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Word count: 6350
Selectively porous edge . . . how can a dispersed exchange of people, resources and information generate a symbiosis between city and landscape
“Today it seems almost impossible to define a contemporary peripheral condition, this very elusiveness ensures its attraction for debate� i
i MacBurke, I. Woodroffe, J. (March/April 1994 ) The Dispersed City, Architectural Design-Periphery , Pg. 6
1.0
INTRODUCTION
CO N T E N T S
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1 1.1 1.2 1.3
INTRODUCTION Preface Glossary Introduction
5 5 6 7
2 2.1
E CO LO G Y & T H E C I T Y Importing Water
8 9
3 3.1 3.2
P R OX I M I T Y Green Infrastructure Case Study: Wiring Runways
10 12 13
4 4.1 4.2
Ta ngi b le I n f r a structure Landscape Urbanism Case Study: Wasteland & Freshkills
16 17 18
5 5.1 5.2
S ta b le E dge Garnier’s Cite Industrial Case Study: Cleveland Stitchplan
6 6.1 6.2
E xisting I rish P eriphery Case Study : SuperUrban Case Study : Lisieres
7 7.1
sur v ey Bar charts
8
conclusion
33
9 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4
brief Brief Aspirations data farm horse farm brief diagrams
34 35
36
10 10.1 10.2 10.3
site a n a lysis national analysis Cork Dublin
41 42 44 47
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bIBLIOGRAPHY
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20 21 22 24 25 27 29 31
37 38
1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 PREFACE
“The division that had taken place during the sixth century between natural philosophy, which considered the cosmos as a thing or process apart from man, and humanistic wisdom, which considered man capable of existing in a self-contained world outside the cosmos”1 A discussion on this dynamic boundary inevitably encounters ambiguous terminology; the most difficult word to define is ‘natural’ or ‘nature’. What is artificial, and what is natural? Is man part of the natural world, and if so, could his edifices by extension not be regarded as nature? Architect Esther Charlesworth suggests that this polarisation is associated with Western culture, with origins in ancient Athens. Apollo was seen as the god of the polis, or order created out of disorder, high art and science. Conversely Dionysus’s domain was outside the city walls. He was the god of wine making, intoxication, ritual madness, the dangerous “The pristine city stood clearly apart from nature”.2 William Cronon eminent American historian and geographer also links the divide to western culture and the ancient world. “we learned our city country dichotomy from the 19th century romantics who learned it in turn from pastoral poets stretching back to Virgil”.3 The industrial revolution made physical this polarisation. A reaction to the resulting artificial habitat of man, took the form anti urban movements over the following decades purported a return to ‘nature’. Marxism called for a return to a more primordial condition where humans would be reintroduced to each other and to nature “agriculture would be combined with manufacturing industry so that there would be a gradual abolition of the distinction between town and country”.4 In the mainstream culture however modernisation and progress were twinned with a retreat from the landscape to constructed environments. The 1960s and 1970s saw the revision of values, and a renewed interest in the natural world. The publication of ‘Silent Spring’ in 1962 and the resulting DDT revelations coupled with the nuclear anxieties of the cold war suggested that blind pursuit of technological goals did not always correlate to an increasing quality of life. The genre of dystopian Sci-Fi emerged, and along with it a fascination with technology and the artificial prompting the fall of mankind.5 Silent spring also saw the emergence of ecology as a subversive topic. Natural Science had changed the world, reimagining our relationship with the synthetic as one of scepticism. The 1997 Kyoto Agreement was the climax of an era with a collective goal of limiting our impact on the planet. What role can architecture play in responding to the ever present demands for a reinvented city which responds to the environmental conscience? The Italian architect and academic, Manfredo Tarfuri suggests that modern capitalism has relieved architects of the responsibilities bestowed upon them by the enlightenment philosophers “They should express in built form, the ideologies of society”.6 He concludes that designers have lost this responsibility to imagine utopias. This resigns architecture to a container of ‘sublime uselessness’. How can the architect accept being excused of ideology? Architecture must illustrate our aspirations (order) rather than our reality (chaotic).
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1. Mumford, L. (1961) The City in History, pg170 2. Charlesworth, E. ((2005) City Edge: Contemporary Discourses on Urbanism, pg 188 3. Cronon, W. (1992) Chicago, Natures Metropolis, pg 126 4. Broadbent, G. (1995) Emerging concepts in Urban Space Design, pg 159 (citing Marx, K. Communist Manifesto, 1848) 5. Brereton, P.(2006) Utopia in Hollywood. 6. Broadbent, G. (1995) Emerging concepts in Urban Space Design, pg 165 (citing Tarfuri, M. Architecture Criticism Ideology,1996)
1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.2 GLOSSARY
Nature
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1. all natural phenomena and plant and animal life, as distinct from man and his creations 2. a wild primitive state untouched by man or civilization 3. natural unspoilt scenery or countryside 4. Theology Humankind’s natural state as distinguished from the state of grace.
Ecology
Eco comes from the Greek ‘oikos’ meaning house or dwelling and is the study of the relationships between living organisms and their environment
Abiotic
(Biology) of or relating to non-living; non-biological
Biotic
Of or relating to living organisms
Biosphere
The part of the earth’s surface and atmosphere inhabited by living things
Metabolism
The sum total of the chemical processes that occur in living organisms, resulting in growth, production of energy, elimination of waste material
Pastoral
Of, characterized by, or depicting rural life, scenery.
Artificial 7
Produced by man; not occurring naturally
7. All definitions from Collins English Dictionary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.3 INTRODUCTION
Siting on 2% of the world’s land, cities use 75% of resources and discharge similar amounts of waste.8 In 2007 urban populations exceeded rural for the first time. We are now a predominately urban species. Ireland is no exception, it is predicted that by the year 2030, 70% of the projected Irish population will be urban.9 What are the implications for our relationship to nature? Architecture can make physical the relationship between man and nature, urban and rural. The place where these tensions are most explicit is the edge of the city -a potent physical analogy for this false duality. In the wake of further sprawl, this research seeks to establish why the land surrounding the city is important for an urban future. How might an intermediate state facilitate the appropriate transition of people, resources or information between these two worlds?
