieve such targets will not learn the language. 2.2. Dogme English Language Teaching

To begin with, I would like to direct readers’ attention to the work written by Meddings and Thornbury (2009), Teaching Unplugged: Dogme in English Teaching, from which a great part of the information presented below comes and also for further reading on this particular approach. Dogme is a communicative approach initiated in March 2000 by Scott Thornbury. Thornbury, who had been working as a teacher in Spain, wrote an article called “Dogme ELT” where he explained the deficits in language teaching that he, along with other colleagues, had observed throughout his experience as a teacher. In this way, Dogme began as a response to the overuse of textbooks and other materials in language teaching over the real needs of learners. Dogme is defined as: A teaching movement set up by a group of English teachers who challenged what they consider to be an over-reliance on materials and technical wizardry in current language teaching. The emphasis on the here-and-now requires the teacher to focus on the actual learners and the content that is relevant to them. (Meddings and Thornbury 2009: From the Authors)

And most of us may wonder: why Dogme? As Thornbury himself explains, he received the inspiration from the Danish Dogme 95 film movement that endeavored to purify cinema and eradicate its dependency and obsession for technique and special effects, as this hinders the importance of the story and its value. Dogme intends to make teaching (and so teachers) focus on the learner rather than on complementary features that might diminish and deviate the attention that learners need. As a result, the relatively recent inception (if we consider previous approaches) of Dogme in ELT has supposed a new alternative to teachers wanting to use the language in a more communicative way, where the core materials are learners and teachers’ self-contribution to the experience. Nevertheless, there are scholars who still question whether Dogme should be regarded as an approach rather than another technique. In light of this, Thornbury defends that Dogme is well grounded in language and learning theories, that is, Dogme considers language to be functional and situated, and language learning as holistic, experimental, “jointly-constructed and socially-constituted […], motivated both by communal and communicative imperatives” (“A is for Approach” 2012). !

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Principles The main principles defended by Meddings and Thornbury (2009: Dogme in ELT) concerning Dogme as an approach to second language teaching are summarized as follows: !

Interaction. The Dogme philosophy maintains that interaction is the core of language learning. This interaction should not be limited to leaner-learner, but also to teacherlearner. As mentioned before, the roots of this approach reside in communicative teaching thus interactivity among participants is crucial.

Participants supply any material needed. The kind of material most likely to activate learning among students is that provided by themselves. Therefore, there is no need of published materials and textbooks that are not directly involved with the participants, bur rather generic. Nevertheless, it is important to note that the complete eradication of –what this approach considers as – third-party materials is by no means the object of Dogme.

Learning is dialogic. Dogme defends that learning is “a social and dialogic process” so social environments and relations motivate and trigger the acquisition of knowledge which

“co-constructed

rather

than

‘transmitted’

‘imported’

from

teacher/coursebook to learner” (Meddings and Thornbury (2009: Dogme in ELT) !

Learning through scaffolded4 talking. Talking can be a potential leading way of learning, especially when teachers modify and adjust the talk to the nature of learners. Meddings and Thornbury use the term scaffolded talk, that is, supported and mediated talk.

Language is not acquired. It emerges. Dogme considers language learning, including grammar, to be something that arises naturally when the right conditions are given rather than acquired.

Providing the tools required as teachers’ main function. Teachers’ prime role is “to optimize language learning affordances, by […] directing attention to features of the emergent language” (Meddings and Thornbury (2009: Dogme in ELT)

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

4 Scaffolding refers to a variety of instructional techniques used to move students progressively toward stronger understanding and, ultimately, greater independence in the learning process (“Scaffolding Definition”).

! !

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Learners’ voice as valid content. Learners’ opinions, beliefs, burdens and experiences are valid content in language learning and should be taken into consideration while constructing knowledge from which student can learn.

Less direct involved materials to be relegated. Disengaging the learning experience from the use of secondary materials (i.e. other than student-produced materials) improves and strengthens learning. In this way, Dogme advocates using materials that construct knowledge through talk and interaction.

Relevant materials. On the contrary, when secondary materials are used, teachers should become critical users of such materials and these should be relevant to the students in terms of learning and context. Using additional materials for its own sake is a mistake hence teachers should not resort to materials that have no relevance to the learners.

Experience Although with the grammar-translation method I have presented a lesson plan to illustrate how the activities are organized within the session, when it comes to Dogme, the situation is a bit distinct. The reason is that, with Dogme, teachers do not prepare fixed lessons for their students beforehand. Instead, “learners bring the lesson with them – in the ‘rough form’ of their language and lives – and the teacher helps them to shape it into a learning experience” (Meddings and Thornbury 2009: Creating the Right Conditions). In this way, learners do not adapt themselves to the teacher, but the other way around which may be said to break with the traditional role of teachers and students in education. Anyhow, I still find it interesting to introduce some of the activities that may be carried out when learning with Dogme (table 2), as the activities by themselves are able to portray Dogme’s philosophy quite clearly. Finally, note that the four activities presented below are included in Part B (Meddings and Thornbury 2009), which I highly recommend once again for further information. Before immersing ourselves in the activities, I would like to comment on the setting and further details concerning the experience so that we can appreciate how a Dogme lesson may differ from others: the students and the teacher would be ideally sitting in a circle, walking around or dispersed around the room. If possible, other spaces (stairs, adjacent empty rooms, a patio, etc.) are suitable for group work and pair work as well, in other words, use the space as much as possible. It would also be ideal to encourage eye contact !

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while doing the activities. If one activity is not working, forget about it and suggest a different one, a more amusing or handy for the mood of the class. In a few words, try to make the experience enjoyable, your students are with you to learn, but learning does not necessarily have to be tedious.

How I got my name 1. Write the names of your students on the blackboard. Then, add some questions concerning names and ask your students to move around and ask each other (and even yourself): E.g. Does your name have a meaning? Does anyone else in your family have that name? Is it a popular name in your country/region? 2. Each student should answer and ask these questions to at least three people. Meanwhile, you should monitor, help with language and encourage participation. Once they are done, each person tells the rest of the class about the story behind his/her classmate’s name until everybody’s story has been told. 3. Write on the blackboard some more questions you would like to focus on later in the session for your students to consider: E.g. What is the most unusual name you have heard of in your country/region? Is it good to be given a very unusual name? 4. Discuss the words and phrases of such questions. Make explanations, adjust them to fit the class’ level as well as to guarantee comprehension and answer your students’ questions. 5. Finally, ask your students to write down a short text on how they got their names by using words or phrases seen during the session.

This street, this town 1. Draw three large circles on the blackboard and name them as follows:

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2. Let the students work in pairs or small groups and ask them to draw the same circles on a piece of paper. Then, ask them to discuss the following questions: E.g. Who do you think is using English right now in each circle? Is English their first language? Are they reading, speaking, writing, listening? Who are they communicating with, and about what? 3. Once they have finished with discussing the questions, ask them to compare their conclusions with another group. Meanwhile, move around the groups, help with language and encourage participation. 4. Invite them to come to the blackboard and write up their ideas within each circle. Ask them to explain the reason behind their choices to the rest of the class. 5. Ask your students where they see themselves in the picture now or in the future, where they will be using English and for what reasons. Finally, remind and encourage your students to use English whenever possible and ask them whether they have been able to use English in these contexts and how their experiences were.

Space Travellers 1. Come up with a few statements (they do not need to be very elaborated, nor too thought-provoking) just stimulating enough as to cause a wide diversity of opinion among students. Some examples are: I like Mondays | Reading books is a waste of time | Honey is delicious | Veggies over meat 2. Take three large pieces of paper and write ‘agree’, ‘disagree’ and ‘not sure’ respectively. Place the paper with ‘agree’ on it at one end of the classroom, the ‘disagree’ sheet at the opposite end of the room and the ‘not sure’ sheet in the middle of the classroom. 3. Tell your students that each part of the room represents three positions they may take !

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depending on their opinions about a statement that you are about to write on the blackboard. Then, write one of the statements on the blackboard. 4. Let the student move around the room, deciding whether they agree, disagree or remain unsure. Invite them to explain the reasons for their choice to the two people nearest them. Later on, let them explain these reasons to the whole class. 5. Do not question their reasons, but invite them to tell you more about them while helping with language when needed. In the meantime, write on the blackboard examples of language issues that you helped with, as well as vocabulary and expressions that may be causing problems. Also, add sentences and expressions that you used in the conversation too. 6. Ask the students to change positions if others’ convictions make them change their mind. If this happens, ask them to explain why. Once they finish with the explanations, discuss what you have written on the blackboard concerning language. 7. Finally, add a twist to your statement. For instance, substitute ‘honey’ for ‘spinach’ and invite them to move once more and explain their reasons. For homework, ask them to use the expressions, words, etc. on the blackboard to write a short text about their opinions on the initial statement and the ‘twisted’ statement.

