Queen of the Seas in the Midst of the Empire by ARTIFACTORY

INTRODUCTION

Blue jeans and banks: a very medieval stor

The Republic of Genoa was an Italian merchant republic that existed from 1005 to 1797. Genoa was originally a city-state in northwestern Italy, but it would expand to build a naval empire that would include several cities on the Levantine coast during the Crusades, parts of the Crimea, and several cities on the island of Cyprus (1372-1409). Due to its geographic location and excellent harbor, Genoa was an important center for European crusaders. As a result, Genoa’s merchants began selling a variety of different goods to these new trading ports, including: wine, olive oil, and wool. It is not known that modern blue jeans owe their name to blue wool cloth created in Genoa. The cloth became popular among sailors at the time due to its durability, and has continued into modern time. The durability is connected to the use of alum in the dying of cloths. The growth of Genoa caused the con ict with rival maritime republics,

most especially Venice and resulted in the VenetianGenoese Wars which lasted from 1236 to 1381. In 1256 in Acre, Palestine a war breaks out between Genoese on one side, Venetians and Pisans on the other. Two years later Genoa loses the base for its businesses. Then it began negotiations with Emperor Michael Paleologo, who aimed to restore the Roman Empire in its true seat, Constantinople. Genoa sends ambassadors to the Emperor and signs a bene cial treaty of alliance: Genoa offers his military and naval collaboration to recapture Constantinople, while Emperor Michael Paleologo promises in exchange for his Ligurian allies the district occupied by the Venetians in the capital, the possession of Smyrna and the passage through the straits towards the Black Sea. In 1261 the Genoese were granted the alum mines of Phocaea by the Byzantine Emperor Michael VIII Palaiologo. The mines helped establish Genoa’s clothing industry.

In July 1261, before the arrival of the Genoese ships, Michael Paleologo recaptured Constantinople but kept his commitments towards the Genoese, who destroy the Venetian palace with festive brutality. The treaty opens a new episode of the Genoese expansion in the East: in 1267 Genoa settled in Pera, created new colonies in Crimea, at the mouth of the Danube and the Don, guaranteed the opening of the Black Sea. For almost a

Genoa took no part in the Fourth Crusade, which temporarily resolved the Byzantine Empire, but her sons, the Zaccaria and the Gattilusi, later on became petty sovereigns in the Aegean; the long administration of Chios by the Genoese society of the Giustiniani is one of the earliest examples of the government of a colonial dependency by a Chartered Company, the Maona. In the 13th and 14th century the Mongols controlled a vast area of Eurasia, from the shores of the Baltic Sea to the Crimean Peninsula and to the Lake of Aral in Central Asia. The stability of this empire made Caffa, then a Genoese colony, the terminal of an important silk route. In addition to the Chinese products, the Mongols sold furs and slaves to the Genoese. In 1346 there were undesired travelers from Caffa to Constantinople: rats bearing the eas at the origin of the Black Death, the epidemic which reduced the population of Europe by roughly one-third.

century they traded with the Mongols. However, in 1346 the Mongols besiege Caffa, their main colony in the Black Sea. It is the start of the Black Death in Europe.

INTRODUCTION The Prototyp Vincent Boland, 2009

On the 2nd of March 1408, eight mean were called by the Signoria di Genova to gather in the great hall of the Casa di San Giorgio, a trading house on the main street in Genoa, a few meters from where the waters of the Ligurian Sea lap the Italian shore. Merchants and rich and powerful representatives of the city’s most in uential families met to discuss a matter of the utmost gravity. La Superba, our Repubblica, had fallen on hard times. After years of war with the despicable Venetians and a crushing defeat at the battle of Chioggia in 1381, after which all our dreams to commerce in the Adriatic Sea were for ever lost, La Superba was effectively bankrupt. The task of the eight bankers was to rescue her. A few months earlier, towards the end of 1407, the Signoria di Genova has authorized the Casa di San Giorgio to carry out this job. It would be accomplished by creating a bank that would facilitate the repayment of Genoa’s debts in return for interest at 7 per cent and the right to collect taxes and customs owed to the city. The purpose of the

meeting that spring day was to declare the Banco di San Giorgio open for business.

The Banco di San Giorgio would, in time, become as powerful as the republic that created it – more powerful, according to Niccolò Machiavelli. It would survive for nearly 400 years. It would become the world’s rst modern, public bank, not just a forerunner of the Bank of England but its prototype. From the 15th to the 18th century its coffers were lled with the riches of Genoese capitalists all over Europe. Christopher Columbus, Genoa’s most illustrious son, would be a customer.

Emmissary of the Empire, 126 Isaakios Doukas, advisor of the Emperor of the Romans Michael Palaeologo, Nymphaio, 1261

“Once when Jacob was cooking lentils, Esau came in from the eld, and he was exhausted. And Esau said to Jacob, “Let me eat some of that red stew, for I am exhausted”. Jacob answered: “Sell me your birthright rst.” Esau said, “I am about to die of hunger! Of what use is a birthright to me now, give me to eat please.” But Jacob insisted: “Swear to me now.” So, Esau swore to Jacob and sold his birthright. Then Jacob gave Esau bread and lentil stew. He ate and drank but when he rose and went his way his birthright was gone for good. Genesis 25:29-34

Being an eyewitness of all the events, I decided to write down my account how we tried to recapture the Queen City from the Francs, who reside it for 57 years now, fi

INTRODUCTION

Michael had to guarantee their protection and that he will not allow anyone in the Empire to take arms against them and will expel any pirate from its state and punish anyone who does something wrong against them. He rati ed all

destroying it every day a bit more. Because we will be judged for our actions when the time comes and because it is important to inform the successors to live prudently and learn from the mistakes of the past and not allow themselves to plunge in a sea of extortions and lies, as we did, and pay for the mistakes of others. It was the lack of naval forces that dictated to address the Genoese, exactly because they were the arch-rival of the Venetians and already engaged in a war with them. On March 13, 1261, we signed a trade and defense agreement with them, whereby Genoa agreed to ally with my nephew, Michael Palaeologus and Emperor of the Romans in the event of war and to provide a eet of up to fty ships during the projected siege to recapture Constantinople. In addition, the treaty stipulated the permission for horses and weapons to be purchased by us from the Genoese territories, and for Genoese subjects to enter Nicaean service. In exchange, the Genoese would receive tax and custom concessions throughout our lands, including their own trading quarter in Pera, on the coast of the Golden Horn opposite Constantinople, as well as other ports within the lands of the Empire.

the rights and privileges which the Genoese enjoyed in Constantinople before the Crusaders conquered it and if with God's help, he was to recapture it, he will give them the palaces they had before the impious conquest, which occurred in the accursed year of 1204. As Genoa did not participated this horrible conquest, it would get also the church of St. Mary with the commercial galleries and the cemetery and the plot where now the Venetians built fortress, as long as Genoa immediately sends navy aid to us with numerous galleys and men.

As the fate of our Empire laid in our hands, we had to make more concessions and Michael granted the Genosese the city of Smyrna with ownership and jurisdiction and its port and whatever belongs to it for eternal use with the exception of the privileges and rights of the Orthodox diocese of the city and the possessions of the nobles. He also decided to donate them annually 500 golden coins and when he sent me to Genoa to ratify the Treaty with those crusader-merchants, he sent two gold-plated fabrics to the Archbishopric of Genoa and gold-plated fabrics for the bishop and in the memory of the former Emperor Manuel. As the fate of our Empire laid in our hands, we had to make more concessions and Michael granted the Genosese the city of Smyrna with ownership and jurisdiction and its port and whatever belongs to it for eternal use with the exception of the privileges and rights of the Orthodox diocese of the city

and the possessions of the nobles. He also decided to donate them annually 500 golden coins and when he sent me to Genoa to ratify the Treaty with those crusadermerchants, he sent two gold-plated fabrics to the Archbishopric of Genoa and gold-plated fabrics for the bishop and in the memory of the former Emperor Manuel. Michael was not willing to concede to them all those privileges, but they knew well that we were in an urge to move and they have literally extorted the conditions reminding Michael about the treaty they have signed with Emperor Manuel Komnenos in 1155, insisting that it was due to their alliance that Emperor Michael controlled the Venetians for the next 20 years, but forgot to mention that they did not risk ghting alongside Manuel against Sicily for fear of upsetting the German Emperor Barbarossa.

Michael heavy heartedly agreed that he will not impede Genoese ships to export from the empire any commodities or grain, nor impose any customs duties, unless one is a debtor or guilty of a crime and will be sent to Genoa to be tried by the courts there. He will not impose any taxes or other payment or bene t rights on the Empire or in the countries which he might re-capture, but only those that were already agreed with Emperor Manuel in 1155 and that he will not allow other Francs to trade in the Black Sea except for the Genoese. He nally promised to release all those Genoese who had been convicted of crimes and were held in the Empire's

prisons and to allow them to return to their homeland. All he had sworn with an oath and rati ed for himself and his successors.

For their part, the Genoese promised that by signing this treaty, lasting peace between the Genoese and the Emperor and his successors will prevail. They promised to protect the interests and rights that the Emperor's envoys and his subjects wanted to gain in Genoa and that the merchants of the Empire would enjoy freedom and would be able to export weapons and horses from Genoa free of duty or other taxes and would further enjoy all the protection that is appropriate to the traders, to the shipwrecked or to the individual persons. And that Genoa would not allow a eet army to be equipped in Genoa to invade any part of the Empire. All Genoese are free to serve the Emperor by providing galleys of weapons and horses. Those who reside in the Empire are obliged to defend it but cannot be prevented or have their goods con scated, if they desire to leave. If a Genoese commander and his ship is located in any port if the Empire is invited by the imperial commander to send men and food to an enemy-threatened fortress and to provide protection as long as it is needed, he has to do so, otherwise he would be punished by Genoa itself like as if he would be traitor of his own fatherland. Genoa will send from one to 50 galleys to be paid by the Emperor. The maintenance costs are set as follows:

each galley will give 90 centenaria toasted bread per month, which expressed in the measurements of the Empire count 14.400 liters. They also promise to supply with 10 modia of beans which corresponds to 80 liters, with 6 centenaria salted meat which corresponds to 960 Greek liters, 100 liters of Greek cheese; 240 liters of Nymphaean wine from Nicaea in Bythinia.

Genoa is obliged to prepare every galley with the necessary equipment and armament to sail. The salaries of the galley crew are to be paid in the imperial 20-carat golden coin. The galley captain receives 6 ½ golden coins; the 4 boatswains receive 13, that is to say 3 golden coins and 6 carats each one of them. The 40 sailors of the gallery receive 100, that is to say 2 golden coins and ½ carats each. The galley baker receives 1 golden coin and 18 carats. The 108 oarsmen of each galley receive 189, that is to say 1 golden coin and 18 carats each one of them. All the salaries and the supplies shall be paid by the Emperor, starting with the departure of the ship from the port of Genoa. The Republic has agreed to prepare every ship with the necessary equipment and arms so that it can sail out of its port when needed. The Emperor may use the Genoese ships against any enemy with the exception of the Church of Rome and the states and baronies with whom Genoa has a peace treaty. The names of those allies will be recorded in writing as soon as the treaty is signed and

rati ed. These allies are, The Pope in Rome, the German Emperor Fredericus Hohenstaufen, the Kings of France, Castille, England, Sicily, Aragon, Armenia, Cyprus and Jerusalem, the Duke of Provence, Philippe Montferrat, Seigner of Tyros, and all his successors in Cyprus, Jerusalem and Syria, the Knights Hospitallers of Saint John of Jerusalem and all the religious orders, the city of Ptolemais, the King of Tunis, the Sultans of Babylon, Damascus, Aleppo, Antioch, the Marquis of Monferrat and all the Lombards, the city of Pisa and Guillaume Villehardouin, prince of Achaia and all his ancestors.

It is forbidden to any Genoese who imports or exports goods to deceive or infringe on the rights of the Roman Empire and this will be certi ed by the Genoese consulates of the Empire. The Genoese traders will be able to export from the state all goods freely, but gold and silver; however, they can export the hyperpyra, the Empire’s golden coins and Turkish coins. The envoys and commissioners are entitled to have a commercial arcade in Chios, Mytilene, Smyrna, Ainos, Kassandra and God willing also in Constantinople, Crete and Euboea. Genoese merchants must declare all goods brought to Genoa from other countries and pay the appropriate taxes. The merchandise brought by Greek merchants from the empire or goods of other nations must be deposited in special warehouses and its origin

should be examined, so to de ne which merchandise is subjected to taxes and which is not.

The Treaty has been signed in Nicaea in the palace of the Palaiologoi on the 13th of March 1261 by the emissaries of the Republic of Genoa Guillermo Visconti and Barnerio Giudice and the legal representative of the Republic of Genoa, Fulco Zaccaria. On the 28th of April the Treaty has been rati ed by the Emperor and was sealed by his imperial golden stamp, the Bulla d’Oro in front of the notary Giacopo Mazucchi. The rati cation by the Republic of Genoa has taken place on the 10th of June 1261 by Fulco Zaccaria, and the emissaries of the Emperor, myself, the archdeacon Leon and Theodoros Kryvitsiotis. After the rati cation of the Treaty by the Republic of Genoa, a otilla of 10 galleys and another 6 ships has been gathered under the command of Martino Boccanigra to sail to the Emperor and help him recapture the city. Just a month later, it was God’s will that Michael succeeded to recapture the Queen of Cities without the help of the Genoese, but to whom now he and his successors were eternally bound by that Treaty. And despite the victory he felt like Esau who sold his birthright for a lentil stew…

INTRODUCTION

Black Death, 134 Gabriele de Mussi, Caffà, 1346

Oh God! See how the heathen Tartar races, pouring together from all sides, suddenly invested the city of Caffa and besieged the trapped Christians there for almost three years. There, hemmed in by an immense army, they could hardly draw breath, although food could be shipped in, which offered them some hope. But behold, the whole army was affected by a disease which overran the Tartars and killed thousands upon thousands every day. It was as though arrows were raining down from heaven to strike and crush the Tartars’ arrogance. All medical advice and attention were useless; the Tartars died as soon as the signs of disease appeared on their bodies: swellings in the armpit or groin caused by coagulating humours, followed by a putrid fever.