Fig.1.1 Global Land use - 2010
Fig. 1.2 ‘Edges 2 - ‘K. Standke
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8. Girardet, H (1999) Creating Sustainable Cities, Pg 5 9. http://unfpa.org/public/home/publications/pid/408 (Date Accessed on 02/12/12)
02
ECOLOGY & CITY
2 . 0 E CO LO G Y & C I T Y
2.0 ECOLOGY & CITY
As the population grows obtaining a sustainable supply of resources, such as food, water and energy will be vital to maintaining quality of life. In the year 1972 the first international environmental conference was held. Titled ‘Limits to rowth’ it was instigated by the international think tank, ‘The Club of Rome’. The reports concluded that without aversive action the limits to growth on the planet would be reached in less than 100 years.
Fig. 2.2 Limits to growth report of 1972
The interest in ecology as means of improving the human condition began in the 1960s. Ecology or the study of our home (oikos) revealed cyclical movements of nutrients and energy in ecosystems. Consumption and waste in our existing cities often reveal a linear flow. However in the natural world every output becomes an input. The biosphere has a limited capacity as a sink for our residues, and a mine of resources. If we do not begin to design for these cyclical exchanges we will exhaust our environment. Ken Yeang was a pioneer of relating ecology to architecture, and in his view “the built environment must be analysed using the ecosystem concept . . biotic and abiotic components, their interactions as a whole, and the flow of energy and materials through the system”.10 Overzealous interpretations of the closed loop system have inspired misguided 21st century utopias. In this model, flows of resources are synthesised in high density constructed systems inside the city limits. There is no possibility for ecological opportunism endemic to Irish ecology. A withdrawal of humans from the landscape is the obvious conclusion of a misguided environmentalism which champions a return to a wilderness planet. “If we allow ourselves to believe that nature, to be true, must also be wild, then our very presence in nature represents its fall”.11 The new periphery must aspire to create a largely closed loop flow within the region rather than the city.
Fig. 2.3 Top - isolation, city set in ‘pristine nature’ Below Interdepencey, city set in productive ecology
2.1 IMPORTING WATER Surprisingly for a country not known for shortages of natural resources, least of all water, our capital, Dublin is struggling to feed our appetite for water. The Dublin region, which encompasses parts of Kildare and Wicklow, uses about 540m litres a day, but is only able to produce 518m litres. Dublin City council are currently seeking permission to construct a controversial 500million euro pipeline connecting the River Shannon to Dublin, extracting up to 350 million litres of water per day. Meanwhile 30% of Dublin’s water supply escapes an aging infrastructure. This controversial project is the source of much friction between rural and urban Ireland. Dublin has exhausted the hydrologies of its hinterland.12 Fig. 2.4
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10. Yeang, K. (1995) Designing with Nature:The Ecological Basis for Architectural Design, pg 45 11. Cronon, W., ed.(1995) Uncommon Ground: Rethinking the Human Place in Nature, pg81 12. http://www.clarechampion.ie/index.article2976 [Accessed 05-12-12]
3.0
PROXIMITY AND SUPPLY
3 . 0 P R OX I M I T Y
3.0 PROXIMITY
In Ancient Ireland each small settlement or baile was intrinsically linked to agricultural land and resources of surroundings. UCD Professor, Mary Laheen describes how even fallow land was given a value, as a source of forage, fuel or building materials “all the necessary varieties of land for a self-contained economy . . . included fertile land and less fertile land. . . mountain, woodland or bog each baile claimed that part that was nearest to it”.13 In nineteenth-century Chicago, the surrounding countryside provides the inputs to the city. William Cronons descriptions of Chicago depict a gateway city, exploiting a wilderness. Lumber, livestock and grain were extracted from an expansive hinterland using an ever growing rail and canal network. Goods were assimilated and consumed. The threshold of this metropolis was marked by vast slaughter houses, and chimneys billowing clouds of orange and black smoke. When the natural entrances of the city were deemed inadequate for the flow of goods new perimeter landscape was imagined. Railways spread west to the horizon and the ‘shallow mucky harbour’ was bypassed with new canals and piers. His conclusion was that the city and its hinterland were the products of each other, and they could not exist independently.14 Fig. 3.1 Kreuzberg, Bavaria, DE
Fig.3.2 International agricultural land grab following2005 spike in foood prices
The emergence of cheap, efficient transport has made every corner of the earth the hinterland of any given city. Mumford cites Plato in his argument that all conflict and war is the result of international resources grab, which he describes as greed “the desire for luxuries not found in the immediate countryside”.15 In the 21st century natural resources are highly mobilised, and subject to the whim of distant cities. According to Girardet this break between proximity and supply is ultimately unsustainable.16 How does this position coexist with the free market? “The city has evolved . . to one that depends upon an economy driven by global business and communications technology, . .part of a system of global city regions”.17 Despite its peripheral location Ireland has emerged a highly globalised economy in the, enabled by the internet and aviation. Why then should we renew the links between rural landscape and urban hub? We have already witnessed the dangers of relying on imported energy with the oil crisis of 1973. Food security and quality of Irish produce have been acknowledged, as whether in farmers markets or supermarkets, the public increasingly demand local food. The supply of water cannot be externalised, whereas the disposal of waste can be externalised but often at great monetary and ethical cost. The international corporations who assess Ireland for attractiveness require a reliable source of water and power. Therefore to continue to benefit from global commerce we must secure a functioning hinterland for urban areas, providing vital resources and energy.
Fig. 3.3 Projected U.S. road freight - 2035
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13. Laheen, M. (2007) AAI, Building material #16, Among these stones is sweet pasture, pg17 14. Cronon, W. (1992) Chicago, Natures Metropolis 15. Mumford, L. (1961) The City in History, pg 173 16. Girardet, H (1999) Creating Sustainable Cities 17. Wall, A. (March/April 1994 ) The Dispersed City, Architectural Design-Periphery Pg8
3 . 0 P R OX I M I T Y
3.1 GREEN INFRASTRUCTURE
Green Infrastructure is a system of open spaces that perform measurable ecological functions. The movement is an active response to mitigate the negative impacts of development. Key aims of green: • • • •
Protecting ecosystems state and biodiversity Protecting ecosystem functioning and promoting ecosystem services Promoting societal well-being and health Supporting the development of a green economy and sustainable land and water management.