Have you got a minute? 1. Prepare a short text for the class. It may be a brief piece of news, an excerpt from an article or a book, an advertisement, etc. Observe the text beforehand and ask yourself what questions you would ask your class and how you would answer these questions. 2. Write the text on the blackboard and tell your students that they will be working in pairs or groups for this activity. 3. Firstly, they have to indicate any unfamiliar word they see within the text. Then, discuss with the whole class these words and encourage them to guess the meaning according to the context. Secondly, they have to indicate as many collocations as possible. Once again, discuss with the whole class and correct or confirm whether they are collocations or not. Finally, they find as many synonyms as possible for words or phrases in the text. Again, discuss and correct if needed. 4. In each phase, you (the teacher) should mark unfamiliar words, circle collocations and write up synonyms on the blackboard. Once they are done, discuss other aspects of the language that they may have missed or that you find interesting to mention. 5. For homework, invite your students to find a short text and ask them to follow one of !

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the steps they did in class (mark unfamiliar words, look for collocations or find synonyms), marking directly onto the text. They should bring the text for the following session where they will share their conclusions with the rest of the class. Table 2. Dogme - Sample Activities by Meddings and Thornbury (2009)

! Needless to say that these are just sample activities, therefore they should not be regarded as a lesson plan suggested for one single session. This being said, we can observe that some of these activities consist in using day-to-day situations, e.g. asking someoneâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s name, from which potential knowledge may arise naturally. Some others are closer to traditional activities, such us Space Travellers that is basically a debate, although the way in which they are presented to the class makes them fresh and unique for the students and thus more gripping. In contrast with the grammar-translation method, we can see that listening and speaking are the most developed skills with Dogme (Figure 3). As a matter of fact, this was something to be expected considering that Dogme is a communicative approach. The degree of practice is higher, and therefore students are likely to reach a good level of competence in these skills. This is doubtlessly useful since being able to speak and understand the target language, i.e. to communicate, has become one of the main, if not the prime, reasons for learning a second language.

Figure 3. Dogme - Practice and Acquisition of the Four Skills

! On the contrary, reading and writing are pushed into the background, yet not forgotten. Although it is a fact that these skills are not particularly practiced in comparison with the rest of skills, many of the activities still require students to do some writing at home. !

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Reading is also practiced in the classroom when certain activities need a text â&#x20AC;&#x201C; or another readable source â&#x20AC;&#x201C; to be carried out. Anyhow, it cannot be left out the fact that students are not practicing reading and writing as much as they do practice speaking and listening, which may lead to later deficiencies in these particular areas.

Pros and Drawbacks Some of the advantages of Dogme in second language teaching include: !

The non-reliance on materials, such as textbooks and technology, proposed by Dogme allows institutions with fewer resources to continue providing education. Since learning (and

subsequently

teaching)

not

restricted

the

use

secondary

equipment/materials, institutions would not be forced to invest in teaching aids. !

The focus on the learner as a primary objective is doubtlessly advantageous in second language teaching. Teachers can monitor students continuously, detect problems and shape the sessions in order to solve them.

The amount of conversational exchanges and personal information shared in the sessions helps create an adequate environment for studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; learning development, as the pressure for being constantly assessed is diminished. Teachers and learners are able to establish a more direct communication and social bonds that motivate them both and encourage a participative response in learners throughout the whole process of learning.

Teachers have more freedom when conceiving the way every session will be carried out. As commented before, since the focus is on the learner, teachers can adapt lessons to cover certain necessities and deficiencies that need to be solved rather than following the textbook, which does not always result useful for the situation.

The possibility of being at liberty to decide on the sessions rather than sticking to a specific methodology imposed by textbooks and manuals allows teachers to be more creative. It also provides flexibility and leads to innovation as teachers may find motivation in creating their own activities rather than following what the textbook says.

The diversity of activities in Dogme and the way these are executed seem more stimulating and engaging than traditional ones. This is actually very interesting if we consider that many of these activities are based on day-to-day situations, while some others are simply the same traditional activities just from a different point of view, which transforms the experience within the classroom completely.

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Dogme, as the rest of approaches to second language teaching, presents worth-considering drawbacks. Nevertheless, I consider it interesting to comment on the fact that Dogme’s author, Thornbury along with Meddings, do not only point out some of the issues that may appear when using Dogme, but also provide attainable solutions to resolve inconveniences when these may arise. Some of the disadvantages of using Dogme may be the following: !

The over-reliance on conversation and scaffolded talk as the main source of learning may be an obstacle for certain students. For instance, a mute person, unable to communicate orally, would probably have to face difficulties while trying to learn this way, and the same goes for timid or introverted students. Anyway, if teachers applying this approach could somehow adapt the instruction to the learners’ necessities (note that directing the attention to the learner is actually one of Dogme’s concerns) there would not be a problem.

Dogme may result threatening for non-native speakers of the target language. Due to the amount of conversational situations requiring a high level of competence in speaking and interaction, teachers with a limited command of such skills may encounter complications at some point of the experience. In order to address this issue, Meddings and Thornbury (2009: Teaching as a Non-native Speaker) explain that “[t]he teacher’s role is to scaffold […] the learner’s ability: not by providing native-like models, but by nudging it toward greater intelligibility and fluency”.

When compared to other methods, there is not as much information for teachers to immerse themselves in the philosophy suggested by Dogme as there is about other approaches. On the one hand, it may be due to the fact that Dogme is a relatively new approach. On the other hand, the reason may be that there is a miscellany of opinions available concerning Dogme, some in favor, some against. As a result, teachers may find themselves lost in proceeding to apply the techniques and principles of this particular approach effectively.

Another issue that seems likely to occur is that students may not be sufficiently prepared in writing. Meddings and Thornbury (2009) lay out the idea that students experiencing Dogme might question whether this method is suitable for them with a view to official examinations, as other students would spend innumerable hours on practicing with practice tests. It is not that writing is not practiced at all. In fact, many activities require some sort of writing. However, this might result insufficient for specific occasions where a high level of competence in writing is required.

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The absence of prepared sessions (i.e. lesson plans, prepared materials, etc.) may become too demanding, even challenging, for teachers, especially for beginners who have not been long in the profession. As I commented in the section in which the experience was presented, Dogme suggests that teachers using this approach should be responsible for ‘shaping’ students’ day-to-day contributions in the classroom into a form of learning from and for the students, which can be definitely a strenuous challenge. In any case, Meddings and Thornbury (2009) comment that using Dogme is not an ‘all or nothing’ experience, in other words, he explains that teachers may turn to the coursebook while testing different activities in order to gradually learn how to shape the sessions.

If students do not display a participative attitude toward learning the target language – for instance, when learning English is an obligation at schools rather than an option – the experience with Dogme may become frustrating. In fact, students’ indifference to the target language is one of the main reasons for demotivation in second language teachers, thus using an approach that is based on participation and interaction does not seem quite convenient. However, since Dogme is intended to turn the experience into a way of establishing social bonds while learning in an entertaining way, disinterested students may become interested in learning the target language, which would doubtlessly be a great achievement for any teacher.

When the number of students is high, carrying out activities as the ones mentioned before might become chaotic. Besides, if the students do not have an adequate competence in speaking and listening, the situation might be hard to control since most of the activities, if not all, involve oral communication. 2.3. Conclusions

As can be noticed, these two approaches are entirely different, both in principles and practice, yet intended to accomplish the same objective, that is, to learn a second language. We could even confirm that they become opposites at some points, especially concerning the experience within the classroom. By using the grammar-translation method, we are laying particular stress on reading and writing. By using Dogme, the level of proficiency in speaking and listening is higher. In this regard, both approaches are capable of fulfilling some of the needs of students, but fail to cover the rest of requirements that learners may have. Anyhow, some readers may argue that the GTM could not be compared to Dogme since it is evident that the GTM method lacks important features due to the fact that it is !