The dying Tartars, stunned and stupe ed by the immensity of the disaster brought about by the disease,

and realizing that they had no hope of escape, lost interest in the siege. But they ordered corpses to be catapulted into the city in the hope that the intolerable stench would kill everyone inside. What seemed like mountains of dead were thrown into the city, and the Christians could not hide or ee or escape from them, although they dumped as many of the bodies as they could in the sea. And soon the rotting corpses tainted the air and poisoned the water supply, and the stench was so overwhelming that hardly one in several thousand was in a position to ee the remains of the Tartar army. Moreover, one infected man could carry the poison to others, and infect people and places with the disease by look alone. No one knew, or could discover, a means of defense.

As it happened, among those who escaped from Caffa by boat were a few sailors who had been infected with the poisonous disease. Some boats were bound for Genoa, others went to Venice and to other Christian areas. When the sailors reached these places and mixed with the people there, it was as if they had brought evil spirits with them: every city, every settlement, every place was poisoned by the contagious pestilence, and their inhabitants, both men and women, died suddenly. And when one person had contracted the illness, he poisoned his whole family even as he fell and died, so that those preparing to bury his body were seized by

death in the same way. Thus, death entered through the windows, and as cities and towns were depopulated their inhabitants mourned their dead neighbors.

Thus, almost everyone who had been in the East, or in the regions to the south and north, fell victim to sudden death after contracting this pestilential disease, as if struck by a lethal arrow which raised a tumor on their bodies. The scale of the mortality and the form which it took persuaded those who lived, weeping and lamenting, —the Chinese, Indians, Persians, Medes, Kurds, Armenians, Cilicians, Georgians, Mesopotamians, Nubians, Ethiopians, Turks, Egyptians, Arabs, Saracens and Greeks, for almost all the East has been affected— that the last judgement had come.

The Golden Seal,1042 A.D

Listed as world heritage monument in 1990 mainly because of its set of mosaics deriving from the ‘second golden age of Byzantine art', Nea Moni, the New Monastery, has been built by the masters of the imperial school of art in Constantinople during the ages of mightiness and prosperity. The mosaics mixed the early Renaissance art, that came from the Greek regions of Asia Minor, with the priestly byzantine art create this monumental byzantine painting of the Macedonian dynasty re ecting the light with its powerful and bold compositions. The Monastery was founded in the middle of the 11th century by the Emperor Constantine IX Monomachos (Gladiator). In 1049, the temple was inaugurated and the works nished after his death during the reign of Empress Theodora (1055-1056).

Nea Moni has always provided shelter to people from all over the world. During the Genoese dominion (1346-1566) the monastery received visitors and travelers, who were greatly attracted to this aesthetical miracle; to pilgrims and faithful, who came to worship Virgin Mary. Still today it attracts signi cant visitors from all over the world. They come to enjoy a masterpiece, representative of the 11th century Byzantine Art, an art which rediscovers the motion and plasticity of Classical Greece.

In 1822, during the Greek War of Independence in 1822 the Monastery was burned and plundered by the Ottoman troops. In 1881 a strong earthquake destroyed the buildings of the complex. Many alterations that the Monastery has suffered through the ages have concealed its original image, so that its tangible structure has not reached our days intact. Restored to its former glory, Nea Moni is again today a heritage symbol and a landmark connected to national struggles for freedom and the island’s dramatic fate.

The Golden Seal, 1042 A.D

The Prophecy Constantine IX, Emperor of the Romans, Constantinople, in the year of the Lord 1042

You shall immediately to dispatch a messenger to the island of Chios with my order to general Zyvos. He shall leave with the rst available ship from the Queen City to bring the order to Chios the soonest. Thus, he shall not use a commercial ship, but should embark a quick sailing dromon, which has 100 oars and 200 oarsmen in service. The messenger shall be very skilled in military

matters and armed to the teeth. He will carry namely an of cial decree, which I have signed with my name in the imperial red ink and stamped with the imperial golden seal. The message is this: I have decided to found a Monastery in honor of Maria, the mother of our Savior, in the island of Chios. The messenger shall meet the three holy men, who prophesied, to me, while I was in exile in the nearby island of Mytilene, that I would ascend the throne. These pious brothers have asked me to build a Monastery, should the prophecy be ful lled. Now I am committed to ful ll my part of the promise to the monks, Nikitas, John and Joseph. As for expenses, do not worry, because gold is owing from the public treasury, like a stream slushing up from bounteous springs. Thus, I will grant it income from public funds, the produce of estates and even the proceeds of direct taxation. The Imperial Treasury shall exclude the Monastery from all taxes, I speci cally underline this. The State Treasury shall pay for materials and highly skilled architects and masters of the mosaics and other knowledgeable artisans from the Imperial Workshops and have them sent to Chios to build the Monastery.

This it is my wish and order with God’s grace.

The Golden Seal,1042 A.D

Zoe, the Purple Born Andronikos, Grand Treasurer of the Emperor Constantine, in the year of the Lord 1042

The imperial dispatcher has just brought the order of the Emperor. According to this I need to send armed messengers to the island of Chios to bring the news about the founding of a Monastery! And so, it will be. Chios is one of the important islands of our Empire, lying between Constantinople and Alexandria. This is very convenient for the commercial ships and the dromons, our military ships.

But I can’t help to con ne to you my hidden thoughts, that I have heard some rumors in the Imperial Court: that an imposter monk was sent to Mytilene to Emperor Constantine, then in exile from the Court, to prophecy his ascend to the throne. Now it seems that the Emperor has decided to handsomely support this Monastery, which is not yet built. I was ordered to exclude it from all taxation whatsoever, also from important taxes like the food and

animal taxes, the taxes for the shipbuilding and the roads and the military expenses, the donations to the tax collectors, house taxes and commercial taxes of any kind and all of the duties that are imposed to the populace. My secret thought is this: the money for the soldiers and the revenues devoted to the army will be diverted quite unnecessarily and put aside for other uses… From the other side, there is enough money for now. It is a common secret that Emperor Basil, God bless his soul, left us the biggest treasury ever existed on earth! Imagine, that the Imperial Treasury could not accommodate all the gold he collected, and it was necessary to dig tunnels in the earth to store it. He spent his life on a horse ghting, eating the same food as soldiers did. He married no one but his Empire. With his Solidarity Law in the year of the Lord 1002, he obliged the nobility to pay the taxes of the small farmers, who were not able to pay for themselves. And he saved all the money from the foreigner vassals directly into the Treasury. That is why we enjoy today this prosperity.

His niece, Empress Zoe, is a purple born princess, born when her father, Emperor Constantine, was reigning together with his brother Emperor Basil, who was seldom in the city and was happy to leave all of this to his brother while he was with the army in the eld. Zoe lived unmarried for 47 years in the palace. When Basil died

her father ruled for three years on his own. Alas, he had no sons to succeed him and this changed the fate of Zoe, who married already twice, before she wed Constantine Monomachos, who is now the Emperor. Today she is 64 years old and he is just 42! Despite her age, she is still stunningly beautiful, her golden hair complemented a complexion white as marble. May be her beauty is helped by her knowledge in cosmetics and chemistry and she keeps a laboratory in the Sacred Palace for this. Despite being the Empress, she never challenges her people with extravagances and useless spending of money. Thus, long live the Emperor and the Empress with God’s grace.

The Golden Seal,1042 A.D

The Imperial Guar Thormod, Imperial Guard of the Varangs, 1044

Dear Inegeld,

I hope my letter nds you well and that the money I you will receive by my messenger is enough for you and Urmulf to reach the Queen City. I have not sent too much, as you should nor raise any suspicion of wealth, better endure some hardships and arrive safe here. You will not regret to join the Imperial Guard and I cannot think of a better life for my brother’s sons. The services of brave man from the North are very much appreciated here. Maybe you should know, that it was Emperor Basil II the Macedon, who established us, Varangs, from the Nordic lands as his personal guard.

Emperor Constantine Monomachos continues to employ us and entrusts us with his personal safely. I must admit that it is a marvel of beauty that Mother Nature gifted on this man, so justly proportioned, that there is no one in our time to compare with him. To this symmetry nature added a robust vigor, as though she were laying rm foundations for a beautiful house. His head she made ruddy as the sun and his skin was of the purest white all over, with exquisite accuracy. His wife, Empress Zoë, was already wife of two Emperors before her marriage to him, is much older than he is. However, there were few signs of age in her; in fact, if you marked well the perfect harmony of her limbs, not knowing who she was, you would have said that here is a young woman, for no part of her skin is wrinkled, but all sooth and taunt, with not furrows anywhere, her golden hair, and her whole body is radiant with the whiteness of her skin.

I assure you, my dear boys, that you can make a living here, because, we the Varangs, are very useful to the Emperors: last year we defeated the Rus, who attacked the Queen City with 10.000 men. We burned their ships and caused the remains of their army ee to Varna, where they were nally caught by us. In the end they signed a peace treaty. The Rus call themselves Christians because their sovereign, Vladimir, was baptized and married the sister of Emperor Basil, Princess Anna, but they have an eye on our wealth and

lands. In all, what I can say to you is that we here are surrounded by enemies and the only way to keep them where they are, is a powerful army and navy. And this situation makes us precious and indispensable.

The Golden Seal,1042 A.D

Queen of the Seas Nikephoros, Master of the Imperial Equerry, 1044

My mission is to execute the imperial order and sail to Chios, which lies precisely in the middle of our Empire: half way from the Queen City and half way from Alexandria to the south. Through its position Chios is connecting the Black Sea with the Mediterranean Sea. After we built the Seaward Castle and the new harbor, many noblemen and of cials from the Queen City moved to Chios, homeland to many unique and expensive merchandise and monopolies: besides the cultivation of mastic, wine and cloths also husbandry with the famous Chian sheep ourish, let alone the naval and bank affairs, which have no match to anything else!

Much is heard about the Chian bankers, who practice advanced banking in the Forum. As mariners, the Chians send all those expensive products to the whole world. As bankers they exchange and put into circulation new

coins of gold and silver and exchange with our coin, the hyperpyron. They receive money payable in Constantinople, Smyrna, Phocaea and elsewhere, for which they have issued letters of credit repaid by their representatives there. To clear the mutual accounts, the bankers go to a certain city at regular intervals and include their receivables and debts. With these credit mechanisms they secure the movement of capital without the use of money, it is ingenious, isn’t it?

The Chian bankers accept interest-free deposits and interest-bearing deposits and make payments for their clients' accounts and transfers from one account to another, the “bank checks” as they call them, which allows them to circulate money in any city without being there! What can be more pro table than that? Thus, I gladly I execute the Emperor’s order and sail to Chios, and who knows, maybe I nd my match there. It’s high time I started to think about marriage!

The Golden Seal,1042 A.D

The man from Caesare In the year of the Lord 1046

My family was rooted in Caesarea, the birthplace of St Basil, who set the rules for the monks, God bless his soul. I am of humble origin; my ancestors are peasants. But the Lord, who seemed to have chosen another itinerary for me, has blessed me with artistic skills. When I was nine years of age and illiterate, a man of letters saw my drawing in the stable and persuaded my father to send me to a local workshop in a close by monastery to learn to draw and paint. My poor father, was so exhausted with taxes and having still so many mouths to feed, that he rejoiced at the prospect of having me sent to the monks to follow a pious way and ll my belly. How lucky I was! I learnt to write and read and besides painting and drawing they taught me to be a good Christian. But mostly I excelled in inlaying small stones in the mosaic compositions that adorned the churches and the yards of the wealthy. Despite being young in years

my compositions acquired me fame and I was quickly in demand by the local aristocracy. Very soon I was able to help my old father to catch a breath and my sisters to marry. Until one day a noble man, who came from Constantinople to meet the local governor got to know my artworks in the monastery. So impressed was the noble man, that wished to take me, a novice in the arts, with him to the Imperial School in the Eternal City. My mother shed many tears before my departure, but I got drunk by this dream and was willing to exchange my humble town for the big dream.

When I arrived in the Eternal City, the Polis as it is called, they put me as an apprentice in the Imperial School for the mosaics, where I realized that I did not know as much as I thought I did. I was assigned to a Master of the mosaics as his personal apprentice and worked hard day and night to learn the illustrious art well, because there were many suitors for the apprentice’s post and only the nest men were kept at the Imperial School. Some years later my Master was sent to supervise the mosaic works for St. George of Manganas. It was the personal request of Emperor Constantine, that only the best artists were to work in that church. And what the masters made there was incomparable and beyond the language of the mortals and whereas heaven itself is gilded with stars only at intervals, there gold was spread

continuously over the whole surface, as if owing from its center from a bounteous spring. After this marvel was completed the Emperor Constantine founded the Monastery of Nea Moni in 1042 and the artists of the Imperial Workshop, arrived in Chios, summoned to repeat the great task as it was the Emperor’s will. We will not chisel our names on the art works, as it is God that is guiding our hands to glorify his wisdom. We will not be remembered for the deeds of our mortal lives. But our masterpieces will stand for the centuries to come narrating the glory of the Empire. The art of mosaics will withstand any changes and fortunes: as they are made in the re, they are destined for the eternity. But let me be your guide and start with the prophecy:

Three monks, Niketas, Ioannis and Iossif, who lived then at a place near by the future monastery, saw every night from their cells light emerging out of a myrsina tree. One night they felt that they had to follow the sign and solve the mystery. They walked in the darkness towards the light, where suddenly they looked with amazement at an icon shimmering through the branches of the myrsina tree. It was an icon of Virgin Mary with her arms wide open, but void of young Jesus… The monks took the precious icon to the mountain of Provatas, where they lived. Soon enough they decided to build a small chapel

at the place where the icon was found. That small chapel has evolved to the masterpiece that lies in front of your eyes today. After a while the monks thought that the small chapel was not enough to shelter such a miraculously discovered icon. They decided to address the General Constantine Monomachos, who was at that time in exile. The Lord’s angel guided our monks to Monomachos in the island of Lesvos, not far from Chios. They predicted to him, that he was meant to climb to the throne real soon. Deeply moved the future Emperor promised, that if their prophecy comes true, he would grant them anything they wished for. Truly enough, two years later in 1042, Constantine Monomachos acceded to the throne. Arriving in the Polis, the three monks reminded the Emperor of his promise and he willingly issued a decree sealed by his golden bulla, to build the Monastery and granted it many privileges. He even ordered his best architects and artists to travel to Chios to supervise the construction works. The construction lasted for twelve years. However, Emperor Constantine never lived to see its full glory, he died before the works were completed. But let me guide you into the Monastery and share with you the divine moments of inspiration by our Lord, that led my hand and the hands of many others to complete the works entrusted to us.