“One of the key attractions of Green Infrastructure is its multifunctionality, i.e. its ability to perform several functions on the same spatial area”18 Fig. 3.4
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18. http://ec.europa.eu/environment/nature/ecosystems/studies {accessed20 -11 -12]
3 . 0 P R OX I M I T Y
3.2 CASE STUDY
WIRING RUNWAYS
REYK JAVIK, ICELAND INFRANET LAB This project is typical of those included in the ‘coupling’ pamphlet, as it seeks beneficial connections from collocating infrastructure and diverse environments. Symbiosis or a cyclical movement of resources and energy is the goal of these juxtapositions. Here greenhouses benefit from excess heat from the server farm below. A decommissioned airport in Reykjavík is rewired to pair energy production with farming, and civic realms with local ecologies. Running below the old runway and linking the Greenways is a “global data server farm that capitalizes on Iceland’s vast geothermal energy and remote location for its large cooling and security demands. The server farm continues the legacy of the Vatnsmýri area, linking Reykjavík to the world just as the airport once”19 19. InfraNet Lab / Lateral Office (2010) Architecture 30: Coupling: Strategies for Infrastructural Opportunism, pg.57
fig. 3.5
Fig. 3.6 Geothermal energy is converted to electricity Excess heat produced from the server farm is used to heat greenhouses and fish farms. Nutrients and water are recycled throughout the system. Some produce sold in markets on site Some produce exported
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3 . 0 P R OX I M I T Y
3.2 CASE STUDY continued ANALYSIS This project creates a links to existing ecologies outside the site. The green infrastructre within the scheme is largely manmade and performs multiple functions beside the obvious roles of contributions to biodiverty and aesthetics. This productive landscape also accomodates recreation if built I would be interested in how the quality of the open space is affected by a layering of functions. What conflicts in land use would arise?Of course levels of use would depend on density and occupation of the surrounding blocks. The globalised nature of this isolated country is acknowledged in this design. However this is not so appropriate when applied to the edible produce of the runway. Does the city of Reykjavík actually aspire to have fresh fish, fruit and vegetables produced in close proximity, then flown off to international markets? I would suggest that the runway / mobility concept was given dominance over actual ideologies of urban production. The localised closed loop system employed for the greenhouses/fish farm is perfectly appropriate to a cultural context where hostile climate has limited mans ability to create hybrid ecologies or farms on the landscape.
Conclusions • • • •
Fig. 3.7
Fig. 3.8
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The diverse programe allows for mutually benefical relationships between functions In the case of a Data Farm, this proximity of other uses allows oppourtunistic use of waste heat The old connotations of this place of global connection has been restored An existing architectural condition has once again become a coherent element of the city
4.0
TANGIBLE INFRASTRUCTURE
4 . 0 TA N G I B L E I N F R A S T R U C T U R E
4.0 TANGIBLE INFRASTRUCTURE
Fig. 4.1 Zoning aspirations Infrastructure hidden in the ‘back yard’
The city edge is the site of many exchanges between urban and rural. “The city, suburb and the hinterland whose natural resources sustain it. . . Infrastructure can and should make these lines of connection clear and vivid”.20 Morrish & Brown in reference to the early modern designers such as le Corbusier, state how infrastructure was edited out of their urban visions.21 The ugly workings of the city are hidden allowing the zoned residential areas to take on a park-like character. Zoning represents the suburban ‘room with a view’ approach, incompatible zones are buffered by now massive transport infrastructure. This approach’relies on low density to isolate ‘natural’ from utilitarian. They conclude that it has failed. “today the infrastructure .. has crept into the front yard, destroying a (suburban) landscape supposed to be a comfortable refuge from the city”21 . What if we look for this secretive infrastructure, what values does it communicate? The masses of waste produced in the west predominately ends up in landfill. What if these detrimental exchanges with the environment were suddenly become visible? The city of Naples was the site of just such a confrontation during the strikes of 2010, where mountains of waste clogged city streets, bringing the city to a standstill (see section cover). However on the streets of Mumbai India, the waste does not simply disappear. The slum of Dharavi is acclaimed for its role in up cycling waste. The area acts as the ”lungs, liver, kidneys” of Mumbai, filtering waste, from valuable resources and hence generating value.
Fig. 4.2 Zoning reality Infrastructure spilling into ‘front yard’
Mostafavi(2011) cites the sixteenth century Roman water network as an example of infrastructure embodying the aspirations of a city. The plan was to link supply of water to the gardens of the wealthy with the distribution to the masses via wall fountains. The movement of the water across the city was often celebrated in elaborate public displays of ingenuity. Today it seems we are oblivious to the waters source, path or final destination. “we underutilise the unexpected opportunities afforded by eco practices as well as the location, functions and daily operations of maintaining our cities”.22 From these examples it is clear that beyond provision of utilities, infrastructure must act as a public amenity, expression of place, and a mediator between nature and man. The character of these new roles supports the thesis of an infrastructural edge. If the city edge presents a vivid analogy for our contact with the natural elements, then Infrastructure is the physical reality of these connections and burdens on our world.