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one of the oldest approaches in SLT. However, the reason for this comparison is actually the fact that an approach that seems to be obsolete is still actively used to teach second languages. Although the advantages and disadvantages listed within this paper regarding the GTM are just a few, the cons associated with this method often predispose readers toward rejecting it, as the advantages might not seem significant enough. However, this is often a matter of taste: on the one hand, there are some who defend this method and its adequacy for providing students with the proper means in order to approach the target language. On the other hand, there are others who disagree and claim that this method is insufficient to cover some essential aspects of the language, for instance, speaking and listening as I introduced before. I firmly believe that the grammar-translation method is definitely not the best way to approach a second language when used in isolation. Despite this method being useful for developing reading and writing skills, it fails in letting students improve upon the rest of skills that are indispensable in a society as ours where communication is a priority. It might have been viable in the past, but not nowadays when one of the main purposes in learning a language is communication. In addition, the fact that the entire process of learning the target language is reduced to the mere act of translation does not seem convenient to develop a sense of understanding the language by itself, its background and cultural features. It is rather an attempt to compare how a language is more or less related to another, taking advantage of this relation to learn grammar rules and vocabulary. Besides, it may become a problem once that students get used to using this system of comparison and translation whenever they need to communicate. Anyhow, it is certain that the GTM may become useful to a certain extent, â&#x20AC;&#x153;when the class-room situation demands itâ&#x20AC;? (Elizabeth 2004: 54) and therefore we should not overlook its potential for practicing certain aspects of the language. Nevertheless, considering the GTM by itself, i.e. in isolation, as adequate to teach a second language does not seem the best way to proceed if we aim at helping our students succeed in language learning while making the most of the learning experience. In relation to Dogme, learning takes place quite differently. First of all, I would like to underline the fact that, not only do Thornbury and Meddings remark on some of the difficulties that learners and teachers may experience when using Dogme, but they also !

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propose alternatives and possible solutions to clear them up. In fact, this reflects Dogme’s philosophy quite clearly since detecting learners’ difficulties and adjusting learning to solve these inconveniences is one of Dogme’s principles. Moreover, the sort of learning experience suggested by Dogme is as appealing and interactive as to make us want to incorporate some of these activities to the actual classroom. This may also be a reason for motivation for both, teachers and students, due to the amount of interaction and it may be also used to engage indifferent learners, which is always desirable. Finally, I find quite interesting the way in which learning is conducted with this specific approach. Traditionally, teachers explain something that students have occasionally or never used or heard of before, expect mistakes and finally correct them when exercises, tests, etc. are done – everything in this particular order –hoping these difficulties will not arise again. However, teachers using Dogme identify problems in the first place through conversational exchanges and it is from that/those particular issue/s that learning develops later in the session so that students learn directly through corrections of their own mistakes. In this way, learning goes from mistake to correction followed by explanation, i.e. from practice to theory, rather than the other way around. It goes without saying that there will be occasions when it cannot be done this way, but it is still a beginning into challenging conventional teaching. In this way, I would like to remind readers about the qualities that, in theory, successful second language teachers should have, as mentioned in the introduction of this chapter. Ideally, teachers should have competence and command of the target language, not only a good knowledge of grammar. They should also use the target language all the time, beginners’ lessons included. Moreover, they have to “think mostly in terms of learner practice, not teacher explanations” and come up with “really communicative activities, not just practice of language forms” (Davies and Pearse 2000: 24). Finally, they need to focus on learners’ needs, adjusting teaching to these necessities rather than focusing on finishing the syllabus (ibid., 2006: 24). Then, which of these two approaches is more likely to fulfill these expectations? Indeed, Dogme. Nevertheless, despite Dogme being apparently more appropriate to create a proper learning environment, it also presents worth-considering drawbacks so there are still some considerations regarding both methods to take into account. By comparing these methods, !

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it is evident that second language teaching has evolved toward communication. This explains why Dogme, along with other approaches such as the communicative approach, the natural approach, etc. have â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;emergedâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; to respond to current demands where communication is the prime reason for learning a second language. Notwithstanding, the real questions should be the following: how can two utterly different approaches be aimed at accomplishing the same objectives? And what role does the teacher play in the whole process? One of the answers may be the fact that one single method cannot guarantee success in language learning for the expectations and needs of learners are as many and varied as the number of students in the same classroom. As we have seen so far, the GTM is not able to provide students with a good competence in oral skills, nor Dogme in writing. Then, if teachers were to use one of them, students would still present deficiencies at some point of their learning experience. Besides, while some students may be interested in working on communicative skills and interaction, others may not. If the last one were the case, would you use Dogme (hypothetically assuming that this is the approach you have been using throughout your career) to teach a second language to these particular students? It is, in fact, this diversity that makes teaching a tough task sometimes and it is definitely one of the reasons why the role of the teacher is a deciding factor. Conventionally, we ask students to accommodate themselves to the way the class works, (actually how you, as a teacher, work), when it is actually we who should be able to adapt ourselves to the classroom, that is, the students. Teaching should not consist in displaying our knowledge on a particular field of study, but rather an opportunity to shape this knowledge and share it with students in ways that are convenient and advantageous for them. In this regard, teachers should be able to prioritize learners over teaching methods, becoming facilitators and providers rather than authorities on a particular subject. In conclusion, teachers need to remember that it is the method that should be adjusted in order to fit studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; necessities and not the other way around. Making students learn with a particular method that might not be enough or suitable for their needs is a mistake and should be avoided, even if we are used to teaching with that approach. Were we forced to go for a specific approach, we should ideally go for the one that allows versatility and adaptation to what learners may need, even combining methodologies if necessary. Finally, !

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it would also be interesting to envision the possibility of coming up with a new approach that might combine the key points of the large list of second language teaching approaches that we already have. By doing so, deficiencies in learning may become diminished and we all, teachers and students, would make the very best in the great adventure of teaching and learning a second language.

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3. BEYOND METHODOLOGY Although methodology may determine whether or not language teaching unfolds successfully, there are still secondary factors, although I firmly believe that they are not secondary, that should also be of our interest. Much has been said about the beneficial effects of motivation and technology concerning language learning. On many occasions, both agents become synonyms of success in education for they contribute to ensuring the right attitude toward the process of learning (in the case of motivation) and to diversifying the ways learners approach the language while adapting to current requirements (in regard to the use of technology). There is nowadays a wide range of information available that seeks to guide teachers through the process of motivating their students. One could simply do a search for the relation between motivation and education, and we should be provided with endless lists of sources whose titles include ‘motivation’ and ‘learners’. Nevertheless, there is no so much information on the role of motivation in teachers. This particular situation is quite interesting, if not alarming, considering that, in order for teachers to motivate their students, they need to be motivated as well, which happens to fail on certain occasions. As far as the use of Information and Communications Technology (ICT) in education is concerned, the situation is that a good command and competence in ICT is an essential requisite nowadays. Therefore, not only is it necessary to incorporate new technologies to the classroom, but also to instruct students in the use of ICT, especially in those that might be handy for language learning. However, it is often the case that institutions do not follow this trend, and when they do incorporate them, many teachers seem not to take advantage of its uses, while others do not have enough competence in new technologies so ICT’s advantages become diminished. Due to these circumstances, my interest in writing this chapter is, on the one hand, focused on becoming familiar with the causes of motivation and demotivation in teachers as well as analyzing with the nature of such causes in depth. On the other hand, I am also interested in the relevance of ICT in language learning and whether or not teachers are making an adequate use of it. Finally, I will propose alternatives to those cases where things may be failing to accomplish the tasks of teaching and learning successfully.

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3.1. Second Language Teaching: The Role of Motivation in Teachers Motivation, from the Latin word ‘movere’ (to move), is today a pervasive term that everybody seems to understand and have included as part of their vocabulary, but that still arises complications when attempting to provide a proper definition that embodies all of its elements, which are many in fact. Nonetheless, the following definition may facilitate the comprehension of this concept: [M]otivation […] concerns the direction and magnitude of human behavior, that is: the choice of a particular action, the persistence with it, the effort expended on it. In other words, motivation is responsible for why people decide to do something, how long they are willing to sustain the activity, how hard they are going to pursue it. (Dörnyei 2001: 8)

In relation to second language learning, motivation may be divided into different types depending on the reasons, sources and factors from which people receive motivation. As seen in Mahadi (2012: 232), Gardner and Lambert introduced in 1972 the idea that there were two types of motivation: integrative and instrumental. Integrative motivation refers to learning the language due to our affinity for a certain culture and our subsequent interest in immerse and participate in that culture. Instrumental motivation makes reference to learning the language for its practical applications in the future, e.g. applying for a job, going to college, work for a certain company, etc. Mahadi also explains that a few decades later, Ryan & Deci coined other types of motivation “in accordance with the different rationales, causes, or targets which strengthen a deed or an achievement” (2012: 232). Among others, this new classification included two particular types: intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, on which I will be focusing in this chapter. Extrinsic motivation includes external rewards, either physical or psychological, that are aimed and expected to achieve when performing certain activities (Brown 2007: 143). On the contrary, intrinsic motivation “refers to the reason why we perform certain activities for inherent satisfaction or pleasure” (Brown 2007: 143). One of the aspects that people tend to forget when it comes to second languages is the important role that motivation plays within the development of teaching and learning. In general, it is taken for granted that motivation is something desirable in students, which is indeed true. However, very little attention is given to the teacher, who should be not only a source of motivation and inspiration for his students, but also the one responsible for remaining self-motivated. Although, for some, motivation may not be the core of teaching, I firmly believe that it is doubtlessly a crucial factor of the way in which the experience !