The Golden Seal,1042 A.D

Vestibule Exonarthex

You are now at the place where the mortal remains of the Monastery’s founders used to be kept. It is a simple rectangular space divided in equal parts, decorated with small arches and pillars. Two washing basins that have reached our days prove that the space you have just entered was used for ritual washing and baptisms. The southern wall of the exonarthex was decorated with inscriptions and portraits of the founders. Directing your sight to the oor you may observe ve marble trays. The central tray is distinctly different from the others in size and colour. These trays “hosted” ve “altar breads” as offers to God and Virgin Mary.

Hall Before the Main Church Esonarthex

A few steps further you may enter the room that used to receive pilgrims, visitors and the faithful. You easily nd

out, that also this is a rectangular space, divided in three equal parts, exactly as the exonarthex. Up to the middle of the walls you may observe the marble decoration. From the middle upwards to the top the decorative medium is replaced by mosaics. Your rst example of the quality of the Imperial School are here these mosaics. The mosaics you are looking at offer a rst taste of our art. They are the introduction to our story. Take a closer look at the wall at your right with the scene of Christ’s betrayal. He is praying in the garden of Gethsemane, when archpriests and slaves came to arrest him. Did you notice that Jesus’ follower, Peter, is trying to protect his Master from being arrested? Peter draws a knife to cut the ear of the slave Malchus. The wall with the arch depicts the Pentecost and the Ascension. Walking to the left you will feel the hand of Virgin Mary caress you from the top. You can’t see her face, but she is still there with the Protector Saints: Theodor the Victorious, Sergius, Bacchus, Eustratios, Auxentios, Eugene, Mardarios and Orestes.

Mary, the Mother of God, is the most cherished gures in our Christian art. We never paint her alone. When Christ, her son, is absent, she usually appears with the holy persons, the Saints. They show her admiration and respect and often enough they are there to protect her.

Take a closer look at the scene of the ritual washing, the Niptiras. Christ is preparing himself for the ritual. He is then washing tenderly the feet of his followers. This act of humility is an attitude to show respect for others and respect for life.

The Golden Seal,1042 A.D

The Catholicon The Dom

Emperor Constantine gave us permission to build freely. We could choose a pattern from any church in the entire Polis, apart from the one of Haghia Sophia, the most famous Church in all Christianity. St. George of Mangana set a pattern to build Nea Moni. The architect, who built this masterpiece, came together with his crew directly from Constantinople. We all settled in a village nearby, to be able to freely move back and forth to the construction site. The reason the architect chose to build an octagonal cupola, was a practical one. He had to make sure that the octagonal dome was well supported. I am proud to say, that the idea of a united rectangular space supporting a heavy dome is a distinct feature of the monuments of Κωσνταντινούπολις, the Queen City, the Polis as we call it. The combination of marbles, small and large pillars, multiple arches and mosaics testimony the

skills of artists only the Imperial School in Polis can train. This is visible even by the untrained eye! If you would rise your head upwards, to the top of the church, you will see the majestic dome, which is supported by the rectangular base at the feet of the Catholicon. Turn a circle around yourself to nd out that the Church is divided in eight equal parts, building an octagon on a square basis. Have you noticed that the two preceding entrances are dark rooms? On the contrary the light of the sun shines through all the windows of the dome. Why is this so? The illumination of the space in the heart of the main church is not just an architectural need for light. The illumination of the main church is also a symbol of our faith: the space where the faithful at last unite with God is ‘en-lightened’, while the rest of this world is a dark and painful space.

Baptis

Christ is being baptized and his “godfather” is Saint John, the Evangelist, because he was the rst man on Earth to preach, that the Messiah has at last come to this world. Christ’s godfather appears in our scene symbolically taller, larger, and more impressive than the other characters. His dress testi es his mission as

prophet and so I made him the most important gure in the scene besides Jesus. A dove is ying towards Jesus’ head accompanied by a shaft of light. At his right two angels richly dressed attend the ceremony. They look like guests invited by the hosts. The boy, which sheds the water out of the pot in the river, represents River Jordan. Can you guess what roles do other characters play?

Trans guratio

The blue background you are looking at dominates the picture. Our art is a symbolic art. This blue background that surrounds the image of Jesus has a very special meaning: it stands for his divine quality. Therefore, we call it “the glory”. Jesus, dressed in white, impresses, as you see, the persons in the scene, through the revelation of his divine quality. The Apostles Peter, John and Jakob as well as the prophets Eliah and Moses, look at Jesus with admiration, almost wonder-struck! Jesus was very fond of John; we all know that. That is why I chose John to be closer to Jesus than the other characters. John bends with awe in front of Jesus, rising his hand to him. This is the rst time I decided to depict John making a clear move towards Jesus. I have tried to establish a special visible link between John and Jesus. I hope you can see this.

Cruci xio Mary stands on her feet, mourning for her dead child, you can still feel the sorrow and the pain by looking at Mary’s hands: they are crossed on her chest. She must feel helpless, unable to react, devasted… Her sisters, Mary Magdalene and Mary Clopa, are there to support her. The show deep compassion, but are they able to console a mother who lost a child? Take a closer look at Mary Magdalene. Her hands are covered in her dress. John, of whom Jesus was so fond of, stands there unshaved. John wants us to know, how endlessly abandoned he feels without Jesus. John is the youngest Apostle; therefore, he usually appears without a beard. Striving to make understood that the death of Jesus has aged John within a night, I decided to let him appear unshaved as a new element of deep, unspeakable sorrow.

The crown is the aura of the holy persons. To represent the simple folk, I chose to depict a soldier in the scene, who also mourns the death of Jesus. I have also included high ranking followers of Jesus in the scene, as we know that Jesus had followers also among them.

Mary holds Jesus’ hand kissing it. A mother takes farewell from her only son, who died in martyrdom. Is it possible to describe the grief, the sorrow, the pain? Here is John again. If you observe him carefully you will see John stands unchanged as in the previous scene. John, a duplicate of himself? Have I run out of inspiration? The truth is painful. John is still, exactly because his senses are still, the time has stopped for him. So great is his sorrow… There is a very active person in the scene. You can’t see what he is doing, but I can tell you: he is removing the nails from Christ’s feet. Have you heard of him before? His name is Nicodemus.

Triumph over Deat

No doubt that I am a religious person. My talents are there to glorify our Lord and Christianity. But I am also a proud citizen of the Eternal City, the Polis, the mightiest and richest city ever, the impregnable city. Thus, the gure of the Emperor is central to my composition. A large, magni cent gure, whose dresses vividly move in the centre of the picture. He holds a double cross, which is the symbol of triumph. Do you recognize now the Emperor over Life and Death?

Deposition from the Cros

Although my Master of the Mosaics taught me to depict our Lord, Jesus Christ, only frontally, I took the liberty to let Jesus bless the virtuous people saved by him with a gracious movement. This is my legacy for the future generations.

Holy Bem

Our Holy Mother rarely appears without her infant. But look, here: she is alone. She stands on her feet, her arms are wide open. What is she doing? She intervenes here to God for forgiveness. She implores God to forgive the whole world. Not very close and not so far from our Holy Mother I created two beautiful young men. They protect her Ladyship, the Blessed Virgin Mary, the Mother of God. May be some faithful ask themselves “for how long will they protect her”? The answer is simple. They will protect her for ever. Space and dates are not important in our art, for our Empire was, is and will always be. It is an Empire for the eternity. It is an art for the eternity.

The Cister

Apart from the church I am personally impressed by the cistern, another masterpiece of the architects: internally, eight columns lined up in two parallel rows divide the space in fteen equal square apartments, which are covered by blind hemispherical domes. The domes are made of arches that rest on the arrays of columns, made of grey marble, with decorated capitals. Not every column has the same dimensions, but with the help of their pedestals they all eventually reach the same height. This admirable space accommodates fresh water as much as 600 sea water metra altogether! The number is much higher than that of other tanks in other monasteries in our Empire, with the exception of the Polis, the Queen City.

The Settlers, 1043 A.D.

Avgonima is a medieval village located on a rocky hill just 16 kilometers from the city of Chios. Together with the neighboring Anavatos, is the oldest forti ed village, and according to the tradition it was created by the workers who built the majestic monastery of Nea Moni in the 11th century and then remained in Chios. The houses are built of stone with small windows, mainly aiming to be protected from pirate raids. Avgonima is built as a forti ed settlement: in the center of the village with the square around are small residences arranged, their outer side is forming the protective wall. Outside of the wall is formed a second built zone. At the edges of the village there are individual buildings of a fortress character that are evidenced by the small openings on the upper side of the outside walls with respect to the settlement. The streets of the settlement are spacious with a small height of side houses. The road that leads from the entrance of the village to the central square is the largest and wider road in the settlement and connects the road network with the village center.

The Settlers, 1043 A.D.

The Colon Alexios Dalassinos, Chios, in the year of the Lord 1116

Ahh, a hundred years have already passed since my great-grandfather came from Constantinople to this island. He was not a native of the Eternal City. His family was rooted in Dalassa, close to Caesarea, the birthplace of St Basil, who set the rules for the monks, God bless his soul. But my father was talented in arts. So, his master talked to his father and he was sent to a monastery,

where in its local workshop he learned to paint and inlay the small stones for the mosaics to be seen in the churches and the yards of the wealthy. Despite being young in years his compositions acquired him fame and he was great in demand by the local aristocracy. Until one day a noble duke, who came from Constantinople to meet the local governor got to know his artworks. So impressed was the noble man, that wished to take the young artist with him to the Imperial School in the Eternal City. His mother shed many tears before his departure, but he was drunk with his art and willing to leave.

When he arrived in Constantinople, he realized that he knew not much. He was assigned to a master of the mosaics as an apprentice and worked hard day and night to learn the illustrious art well because there were many suitors for the apprentices’ post, and only the nest men were kept at the Imperial School. After some years his master was sent to supervise the mosaic works for St. George of Manganas. My father told me that what the masters made there was incomparable and had no match on earth. The heaven itself is gilded with stars only at intervals, but in the church id St George gold was spread continuously over the whole surface, as if owing from its center from a bounteous spring. After this marvel was completed Emperor Constantine founded the Monastery of Nea Moni in 1042 and the artists of the

Imperial School, arrived in Chios, my great-grandfather, a young man by then, was one of those artists. Avgonima, the village, where my father was born in the year of the Lord 1056, was created by the workers who built Nea Moni and then remained in Chios for more than ten years to build the whole complex. It was surrounded by woods at the top of the mountain and was built in a solid way with stone masonry and thick walls. The settlement is located in the centre of the island of Chios and is built on a small natural smooth hill on the foot of the mountain with a view towards the sea. It is part of nature, but dif cult to be seen from the long distance. The houses are built of stone and with small windows that were used to protect themselves from pirate raids. The village overlooks the pine forest and the endless blue of the Aegean Sea.

My late father, Nikolaos, was not artistically inclined, thus he was sent to Chios to become a sailor, a usual profession at those times under the reign of Emperor Ioannis Komnenos, the Good Sire, as he was called by the people. However, during his sailing time, he proved to be talented in commerce and thus is how I have become a merchant myself. However nowadays the sailing and mercantile activities are connected with many risks as many enemies look into our direction, the

Venetians, the Crusaders and the Normans, not to mentions the Arabs and the Seljuks. Chios, famous for its mastic products, is a frequent target of pirates; thus, the village of my ancestors has become a small fortress itself.

The Settlers, 1043 A.D.

The Master of the Mosaic

Being an apprentice of the Master of the mosaics, my great-grandfather heard him talk with the architect about the Church design and other interesting things. They discussed that two of the founders of the Monastery, John and Nikitas were not simple monks from a remote part of our Empire, but very cultivated persons and familiar with the Byzantine ceremonies at the Court in Constantinople. The architect has complained many times that they often interfered with his work as they “too closely with the court life in the capital”. The Master of the mosaics on the other hand, knew that John and Nikitas have visited St. George of Manganas in Costantinople and were so much impressed by this heavenly kingdom that they wished no other design for Nea Moni. And because of that, he told the architect, they selected him to design the mosaic composition of Nea Moni. Thus, he was more inclined to please him than the architect. For the master of the mosaics, who has

known them, these builders of the church of Nea Moni were not provincial monks but worldly courtiers and as such very well versed in the sophisticated arts of attery and ingratiation that won them imperial largess.