Fig.4.3 New York City Infrastructure - Christoph Niemann
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20. Morrish, W. Brown, C.R. (1995) Writing Urbanism, Infrastructure for the New Social Compact, pg 140 21. Ibid. 22. Mostafavi, M. (2010) Ecological Urbanism pg 36
4 . 0 TA N G I B L E I N F R A S T R U C T U R E
4.1 LANDSCAPE URBANISM
Corner describes Landscape Urbanism as a hybrid practice where landscape and urban are no longer considered separate elements, “landscape drives the process of the city formation.”23 The horizontal plane becomes a structuring element for the city spaces. In 1997 the seminal Landscape Urbanism gathering was held in Chicago. The organisers included Charles Waldheim, author of ‘Urban Design Reader’, Mohsen Mostafavi, author of ‘Ecological Urbanism’, James Corner , architect of the High Line, New York City, Alex Wall, and West8 principal Adriaan Geuze (see case study 4.2). Fig. 4.4
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23. Corner, J., (2006).The Landscape Urbanism Reader, Princeton Architectural Press, Terra Fluxus pp. 23
4 . 0 TA N G I B L E I N F R A S T R U C T U R E
4.2 CASE STUDY #2
Wastel ands
(Prix du Rome winner 1990) Vinkeveen, Holland Adriaan Geuze Adriaan Geuze’s design for the 1990 Prix de Rome reimagines a landfill as a bridge to the waterscape beyond. The design is a multipurpose ‘terminal’ five kilometres long and 640 metres wide. The structure encases 20 million cubic meters of landfill waste and it also houses the infrastructure of the lake - 500 pumping stations which maintain water levels. These utilities are twinned with recreation, primarily water sports calling for piers and boat houses. The terminal is set amidst a network of lakes resulting from a division of geometric plots for recreational islands, making this such an attractive waterscape for windsurfers and skaters.24 “The plan . . recreation as a spinoff of socially beneficial programmes, making a virtue of necessity; development as the combination of government and market forces; facilities for the collective and the individual; and cultural technological /hydraulic environmental- technology/ muscle power.”25 The massive new structure is seen as an interface between two worlds. It Reconciles otherwise incompatible neighbours.“The terminal creates an interaction between motorway, boardwalk, lake, service zone and the boathouse/shipyard zone.”26 Following his success with this visionary scheme Geuze went on to establish the firm West8, which has become an award winning international firm. West8 projects can be described as ‘Landscape Urbanism’. The philosophy of the firm is outlined in the below text, it echoes many of the nuances present in the winning project of 1990. “West 8 approaches the production of nature in two ways; first, logic based on utility and necessity. Second, we are part of a landscape tradition that confers identity. This method envisions a new nature, a ‘second nature’ of constructed landscapes that respond to pragmatic demands (water management, population growth, traffic congestion) and also reinforce the culture to which they belong (identity, symbols, expression) The real future in today’s debate about sustainability lies in how to actively create new ecologies”27
Fig. 4.5 - 4.10
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24. www.west8.nl/projects/all/prix_de_rome_1990 [accessed 28 - 11 - 12] 25. Geuze, A. (1994) Wastelands-Prix du Rome 1990, Architectural Design-Periphery Pg8 26. Ibid 27. www.west8.nl/about_west_8
4 . 0 TA N G I B L E I N F R A S T R U C T U R E
4.2 CASE STUDY continued freshkills l and fill
New York James Corner
The largest man-made structure on earth is Freshkills Landfill, which operated between 1948 and 2001. At its peak, it was 25 meters taller than the Statue of Liberty. All 2,200 acres of the landfill will be cloaked in vegetation, under James Corner’s Field Operations plan to invert the meaning of the site to become a regional park.; The topography the result of the 150 million tons of waste already present on the site, was re -shaped to create the undulating landscape of the park.28
Conclusions Fig. 4.11 - 4.13
• • • •
Fig. 4.14
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The wasteland project in Holland twins function/ infrastructure with recreation. As an early example of a designed productive landscape it is an important reference. The wasteland terminal acts as an intermediate element between motorway and lake. It creates a transition space, moderating these polarised landscapes from each other. In Corners plan for fresh kills, the means of expressing noxious gases and liquid are disguised. A layer of topsoil, creates an undifferentiated cloak for an ugly past. In Geuzes plan masses of landfill waste are not simply shaped into hills and covered with grass as is common practice, conversely the presence of this alien matter has informed the design. The waste is housed in a structure independent from the local topography, defining the sites history as a by-product of the city.
28. www.nycgovparks.org/park-features/freshkills-park [accessed 02 - 12 - 12}
5.0
STABLE EDGE
5 . 0 S TAB L E E D G E
Fig. 5.1 Ebenezer Howard - Garden City
5.0 STABLE EDGE
Are there stretches of city edge that are permanent enough to design for? Where and when should the sprawl stop? “The control of city growth by orderly colonisation, repeated as often as numbers demanded”.29 Lewis Mumford commends the Greek city of Delphi’s ability to stop growing their old cities and send their excess population out to establish colonies elsewhere. Similarly Howards utopian garden city had a capped population of 58,000, allowing for a permanent edge. Today highly mobile populations mean population fluctuations, growth and contraction. Thus If all boundaries are restricted housing shortage and price inflation can result. This phenomenon was documented in London by the Barker Report. However certain land types are unsuitable for urbanisation, here the edge is stable. Ian McHarg is the seminal author on landscape and urbanisation; he states that the form of the city must respond to natural process. McHarg compiled a scale of landscape sensitivity, from surface water to flatland. Applying this method to a careful inventory of the hinterland can project an appropriate growth pattern.30 Melbourne 2030 is such a plan, adopting a pattern of ‘green wedges’. Expansion is permitted along infrastructure corridors, yet valuable natural resources are protected. Significantly, permanent boundaries have been erected, surrounding water sources, prime agricultural land, important habitat and scenic/recreational amenity. Between these preserved ‘wedges’, fingers of growth radiates.
Fig. 5.2 Melbourne 2030 plan, localised growth responding to value of surrounding ecologies
Toronto adopted plans for a green belt emulating London’s’ green ring along with many other commonwealth cities. The implications of Toronto’s imposed urban form are the subject of analysis by Amati ‘urban green belts in the 21st century’. The phenomenon of ‘leap frogging’ taken place outside the un-serviced green belt was the main problem identified. This open land must then be crisscrossed by expensive new service links and transport routes, jeopardising the ecological, agricultural and recreational productivity. “The only way open land can be maintained against growth pressure is function”31 The land beyond these ‘stable edges’ must justify its existence with a layering of functions. ‘Urban Green Belts’ projects the future of the urban hinterland; the new functions are recreation and ecology. Access and recreation must be designed into a zone under constant pressure to prove its value against development.