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within and outside the classroom develops. As commented before, teachers should be a source of motivation for their students. We may think of motivation as fuel required to preserve and stimulate an active and positive standpoint toward learning and teaching. Besides, it is important to remember that teachers, despite being the head of the entire system, are learners as well, and as such, they require the same or even a higher level of motivation to keep both functions (that of a teacher and, simultaneously, of a learner) developing, which will enhance their performance as educators sooner or later. Even when motivation should always be pursued, the problem with this phenomenon lies in the fact that â&#x20AC;&#x153;certain aspects of motivation may be beyond your influenceâ&#x20AC;? (Davies 2000: 13). In other words, there are innumerable factors that are beyond our control for they depend on external elements that are certainly influential in maintaining an encouraged attitude. Motivation is thus fluctuating; it does not remain static. As a result, selfmotivation may become a Herculean effort for teachers on certain occasions, and therefore they will be unable to provide students with the necessary degree of motivation to succeed in learning. Even though the point at issue is the role of teachers in the classroom and how they serve as an influence for students, I consider important to mention that this is a reciprocal procedure, which means that students may be the actual reason of demotivation for teachers in many cases and vice versa. Whatever the case, it will undoubtedly have consequences on the way teaching and learning is being carried out. In this way, and taking as a guide the causes of motivation and demotivation presented in a study concerning motivation among second language teachers carried out by RodriguezPerez (2012: 133-135), I will be commenting on the different factors that increase and decrease motivation in teachers: Causes of Motivation !

Innovation leads to motivation Teaching provides the opportunity to innovate due to the wide range of materials available. Moreover, because of the large amount of different theories and methodologies concerning second language teaching, instructors find motivational resources and techniques to incorporate into the classroom.

Experience Experience is regarded as a favorable feature as it increases security and selfesteem. Experienced teachers count themselves well prepared in order to deal with

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any inconvenience that may arise. They know how to control the situation and do not let external events interfere with their attitude, which reinforce their confidence. !

Cultural reasons Many teachers find in teaching an opportunity to exchange and share cultural contents and experiences that are usually welcomed by students who typically show interest in such matters as well. This creates a feeling of mutual enthusiasm that inspires teachers to strengthen their output as educators, from which students receive quite important advantages.

Social recognition Social attitudes toward the labor of teachers concerning their contribution to social improvements suppose a motivational reinforcement. Teachers have in the recognition of their functions an incentive to continue striving in order to remain as efficient as expected.

Positive response of learners When learners involve themselves in the sessions, motivation is more achievable. Displaying an enthusiastic attitude toward learning creates a state of well being that automatically boosts the teacherâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s motivation and hence his/her efficiency.

Favorable environment This is probably the most important reason as it embodies all of the causes already mentioned that increase motivation. It groups all the favorable situations regarding many different factors such as the workplace, facilities within institutions, respectful yet passionate students, supportive colleagues, etc.

Causes of Demotivation !

Disrespectful attitude towards profession One of the main causes of demotivation hides beneath a negative vision of teachers in general. According to Rodriguez-Perez (2012: 134), teachers find politicians responsible for this issue, a consequence of the lack of interest that politicians seem to have on public education, especially in regard to second language teachers. While some teachers actually find motivation when recognized socially, others believe that such recognition is not plausible.

Insufficient support and lack of means Some others complain about universities, schools, high schools, etc. not having

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enough materials, didactic resources, and facilities, which makes teaching a very problematic task. Besides, it is even more complicated when teaching a second language for it requires more additional materials than other regular subjects. !

Low wages Teachers feel they are not paid enough money for their effort. Even though people outside education environments might think that teaching is reduced to the classroom, the truth is that teaching is a time-consuming job as it takes place not only within the school, but also at home. Teachers, at least the good ones, regularly spend more time preparing materials and lessons for their sessions than teaching. However, on some occasions, they are only paid for the number of hours they are in the centers they teach, forgetting about the exhausting workload behind.

Monotony and routine Once that many of the causes mentioned above end up happening, teaching becomes a very monotonous and tiring job. The lack of materials, the non-existent interest of students in the subject, among other circumstances, lead to demotivation, a decrease of enthusiasm, which translates into a lower rate of teaching effectiveness.

Teacher assessment Although teacher assessment is one of the best ways to test whether someone is doing his/her job as expected nowadays, some teachers feel hindered for being actually tested by their students. Especially in Spain, Rodriguez-Perez comments that teachers feel more pressured since the ANECA (Agencia Nacional de Evaluación de la Calidad y Acreditación) was introduced, as the way they teach is being more and more conditioned by their students’ opinions. However, I consider this attitude to be a sign of not wanting to get out of our comfort zone. Teachers should understand that as it happens with didactic materials, they also need to update the way they teach, otherwise there would be no progress in education.

High expectations, yet not enough support Society puts too much pressure on teachers. They are expected to fulfill society’s expectations, yet they are not given the support required by society in order to do so. This contradiction creates an atmosphere of constant tension because of the stresses and strains of their profession.

What draws my attention the most when considering the reasons of motivation and demotivation explained above is the fact that most of them are dependent on external !

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factors. In a more theoretical way, these are factors belonging to extrinsic motivation. While teachers seek motivation predominantly in extrinsic recompense that may satisfy their expectations, they do not put enough effort in working on intrinsic motivation. As a consequence, they are more likely to feel demotivated sooner than later. This is a clear mistake and the reason is quite simple: by basing our motivation on external, and therefore uncontrollable, forces, it is quite probable that such forces will end up failing to accomplish our ambitions as teachers at some point of our career. Therefore, we would become demotivated and unable to provide students with the best means to succeed in learning. For that very reason, it is important, first, to understand intrinsic motivation, and second, to work on strategies that may help us develop intrinsic motivation in order to remain selfmotivated and thus more efficient. On the one hand, motivation is generally driven by stimuli, either external or internal, that favor human beingsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; improvement and effectiveness in the development of certain activities (Deci and Ryan 1985: 20). In this particular case, my interest lies especially in those of internal or intrinsic nature because they seem more easily controllable than those of extrinsic source. This being said, intrinsic motivation derives from our willingness to do specific tasks for we find inherent pleasure and enjoyment while carrying them out. In this regard, we are intrinsically motivated when â&#x20AC;&#x153;[we] do an activity for its own sake, rather than for any extrinsic rewardâ&#x20AC;? (Cameron 2002: 12). However, this does not mean that extrinsic motivation should be ignored at all, nor should extrinsic rewards. The issue with this phenomenon is that people tend to cling to external accolades excessively, often omitting intrinsic rewards. Therefore, we may say that balance is the key. Let me illustrate this idea with the example below: Case 1. You worked extra hours at your institution and you got paid more. Extrinsically motivated: you worked extra hours because that way you were getting paid more. " Getting more money encourages you to work extra hours. Intrinsically motivated: You worked extra hours because you were enjoying what you were doing without even thinking of getting paid more. " The inherent satisfaction obtained from the activity motivates you to work for a longer period of time. Extrinsically and intrinsically motivated: You worked extra hours because you were getting paid more and the fact that you enjoy doing this particular task motivated you to prolong a positive and efficient attitude along the process (or vice !