Nea Moni was the Emperor’s personal wish made known to all by the imperial edicts of 1046 and 1048, by which they were granted imperial residencies in Constantinople by the Emperor and an allowance to go with them. This enabled them to launch themselves into the inner circle of court life, where they attracted the lavish patronage of the Emperor. In this way they also gained access to the inner circle of the Patriarchate and rumors said that they were exerting a sinister in uence on the Patriarch, Michael Keroularios. It seemed that over the years their activities and in uence aroused much enmity at the Court. After the death in 1055 of the Emperor Constantine Monomachos, who was their protector they were accused of impiety and pagan divination. They were sent into exile and the extensive property of Nea Moni was con scated. But a few years later Emperor Isaac Komnenos restored Nea Moni and the charges against them were dropped.

Crusader Merchants,1346

The castle of Chios was constructed in the medieval period with its rst construction phase having started in the 10th century by the Byzantine Emperors. The structures surviving to this day are part of later construction and expansion dated to the time when the Genoese, who maintained commercial concerns, ruled the island during the 14th to the 16th century. The construction of the castle started in 1328 by the Genoese lord of the island Martino Zaccaria. In 1329 it was captured by the Byzantines but the Genoese turned in 1346 ruling over the island until 1556. During this period, the island was administrated by Maona, a commercial company. Since 1362, the heads of the company belonged to a nobility union, with commercial interests, the Giustinianis. In 1556 the forces of the Ottoman Sultan Suleiman occupied the island. In 1694, the Venetians captured the island for a brief period of 6 months. Then the Turks came back and ruled until 1912, when was liberated Chios and became part of Greece.

Crusader Merchants,1346

Turn of Fat Giovanni di Murta, Doge of the Republic of Genova, 1345

If anyone knows the story, how La Superba, the Republic of Genova prevented a serious loss, then it is me. I was a banker by trade before my accession to the of ce of the Doge. And one thing I knew very well: how to make and secure money. This way or another. My rst task as Doge was successful as I managed to pacify the Republic that was torn apart by the con icts of the nobility. Where there

is anything to split, there is always a con ict. In this particular case the Grimaldi clan tried to seize the City, but under the command of Admiral Vignoso and his galley eet they did not stand a chance. The public debt of the Republic to the ship owners this expedition has reached 1.7000.000 golden orins. However, the money to pay back Vignoso and the shipowners, was not collected on time.

Thus, two options were possible: not to pay at all and confront another revolt, or to entrust the Admiral with a valuable possession for a mutual bene t, the most important island of the Aegean Archipelago. Actually, one does not have to be a banker to understand the perspectives. Not only is this island the ideal destination for anchoring the ship between Constantinople and Alexandria, but is also located opposite of Phocaea, where we possess the alum mines by the Imperial Decree of 1261 by the Emperor of the Romans Michael Palaiologos. Currently the island is under the Romans, but they have a weak navy and thus I am not so much concerned with them. You see mastic from Chios and alum from Phocaea are one of the most expensive products in the global trade. And these monopolies belong to us. Because we are the only ones capable to

clean the Aegean Sea from piracy and enemies. For a capable Admiral as Vignoso is, it could not have been that dif cult to reconquer Phocaea, and indeed the man did so. But the favor is for free. So, I have suggested to compensate the cost of the expedition by entrusting those 29 investors to govern Chios under the Roman ag and a Genoese purse. After all money does not stink. “Pecunia non olet” said Vespasian when he imposed the urin tax!

Crusader Merchants,1346

Maona di Sci Simone Vignoso Admiral of the Fleet, 1346

When La Superba, the Republic of Genoa, called us to help re-establish the order, 29 noble citizens offered their help. The plan of the Doge was one of mutual interest, and cunning, as only a banker can make up one. It practically meant to collect all the proceeds from Chios and Phocaea and control the Aegean Sea. The Aegean is the priceless maritime corridor that allows us to control the merchant route from the Black Sea to the Mediterranean. After we have cleared all money issues among the 29 nobles, 12 of us set up a company and established ourselves in Chios. From there we can control the commerce and our business in person. Not the we intend to lose contact with La Superba, it’s our fatherland after all. Chios is an investment and its shall be dealt with as such.

The circumstances were very favorable in 1346. The Roman Emperor in Constantinople is disputed by another one who was crowned Emperor in Adrianople, very

Forneto, Oliverio, Arangio, Recanelli, Banca, Longo, Garibaldi, Negri, da Canetto, Adorno and Campai shared received each one 1000 shares of the Maona, the new company. The seat of the company was in the Castle of Chios in the Giustiniani Palace and I have been selected as general manager of the company until the public debt of the Republic is paid to us. There is a legend there, that

convenient the civil war for our case. I devised a plan to cover my intentions: I sent three galleys to Chios with a message for the local nobility that Umberto of France intends to conquest the island, because he needs it as a base for his struggle against the Turks, I asked them to allow me take over the military command until this danger is blown away, but they replied that they can defend themselves. In June I reached Chios with my eet and I have sent ambassadors requesting to anchor my ships in the harbor and prepare for a siege in the case Umberto appears. But instead to discuss the matter, they attacked us. Then I have laid siege on the island for three months. Hunger and thirst led the local nobility to surrender. The treaty has been signed in the Church of San Niccolò in September 1346 and we promised not to touch the privileges of the nobility. On the 20th of September Phocaea with its lands and its alum mines is surrendered to us. With Chios and Phocaea in our hands and with the port of Smyrna in Christian hands a new era is on the march.

a nephew of the Roman Emperor Justinian, from the dynasty of the Herakleids, has built the palace. It does not matter if it is true, it’s very practical for our cause: On the 14th of November 1372 we formed an albergo, a union, and we all have adopted this illustrious name as our last name and selected a common emblem: a double-headed eagle in purple background like the one of the Emperor of the Romans. On the breast of the eagle is painted the light blue coats of arms of the Herakleids.

Crusader Merchants,1346

The Bran Lanfranco Drizzacorne, Shareholder of Maona Nuova, Chios 1362

By being the only member of the Maona Nuova, born from the Maona Vecchia, and the only one who resides in Chios, I can narrate the story exactly as it happened: we founded the rst company, the Maona, right away in 1346 to exploit areas or monopoly privileges by 29 creditors of Genoa. As you know, the members of the company provided the funds for 29 galleys with a future revenue from the areas to be conquered as collateral for the debt incurred with the government of Genoa. But despite the success with the naval campaign, they could not pay the debt. In the mean tine, La Superba, our Republic, started another military campaign in Asia Minore to strengthen the position of Genoa and they conquered Chios. The treaty of 1347 granted the Maona company the rights to Chios and Phocaea for twenty years until the loan could be repaid. La Superba kept the sovereignty,

Admiral Vignoso died in 1358, he was a good Podesta, and under his governance Chios and the company ourished. With the new treaty in 1362 the government of Genoa accepted that the Maona company has the right to rent Chios and Phocaea for twelve years to twelves leaseholders with equal shares. We formed an inn, the “Albergho degli Giustiniani “. What a better “family name to invest”, than that of the most glorious of all Roman Emperors, Justinian? This is our promise to the client for the delivery of trust and superb quality. Just like Justinian’s masterpieces and works of art. The leaseholders were organized into a new corporation called the new Maona. After 1364 they all adopted the surname Giustiniani after the noble Genoese family. Only one of the twelve partners, Gabriele Adorno, declined to merge that illustrious name in a joint designation, but Adorno’s family comes from Allemania, and he is utterly convinced of himself and his family status, - è un vero Tedescho lui! But never mind the barbarians! We decided that the members of the Maona Nuova shall have equal participation to the liabilities, pro ts and losses of the company. The share capital comprised of 1.200 shares with a nominal value of 120.000 liras, 100 of them to each member of the company. The members

judicial power and the right to buy back the shares of the creditors who funded the expedition.

have the right to transfer their shares to persons outside the company.

Our annual income from the mastic rises to 200.000 golden coins. We pay an annual tax to the Emperor in Constantinople 120.000 golden ducats. And this, if you only think that the income of the King of France is just seven times more! The income of the Emperor is one million golden coins, that is to say our island contributes to the Imperial Treasury with one fth thanks to the mastic production, the citrus fruits and the other cultivations, the leather goods and the silks and the wools we produce. We trade with all over the world, but our fame creates many suitors that wish to conquest our island and exploit all the bene ts. We are favorably located on the road between Constantinople and Alexandria, meaning that we control the Aegean Sea and the commerce coming from the Black Sea: the most convenient place to anchor the ships and provide for fresh supplies. We possess the knowledge to select the best mastic trees and make new generations out of the best ones. And today we reap the bene ts of the most fruitful trees.

Crusader Merchants,1346

The English Merchan Anthony Gresham, London, 1567

I was fortunate enough to have been born in Chios on 1502, where my father kept an agency for exports to England both in Chios and in Crete. I have followed his path and became a merchant myself, but it was not before 1533, that I have acquired my civil rights in England. I inherited my father’s agency and, bless the Lord, with hard work in 1549 I became the commercial representative of the Duke of Norfolk in Chios, who was the uncle of two of the wives of King Henry VIII, namely Anne Boleyn and Catherine Howard both of whom were beheaded. Thomas Howard has fallen from favor in 1546, and was stripped of the dukedom and imprisoned in the Tower of London, avoiding execution when King Henry died on 28 January 1547. And then Queen Mary has reinstalled the Catholics. From 1549 onwards I have represented the Duke, who served the needs of the English Court with luxury items from Chios and the East until the Turkish admiral Piyale Pasha took

the island from the Genoese, who ruled in Chios for more than ten generations.

The Lord of Chios was Benedetto Zaccaria innovated the cultivation of the mastic trees, agriculture and viticulture and contributed decisively to the development of Chios. The liberation of the parishes was another major innovation and by 1304 people were no longer being sold as an integral part of the land. It is like our Great Charter of the Liberties imposed on King John in 1215 by the people. The settlers could own 1/3 of their farmland and 2/3 remained the landowner. This measure has brought general prosperity to the island. The settlers became subordinate to increased taxation, but also to a higher social class. The most intensive cultivation of mastic involves men and women, as well as many varieties of wine, like the Ariousios, Kontitos, Homer wine, Evanthis, Talitis, olives, gs, almonds, citrus, anise, cotton and other gourmet merchandize. Textiles, dyeing, carpet making, silk-making received great development, pottery and knitting. Excellent silk weavers were the Jews, as well as the sought-after Chian soap. Such was the consumption that within the Castle was founded a special place to sell and buy the soap, the Piazza della Saponaria.

As my late father has told me, in the times of the Roman Emperors considerable shipbuilding ourished in Chios, but this art revived under Lord Zaccaria that much that built a remarkable commercial and war eet built in the yards. Lord Zaccaria also reinvigorated tanning with top quality skins and high-quality metallurgy and encouraged the production of all kinds of goods and products and sought to cover local consumption with Chia products like footwear, clothing, household goods and tools. And this is how my father, bless his soul, came from England to Chios seeking to make fortune, as in his time our country was poor and the counties in the East were rich and prosperous.

As long Chios was under the Genoese dominion, business went well. The rst clouds started, when the Knights Hospitallers lost the island of Rhodes to the Sultan of the Turks, Suleiman. This made him control the commercial routes of the South Aegean, which was a very unfortunate fact for the Genoese in Chios. Year after year, rst Suleiman and then his son Selim were raising their demands and the tribute the Genoese had to pay has impacted the nances of their government. I dare say, that because of the tribute, about 12.000 golden ducats yearly, the constantly rising expenses for the defense and the cost of the maintenance of the ships and the losses from piracy, the Genoese were driven to bankruptcy. It was not out of bravery that the Turks came

to Chios in 1566, because a year before, they failed miserably to take the island of Malta from the Hospitallers and it is said that such a great defeat they suffered, that Piyale Pasha was ordered by Suleiman to enter the port of Constantinople in the night, for the people of the city no to see the remains of the once mighty eet getting into the port.

I was in London to sell Chian cloths, mastic and wine and alum, when a Venetian ship brought the devastating news. My great uncle, Fra Nicholas Hussey, who fought with the Hospitallers against Suleiman in Rhodes in 1522, has informed me well: the blood was running like water in the Street of the Knights when the Janissaries entered the city. Thus, I was struck with the news, because my assets and possessions, which must have been con scated by now, is still in Chios, but my family, -blessed is the name of the Lord-, has relocated to London after the fall of Rhodes. I was uneasy and I was proved to be right, and I saw the Turks getting mightier and mightier under the reign of Suleiman, while in Europe we conducted war one against the other. The Venetian mariners said that bloodshed has been avoided in Chios this time, but that the Genoese were sent as prisoners to Kaffa in the Black Sea, after some heads were fallen. I am too old to be fooled by a false interpretation and I know well what happened to other places when the Turks conquered them. And I am afraid that very soon horror

will freeze the smile of the Venetian merchants that today think how to feed on the corpse of Genoa.

Shareholders, 1350

The mastic villages of Chios have been added to the representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity of UNESCO. Pyrgi stands out from the other mastic villages due to the original façade of the stone houses, which mostly consist of stunning grey and white decorative motives in geometrical and oral shapes. The roads are narrow and covered with arches or vaults. In the middle of the village there is a tower with a height of 18 meters. Around it, there are walls with four towers in the corners. Like in the other medieval villages of the island, the stone houses of Pyrgi are built close to each other, forming a defensive wall. Narrow stone-paved streets, churches, unique architecture and balconies full of owers and sun-dried tomatoes, make up the magical scenery of the village. According to some historians, Christopher Columbus was the descendant of a Genoese family from Pyrgi, others have shown that he was stationed in Chios before he set off across the Atlantic and the locals can point out his house.