5.1 Garniers Cite Industri aL
Tony Garniers Cite Industrial (see section cover) embraced the value of land adjacent to the agrarian plain, a hospital, sports and recreational areas were given the priviledge of this location such that the population might benefit. Medical Science is only now establishing the benefit of exercise in organic environments.32 Fig. 5.3 Tony Garnier - Cite Industriel
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29. Mumford, L. (1961) The City in History, Pg 141 30. McHarg, I.L. (1967/1995) Design With Nature 31. Marco, A. (2008) Urban Green Belts in the 21st century pg.200 32. 2012 University of Glasgow report, Ward, P. (20/06/2012) referenced in Irish Independent
0 .30 PSRTAB 5 OX ILMEI T ED Y GE
3.2 5.2CASE CASESTUDY STUDY1
CLEVELAND STITCHES OHIO, STEVEN HOLL
The Stitch Plan was Steven Holls 1991 conceptual project for a series of X’s to Installed at the periphery of Cleveland, Ohio. The center of these crosses denotes the threshold between new city quarters and the ‘clarified’ natural landscape. “Taken together the X’s imply an urban edge” The urban half of the cross contains a diverse urban program, gymnasium, cinema and a hotel. The rural half, opening toward the horizon, accommodates public amenities linked to nature; a fish hatchery, an aquarium and botanical gardens. The dams provide an area for fishing, swimming and bathing. - The project successfully twins harnessing the landscape for hydrological power, with the provision of public space and recreation. - This is a unique example of the program delineating urban and rural33. Fig. 5.4 Perspective drawing of dam
Fig. 5.5 Perspective drawing of dam
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6.0
EXISTING IRISH PERIPHERY
6.0 EXISTING IRISH PERIPHERY
6.0 EXISTING IRISH PERIPHERY f33 “The existing peripheral typology is one of isolation and indifference . . . brutal juxtaposition of residential neighbourhoods , shopping centres, warehouses, and industrial buildings”.34
Fig. 6.1
The word Suburbia originates from a combination of suburb meaning outside or under the city and Utopia. The low density life promised the best of rural and urban lifestyles; early developers described suburbia as “a calm, orderly and beautiful utopia. Accessible to every man”35.Concentric growth of cities over time means historical contexts reveal themselves as we traverse from city centre to edge. The most recent typology to emerge at the outer ring is the ‘big box’. Often housing business parks, these structures convey a technocratic disregard for landscape in pursuit of economic growth. In Tafuri’s l’architecture dans la boudoir, large multinational corporations override even the city planner. He suggests that the employment and associated wealth generated locally make them impossible to refuse. “How could any city refuse them permission to build even on land zoned already for something else?”36 Further sprawl has left suburbia isolated from rural and urban, and lacking any public space of its own. What would the early 21st century new ring look like? “Visions of a city’s future can be plotted on this partially spoiled land.”37 “The field-boundary system is influenced by geology, by the ancient land division system of the Gaelic world, and by the political and social history.”38 Whelan & Stout in their Atlas of the Irish Rural Landscape39, depict a topography which has been manipulated by man for millennia, rich with human intervention, a marriage of ecology and agriculture. “no other species had been faced with the task of consciously managing its own ecology”.40 The landscape of Ireland is a human construction, our native and non-native flora and fauna accommodate niches within this manipulated ecology. “we now understand that we live in a pluralistic world of give and take.”41 To withdraw from this hybrid landscape is not a valid environmental aspiration, rather we must design to retain our links and encourage the symbiotic. The carefully maintained matrix of enclosures represents a series of defined individuals, - the single unit repeated. In Garniers ‘Cite Industrial’, the quintessential pastoral utopia, the erection of boundaries would be forbidden. Both suburbia and the more ancient field boundaries illustrate a landscape divided up and granted into the ownership of individuals. In this cellular plain where is the public space? As depicted in ‘The Tain’ the pre-christian Irish held great significance in the boundary as place of meeting and confrontation. In a territorial culture still evident on the island, the liminal space between private domains must offer the best opportunity for a public domain. “
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34. Desvigne, M. (2009) Intermediate Natures, The Landscapes of Michel Desvigne, Pg 35. DIT, Architecture department (2010) Re-making Neilstown 36. Broadbent, G. (1995) Emerging concepts in Urban Space Design, pg 158 37. Holl, S. (1991) Edge of a City, Pamphlet Architecture no.13, pg. 11 38. Laheen, M. (2007, Issue 16) Architectural Association of Ireland Journal, Building material, Among these stones is sweet pasture, pg 17 39. Whelan, K. Stout, M. Atlas of the Irish Rural Landscape 40. Toy, M. Ed (1994) Architectural Design, Periphery pg VI 41. Ibid.
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6.0 EXISTING IRISH PERIPHERY
6.1 CASE STUDY
SubUrban to SuperRur al
IRISH VENICE BIENNALE 2006 FKL Architects – Hinterland
“Reconnecting the housing plot to the productive potential of the land”42 With their Hinterland project FKL is responding to Ireland’s recent ‘extreme suburbanisation’. The prediction is that the further investments planned for Irelands road networks will accelerate the sprawl of ‘cash crop’ housing. The designers lament our new perception of the land as only having one value, that of money preceding development. The hinterland scheme imagines or rather reinstates a symbiotic relationship between the Irish and our land. As in the BCD proposal for the biennale the solution is a productive landscape. As such the needs of the typical Irish home are inventoried and a renewable land based source is identified; rapeseed for petrol, willow for heat, reed beds for sewage etc. These new functions enhance the productivity of the landscape, both in terms of renewable resources and ecology.
42. http://www.fklarchitects.com[accessed 03 - 11 -12]
Fig. 6.2 & 6.3
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6.0 EXISTING IRISH PERIPHERY
6.1 CASE STUDY continued
Fig. 6.4 ‘Hinterland’ proposal
Conclusions • •
• • • Fig. 6.5 Diagram of ‘Hinterland’
Fig. 6.6 ‘Hinterland’ principles applied to larger settlement. (reminescent of ancient baile)
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The division of the landscape to meet the needs of each of these self-sustaining homes respects the existing field boundaries. These proposed communities, extract much utility from the land, this supply proximity leaves in no doubt the dependencies on the landscape. The architects have achieved their design aspiration to re-value the land. In this model it could certainly resist the pressures of speculative development.43 This is essentially an anti-urban settlement model, it attempts to make sense of an existing pattern. It ignores the reasons why Irish cities continue to grow, such as transport, employment and for the young, social contact. My research thus far suggests that the optimum model for Ireland would be the application of this supply system to a town or city. Our culture of links between needs and landscape is compatible with the new urban and sub urban lifestyles. Coupled with recreational roles this presents a suitable edge for irish urban areas.