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versa). " Both, inherent satisfaction and extrinsic rewards motivate your behavior. Depending on the source of motivation, the output of what we do may vary considerably. Think of the example provided, when people are exclusively extrinsically motivated, they will surely work for more hours, but whether or not their performance is effective is a whole different matter (if we assume that they may not enjoy what they do). On the contrary, when they are only intrinsically motivated, they would not mind prolonging the task since they do enjoy doing it even if they are not extra paid for it. Nevertheless, this is problematic because current society often moves according to external rewards rather than the opposite. In this way, only when we are extrinsically and intrinsically motivated, can motivation be guaranteed. Even if we were required to work for a longer period of time, we would still make an attempt to find pleasure in the task and getting more money would be also a motivating incentive. Thus, as teachers, we should continuously reinforce intrinsic motivation in case extrinsic rewards fail. In regard to strategies aimed at developing and strengthening intrinsic motivation, we may include some of the following that could be promoted among teachers and students. First and foremost, the prime source of intrinsic motivation should be the fact that you are a teacher because that is what you enjoy doing. Actually, students can notice quite easily when there is a vocational teacher in front of them or someone who is just trying to make a living out of it. In order to do so, try to remember what made you go for this profession in particular. Think of what your expectations were at the beginning of your career and how you planned to fulfill them. In addition, find as many new stimuli as possible or try to go in depth into what has motivated you in former situations. Moreover, generate and maintain your curiosity in what you do, â&#x20AC;&#x153;the desire to explore, discover, understand, and know [â&#x20AC;Ś] is a potentially central motivator of the educational processâ&#x20AC;? (Deci and Ryan 1985: 245). Try to challenge yourself whenever you have the chance. Failing and succeeding when facing new challenges helps develop intrinsic motivation and boost our confidence in order to deal with future challenging events (which might explain why experience is one of the reasons of motivation among second language teachers). Similarly, challenge and test your capacities and try to find satisfaction in your environment. For example, pay attention to what kind of activities you find more enjoyable: communicative activities, cultural exchanges, literature seminars, etc. and try to promote them with learning purposes among your students. Finally, remember to go for intrinsic rewards when things do not go your way. If your students do not display a !

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participative attitude, use your inner satisfaction in learning foreign languages to shape the sessions in ways that may engage them. If your institution does not invest in ICT, come up with inviting and innovative activities that do not require its uses and do not forget that there is always room for improvement, which will definitely motivate you throughout your career. In short, motivation does play an important role in second language teaching. Motivation will determine the choice of our behavior, our persistence to maintain that behavior and the effort to improve it. For that reason, not only do we need to recognize what elements boost our motivation, but also to verify whether or not they consist of both, intrinsic and extrinsic rewards. If that were not the case, we should work on intrinsic motivation since it can help us fulfill our needs and contribute to an adequate attitude to deal with any inconvenience that may appear within and outside the classroom. By working on what we enjoy doing, what we are interested in and what is important for us, we will be enhancing our outcome as teachers, which will have positive consequences in our students’ learning development. Finally, were teachers more focused on cultivating intrinsic motivation, success in second language learning and teaching would be a more feasible reality. By finding satisfaction primarily in what we do rather than in things that go beyond our control, even if external elements are not the most favorable ones, we could still manage to remain motivated and active and this will surely contribute to accomplishing the rest of expectations that we may have. In fact, “even negative feedback can maintain intrinsic motivation if the person is task-involved and the negative feedback helps him or her understand how to do better the next time” (Deci and Ryan 1985: 248). Simultaneously, we are also responsible for encouraging students to develop and work continuously on intrinsic motivation since this is the first step toward acquiring a second language, as learning becomes an enjoyable task rather than an obligation. In this way and to conclude, as the inspiring educator Rita F. Pierson stated during the TED Talks Education in 2013, “Every child deserves a champion — an adult who will never give up on them, who understands the power of connection, and insists that they become the best that they can possibly be”. 3.2. Teachers 2.0: The Use of ICT in Relation to Teaching Enhancement The integration of ICT (Information and Communication Technologies) in the classroom, especially concerning second language teaching, has supposed an unquestionable progress ! 34!

in education since its implementation. Whereas a few decades ago, teachers and students were dependent on physical materials (textbooks, handouts and so forth) to approach the target language, today the fact is that an entire lesson could be perfectly taught by exclusively using resources online. Needless to say that it has not been a sudden change, but a gradual process. What we may consider as obsolete nowadays, such as cassette players or tapes, supposed a first step into innovation back then that absolutely transformed the way of teaching and learning languages and, in most cases, diminished many of the difficulties that teachers and students faced not so long ago substantially. In contrast, most of these devices are more and more in disuse now and have been replaced with new alternatives (computers, tablets, smartphones, online dictionaries, etc.), which reflects ICT’s rapid development. New technologies have become a daily life tool for working and socializing. ICT has also become a valuable and eminently necessary requirement for most jobs so today having an appropriate knowledge of these technologies and a good command is a must. In fact, “an estimated 77% of UK jobs involve some form of ICT competence, requiring updating of skills as technology changes” (Beetham, McGill and Littlejohn 2009: 16). In education, the use of ICT is now a competence that most curricula include and seek to develop with a view to future applications which shows its undeniable relevance. The importance of incorporating ICT is owing to the innumerable advantages that new technologies bring to learning, facilitating teaching as well. Some of the many advantages of ICT in language learning will be outlined in the following lines. Due to the great diversity that the Web 2.05 proposes, students are capable of facing various contexts online. They can adapt the language to different registers and compare structures and idioms often hard to work on for students who cannot have access to direct environments where the target language is used. The Internet also facilitates the reading and consulting of a wide range of academic materials written in the target language in a fast and easy way. This is motivating for students since they are not limited by geographical or economic circumstances to reach content of their interest since it is easily available and accessible. In addition, the use of ICT and the Internet stimulate students’ creativity and independence: creative writing, blogging, wiki based collaborations among many other !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

The emergence of platforms on the internet where users can organize themselves, cooperate, maintain friendships, share, exchange, trade or create. These platforms are: 1) accessible to all and decentrally organized 2) allow users to actively contribute 3) make maximum use of all results (Frissen 2008). 5

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resources are being increasingly used among learners, yet not promoted enough at schools. ICT and the Internet help students put into practice what they learn in the classroom. Social networks and discussion forums are just a few ICT-based tools that students use on a daily basis. This allows them to communicate in a written form with others by using the target language; hence writing and reading are highly developed. In this way, students study and review what they learn unconsciously for they do not consider it as homework. Moreover, ICT facilitates studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; oral skills as well. The increasing interest for sharing information online through audio (podcasts, audio reports, audiobooks, etc.) as much as video (tutorials, YouTube, Vimeo, recorded lessons, language courses online, etc.) helps students approach the language in a more direct and effective way. The use of certain software promotes interaction between language learners; Skype, live video chat rooms and video callings are only a few examples of useful alternatives that today students are able to use in order to interact with people interested in practicing the language studied. Besides, this interaction encourages learners as they realize how what they learn in class is applicable to real contexts as much as it promotes socializing. With regard to teaching, there are also advantages that should be of our interest. The incorporation of ICT improves teachersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; performance in the classroom: instead of spending a lot of time writing on a blackboard, teachers can now organize all the information in a single and clear presentation that students can also have access to at home. With the help of a digital camera, they can record several lessons for their students to review the things they have learned in class. At the same time, the wide range of possibilities that ICT includes (video, audio, presentations, interactive websites, etc.) helps teachers cover all kinds of learners. For instance, by using visually appealing material such as images or videos, those visual learners will involve in the lessons more for they are given knowledge in a form that attracts their attention. The same goes for those learning more effectively through music and sounds, among other examples. ICTâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s versatility also eases the elaboration of materials for students with disabilities, as they can be easily adapted to whatever the situation may be. Nonetheless, despite the numerous advantages that ICT may offer to education in general, there is still some skepticism about whether educational institutions are including its uses, as it seems that more than a few teachers remain reluctant to incorporate new technologies !

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into their methodologies. The reason for this situation might include different factors: for some, “the easier it becomes to access information outside the classroom, the more the role of teacher as expert is diminished and the role of teacher as learning facilitator is needed” (Vyas and Patel 2009: 69). For others, an explanation may be the fact that a large number of teachers, especially those coming from the pre-computer era, do not have an adequate competence in the use of new technologies, nor do they try to update themselves to new educational demands. A few others would argue that the lack of technological devices in the workplace is the reason why they cannot adapt the lessons to the use of new technologies. Finally, others would simply claim that there is no real value in the use of ICT for they did not learn that way. Whatever the reason might be, the truth is that students’ ways of learning are changing and the sooner we adapt to such changes, the better for both, teachers and students. As far as students’ perspective on the use of ICT in education is concerned, there are two main aspects to be considered. On the one hand, even when ICT-based tools are used in the classroom, students are not often taught how to use them, nor informed about specific tools to use. For instance, teachers explain how to use a dictionary, a manual, how to quote and use bibliography, etc. Notwithstanding, very little instruction is given when it comes to the use of technology. In some cases, it is because students are supposed to already know how to use certain tools, which is true. In fact, some researchers mention cases where teachers are the ones instructed in using some applications and software by the students. “Some teachers went as far as to use terms like ‘co-learners’ to describe the new relationship between teacher and student” (Reid 2002: 38) so the roles of teacher-learner are sometimes reversed. In other cases, it is because it does not seem useful to waste part of a lesson on teaching that kind of stuff. The truth is that most students learn to use technological tools by themselves, which is not an issue at all. The problem is that, on many occasions, students do not know how to use certain programs and tools for specific purposes, e.g. language learning, and this is when teachers should become a guide to them. This situation indirectly obligates teachers to acquire and develop a reasonable level of competence in ICT so that they can assist students when needed. As a matter of fact, a great number of bachelor and postgraduate programs regarding teaching nowadays includes courses concerning the use of ICT for specific purposes. Consequently, when teachers do not have an adequate !