Shareholders, 1350

Lucri Gratiae Leonardo di Cornasca, Maona Shareholder, 1450

My son, we are merchants! We work for pro t, lucri gratiae, what have you expected? To risk all the capital and time invested and stay empty-handed? If it were not for us, the nobility in Europe would not be having silk to wear, alum to cure its wounds and mastic to clean its teeth and heal their bodies. Let alone the luxuries like soap, ne wool, spices and wines. And everyone, with enough money to buy, can enjoy the same privileges. This is commerce my beloved son! Tomorrow I will go to the port to personally supervise an important undertaking. I need to sign a cheque to be paid in Florence by the Medici Bank, where I have an account. I also need to supply the Sultan of Egypt with half a quintal of mastic. I must rush to pack the produce in 3 coffers. But rst I need to go to Casa del Mastice, which is the central storage room and meet with the Of cial for the Weighs and the Of cial for Sales. You see, mastic is our monopoly and we don’t want the prices to fall, neither to export without limits, nor exploit the earth as the ruthless

Venetians did before we came here to save this island. “Prima siamo Veneziani, poi siamo Christiani” they dare say! First Venetians and then Christians, it is how the call themselves! Can you trust these people? Of course not! It is common knowledge that these sharks have exploited the land to the point that mastic production stopped and that the people immigrated. We have learned from this and we will keep the people in their villages. If not, who will cultivate the precious mastic trees?

My dearest boy, to look after one’s commercial interest is not easy at all, especially because each interest is con icting with another one. With Chios being one of our biggest investments, it would be right to do everything to ensure both the capital and pro ts, wouldn’t it? Our joint company, the Maona, decided to act as wholesaler, in order to avoid any further risks. We contract individuals and companies who sell the product in the lands of the Pope and the Emperor, in Cipro, Rodi, Syria, Egypt, Smyrna, Romania, Constantinopoli, Crimea, to the kings of France and England to say the least. And the re-sellers take their own risks. Usually, they pay us with foreign exchange in Cipro and Genova. In addition to foreign exchange, bonds, checks, bills, back-checks are also used, and checking and current accounts are maintained. Our annual income rises to 200.000 golden coins. We pay an annual tax to the Emperor in Constantinopoli 120.000 golden ducats. And this, if you

only think that the income of the King of France is just seven times more! The income of the Emperor is a million golden coins, that is to say our island contributes to the Imperial Treasury with one fth thanks to the mastic production, the citrus fruits and the other cultivations, the leather goods and the silks and the wools we produce. We trade with all over the world, but our fame creates many suitors that wish to conquest our island and exploit all the bene ts.

We are favorably located on the road between Constantinopoli and Alexandria, meaning that we control the Aegean Sea and the commerce coming from the Black Sea. Chios is the most convenient place to anchor the ships and provide for fresh supplies. The secret for our famous product is the cultivation of the mastic tree. You see these precious mastic drops, tears we call them here, derive from the tree trunk of the low height mastic tree, through the suitable cutting of their barks. This procedure cannot be done by primitive peasants, it requires a lot of skills and love. The important issue here is to know that these trees exist in all the Mare Nostrum, but only here, in the Southern part of Chios, they produce the invaluable resin. Why? Because our earth, the sun and the winds and the lack of rain in the summer favor this plant. If the rain meets the resin tears coming out of the tree trunk, they are destroyed. The southern part of our island, where the mastic tree grows, happens to be

My dear son, we, the Giustiniani enjoy commercial prosperity and wealth, because we have nearly the whole carrying trade of the Levant in our hands. We cannot achieve this without a despotic rule. Some accuse us of being inhuman to the locals, an oligarchy of the worst type. That we in ict cruel punishments for the smallest offence like the cutting off of noses and ears and public agellations and sufferers have to pay six denarii a stroke, as a fee to the man who scourged them. No citizen can sell anything eatable except at the price regulated by the archons; no one can leave the island without the special permission. I have to admit that all of this is true. But it is under this very rule that the island of Chios ourishes with a population of no less than 100,000, all engaged in trading with Asia Minor and Europe. I cannot imagine another way to prosperity, can you?

so, because the northern pat is full of precious forests, which weaken the winds and catch the humidity. We possess the knowledge to select the best mastic trees and make new generations out of the best ones since ancient times. Today we reap the bene ts of the most fruitful trees.

Shareholders, 1350

The Monopol Nicola Cybo, Land owner, Chios 1475

These Genoese merchants spread the word that they have come to save the local nobility of Chios! Indeed, this is the word they spread everywhere: that they love and respect us and protect us from any danger. Still, what they love is hidden in their pockets. And it never crosses their minds to consider us their equals. That the son of the foxy admiral Fulco Zaccaria married the sister of our Emperor, means nothing to us! Two hundred years ago Emperor Michael handed the lands of Phocaea by his golden seal to those despicable heretics for nothing, in exchange for their assistant to recapture our capital. Did they help? Of course not! These are merchant souls. Crusader merchants, I should say. And not only is the island of Chios lost to us natives, but also Phocaea and its alum mines are gone to them as a privilege and monopoly. Outrageous, isn’t it? But why to stick to one monopoly, if you can have others too? And there he came, admiral Benedetto Zaccaria with his eet to “save” Chios from the Turks. It is his “duty” as the son in law of

the Emperor. An Empire without a navy by the way… Now, after two centuries of domination, they learned well how not to miss a chance to sell our products everywhere, because what is the use of the monopoly, if you cannot sell? And they sell all over the word. Toothpaste for the Kings in Europe, medicine for the German Emperor, mastic for the Sultan’s harem, cures and treatments, mastic oil and ointments, mastic as ingredient for food. Anything that the heart wishes has been made saleable by those Lords. And we, the locals, sit here and watch how we are exploited. And for consolation we have been granted Genoese citizenship!

They managed to persuade their heretic Pope to grant them freedom to commerce with Egypt, while all the other Christians shall follow the prohibitions imposed. And the reason is a cunning one: because their state Genoa is in civil war, -as if we care if they kill each other, and because they protect Chios from the Turks. And we sit here and look how they get rich in our lands! But no, this is not the mistake of Emperor Michael. At least he managed to recapture the Queen of the Cities from the despicable Francs. It is the mistake of Emperor Basil, where in the year of the Lord, he granted commercial privileges to the shark-men, the Venetians! In those days we used to be the glorious capital of the Naval Thema of the Aegean Sea, we had a naval force, of which we could be proud of and which kept us safe in sea and land. The

concessions of Emperor Basil to the Venetians are still felt today, just look how they rule at sea, after captured the Queen City in 1204. In exchange for this reduction in customs tax, Emperor Basil required the Venetians to help our Empire with their eet in the southern part of Italy. Alas, as their kinship, the Genoese, they never moved a nger when they were needed.

Shareholders, 1350

Brave New Worl Capitano Michele Mestoussi, Pyrgi, 1491

I am a native of Pyrgi, but I am not a masticarius, a mastic grower. You see, my passion for the sea, was too big to allow me to pursuit a life among the walls of the forti ed village. It was not without risk, that my father sent me to a relative who was living close to the port of Chios, and from there the path towards my vocation was short. I started as a mariner in the merchant ships of La Superba, the Republic of Genoa, and now I am a proud captain of a commercial galley. You see the captain of a merchant ship has little difference has from the captain of a warship. For us, enemies and pirates are exactly the same. You sail from one port knowing your allies, and until you arrive to the next port, they have become enemies and they attack your ship. And apart from them, there are always the pirates to give you hard times. Some hundred years ago, under the Lord Benedetto Zaccaria, who married the sister of the Emperor of the Romans, Michael Palaiologos, the island of Chios grew very wealthy. Not only because Chios is having the

monopoly of mastic and several others, but also because it lies in the middle of all important commercial cross roads. It is the best stopover between Constantinople, now in the hands of the accursed Turks- and Alexandria and the central ring in the chain Cyprus-ChiosConstantinople-Caffà, the colony of the Genova in the Black Sea. From there I sailed many times to Trabzon and the Azof Sea and to Tauris, the nal destination for the caravans from Asia carrying the silks and the spices. From Caffà I have often transported alum to Europe. But I have to say that the best quality of alum arrives from the mines in Phocaea, which by imperial decree were given to Genoa, for their promised assistance to Emperor Michael to recapture Constantinople from the hateful Venetians. Chios was one of these territories, which passed over to them with intrigues and threats…

The alum is the most desired product that is linked to health, it is the only medicine that cleans the wounds and prevents the wound infection. It is used for all the wounds and also for internal diseases, for the stomach and the lunges and the throat and it is proven that many have been saved from internal bleeding from taking this drug. Also, this miraculous substance when it comes to contact with the colors that is dying the yarns and fabrics it stabilizes the colors and many manufacturers and cloth merchant became rich from its use, let alone that it is an indispensable material for tanning, because of its ability

to disinfect animal materials sterile. Such great is its value in commerce that we transport it with heavily armed men, as you don’t know who you will meet on the sea road. As a captain carrying such a rare load, I have to admit that the Genova knows how to protect its transfer with heavy ships and armed men on board. Imagine that we rent our ag with the Cross of San Giorgio, to other ships, so that when it is seen by pirates and enemies, they are discouraged to engage with us in battle. So great is our power at sea.

My rst voyage as a galley captain sent me from Chios to England, where we brought alum from Phocaea and wine from Chios. An Englishman on board was bringing the alum to the court of the King of England. This man was sent two years ago to Chios as a byer of many goods, silks, mastic and alum at the most. I remember that in 1479 an inquiry was made into the damage in icted on the Chians in England; this man was on the board of my galley. In all cases the trade of Chios with England is older, and it was inaugurated by the trade route of Constantinople, where English ships were required to sail across Chios to Constantinople. I sailed many times to Cyprus, Syria and Egypt to get valuable merchandise like spices and gold which come from Africa and Asia. All the merchandise comes to the port of Genova and from there our merchants and agents distribute to the lands of the Pope and the German Emperor, to the King of France

and England and the kings of the northern territories. This I can say with certainty: Chios is the central ring in the chain that connects the East and the West. From Chios, an island place with mild climate and rich gifts from nature, a port of call for many nations, I sailed many times to Majorca and Cadiz, Sicily, Valencia, Malaga, Tunis, Ancona, Buzea, Brugges, London, Armenia and Flanders, Oran, Tortosa and Napoli.

This year, having arrived from a tiring journey to Chios, I heard rumors about a Genoese admiral who just came to our island looking for experienced mariners. Asking here and there in the port, I heard some rumors that he is starting an adventure to sail to Indies following the west direction. Some of us think that he is an imposter and some think of him as a daring man. Colombo is his name; I heard his story before. Maybe he is right and following a direction to the west we can nd another road to the luxury items that Europe craves for. For 38 years now, after to fall of the Queen City to the despicable Turks, their sultans closed all roads to Europeans travelling to the east. So, they started looking for alternatives. I heard of new navigation tools and funding from the most Catholic kings in Spain. If this is true, I have nothing to lose and enroll myself to Colombo’ s eet. Good captains are always in great demand. Since the fall of the Queen City frequent letters of distress from the Chian merchants arrive to the Signorial in Genova, and appeals

for a united attack on the Turks. I still remember in 1477, that Genoa sent a eet of four ships to Chios, on a report being spread that the Turks were preparing to descend on the island; but on reaching Chios it was discovered that the Turkish armament had another destination, and the expedition returned home without doing anything. Sailors say that admiral Cristoforo Colombo, then a boy, took part in this expedition.

In the mean time I heard that some native mariners enrolled already and will sail to Genova and from there to Spain and then to the ocean until they nd land. I will try my luck, as experience is a great advantage for selecting the crew. You see the Admiral is recruiting from all over the places in the island. He is supposed to be in Pyrgi right now, the biggest of the mastic villages, residing in the corner house opposite the Church. I heard that he was impressed by the cultivation of mastic and sent a letter to Queen Isabella in Spain about this. People say a lot of things and I need to nd out what is of substance and what is rubbish. So, I will knock on his door to know more, that is the best solution. Thank God, this island is big as the world in fame and capacity. Avanti!

Shareholders, 1350

Scent of Freedo Sofronios, Abbot of St. George Sykoussis, 1518

In the year of our Lord 1498 I have installed myself in the deserted Monastery of St. Giorgio Sykousis. Little by little I have reinstated some buildings; I built houses and even a tower like the Giustiniani did, so that the entrance to the Monastery is the entrance of the village. I made it tall with an arch on the top of which I put a Cross. So, whoever wished to enter the village had to pass under this arch, meaning, that nobody could do that mounted on a horse.

He had to enter on foot and cross himself. But I did not call monks to support me. I called the farmers from Lithi, from Avgonyma and Pyrgi, who started to cultivate the lands of the Monastery. I don’t know how the Genoese lords let me do, but they did not interfere. May be because the lands belong to our Church.

Ahh, gone are the glorious days, when we were masters of ourselves, protected by the Emperor in Constantinople. Gone are the days where we had anything to say. Still, we built a community here. We share everything, help and respect each other. And the land rewards the labor of the farmers, who act in the love of God.

The Treasure of Chios,1360

The mastic villages have been added to the representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity of UNESCO. Mesta is a traditional medieval village 35 km from the city of Chios. It belongs to the Mastic Villages, a group of villages in Southern Chios, where the main activity is the manufacture of mastic. Mesta is characterized by particular architecture since it is a forti ed village with perfectly preserved medieval architecture. Its elaborate architecture dates back to the Byzantine and Genoese period. The village is built like a castle. The houses were built one right next to the other, thereby creating a protective wall surrounding the village.

The Treasure of Chios,1360

A well thought pla Pietro Recanelli, Mahona Shareholder, Mesta, 1360

In the 26th of August 1360, as shareholder of the Maona, I signed with Andreolo de Setta and Andreolo di Campi to buy 30 staters of mastic for three years and to sell it in Cyprus which is part of the trading area, and mind please, that the cost of a stater amounts 50 golden coins. When the three years passed, I then signed a contract ςιτη ηιμ for another 13 years to sell mastic to whom he pleased and that each year he would buy 60 staters additionally. He can pay in three rates annually in Cyprus, and each stater costs 900 golden coins. To sell the mastic for a long period in advance, it’s a very good and usual practice, since we oblige the farmers to deliver to us a pre-de ned quantity, without worrying on the weather conditions and the harvest. Of course, we have face problems, if the masticarii, the mastic growers don’t deliver the quantity we need. Thus, we urge them to buy from other farmers paying the double price. With this

well-thought plan our commercial risks are eliminated, at least as far as it regards the farming, as for others, like war and piracy we are protected only through our naval skills and our armed galleys.