6.0 EXISTING IRISH PERIPHERY
6.2 CASE STUDY
LISIERES PROJECT FOR PARIS MICHEL DESVIGNE & JEAN NOUVEL 2009
Some of the land at the edge of our cities is destined to be developed. How might a temporary use maximise the function of this peripheral land and even begin to imply a structure or layout? Michel Desvigne has designed landscape projects which address this question. “the case for a landscape infrastructure that precedes architecture”44 The 2009 proposal by Michel Desvigne and Jean Nouvel for “Grand Paris” carries implications for the redefinition of the suburban-rural interface. The periphery of Paris offers the opportunity to develop a new type of productive landscape, one performing simultaneously as an open-space system for suburbs and as a test plot for the agricultural belt that lies beyond. 45
Fig. 6.7 Dark green band showing extent of project encircling Paris
44. Mostafavi, M. (2010) Ecological Urbanism, pg 266 45. Desvigne, M. (2009) Intermediate Natures, The Landscapes of Michel Desvigne
Fig. 6.8 Inventory of functional modules developed by Nouvel (new interventions are shown in colour)
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6.0 EXISTING IRISH PERIPHERY
6.2 CASE STUDY continued Desvigne describes the 500-mile belt of varying width as a lisière — french for a forest edge or a seam. Traces of an agrarian landscape — hedges, ditches, thickets, and paths —organise functions which engage both rural and urban. This is achieved by employing an infrastructure of; • • • • • • • •
greenhouses individual and shared allotment gardens recycling energy production composting areas /landfills sports fields walking/bicycle trails fruit and vegetable farms
It is a terrain for exchange and experimentation, a means to make the landscape accessible to all users. “In this scenario, planned indeterminacy hems the suburbanization of the countryside.”46
CONCLUSION •
•
• • •
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The designers suggest that this patchwork will form a matrix for future growth. I feel that this undermines the aspirations of this project, resigning this ring to congestion - recreating the conditions it seeks to resolve. The architects inventoried the needs of the suburbs and produced a list of standardised units. This allows the functions to respond to adjacent urban conditions. However the functions listed relate to residential, perhaps another set of needs could be established for the industrial edge. This design for an intermediate environment, it is the only project that I am aware of which achieves the aspirations that my research suggests for the edge.
46. Mostafavi, M. (2010) Ecological Urbanism, pg 263
7.0
SURVEY
7.0 SURVEY
7.0 SURVEY
TOTAL PERIMETER • • SURVEY
48km
TECHNIQUE
Rather than consulting the official boundary, the city boundary was drawn from aerial maps. Recreational areas, such as GAA pitches and golf course were considered rural.The simplified label of Industrial esate is given to ‘big box’ architecture. The line was deemed insufficent as a sample of land use. Instead an urban sample area 100meters inside the boundary, and a rural sample area extending 100metres outside the boundary were created. The predominant landuse with each section of these strips were recorded for the entire periphery of Cork City • • Fig. 7.1 & 7.2
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7.0 SURVEY
7.1 BAR CHARTS
Fig. 7.3
WHAT IS THE TYPICAL EDGE CONDITION OF AN IRISH CITY?
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At this point in my research it was necessary to ground global theory, in the Irish context. The results show an inflated proportion of natural vegetation, this is a result of land unsuitable for agriculture or urbanisation (poor drainage, topography) becoming a boundary to city growth. These ‘wastelands’ are an asset that design can activate. Sports grounds account for 10% of the edge, is this a hint of the peripherys future? Suburban housing estates (61), meeting a patchwork of fields (61) is the typical relationship between rural and urban in Cork City. • •
8.0
CONCLUSION
8.0 CONCLUSION
8 . 0 CO N C LU S I O N
Human activity has sculpted us a new home, a hybrid condition. Architects must embrace this freedom to design productive new ecologies and habitats for mankind. Where our built environment touches the landscape there is an opportunity for a reconciling liminal place. This space must act as an interface; the needs of the city can be inventoried here, articulating their origin and destination. The addition will act as a catalyst for mutuall. beneficial exchanges, this implies a secondary role moderating the potentially harmful. The brief then, will be for a structure which controls inputs and outputs along a continuous perimeter. Similar parameters informed the evolution of the selectively permeable membrane of a human cell, study of this tissue will inform early concepts. The infrastructure of a city mediates between man and resources. My program will consist of a tangible agri/infra structure, twinned with recreation. Thus our two greatest dependencie would be represented. The context, between urban and rural complements the poignancy of this union. A cultivated interdependency will renew peripheral communities value of the landscape. Thus a bottom up movement will protect newly revealed natural resources in the wake of sprawl.
Pixie the cat is a cat. A cat is our Pixie. Fig. 8.1
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9.0
BRIEF
9.0 BRIEF
9.0 BRIEF ASPIRATIONS
The literture and casestudy based review has informed a set of aspirations which represent the position. The original aspiration was a general wish to create a space that would address the contemporary rural urban dichotomy. Through research more specific goals have revealed themselves -To create a program which facilitates Symbiotic exchanges -To disperse the points of transfer to increase potential for exchange at appropriate proximitites -To create a program which engages existing communities, realising the prveldge of their proximity to natural landscape -To create communal spaces for the people of the city -To design new multifunctional ecologies productive both in their biodiversity and aesthetic contribution, but also furfilling a measurable human demand. (green infrastructure) -Encourage but control access to hinterland for recreation at regular intervals -Mediate wastes being expelled from the city -Encourage links between agriculture and peripheral communities Fig. 9.1 Dispered points of exchange creating potenial for beneficial proximities and exchanges
9.0 Brief
9.1 DATA FARM
‘Corporate Responsibility’ in this case environmental, has become critical for public relations. Companies such as Apple, Google and Facebook are beginning to bow to public lobbying. Their newest facilities embody a 21st century environmental conscience. Tens of thousands of data centres now exist to support the overall explosion of digital information. These Data centres or Server Farms as they are also known resemble a warehouse lined with the stacks of hard drives. These servers consume masses of energy; furthermore the exhaust heat incurs massive cooling costs. In 2010 US data centres grew in number from 432 in 1998 to 2,094 in 2010, consuming about 76 billion kilowatt-hours, or roughly 2% of all electricity used in the country. Fig. 9.2 Google Council Bluffs Data Farm, Iowa
“A yearlong examination by The New York Times has revealed that this foundation of the information industry is sharply at odds with its image of sleek efficiency and environmental friendliness47” In this context of growing public pressure for sustainability, Data Farms have become high stake testing grounds for alternative technologies and climatic architectural strategies.