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competence in technology or, at least, a good knowledge and command of its use for specific purposes (e.g. language learning) students might encounter difficulties while trying to learn through ICT. On the other hand, students have a preconceived idea regarding the use of ICT with educative purposes. In other words, although they still prefer using technology to learn, they tend to reject the form in which learning through ICT is normally presented. The reason is that, sometimes, it is hard for teachers to think of ICT-based tools beyond repetitive exercises online, writing essays or reading (the same kind of activities that they could do without technology). Even if these activities need computers to be done, that is, technology, students are likely to show disinterest in learning through ICT. However, if teachers provided students with more engaging alternatives that intend to accomplish the same objectives, learners would display a more participative predisposition to incorporate ICT to the learning experience. For instance, we may consider and compare the following example activities to illustrate this idea, despite both of them using technology to be done:

Objectives and Skills

Activity A

Activity B

Writing

Write a 1000 word essay on Set up and customize a blog on

Reading

Hamlet* and use literary terms Blogger, Wordpress, Tumblr, etc. Then

Vocabulary

explained in class.

(literature)

choose a topic of your interest related to literature (books, short stories, poems, lyricsâ&#x20AC;Ś) Post a few

* Note that this is not a literature course entries

with

your

ideas

and

but a language course, thus the primary

conclusions and donâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t forget to use

objective is not working on Hamlet, but

the literary vocabulary seen in

using literary vocabulary.

class.

In both activities, students need to do some reading beforehand thus reading is developed. They also have to write, however, while in activity A they are required to reach a specific amount of words about a topic that they might not like, in activity B they write about literature as well, yet something they enjoy writing about (and using literary vocabulary which is the target of the activity). The activity will be easier and more !

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entertaining. Besides, creating a blog gives them the opportunity to share their ideas with other readers and the possibility of customization is also a motivational element. Studying Reviewing Reading

Prepare a Power Point presentation Record a video/tutorial explaining regarding a point of grammar seen a point of grammar seen in class in class.

and upload it to YouTube, Vimeo, Dailymotionâ&#x20AC;Ś

Although the activity is almost the same, students will probably find recording a video a more alluring activity for it allows them to be creative as much as due to the fact that they are rarely asked to make videos for the class. Besides, since the video has to be uploaded to a public website, students will be more encouraged in order to show a good job and, at the same time, other students can use these videos as helpful resources to learn grammar so we are indirectly motivating collaboration. Finally, activity B involves speaking so more skills are being practiced. Speaking

In pairs, write down* a dialogue Record a short video with some of

Listening

about the weather and use specific your classmates about the weather

Writing

vocabulary. You will be performing (e.g. a walk through the park on a

Interaction

the dialogue in front of the class.

Studying Reviewing

rainy afternoon, a day on the beach, a trip to the mountainsâ&#x20AC;Ś).

* Although this activity may be done Use idioms and vocabulary related without technology, the students will be

to the weather explained in class

presumably typing the dialogue on a

and upload the video to YouTube.

computer rather than writing.

As the previous activity, the idea of filming a video seems more exciting so students are likely to involve more in the activity. It also promotes teamwork and creativity. Students will also feel more relaxed since they have time to prepare the dialogues, work on pronunciation and fluency, and the rest of students in the class will surely pay more attention to watching a video filmed by their mates as they can assimilate information with the help of images and context.

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Listening

Debate online. Log into the course Debate. Be prepared to discuss X

Speaking

discussion forum and discuss with topic with students from a partner

Interaction

your classmates the topic given.

university* through Skype. * For this activity, the teacher should have previously

proposed

collaboration

between colleagues from foreign/partner institutions.

Although this activity may seem more problematic to execute, it should be easier than we think. With the help of one or several webcams, microphones and programs such as Skype or through Google+ Hangouts, video calls are easy and free possibilities to discuss topics with people from other parts of the world in real time. Students have the possibility to interact with native speakers of the target language and learn from them as well. In addition, we familiarize students with videoconferencing, something important to manage if we consider that many job interviews are nowadays conducted in this way. Finally, this kind of activities favors cooperation between institutions, which is always desirable. Table 3. ICT in Language Teaching: Traditional Exercises and Alternatives

! It is understandable that, even if we were inclined to innovate by proposing new activities and ways of learning, we may find restrictions that go beyond our control. The reason is that, in most cases, it depends on the institutions to accept and facilitate the incorporation of ICT to the workplace first, and then to aid teachers while performing these ideas. Finally, it goes without saying that including activities as the ones proposed above (activities B) should not be regarded as an attempt to replace more conventional activities (activities A), but as an endeavor to provide a wider range of possibilities in order to diversify the ways that students currently have to approach second languages with the help of ICT. By doing so, students will surely feel more motivated and participative for they do what they have to do in ways they enjoy doing it. Taking everything into account, there are still things to do and change with regard to the relation between technology and education. First and foremost, teachers, along with educational institutions, need to accept the indisputable benefits (when used adequately) that ICT supplies to learning, especially to second language learning. They should also !

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become conscious of the many advantages concerning teaching and, therefore, apply them to the classroom, prioritizing its use when needed. Secondly, once that new technologies are incorporated, they should be used innovatively and serve as alternatives to activities that could be done without technology, otherwise they would probably not be of studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; interest, nor as motivating as expected. In other words, they should be used to expand the ways that students have to learn a language. Lastly, teachers should promote the use of new technologies not only among students, explaining how very basic ICT-based tools can be specifically applied to second language learning and, if possible and needed, teaching students how to use them; but also among colleagues since the more teachers require the use of new technology, the more institutions will incorporate them to the workplace. Only if we realize that as teachers we could do more in order to take advantage of the uses of technology, will we be able to enhance our performance in the classroom as much as our studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; performance in learning. By simply incorporating a few of these new tools or by varying the way we use them, we could transform the entire experience of acquiring a second language and we will be concurrently adapting ourselves to new educative exigencies.

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4. STUDY AND RESULTS Besides research on methodology, motivation and the use of ICT in second language teaching, the current paper was also aimed to contrast some of the ideas presented and defended in previous chapters with teachersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; views on such topics. In order to accomplish this purpose, we conducted a study in the form of a survey as mentioned in the introduction of this paper. The survey, which can be found in Appendix I, was designed and carried out through Google Drive and sent to twenty ESL teachers from the University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria via email. It was also informed that the study was anonymous so that teachers would not be influenced when answering the questions given. The survey consisted of twenty questions concerning the subjects discussed in this paper: seven questions on methodology, five questions on motivation in teachers, five questions regarding ICT in second language teaching and finally three questions on multiple intelligences that have not been finally included in this paper and therefore will not be taken into account in this particular case. Finally, of the twenty teachers to whom this study was sent, only fourteen collaborated by giving their ideas and opinions, from which the following results and conclusions were obtained. 4.1. On Methodology The first part of the study had methodology, along with other general aspects concerning teaching, as the main subject. To begin with, one of the first things that teachers were requested to do was indicate in a scale from one (not at all) to five (very important) their opinion on the importance of having an adequate knowledge of second language teaching methodology not only prior, but also throughout the profession. In this way, seven out of fourteen teachers find very important (scale: 5) to have notions of the different methods to second language teaching, other three respondents indicated that it is important (scale: 4) while the rest (4 teachers) remain neutral (scale: 3). On the whole, the results show that the majority of teachers consider that having a proper knowledge of methodology is very significant when it comes to efficient teaching. With relation to the previous question, teachers were asked whether or not they are familiar with second language methodology (examples such as the natural approach, the task-based approach, etc. were given to place emphasis on this particular part of methodology). In general, the results went accordingly with those already mentioned. Most teachers (ten out of fourteen) affirm to be familiar with second language methodology. In fact, four of them !