Mark my words Anselmo Giustiniani, Mesta, 1398

My dearest nephew, as I have said many times in the past, this island is a money-machine. But it needs careful management from our side. First, we need to control the sea, then we need to control the produce. Because, without allocating our attention to both the tasks, it is futile to even think start to commerce. Mastic as you know, is unique and brings about 30.000 ducats a year because the price is set by the rarity. And it is rare because it grown only in Chios, which is ours. But ownership means nothing, unless it is properly managed. Otherwise, my boy, -mark my words- unmanaged properties are only a cost and can drive you to bankruptcy, which happened already to many lighthearted men in the past. And to give you an illustrious example, what it means, not to dispose of wealth, I remind you, that Doge Giovanni di Murta, despite being a banker by trade, he did not have the money to pay the expenses of admiral Vignoso, who succeeded to

suppress the revolt of the Grimaldi clan against the Republic. The foolish man, instead to nd a way of paying his debt, he used a pretext to send Vignoso’s eet against Tatars in Caffà. In the end, he could not pay the cost of the expedition once again, and was obliged to concede to us the island of Chios. You see what I mean?

The Treasure of Chios,1360

Joint Ventur Pietro di Cornasca, Mastic Supervisor in Chios, 1430

On the 2nd of March 1408, eight mean were called by the Signoria di Genova to gather in the great hall of the Casa di San Giorgio, a trading house on the main street in Genoa, a few meters from where the waters of the Ligurian Sea lap the Italian shore. Merchants and rich and powerful representatives of the city’s most in uential families met to discuss a matter of the utmost gravity. La Superba, our Repùbblica, had fallen on hard times. After years of war with the despicable Venetians and the crushing defeat at the battle of Chioggia in 1381, after which all our dreams to commerce in the Adriatic Sea were for ever lost, La Superba was effectively bankrupt. The task of the eight bankers was to rescue her. A few months earlier, towards the end of 1407, the Signoria di Genova has authorized the Casa di San Giorgio to carry out this job. It would be accomplished by creating a bank that would facilitate the repayment of Genoa’s debts in

return for interest at 7 per cent and the right to collect taxes and customs owed to the city. The purpose of the meeting that spring day was to declare the Banco di San Giorgio open for business.

However, back in our cherished island of Scio our affairs are ourishing. The wealth of this island is linked to the lentisk, a small tree exuding a gum. The tree grows in most of the Mediterranean countries, but only in Scio its gum solidi es: this evergreen is called a mastic tree and it was known to the ancient Greeks and Romans. It grows only in the southern part of Scio due to the special conditions there: dryness in the southern part and a forest rich northern part, which weakens the winds and catches the humidity. To avoid any unnecessary riots, our company the Mahona has lifted some burdens from the farmers. So, to allow them to breathe a bit, and ensure the production, which is of course strictly controlled. Each village assumes responsibility for the cultivation of an assigned number of mastic trees, so they must produce a speci c quantity of mastic each year. In the case, they produce more, we buy the surplus, but if they produce less, the growers have to pay the double price for the lacking quantity to compensate us and cover for our pro t loss. The whole production process is supervised by our of cials. We decide how many mastic trees will be cultivated, when and how the recollection of the mastic will take place. Only mastic growers and the

supervisors are engaged in cultivation. We are selling the nal product, but not the secrets of cultivation!

The Treasure of Chios,1360

The Labyrint Ioannis, Mastic Grower, Mesta, 1451

When the Genoese Lords set up, their company, Maona, to govern the island and all of its proceeds, they counted and expropriated each mastic tree. Then a central plan was devised by them in Genoa to exploit our labor at the fullest. While we used to live in harmony with our neighbors in the land, they ordered us to move to new villages that look like fortresses, because as they say, it is their “duty” to protect us from piracy and other enemies that wish to get hold of the precious mastic. And so, the villages were covered by walls, nobody stays unnoticed, when he comes in and gets out and after dark, nobody gets out or gets in, as the gates close. Small paths run through the village, which they call “streets” but actually is a never-ending labyrinth. One central and four corner towers watch over our life every single minute. The Genoese Lords have brought their architects to Chios to designed houses for us and protect us from the pirates

and the Turks. In the beginning we all rejoiced, thinking to have great masters who care for the people. But then, we understood that their “care” was pro t-oriented. The houses they have designed for us are all locked within the forti ed village and its tiny alleys. They look like dungeons, even if some of us are accommodated in twostore buildings. The huge central tower is full of armed men, ready to apply “order”. They watch every move we make and pay attention to the contraband of mastic, the punishments of which are unspeakable. In my village, Mesta, the central tower is the tallest from all the 21 mastic villages, - may be because we are close to the port... And do not even think to keep one drop of the precious mastic, let alone to smuggle it. Because, before you lose your life, you can lose an ear or a nose, or be branded on the forehead.

The Treasure of Chios,1360

The Towe Demetrus, Mastic Grower, Mesta, 1520

I am Demetrius from Mesta. I am a masticarius, a mastic grower. My father was one before me and before him his father and so on. We don’t know anything else. Before the masters, who call themselves Giustiniani arrived here, we lived in peace with each other and our former rulers the Zaccaria, god bless their souls, did a lot for us. We possessed one third of the land we cultivated and our community decided the important issues. Nowadays we are all subjected to the authority of the mighty governor, the Podesta. We are the masticarii, the farmers who cultivate the mastic trees, but we see no good from it. Because the monopoly belongs to the Maona, the commercial company of the Giustiniani. We are not allowed to use even a small branch from a mastic tree from the elds we cultivate, and if we did, they’d punish as common criminals. We are not even allowed to stay close to a mastic tree, if we did not engage to work with

it. Nobody is allowed to sell mastic, or to hide it, or to keep it for personal use, even the smallest quantity. And if some mastic growers do not reach a certain quantity in a season, then he is punished to pay the cost of the produce that is lacking in a double price. These masters supervise the whole production and set the quantity to be delivered to them. And nobody can escape. Here in Mesta, we have the tallest tower of all 21 mastic growers’ villages in Chios erected in the middle of the village. This is so, so they say, because we are in a walking distance from the port, which attracts the pirates and they wish to protect us. But my father tells me that they have forced six villages to evacuate in order to put all the population under control in one village, ours is one of them, Mesta. They made the people of another six villages to leave their homes and put them to live and work in a new one, Olympoi, which they also designed to their liking. The bigger villages like Nenita and Kalamoti were turned into forti cations. In Kalamoti lives permanently a strong force of soldiers, to watch over the south part of our land.

This year, Master Niccolò Banca completed the Castle in Armolia. My cousin, Nikitas, who is from Armolia, tells me that it is huge: it has two lines for the defense, two towers and 62 wards for the soldiers. We live in a little space, with narrow streets and little sun. I am happy to work on

the eld, despite the hard work and the fear that I might collect less mastic than the year before. I am happy because I can breathe fresh air, feel the sun, even if I risk a sun stroke, and see the horizon. There is nothing else I have seen in my life. I wished I could become a sailor and see the world. But we are not allowed to leave the elds. Because the Giustiniani Lordship earns 30.000 golden coins a year from the trade of mastic. We work and they pro t. It’s as simple as that.

Resin Tears, 1478

Olympoi, is one of the 21 medieval mastic villages of Chios added to the representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity of UNESCO. During the Genoese period (1346-1566), the village as well as the rest of the Mastic villages have exported the precious mastic to both the East and the West. This made the place an attractive target for pirates, so at that time, the village was surrounded by a wall of 5 meters high (7 meters with the loopholes) which had 4 towers. The entrance and the exit were made by a single door, which is still preserved. After 1821 another two doors were opened, one in Agios Georgios and one in the school. The central door closed at night, as well as when as pirates raided. During the raid, all residents were entering the village to defend themselves. Apart from the outer wall, the defense, which was reinforced by the dense arrangement of the walls, there was the particular tower in the center of the village, which should have been a sort of command, but also the last point of defense in the event that enemies managed to pass the external forti cation. Its construction must have taken place at the same time as the towers at Pyrgi and Dothia, that is, at the beginning of the 15th century.

Resin Tears, 1478

Humble Farmer Georgios, Mastic Farmer, 1478

If you think that it is easy to grow the mastic tree you are mistaken. I can tell you all about this, as I have spent my whole life doing so. And before me my father and before him my grandfather and before him my great-grand father did so. We don’t know anything else, just our village, the mastic trees and of course the taxes. And don’t you think we can keep the produce for using it at home. I never tasted one drop in my whole life. It’s a luxury product, Sir! It is destined for the King of France, the King of England and the Sultan of Egypt. It is not for the taste of a humble farmer. But because it is so good for the health, I keep in secrecy some drops that I have not delivered to Of cial of the Weighing Station. Just for my children, if they fall ill. But nobody knows about it, as the punishment is horrible. You can lose an ear and if you sell it you can lose a nose. And other things can happen to you until they hang you, which I cannot speak of. We

can consider ourselves lucky if the pirates don’t come to raid the lands, and if the Venetians are not in war with the Genoese. If the Emperor in Constantinople favors on ally, then the other is attacking us, and this can be just anyone with a galley eet. The condition worsened when the Turkish began raids on Ionia, and the refugees came to Chios. We have enough suffered from the re and the sword already.

The mastic trees are low in height and this means we spend our lives bending all the time. Each year we need to prune the trees, so as to allow them receive light as much as possible. Then we need to cut the bark to allow the mastic tears come out of the tree trunk and the big branches. You see, mastic is not a fruit that you collect from a tree branch. It is well hidden in bark of the tree. But cutting the bark, is not easy and special skills are required for this. For if we cut deep, the tree is badly injured. And if we only touch the surface, we cannot gain the valuable tears. The work begins before the tree cutting anyway. We must clear the earth around the tree trunk, uproot the weeds, pick up all stones and the tiniest ones, in order for the tears not to mix with them while falling onto the cleaned ground and then you must sift white earth on the cleaned earth around the tree trunk and stamp on it as long as it becomes smooth and steady. Thus, when the resin tears ow out of the bark, fall into a clean “table” and do not glue with impure

elements. The preparation of the “table” is very important for a clean produce, to be then easily collected. After that we must wait for 15 days that the tears solidify. It must be collected with the rst light. First, we collect the big pieces. Then the smaller ones, and lastly the smaller drops fallen on the table. And then we collect all the drops that are still on the tree trunk and the branches. All the produce must be transferred to shady storage rooms before midday. Then the women start to clean it. They sift the produce to remove earth and leaves, then they wash it and dry it. With small knives the women clean every tear as small as it might be and every grain. Because these pieces are very small, this procedure starts in the autumn and ends in the spring.

The Weddin Anastasia, Masticaria from Olympoi, 1502

All my family is cultivating mastic, which is taken away from those lords immediately. Much joy in life we don’t have, especially if we don’t collect enough mastic tears, then life is getting harder and survival is the goal. Four generations ago Lord Benedetto, God bless his soul, taught us how to improve the produce from the mastic

tree and vine cultivation and this made our life easier. His son, named after his father, has inherited also the virtues of the late Lord. He issued a decree, that farmers are not allowed to be sold as part of the land, as it used to be. But it did not take long the new overlords the Giustiniani to change all that.

Next week is my cousin’s wedding. All weddings are celebrated in the building the lords have built for our ceremonies. It is built on the ground, without windows, with three pillars supporting the vaults. All tables and seats are also built in. But even if it had windows, we would not be able to enjoy the view. The village is built like a prison; all houses are the same, the alleys without pattern and very narrow, no trees, no free spaces, just endless stone walls and a huge tower in the middle, where the guards keep the money and the mastic

Thirty- ve Days

of Intense Labor, 1822

The Chios Mastic Museum is located in Rahi, close to Pyrgi, the main medieval mastic village of Southern Chios. The 21 medieval villages in Southern Chios, build the only territory in the Mediterranean where the mastic tree, or Pistacia lentiscus var. Chia, is cultivated; called by its generic name of skínos in Greek, this is an endemic variety of pistacia plant from which mastíha (gum mastic) is produced. The Chios Mastic Museum aims to showcase the production history of the mastic tree’s cultivation and the processing of its resin, which it integrates into the cultural landscape of Chios and is included into the UNESCO List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity. In the Renaissance the Genoese dominion in Chios (1346– 1566) was abolished by the Ottoman conquest (1566-1912). Under the Ottomans Chios experienced economic prosperity until the Greek War of Independence broke out in 1821.

Thirty- ve Days

of Intense Labor, 1822 The Revolt Vahit Pasha, Governor of Chios, 25th of March 1821

In the years of the reign of our divine Sultan Mahmut, victorious son of Sultan Abdulhamid, eternal be the memory of the supreme judge, protector of the holy cities and representative of the Prophet, whose subjects, believers and slaves, non-believers who pay the head tax, live in safety and enjoy welfare, all of a sudden in 1821 the Greeks started a revolt against us. In those days I was the governor of Chios, and thus I have experienced the revolt in rst hand. Wishing to leave the memory to our brothers of faith, how they are supposed to obey their masters and how to treat in an exemplary way the populations who dare to revolt doubting their Master’s supreme power, I start my narration. How this revolt started is linked to evil coincidences, which they interpret as offensive to the religion of Jesus. They were driven by old myths, that the time has come, where the Greek nation, shall be liberated, and they do nothing else

than strolling around drunken and cheer, without any shame of their misery. But their hidden plan is to ravage and destroy our Empire.