Fig. 9.3
Fig. 9.4 Saint Ghislain, Belgium
Fig. 9.5
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47 Glanz, J. (12 -06 -12) Power, Pollution and the Internet, New York Times
9.0 BRIEF
9.3HORSE FARM
Pony express meets outlook express; ancient versus contemporary vehicles for communication and mobility, beyond analogies what can an equine function contribute to this context? The cheap land at the edge of a city is often destined to become cheap houses. Those on the periphery of our society and economy are often concentrated in these areas. Dublin, Cork and Limerick are home to hundreds of stray horses. Children from low income families often care for these animals, however even the most attentive husbandry cannot compensate for a lack of facilities and suitable grazing. What is deemed a problem or facet of antisocial can become a positive activity. A DIT survey of Neilstown, a low - income suburb of north Dublin revealed a need for such a facility.“The kids love the horses, a horse project would be ideal, and would keep a huge number of kids out of trouble48” In 1997 the ‘Control of Horses Act’ While grounded in a basic concern for horse welfare, the principle of poor children being separated from their horses caught the attention of the international press and received much coverage. Films such as the ‘commitments’ (1990) and ‘into the west’ (1991) had painted a romantic view of these urban cowboys. The New York Times issued a figure of over 3,000 feral horses roaming the edges of Dublin alone. “Horses, about 3,000 of them, living outdoors, where the otherwise underprivileged urban cowboys gallop them bareback, shouting with glee, over sparse grass patches and scrubby fields49” The Cherry orchard equine centre is located in Ballyfermot. The centre was established as a partnership between several NGOs concerned with social justice, and youth welfare. The centre is comprised of 28 stables, indoor and outdoor riding areas and educational facilities. The goals of the centre include retention of the children in 2nd level education, as well as learning basic reading, writing and computing skills. The Community Riding program and pony club are twinned with FETAC qualifications in equine industry. See mission statement below,“To create and sustain a unique, community led, equine centred learning environment dedicated to the needs of the young people50”
Fig. 9.6 Stills from ‘Into the West’ (1991)
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48 DIT, Architecture department (2010) Re-making Neilstown, pg 176 49 Clarity, J.F. (13 - 11 - 1996)New York Times, Ireland’s Range War: Urban Cowboys vs. the Law [accessed 26 - 11 - 12] 50 www.cherryorchard.ie/centre/about[accessed [25 - 10 - 12]
9.0 BRIEF
9.4 BRIEF DIAGRAMS
Fig 9.7 Diagramatic plan and section Exchanges mediated by new interface
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9.0 BRIEF
9.4 BRIEF DIAGRAMS
Pixie the cat is a cat. A cat is our Pixie.
Fig 9.8 Diagramatic plan Exchanges between ground level functions and servers above
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9.4 BRIEF DIAGRAMS
9.0 BRIEF
Fig 9.9 The elevated data farm Servers are housed in Pods
Pixie the cat is a cat. A cat is our Pixie.
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Fig 9.10 Both levels superimposed
10
SITE ANALYSIS
10.1 NATIONAL ANALYSIS
1 0 S I T E A N A LYS I S
Main parameters for the location of a corporate data farm - Reliable sources of renewable energy - Proximity to large populations or fibre optic infrastructure - Climatic; stable cool air tempratures reduce cooling needs - Highly educated work force
Fig. 10.1 European Wind Intensity
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Fig.10.2 4th December 2012 - Geo networks and ESB complete a fibre optic and electrical link with the UK51
Fig.10.2 Irish population centers by size
Fig.10.3 Irish hydro - electric stations, by Megawatt/Annum52
Fig.10.4 Top: Irish Wind Farm distribution by megawatt/ annum Below: Irish Wind Intensity map53
51 www.iwea.com/index/_windenergy[accessed10 - 11 - 12] 2 www.esb.ie/about/hydro-development [accessed10 - 11 - 12] 53 www.esb.ie/main/press/pressrelease [accessed10 - 11 - 12]
10.1 NATIONAL ANALYSIS
1 0 S I T E A N A LYS I S
Fig.10.5
Conclusion Dublin and Cork present the best potential for the siting of a data farm
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10.2 CORK CITY
1 0 S I T E A N A LYS I S
Industrial Park Industrial park Residential Residenitial Education Third level education
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Hollyhill Industrial Estate Clients: Apple Inc. & Cork City Council Land use: 1: 25,000
1 0 S I T E A N A LYS I S
10.2 CORK CITY
Existing radial circulation 1: 25,000
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1 0 S I T E A N A LYS I S
123 horses were seized in Cork City in 20111 Irish Examiner 7th August 2012
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10.0 ANALYSIS 10.4 SITE DUBLIN CITY
Landfill/quarr CORK yCITY Parkland
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Ar tificial Landscapes 1:25,000
10.0 ANALYSIS 10.4 SITE DUBLIN CITY
Existing radial circulation Routes1:25,000
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10.0 ANALYSIS 10.4 SITE DUBLIN CITY
Industrial Park Residential
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Land use 1:25,000
S I T E A N A LYS I S 3421 0 horses were seized in Dublin City in 2011
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11
BIBLIOGRAPHY
11 BIBLIOGRAPHY
11.0 BIBLIOGRAPHY
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
Books
Yeang, K. (1995) Designing with Nature: The Ecological Basis for Architectural Design,