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claim to have a deep knowledge of teaching methodology, which confirms interest in this particular field. Although there is no further information on the reasons that explain this circumstance, it may be taken as indicative of an increase in teaching proficiency, presumably owing to the inclusion of subjects specifically focused on methodology within teacher training curricula. On the contrary, some of the remaining participants affirm to know only some, but not all of the methods, whereas others admit not to be familiar with methodology at all. Moreover, to the question regarding the viability of teaching second languages without being familiar with methodology, only two respondents state that it is not possible, while the rest affirms that it is possible. Anyhow, some of them went further and made comments about this particular matter. One of the respondents suggests that it is indeed possible to teach a second language even when teachers have a limited or no knowledge of methodology, but he or she still questions the efficacy of such procedures. Another respondent supports this idea by saying that, although it may be possible, the outcome of teaching this way would not be efficient. Finally, two more respondents agree that it is not strictly necessary to know the different approaches to second language teaching to teach adequately as sometimes teaching develops intuitively. Despite this affirmation, both teachers, along with the rest, still find important to be aware of the new methodologies that are gradually emerging in language teaching. Regarding methods, I was especially interested in knowing teachers’ attitude toward the choice of a particular method and to what extent students’ needs influence such decision. In order to throw some light on these issues, teachers were asked if they regularly consider their students’ needs when going for a certain method and not another. The results are quite encouraging for it seems that the great majority of the survey respondents (twelve out of fourteen) affirm to take learners’ needs into account when opting for one method, either always or in most cases. In particular, three of the teachers who affirm to always have in mind such requirements believe that not all of the methods are appropriate for all learners. This actually accords with our earlier conclusions presented in chapter 2 regarding the importance of using a method that can be adjusted to cover what students may need while learning. On the contrary, two teachers out of fourteen state that they take into account their students’ requirements, but just on some occasions, not regularly. Unfortunately, there is no further information about this situation since, otherwise, it would have been !

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interesting to know the reasons that drive teachers to go for a method when their studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; needs are not the main reason for that choice. Anyhow, the fact that the great majority of teachers seem to be conscious of what students need is still a reassuring finding. As far as needs and requirements in education are concerned, the results also show that eleven of the fourteen respondents confirm to adapt how they teach based on emerging demands and exigencies in education. They affirm to be aware of changes in educative trends, new learnersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; requirements, etc. and, as a result, to adapt teaching in order to suit such variations in education. The rest also confirms to proceed in such a way but only regarding certain aspects. We can therefore assume that teachers are today more conscious about the relevance of methodology in teaching, as much as about the significance of carefully selecting methods that are convenient for their students in each situation. In the same way, my interest was also placed in knowing whether teachers give preference to using one single method or varying methods when learnersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; needs and requirements are taken into account. The results match with those already commented and show that all of the participants would vary between different methods according to what the situation is in each case. In general, the overall conclusions that can be drawn from the results confirm an increasing interest in educative theories and teaching approaches, which, consequently, suggests an advance in second language teaching that seems to be adequate if we seek to achieve success in teaching and learning. 4.2. On Motivation In regard to motivation in second language teachers, the results are quite interesting and revealing. On the one hand, practically all of the survey respondents agree on the important role of motivation in second language teaching, which was to be expected if we think of the considerable amount of literature supporting this idea. Notwithstanding, there is one teacher who considers that, in spite of motivation being important sometimes, it is not a crucial determinant. Interestingly, the same respondent affirms that he or she does not motivate their students frequently. In the same regard, the great majority claims to motivate their students regularly, although two participants suggest that whether or not he or she motivates their students is something to be determined by the aforementioned and that, although he or she tries to motivate students, motivation should primarily come from oneself rather than from others. This last statement is directly in relation to the issue discussed in chapter 3 concerning intrinsic motivation. !

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On the other hand, teachers were requested to indicate from one to six causes of motivation and demotivation according to their experience throughout the profession. Regarding motivation, the results are summarized as shown in the following figure:

Collaboration among colleagues and the institution. Subject's relevance, contents and utility.

Causes of Motivation

Students' motivation, participation, and interest toward the subject.

Students' success in the target language (acquisition, learning, etc.).

My profession.

Innovative activities and adequate equipment.

Sharing knowledge and cultural contents with students.

The recognition of the effort made.

Figure 4. Survey - Causes of Motivation in Teachers

! It can be noticed that these causes of motivation seem to follow the same pattern as those collected by Rodriguez-Perez (2012) in her study. As we explained in Chapter 3, teachers are more likely to become motivated when external rewards happen to fulfill their expectations. Only one of the fourteen teachers states that his or her profession as a teacher is a motivational factor. The rest are more likely to feel motivated when their students are as well, which might confirm that motivation is reciprocal and beneficial for both, teachers and students, thus it should be regularly promoted and developed. In this way, most of the respondents seem to find motivation when students display a participative and active attitude toward the subject. Secondly, motivation is also reinforced when teachers verify progress in learning as much as when the subject is relevant and carried out through innovative procedures with the help of adequate equipment.

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On the contrary, the causes of demotivation suggested are the following:

Nothing. I always find something that motivates me.

Causes of Demotivation

Excessive bureaucracy.

Dull and irrelevant contents of the subject.

Absence of participation in the classroom.

Absence of support from the institutions.

Excessive workload, routine and teaching subjects belonging to fields different than mine.

Demotivated and disinterested students.

Disrespectful attitude toward teachers. Figure 5. Survey - Causes of Demotivation in Teachers

As can be observed, teachers become demotivated mainly when students are not interested in the subject, which leads to indifference and little participation. This circumstance may also contribute to a disrespectful regard of teachers. Another cause of demotivation is the absence of support that institutions give to language teachers. We have already discussed that institutions may be an obstacle when trying to innovate in learning or when teachers feel like trying something new as seen with the use of ICT. Lastly, only one respondent claims to always find motivation so that the possibility of becoming demotivated becomes diminished. Finally, teachers were asked to measure how motivated they are in a scale of one (not motivated at all) to five (very motivated). The results show that five out of the fourteen respondents are very motivated (scale: 5), seven are motivated (scale: 4), one is not especially motivated, nor demotivated (scale: 3) and, surprisingly, one is not motivated at all (scale: 1). According to this teacher, routine is the main cause of demotivation, while studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; interest and motivation are primary reasons of motivation. Once again, this confirms that when studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; are not motivated, either because they do not find motivation !

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in the subject or because the teacher does not motivate them, teachers are likely to lose motivation as well. This is a clear example of a vicious circle where demotivation in teachers is the consequence of demotivation in students and vice versa. For this reason, it should be very important for teachers to work on intrinsic motivation in order to relieve situations when extrinsic motivation fails and also to restore studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; levels of motivation. 4.3. On ICT As far as the use of ICT with regard to second languages is concerned, the results gathered appear to be more promising. When asked to indicate the significance of the use of ICT in second language teaching, half of the participants concluded that it is very important to use ICT in education. Five out of fourteen teachers find it just important, while the rest (two out of fourteen) remain in a neutral position. These results confirm the findings of other studies, in which a great number of teachers are today aware of the great potential that new technologies have to offer to second languages. Similarly, on the question of to what extent they make use of ICT in the classroom, the study found out that nine of the respondents claimed to use ICT with educative purposes on a regular basis, whereas five out of fourteen confirmed to use ICT, but only when necessary. In addition, teachers were inquired about the way they use technology, that is, whether they use ICT innovatively or if, on the contrary, they simply stick to traditional activities carried out with the help of new technologies. In this particular case, the results show that eight of the respondents use ICT innovatively, e.g. video recordings, interactive debates online, etc. while the rest continues proposing traditional activities, e.g. looking for information online, writing essays, doing exercises online, etc. through ICT. Nevertheless, the most interesting finding here is the correlation between how ICT is used and whether or not teachers instruct students in its possible uses concerning second language learning. In this way, four of the six teachers who claim to stick to traditional activities also confirm not to instruct students in the use of ICT, especially concerning second language learning. Interestingly, all of the teachers who affirm to use ICT innovatively point out that they do instruct learners in its uses as well. Besides, the majority of those who use ICT for traditional activities were also the ones to indicate that they use new technologies in the classroom just when necessary, while the majority of teachers using new technologies innovatively use them regularly if not always. Coincidence or not, the results seem to show that teachers who attempt to innovate with the help of ICT are more likely to instruct students in its uses, !

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probably because they acknowledge the current relevance of ICT not only in education, but also with a view to future applications in professional contexts. Lastly, participants were asked to indicate in a scale from one (not important at all) to five (very important) their opinion on teachers having to update their knowledge on new technologies with regard to education as well as incorporating such knowledge into teaching. Overall, the data shows that most teachers (thirteen out of fourteen) find it very important or important, while one teacher remains neutral. Regarding this, I find interesting to include that one teacher also specifies that most students do have a better command of ICT than their teachers, which confirms what we said in chapter 3. If this were the case, teachers would be less likely to engage students with ICT since teachers would not have enough competence in ICT (if compared to their students) thus they could not propose very elaborated hence innovative activities to stimulate the right attitude among learners as explained before in this paper. For this very reason, it becomes indispensable for teachers to develop an adequate competence in ICT in order to provide students with a wider diversity of possibilities to approach a second language by using new technologies.