The Flag of the Rebel 28th of May 1821

After a thorough investigation, the sparkle of this revolt has been made known to our government, which decided to hang the Patriarch of the Greeks and some others instigators close to him, who were responsible for this despicable and hideous act. But after a while the prince of Moldova, Michael, who has supported the revolting Greeks and the island of Hydra, where their proud sailors come, became the leader of their naval forces and raised a new ag with a new symbol on it. Already in April 1821 this otilla has attacked and destroyed the harmless believers, who travelled to Mecca and the all the Turks they met in the archipelago. Thus, seafaring has become extremely dangerous and the life of the Turks living in Chios was put in constant and great risk. While it was decided to reinforce Chios further, bad news arrived from Peloponnese and thus the forces had to change their course and mission. When our eet sailed out of the island of Kos, opposite of the island of Samos, they met the schooners of the rebels’

In the name of God,

We acquaint that the Greek nation, subjugated for four hundred years by the Ottomans, has decided with one voice to get rid of the slavery and live in freedom. Hydra, our island, without foreign assistance, seeking to collaborate with all the nation, is starting the liberation struggle, recruiting their brave offspring to battle against the Ottomans. Captain Nikolaos Georgiou is invested with the power to combat the Ottomans until the last breath so that the nation regains its freedom and independence. Thus, we request the captains of the foreign eet, should they coincidentally meet us in battle, to assist us as it ts to a handful of people struggling against a powerful opponent to regain their national rights. And if the assistance is not bene cial to their governments’ plans, then we beseech them to honor us with neutrality and God the almighty will reward each one according to his deeds.

otilla and it was clear that it was an ambush. In order to avoid to fall in the hands of the in dels, our captain set re to the gunpowder storage and all the 10 schooners blew, eternal shall be the memory of those martyrs. Each captain of the rebels carries with him a written order with signatures of the chiefs of the revolts in Hydra. Because one of them fell in our hands I translate it:

In the meantime, our eet set, supported by the Egyptians, set sail for the Peloponnese, with 55 ve ships, met close to the island of Kos, 100 Greek ships. It would be easy to detonate them with cannons from the land, but because of the fear of the six Greek reships, which were there ready to attack, this plan was abandoned. After several maneuvers, our eet sailed to the Dardanelles, fearing that the malevolent and dishonest Russia, always stirring up the peace-loving Christians, subjects of the Sultan, with the word freedom, might wish to pro t from those unfortunate events and declare war to the Sultan, and easily grab its own gain in the times of general upheaval and also because it supports a Christian nation, like the in del Greeks, as the old proverb says “all mad dogs are from one family”. Thus, we decided to send a guard of 750 mercenaries to Chios, as there reside over 80. 000 in dels, and only some few Muslims.

Thirty- ve Days

of Intense Labor, 1822 Dealing the Card September 1821

In the month of September, I arrived in Chios with and escort of about 1000 men and Eles Agha under my orders. I have immediately called a council of the Ulama, whom I have richly gifted, and the community heads of the Christians, whom I made clear the orders of the Sultan in Greek language and I made them pay a monthly rate of 15.000 silver coins to me, Mehmet Emin Vahit Pasha, governor of Chios and 10.000 silver coins to my of cer Eles Agha in order to maintain the forti cations at the Castle of Chios and pay for my subsistence. They have explicitly expressed the full obedience to the Sultan and have written a letter of gratitude to the Sultan for his clemency, as it also happened with the island of Cyprus, only there we decapitated them. In this way the safety of the life and property of the Chians has been put in my hands. But the Chians are characterized by the most reliable and respected historic sources of our Empire as

untrustworthy and dishonest, they showed a super cial obedience, so as to manage their commercial affairs without dif culties in Asia and Europe, ready to deal the cards of the game as the proverb says.

The proof is that being informed on the rebel acts, they have become shareholders at the ships of those captains from the island of Spetses, with who they are in contact at a daily basis! Thus, I have started preparations for ammunition, but I suspect that the other side is doing the same thing and they are up to something big. And while I am feverously preparing to meet the challenge, the Grand Vizier send me an unexpected order, that the guard in Chios is appropriate and no more forces are needed and this is the result of the activities of the Chians in Konstantiniyye, where they have a tremendous in uence in the government. However, I kept hostages the heads of the communities, so as to make sure, that they will keep their promise and lead a peaceful life. In the meantime, Chian provosts were sent to Konstantiniyye to pay a tax of 750.000 silver coins, and there the intelligence of the Bostanci Pasha realized that they are up to something, combined with the observation that rebel ships are approaching the island. Also, the English ambassador shared the opinion that something is going on there. It was then decided that 3.000 men from Smyrna would join the guard in Chios, however, as they had to be recruited, they did not arrive, but in small shares to the island.

The Declaration 10th of March 1822

69 smaller and 17 bigger ships of the rebels approached the island. Their presence matched well with the secrecy the Mastic villages kept, so that I suspect that the in del Chians are preparing an insurgence, to timely meet their compatriots’ naval assistance. We heard that an allied army of 6.000 men reached the island, but this information proved to be false, and we did not meet but undisciplined, scattered people with a cross sewn on a ag, still they killed 50 innocent and unde led Muslims, the souls of which must have accepted the same day the wreath of the martyr. A shameless document fallen in hour hands signed by three rebels, Bournias from Chios. Dimitrakis from Psara and Grigorakis from Samos, declared:

We, the captains of the Greek Navy, notify the governors and viziers of Chios that, without God’s will nothing

Thirty- ve Days

of Intense Labor, 1822

happens on the Earth. For their misconduct the Greek nation was doomed to live in slavery under the Ottomans. But now because of your misconduct our nation rises up against you and God has blessed our weapons. As we liberated many places, the same will happen with Chios. But we do not wish to shed the blood of the innocent, thus we request you to deliver us the island in three days. The Ottomans living in Chios will not be harmed, neither their honor, nor their lives. The governors and soldiers will be transferred out of the island at our cost. But if you harm the jailed Christians, then it is you that spilled the blood of the innocent. I called a council to consult, and there the wisest Ulema took the word:

Brothers, we have gathered here because of the immediate threat of Christians. But through our history we always have dealt with danger. I remind you that when Sultan Selim, son of the glorious Sultan Suleiman, conquered this island in 1566, transferring here out faithful ancestors, the island has been captured by the Genoese and then was recaptured by the fearless Cikal Pasha, who installed here the janissaries never to leave. Also, the unholy Venetians tried to occupy our island but our Kapudan Pasha Ibrahim Misirlioglou in 1694 humiliated the arrogance of the in del raptors and punished their collaborators the Francs and the Greeks

in an exemplary way. Our triumph does not depend on our weapons but on our prophet. But today we have much more men and supplies here and an order to obey: our Sultan gave us this island to protect and we cannot to dishonor him with a surrender. Do not send word to the dishonest proposal of the in del Greeks. When the three days pass, we will answer in the language of the re and with the cutting of the sword.

And so be it.

Thirty- ve Days

of Intense Labor, 1822 The Drea 18th of April 1822

The rst battle took place on the 2nd of April, we lost only 6 martyrs and killed 3.000 in dels. Our heroes brought to my feet the blood dripping heads of the rebels, who accepted their punishment by the Muslim knife. I have rewarded each one with gifts and honors. Some have offered me captured rebels, who I had immediately decapitated and ordered their sculls lled in with straw, while their unholy bodies were dispersed in the sea.

On the 17th April the French Consul came to offer his support as he said, noting that our enemies built a force of 11.000 men and those will be de nitely supported by the Christians, who build the majority in the island, and that I should take his advice that any resistance is futile and that he volunteered to cross me over to Cesme with of cers and soldiers. But if I decided to combat, he would support me with supplies, as his government has

friendly intentions towards our Sultan. However, I judged the French advice as false, because of the mobility of the Chians and the transfers of which he made using his own ship.

In the night of the 18th of April, I dreamed of our Prophet, who came to me escorted by martyrs and saints wearing their wreaths of martyrdom and a green beard. I also dreamed of the holy man Abdulkadir Gilani, dressed in a bright uniform, who was born in Babylon, but was the protector of the brotherhood of Hizir Dede, which is here on the island. Abdulkadir Gilani, eternal be his memory, told me not to worry, and that I have to remain calm and that the Muslims, who enjoy divine providence will be helped with strong forces entering from the south part of the island. And indeed, arrived our eet under Kapudan Pasha Kara Ali, who disembarked 1500 men with naked swords at the gate of Yerpan. But the rebels, instead of leaving, they attacked a corvette and made the Admiral realize the insane stubbornness of the rebels. The next day our soldiers patrolled different parts of the island and brought us back blood dripping heads, upon which they have been rewarded by me personally. Then our soldiers assaulted the monastery in Kallimasia, where many families of doubtful orientation, faithful to us or not, have gathered. The monastery was forti ed and thus the soldiers had to be supported with cavalry and supplies and one miraculous talisman, the composition of which I

have personally supervised from the holy book of Mevlana, which was written in Konya. Those talismans attached the soldiers to their palms and after six hours of bloodshed they made those miserable realize that nothing resists the power of Islam. Our soldiers took then care of another mastic village, Aigiorgi Sikousi, because there resisted the chief of the rebels, Logothetis.

The next day all the foreign consuls, who escape during the siege Logothetis laid to our Castle, have visited me, except the one of Russia. They wished to thank me for my provisions that none of their compatriots were harmed and they prepared their reports to their governments accordingly. In order to keep my promise to the Chians, that whoever surrendered the weapons would be spared, I sent an embassy from the innocent and peace-loving mastic villagers to the others to persuade them to deliver the rebels and surrender the weapons. But while the mastic villagers obeyed and delivered the rebels, thus amnesty was granted to them, those others in the mountains declined my offer and prepared for an attack. I assigned the task to oppress the revolt to a fresh force of 7000 men, who just arrived from Izmir under the orders of Abdi Pasha. In the village of Pityos they fought a bloody battle, but he nally managed to ground the village to the level and decapitate all the population. Then he turned to Nea Moni, where he heard that chief

rebel Logothetis was forti ed, and it took quite an effort to conquest this place.

The following day I called the provosts who I kept as hostages in the dungeon in the Castle. After one month in prison, they looked like ghastly skeletons and they were crying begging for mercy, underlining that the revolt was not the fault of the Chians and that was happened to them is only caused by the outsiders, the rebels. I believe them and I have to say that what the Chians suffered so far, is a punishment too great to suffer for their disobedience. I also admit that my soul suffers that I had to impose these cruel measures, but I had to set an example for the other regions as well for all those who consider to revolt. But at least I am happy that many Christians accept Islam and the young men were circumcised, so their souls are relieved from sins. And I don’t have any remorse because in the holy book of Serhousni is stated that to cut a wood is different from cutting a head, but not in the case where the head is Christian, and in the next passage this holy man explains than the destruction of a Christian rebel is for the believer of Islam like cutting a tree.

Thirty- ve Days

of Intense Labor, 1822 Scoundrels of the Nav 17th of August 1822

The troops enriched themselves by the rich spoils of the Christian property, with uncountable movable items and male slaves, but also beautiful females for their harems. In order to be able to leave for the island of Psara and Samos to reason the population there and demonstrate to the local how sharp and irresistible the Ottoman sword is, our soldiers auctioned the movable items to a lowest price. I have personally praised this noble intention of our soldiers and I sent a letter to the Kapudan Pasha, Kara Ali, to escort them with the agship of our eet to those islands to conclude their mission there, because these islands are the centers and the treasuries that spread the revolutionary ideas to all the places in the Mediterranean. But the Kapudan Pasha did not seem to be aware of this mission because of his drunkenness and lavishness. He responded that my idea was irrational and that he cannot risk the lives of the soldiers in well-forti ed places, and

that the people there were much greater enthusiasts for the revolutionary ideas than in Chios. He also said that the troops did not intend to achieve a victory, but to loot and slaughter the innocent and that was not the intention of our Sultan. Also, that he has to set sail for the Peloponnese because there are more urgent issues to be dealt with.

To console the disappointed troops, I decided to implement the Sultan’s order, the rman, which was long due I let the 63 provosts hang. Before they were executed, we have thoroughly examined, each one separately, in order to disclose the details of the revolts, their accomplices, secret correspondence and anything else related to the revolt. I found the interpretation of Kapudan Pasha Kara Ali quite strange: he thought to grant amnesty to the provosts for the common good, and instead to hang them to impose a heavy tax. When he found out that I have literally executed the Sultan’s order, he was so enraged with me, that the army understood his friendly feeling to the Christians and thus became further attached to my person. Kara Ali decided to defame and slander me with a secret letter to the Sultan and later thought to exterminate me using the scoundrels the Navy is full of. I decided to resign from my post, but I could not leave the island, as I was responsible for the salaries and subsistence of all the soldiers. On the rst week of the Ramazan, arrived the order from Konstantiniyye, that I

was to be replaced by Abdi Pasha. Finally, after 35 days of intense labor, I prepared to sail for Efes.

Thirty- ve Days

of Intense Labor, 1822 Firework Konstantinos Kanaris, Chios, 6th of June 1822

On the 1st of June 1822 two reships at the port of Psara were ready to sail, one under my command, the other under the command of Pipinos from the island of Hydra. He was 32 years old and I was 28. We had a particular mission. Despoina, my wife came down to the port with our newly born son in her arms. Take care of the children, I said to her. God with you, Konstantis, she replied in tears.

We sailed and lay waiting in the middle of the sea for the appropriated winds. Finally, after 5 days in stillness, the wind we hoped for, rose. We set sail for the strait of Chios, there where the Turkish eet was. A little later we saw scout boats passing by, we fooled them pretending we were Austrians. In the evening the wind faded out and the men started to complain that we had to call of our mission and that we would fail without the right wind.