Mc Graw Hill, New York Girling, C.L. Kellett, R. (2005) Skinny Streets and Green Neighbourhoods: Design for Environment and Community, Island Press Marco, A. (2008) Urban Green Belts in the 21st century, Ashgate Publishing Holl, S. (1991) Edge of a City, Pamphlet Architecture no.13, Princeton Architectural press McHarg, I.L. (1967/1995) Design With Nature, Turtleback Books Brereton, P.(2006) Hollywood Utopia: Ecology in Contemporary American Cinema, Intellect Ltd Girardet, H (1999) Creating Sustainable Cities, Schumacher Briefings, Green Books Corbusier, L (1929/1987) The City of Tomorrow and its Planning, Dover Publications Inc, Kelbaugh D. &McCullough K. (2008) Writing Urbanism, Association of Collegiate Schools of Architecture Giedion, S. (1977) Space, Time and Architecture, Harvard University Press Cronon, W. (1992) Natures Metropolis, Chicago and the Great West, W. W. Norton & Company Cronon, W. (1995) Uncommon Ground: Rethinking the Human Place in Nature, W. W. Norton & Company Portney, K.E. (2002) Talking Sustainable cities, The MIT Press Charlesworth, E. (2005) City Edge: Contemporary Discourses on Urbanism, Architectural Press Mostafavi, M. (2010) Ecological Urbanism, Harvard Press Desvigne, M. (2009) Intermediate Natures, The Landscapes of Michel Desvigne, Birkhauser Press Mumford, L. (1961) The City in History: Its Origins, Its Transformations, and Its Prospects, Harcourt, Brace, & World Laheen, M. (2007, Issue 16) Building material, Among these stones is sweet pasture, Issue 16, Architectural Association of Ireland Corner, J. (2006) Terra Fluxus. In: C. Waldheim, ed. The Landscape Urbanism Reader, Princeton Architectural Press Bosselman, P. (2008) Urban Transformation, Island Press Broadbent, G. (1995) Emerging concepts in Urban Space Design, Taylor and Francis Maas, W. , Haikola, P. Hackauf, U. (2010) How Future Cities Can Outsmart Nature -The Why Factory, NAi Uitgevers DIT, Architecture department (2010) Re-making Neilstown
• Journals • •
Toy, M. Ed (1994) Architectural Design, Periphery John Wiley & Sons Laheen, M. (2007, Issue 16) Building material, Among these stones is sweet pasture, Issue 16, Architectural Association of Ireland
• Websites
-www.iwea.com/index/_windenergy[accessed10 - 11 - 12] -www.esb.ie/about/hydro-development [accessed10 - 11 - 12] -www.esb.ie/main/press/pressrelease [accessed10 - 11 - 12] -Clarity, J.F. (13 - 11 - 1996)www.newyorktimes.com , Ireland’s Range War: Urban Cowboys vs. the Law [accessed 26 - 11 - 12] -47 Glanz, J. (12 -06 -12) )www.newyorktimes.com, Power, Pollution and the Internet, [accessed 26 - 11 - 12] -www.cherryorchard.ie/centre/about[accessed [25 - 10 - 12] -www.fklarchitects.com[accessed 03 - 11 -12]
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11 BIBLIOGRAPHY
ILLUSTRATIONS
INTRODUCTION
1.0 Collage, by author 1 . 1 C h a r t o f g l o b a l l a n d u s e , i l l u s t r a t i o n b y a u t h o r, b a s e d o n d i a gram from page 16 of : 1 . 2 M a a s , W. , H a i k o l a , P. H a c k a u f, U. ( 2 0 1 0 ) H o w Fu t u r e C i t i e s C a n O u t s m a r t N a t u r e - T h e W h y Fa c t o r y, N A i U i t g e v e r s 1 . 3 Wo r k o f A r t i s t K . S t a n d k e , p u b l i s h e d o n p g 2 8 0 o f : B o s s e l m a n , P. ( 2 0 0 8 ) U r b a n Tr a n s f o r m a t i o n , I s l a n d P r e s s
E CO LO G Y & C I T Y
2.0 Authors sketch of diagram from pg. 76 of 2 . 1 Ye a n g , K . ( 1 9 9 5 ) D e s i g n i n g w i t h N a t u r e T h e E c o l o g i c a l B a s i s f o r A r c h i t e c t u r a l D e s i g n M c G r a w H i l l , N e w Yo r k 2.2 Club of Rome repor t cover 2.3Sketch by author 2.4Authors own photo
p R O X I M I T Y O F S U P P LY
3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3
http://chg7.wordpress.com/settlement Ibid Mostafavi, M. (2010) Ecological Urbanism, Har vard Press, pg. 346 Mostafavi, M. (2010) Ecological Urbanism, Har vard Press, pg. 346
Ta ngi b le I n f r a structure
4.0 Mostafavi, M. (2010) Ecological Urbanism, Har vard Press, pg.38 4 . 1 M o r r i s h , W. B r o w n , C . R . ( 1 9 9 5 ) W r i t i n g U r b a n i s m , I n f r a s t r u c t u r e f o r the New Social Compact, pg 140 4.2Ibid 4.3Mostafavi, M. (2010) Ecological Urbanism, Har vard Press, pg.330 4 . 4 w w w. d e z e e n . c o m / A t e l i e r D r e i s e i t l - K a l l a n g / R i v e r B i s h a n [ a c c e s s e d 02-12-12} 4 . 5 / 1 0 G e u z e , A . ( 1 9 9 4 ) Wa s t e l a n d s - P r i x d u R o m e 1 9 9 0 , A r c h i t e c t u r a l D e s i g n - P e r i p h e r y Pg 8 4 . 1 1 / 1 4 w w w. i n d a l a n d s c a p e 2 0 1 1 . b l o g s p o t . i e / 2 0 1 1 / 0 1 / f r e s h - k i l l s - p a r k [accessed 02-12-12}
S ta b le E dge
5.0 Tony Garniers Cite Industrial, www.flickr.comphotos32215553 [ a c c e s s e d 0 2 - 1 2 12} 5 . 1 w w w. t u m b l r / m a 2 6 b w u I h Y 1 r g 2 5 s i o / 1 2 8 0 [ a c c e s s e d 0 2 - 1 2 - 1 2 } 5 . 2 h t t p : / / w w w. n r e . v i c . g o v. a u / m e l b o u r n e 2 0 3 0 o n l i n e / p l a n s [ a c cessed 02-12-12} 5 . 3 Tony Garniers Cite Industrial, www.flickr.comphotos32215553 [ a c c e s s e d 0 2 12-12} 5 . 4 Holl, S. (1991) Edge of a City, Pamphlet Architecture no.13 5.5 Authors own sketch
E xisting I rish P eriphery 6.0 Collage, by author 6.1 Sketch by author 6.2 www.fklarchitects.com[accessed 03 - 11 -12] 6.3/4 Ibid 6.5/6 Authors own sketch 6.7 Desvigne, M. (2009) Intermediate Natures, The Landscapes of Michel Desvigne, Birkhauser Press
6.8 Ibid
sur v ey 7.0 Work of Artist Paul Klee ‘Main road and side roads’ (translated) p u b l i s h e d
o n p g 1 4 0 o f : B o s s e l m a n , P. ( 2 0 0 8 ) U r b a n Tr a n s f o r m a t i o n , I s l a n d Press 7.1 Authors own image 7.2 Authors own image 7.3 Authors own image
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ILLUSTRATIONS
11 BIBLIOGRAPHY
conclusion
8.0 Work of Artist K. Standke, published on pg 280 of: Bosselman, P. (2008) Urban Transformation, Island Press 8.1 Authors own sketch
BRIEF
9.0 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4
JWork of Yeats, entitled the ‘view’. From Booth, J. (1992) A Vision of Ireland, Jack B. Yeats, Thomas and Lochar authors own sketch w w w. g o o g l e . i e / a b o u t / d a t a c e n t e r s / g a l l e r y [ A c c e s s e d 2 3 - 1 1 - 1 2 ] Into the west (1991) Dreamworks Authors own sketch
site a n a lysis
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