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5. CONCLUSIONS Although much has been written about language learners and the reasons that motivate failure or success in language learning, I cannot help but notice that much of current studies and research dealing with this issue focus too much on what the learner does not do right, and too little on what the teacher could be doing wrong. The purpose of this paper has been, therefore, to examine the role of teachers and the significance of methodology in the process of learning and teaching a second language. In addition, it also sought to determine whether or not there may exist defects in language teaching derived from factors often neglected, yet that might threaten success in language learning. In order to accomplish the objectives proposed, this paper has given an account of second language teaching methodology, especially of the great diversity within this particular field. It has also provided an overview and analysis of ‘secondary’ factors in language teaching (i.e. motivation and ICT) along with potential deficiencies that may influence teachers’ performance negatively and thus affect learners’ outcome. Through the presentation of two entirely different methodologies, specifically the grammar-translation method and Dogme, we have confirmed that methods do differ from each other to a great extent, even when both seek to achieve the same purpose. As we haven confirmed so far, the choice of a particular method will enhance learners’ command of certain features of the language, but might not guarantee proficiency in the rest of areas so learning may turn out unbalanced. This circumstance will definitely have direct consequences on the way learning develops and it will condition students’ competences in the target language. In this regard, I firmly believe that the role of teachers, as far as methodology is concerned, should be particularly and primarily two: that of an observer and facilitator. First and foremost, teachers should identify learners’ needs and what their expectations of the target language are in order to determine how to proceed with teaching accordingly. Once that students’ needs are identified, teachers become facilitators by ‘shaping’ the method so that it is suitable for them. In this way, teachers are not only responsible for sharing knowledge, but also for judging which of all the possible manners of sharing such knowledge will be best for their students. With the study of motivation and its types, we have ascertained that teachers focus excessively on external rewards (extrinsic motivation), not giving enough attention to what motivates them intrinsically and therefore becoming demotivated more easily. This !

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circumstance makes necessary to find more stable sources of motivation intended to maintain a positive attitude, which will doubtlessly benefit learners throughout the experience. It would also be practical to inform students about the significance of motivation in language learning and work on strategies to boost this particular type of motivation. If we note that motivated students are actually a primary source of motivation for teachers, it seems plausible and useful to dedicate a few lessons to expound on this topic and it could also be an excuse for practicing day-to-day conversations and new vocabulary. Lastly, we have become familiar with the potentiality of ICT in second language teaching. Moreover, we have presented quite advantageous features of its incorporation to the classroom not only regarding learning, but also teaching. Besides, alternatives have been given in order to diversify the ways of approaching the language and to seek innovation. Reassuringly, the results obtained from the study carried out among teachers of English as a second language concerning the topics discussed in this paper (methodology, motivation and ICT) show that teachers are more conscious of what their students need and seem more willing to take such requirements into consideration when using one method(s) or another. Nevertheless, these results need to be taken with caution for the number of participants has been very limited and the study only refers to university teachers. It would have been interesting though to verify if these results go according to those of high school and primary school teachers as teaching may become more demanding, which might lead to future research on those specific areas. Anyhow, these findings still challenge the traditional vision of teaching and can be interpreted as positive indications of improvement in second language teaching. Unfortunately, the situation is not as promising in the case of motivation in teachers. The findings concerning motivation still suggest and confirm that teachers tend to find motivation solely in external rewards. As shown in chapter 3, this is not an issue at all, but it may be indeed a problem when intrinsic motivation is lacking. On the contrary, the results concerning the use of ICT in language teaching seems to be particularly encouraging, yet caution should be taken as well for the same reasons that we have explained above. Taking everything into account and as a reference to the title of the current research, I cannot help but wonder: have we finally learned to teach? Well, the truth is that there may be as many and diverse answers and subsequent explanations to support or deny such a strong !

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affirmation as people inquired this particular question. The evidence from this study suggests that improvements have been surely done, especially regarding the attitude of teachers toward the meaning of teaching. An increasing interest in educative theories and in methodology is also evident. Notwithstanding, there are still too many questions concerning teaching likely to diminish the possibilities of a firm confirmation. For instance, despite the irrefutable progression of methodology, there are still recent methods unable to provide learners with the best means to succeed, that is, one method capable of covering all features of learning equally. I cannot ignore the fact that this issue, among others, makes necessary to question whether we are still missing something. In any case, the need for further information on concerns as such will surely serve as a base for future studies. What is undeniable is that teaching is not a mere procedure of sharing knowledge anymore, but an opportunity to shape knowledge to be assimilated and beneficial for students. Acknowledging the enormous potential that we have to influence the future of the people that come and go before our eyes every year seem enough reason to keep striving and trying our hardest to make the very best of ourselves, despite the great difficulties and obstacles that may arise. Only if we are willing to do so, will we be closer to confirm that we have finally learned to teach.

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6. BIBLIOGRAPHY Works Cited List “A Is for Approach.” An A-Z of ELT. Web. 11 May 2014. <http://scottthornbury.wordpress.com/2012/01/22/a-is-for-approach/>. “Integrative Motivation | Foreign Language Teaching Methods: The Language Learner.” N.p., n.d. Web. 17 June 2014. <http://coerll.utexas.edu/methods/modules/learners/02/integrative.php>. Beetham, H., McGill, L., Littlejohn, A. (2009). Thriving in the 21st century: Learning Literacies for the Digital Age (LLiDA), Final Report published by the UK Joint Information Systems Committees (JISC), June 2009 http://www.academy.gcal.ac.uk/llida/LLiDAReportJune2009.pdf Brown, Lois V. (2007). Psychology of Motivation. Hauppauge, N.Y: Nova Science Publishers. Cameron, Judy. (2002). Rewards and Intrinsic Motivation: Resolving the Controversy. Westport, Conn: J F Bergin & Garvey. Danesi, Marcel. (2013). Encyclopedia of Media and Communication. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. Davies, Paul, and Eric Pearse. (2000). Success in English Teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Deci, Edward L., and Richard M. Ryan. (1985). Intrinsic Motivation and Self-Determination in Human Behavior. New York: Springer, Dörnyei, Zoltan. (2001). Motivational Strategies in the Language Classroom. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Elizabeth, M. E. S. (2004). Methods of Teaching English. New Delhi: Discovery Publishing House. F. Pierson, Rita. (2013, May 7) “Rita F. Pierson: Every kid needs a champion.” Retrieved from http://www.ted.com/talks/rita_pierson_every_kid_needs_a_champion. Frissen, V. (2008). “Towards a User Generated State? The Impact of Web 2.0 for Government and the Public Sector”, Conference Paper at LSE Conference, September 22nd - 23rd 2008. Gass, Susan et al. (2002). Pedagogical Norms for Second and Foreign Language Learning and Teaching: Studies in Honour of Albert Valdman. Philadelphia: John Benjamins Pub Co.

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Gollin, Jacqueline. (1988). “Deductive vs. Inductive Language Learning.” ELT Journal 52.1: 88–89. eltj.oxfordjournals.org. Web. 2 May 2014. <http://eltj.oxfordjournals.org/content/52/1/88>. Kumar, Rajinder. (2007). Teaching of English. New Delhi: Lotus Press. Larsen-Freeman, Diane. (2011). Techniques and Principles in Language Teaching. 2nd edition. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Mahadi, T.S.T., & Jafari, S.M. (2012). “Motivation, its types, and its impacts in language learning.” International Journal of Business and Social Sciences, 3(24): 230-235. Meddings, Luke, and Scott Thornbury. (2009). Teaching Unplugged. Surrey: Delta Publishing. Reid, Scott. (2002). “The Integration of Information and Communication Technology Into Classroom Teaching.” The Alberta Journal of Educational Research 58(1): 30-46. Rodgers, Theodore S. (2014). Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching. Stuttgart: Klett Ernst /Schulbuch. Rodriguez-Perez, Nieves. (2012). “La motivación del profesor: un factor fundamental para la eficacia del proceso de enseñanza-aprendizaje de idiomas.” Encuentro 21(13): 126142. “Scaffolding Definition.” The Glossary of Education Reform. N.p., n.d. Web. 8 July 2014. <http://edglossary.org/scaffolding/>. Vyas, Manish A., and Yogesh L. Patel. (2009). Teaching English as a Second Language: a New Pedagogy for a New Century. New Delhi: PHI Learning Private Limited. Walker, Robert J. (2013). 12 Characteristics of an Effective Teacher. North Carolina: Lulu Publishing.

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APPENDIX I Survey: Second Language Teaching Methodology and Secondary Agents

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