Around midnight we set sail for Chios. It is Ramazan and there is a feast on the ship of the Turkish admiral. It seems like a big feast, all the of cers were apparently there and those of the army, those who slaughtered and massacred the innocent people in Chios must have been gathered there too. Music, noise and lighting made me think that they were celebrating their victory over the innocent people. I ordered the men to uncage the mines of the re and the helmsman to approach the ship, where the music came from. It was the agship of the eet. The darkness was protecting us, but a watchman ordered us to move away, thinking we belonged to them. As we did not answer, he called an alarm. Some bullets ew among the halyards of the re ship. But we already managed to insert the stick of the re ship into one of open hatch of the agship. “The re hooks” I shout to the sailors. Now the re ship is closely attached to the celebrating agship and we set re to the spout of the gunpowder. We hastily jump to a boat and saw how they tried to untie the re ship that has already embraced them with re.

When the boat I was steering was in safe distance, we all turned to see what happened. What a beaming! Later

Listen here, I said to all: there is the sea. Whoever has already regretted joining me, shall fall into the waters and save himself.

Exemplary Punishmen Vahit Pasha, former Governor of Chios, 17th of August 1822

On the 29th of the month of Ramazan, on Wednesday, the sixth hour, we saw an unusual light, which turned the night to day. It was clear that the agship was burning. The army rushed to me, imploring me to revenge the ship and destroy the mastic villages. Then I sent the guard to

when the re reached the gunpowder storage of the agship with the 84 cannons on board, the night has turned to day. In Chios it was felt like an earthquake. In Smyrna they saw the light. We heard later that from the 2200 men on the board of the agship only 200 saved their lives and that the Kapudan Pasha Kara Ali was interred in the Turkish cemetery of Chios. Pipinos tried to blow up the ship were the treasury of the eet was kept, but they managed to detach the re ship, which was already in ames. But the burning ship caused considerable havoc as it was moving without steering among the ships of the eet, and urged the enemy to sail way from the Aegean Sea and hide in the Dardanelles. Thus, they could not bring the supplies to Mahmut Dramali Pasha in the Peloponnese. The Revolution was saved and the spilled blood in Chios was revenged.

protect the villages and started to collect information. In the meantime, the body of Kapudan Pasha Kara Ali was found with his head smashed. His death was according to his beliefs, which were not Islamic at all. He will be accordingly judged on the Judgement Day, as the destruction of his ship was caused by his indifference and insensitivity. On the 17th of August I have reached Efes and I was in my way to Konstantiniyye. But a messenger from the Sultan came to me with the order to stay in exile in Alaya and the title of the vizier was taken from me. In this way closes the chapter Chios, where we lost 600 men, but I take pride to account for 1100 decapitated, 25000 rebel’s dead, about 5000 enslaved boys and girls, 26 pieces of artillery and 53 vehicles. This punishment became exemplary for many places and our Sultan, did not lose but the taxes.

Outburst of Hell, 1822

Anavatos is an un-inhabited byzantine tower-village in the center of Chios. Due to its location on a large granite rock at the end of a cliff, the ancient city towers majestically above the surrounding area. Although it is a deserted village, it has still preserved its history, which is often sensed by the visitor when wandering through its stone-paved streets. Tradition has it that the rst settlers were the woodcutters who came to build the new convent of Nea Moni at the request of Byzantine Emperor Constantine IX Monomachus. In exchange they requested him to give them this land to settle a village. Pirate raids were later on to ravish the village many times, but still the people rebuilt it again. Anavatos is directly linked with the Greek War of Independence in 1821 and the massacre of Chios in 1822 by the Turks.

Outburst of Hell, 1822

The Settler Anastasios Zevgas, 1263

We are very proud about it and we pass the legend on: our grandfathers told our fathers, and we tell it to our sons. The rst settlers in our village came here by the edict of the Emperor of the Romans who built the Monastery of Nea Moni in 1042. You see, while he was in

exile in the island of Mytilene, three monks, Nikitas, John and Joseph have prophesied to the noble Constantine Monomachos, that he would become Emperor in Constantinople, and when the prophesy is ful lled, he should honor the Virgin Mary and build a monastery in the island of Chios. And he kept his promise. The best artists, laborers and artisans were sent from Constantinople to Chios to build Nea Moni, the new monastery. The rst who arrived were the woodcutters, who set to look for high quality timber in the locations close to the construction site. This is how they became enchanted by the beauty of the place, and when the Monastery was built, they asked to be given small land plots in the area. The Emperor, very pleased apparently by their excellent work, not only has satis ed their request, but also sent them money to build and embellish their housings. With hard work and enthusiasm our ancestors founded our village. They have grown to love this land and rooted in it. Fond of the green area they planted olive trees, cultivated vine, set up beehives, and prepared the Anavatousiko, the aromatic wine, which gave our village fame.

But the garden of Eden was not meant to hold on… As soon as pirates found a way to climb up from the port of Elinda, the village was plundered and left in ashes.

Today, behind the green olive gardens, there are still visible the parts of the rst stone village, the eternal silent witnesses of the barbaric acts of the unholy men. The villagers who escaped knew now better. The climbed up this steep cliff and rescued themselves in the caves of the giant rock. Thus, they realized that it was there were they had to start building their lives again. With hard work they have overcome the obstacles set by nature and built their houses on the giant rock 500 meters away from the earth. Four hundred houses we built with hard work, a school and a church, a courthouse and a prison, all beautifully connected with arches and wide walls like a strong fortress close to the sky. And all around the rock lies the in nite green sea of the cliff.

The Sieg Z. Kaloutas, Psara, May 1822

Turn of Fat On the 25th of March 1821 the Greeks living under the Ottoman rule started their revolution. At this time, Chios was favored by the Sultans, mainly because of the mastic. The rich mastic villages belonged to the Sultan’s sister Esme Sultana and we enjoyed privileges and selfgovernance. When the revolution started, we were asked to join but the rich merchants and ship owners with considerable fortunes who are controlling with their mercantile skills and diplomacy the commerce between the Black, the Aegean and the Mediterranean Seas, declined. In the meantime, Antonios Bournias from Chios, who has served Napoleon as a colonel in Egypt, met with the leaders of the Revolution in Peloponnese and asked them to help him to persuade the Chians to join. The leaders declined on the grounds that the time is not favoring such an act. Bournias then met with the leader of Samos, Logothetis, whom he persuaded to help him advance the revolution in Chios, so as not for Samos to be isolated and exposed to the Turkish forces.

The following year on the 10th of March 1822, Logothetis landed on the island with about 200 men. Their

spontaneous and careless act was not planned, neither have they informed the rst government in Greece, nor had they any permission to perform military operations in Chios. And since the act was unplanned, there was no back up by the naval forces, who should have been gathered to support a revolution in Chios, however they succeeded to stir up the people in the land. Logotheties laid siege for two weeks to the forti ed Castle of Chios, which was defended by 3.000 Turks. He remained unsuccessful as he had neither enough forces nor were those engaged well equipped. When the men from Samos entered the city of Chios, they found all houses and shops closed and had to break doors in order to nd food. Only farmers were happy to see them, shouting aloud “freedom, freedom”. Only that the farmers did not hold any weapons, but their farming tools. In the meantime, Bournias, proud to have served as an of cer in Napoleon’s army, was not at all pleased to receive orders from Logothetes, and started quarrelling instead to hold together.

Enraged by the news, Sultan Mahmut imprisoned all Chians in Constantinople and had 60 of them decapitated. His admiral Kara Ali Pasha was ordered to sail to Chios and suppress the uprising. On the 30th of March 1822 Kara Ali had a force of 7.000 men disembarked and set on re the city and all the villages killing and slaughtering all males above 12 years and all women above 4- years, with the exception of those willing to embrace Islam.

Scent of an Orange Grove, 1824

Kampos is the southward’s continuation of the city of Chios, which began in the years of Genoese domination (1346-1566). The Genoese introduced the systematic cultivation of citrus trees as well as the export trade of their fruits. The harmonious combination of residence and production created an unrivalled milieu for life and work. Foreign travelers who visited Chios give enthusiastic descriptions of the lush gardens and the grand country houses they met. Under the Ottomans (1566-1912) the leading mercantile families of Chios engaged in trading silk textiles, citrus fruits and other commodities in the international commercial centers of the day. In the massacre of the population of Chios by the Turks, in 1822, Kampos was plundered and left deserted. The property-owners dispersed all over the world and the estates passed almost totally into other hands. The 19th century was a dif cult period of survival

and readjustment for Chios. In 1881, a major earthquake destroyed almost all the towers in Kampos. In the ensuing years rebuilding and resettlement of the region commenced, in a general climate of revival on the island, before and after its liberation from the Turks and union with Greece in 1912. Kampos survived thriving and inhabited into the twentieth century, with its basic characteristics, its citrus trees, water wells and enclosure walls, virtually intact.

Scent of an Orange

Grove, 1824 Founders of the Great School Marie-Louis, Comte de Marcellus, Chios 1820

While residing in the island of Chios, my dear friend and philosopher Neophyte Vamvas and I visited outside the city a wonderful residence located in a lowland area with oranges and lemon trees starting from the south of the city and extending from the sea to the foot of the mountain. This estate belongs to the wealthiest of the Chian trader, Rodokanakis, and the most generous of the founders of the Great School of Chios. He had instructed my dear philosopher Vamvas, to invite me to go there to spend a few hours away from the harbor and the noise of the city of Chios.

I crossed large orchards with lemon and orange roads bordered by walls like in area outside Marseilles. Then I met elds with carob and palm trees. I reached the villa without a driver or after a two-hour hike. The façade is simple and a stone staircase has led me to the rst oor where my hosts waited to greet me. They let me in a

round room with a view decorated with many frescoes. The sea breeze, after rst passing through the blooming orchards of oranges, brought freshness and fragrance to the house. First, they made me sit on sofas lined with red and white fabric from the workshops of Bursa at the foot of Mount Olympus in Bithynia. The fabric created around me sweet and soft re ections because it was from silk. My gentle hosts have kept away the army of servants, with which the villas of the wealthy Greeks are lled and no one appeared during my entire visit. Instead, the spouse of Rodokanakis, Lady Tharsitsa, served herself the sweets of the spoon and the coffee, and her husband lying next to me on the sofas lled with his own hands a long pipe and lit it for me.

At the Roofto

Later on, Lady Tharsitsa let me in another room full of marvelous paintings of the Venetian style. From there we climbed up at the rooftop, where a telescope was set. I turned it towards the shores of Asia Minor and could clearly see the port of Cesme, the ruins of Ephesus, the plains watered by the Kastros river and the hills of Samos. After I lled my senses looking at the farthest places, I turned the telescope towards the villages of Chios, those that are built on the slopes of Mount Pelinneon, towards the greenest orchards, the

Provost Rodokanakis showed me around his estate, and without pride and display mood he led me to his beautiful gardens. We took a long walk around cisterns lled with transparent water under the shades of the orange trees. Lady Tharsitsa picked up a bouquet of the most beautiful owers of the garden and offered me as a souvenir for my visit to Kampos.

Masterpiece

When we returned home, where on the ground oor are a bowling room and a 2000-volume library selected by my dear philosopher Vamvas, the director of the Great School of Chios, when he traveled to Paris. I saw that here as likewise at the School, next to the greats Greek authors were placed the masterpieces of Italy and those of the era of king Louis XIV, the roi-soleil! When the time came to say good bye to my kind hosts, Lady Tharsitsa came to bring me giant oranges, which she has just collected herself in the orange grove a while ago. I had to taste them with her. She sprayed the oranges with liquor from mastic and gave to me quite a few to take with me. She has also given me lemons and bergamots,

pomegranates and vineyards, the whitest houses of the harbor, shining bright under the light of the sun, the many ships scattered in the bay, and I could not get enough from all those beauties.

the last is a kind of orange with sour esh, but a heavenly scent. Provost Rodokanakis had the kindness to escort me to the road that would lead me to the city of Chios. We arrived in Chios fully loaded with fruits and owers to narrate a million experiences in the orange grove, which, alas, lasted only a few hours! Kampos is a place, where a thriving noble spirit is felt. The breeze circulated through the ornamented balustrades, the graceful columns and the cross-vaulted roofs in the orange groves is imbued with an orange scent and million colours, which gives the panorama an unparalleled quality.

No doubt that the inhabitants of Kampos are cosmopolitanism and mutual understanding between people of diverse cultures and religions. The lovely mansions in Kampos and their auxiliary buildings, the family shrines and the stone carvings along with the overall herbal plan of the area show to us visitors the evolution of a progressive island society which made its home country the center of the world. Already while in Chios it became clear to me that the Kampos families elevated in the Genoese nobility, not only enhanced their social status and pedigree, but more importantly became an indispensable part of the West and its traditions. The educated Chians became the unique bond with the West

making their civilization a special entity unanimously celebrated by travelers, foreign diplomats, travelers and intellectuals. I am myself have been an eye witness of this particular bond!

Scent of an Orange

Grove, 1824 Salon de Pari Marie-Louis, Comte de Marcellus, Paris 1824

Alas, the happy memories I have lived in Chios were not meant to stay as such in my mind. Just two years after my visit, the Sultan has ordered to raze the island to the ground. The reason is that Chios joined the Greek revolution that has shaken his Empire. The news arrived in France that from the 117,000 Christian inhabitants of the island, 42,000 were slaughtered, 50,000 captured and 23,000 ed to the rebel regions of Greece and Europe. The captives, mostly young boys, girls and women, were sold into slavery in Smyrna and Constantinople.

Two years after the massacre in the Salon of Paris I saw the painting of maître Eugène Delacroix which depicted the horrible massacre. Shocked by the brutality of the painting and unable to grasp the tragedy, I rushed home with my memories of Chios vivid in full contract to what I have seen on the painting. I have remembered the few

hours after my farewell from the Rodokanakis family and all the Chians I met. Poor young girls… Where are your noisy laughter and your innocent joys now? The winds of the war have blown them all away. Now I am the last witness of this happiness on this beautiful island, as all those coming after me, cannot witness but catastrophe and ruins. Oh, my young friends! What has happened to you? Are you among those who were slaughtered or among those who were sold slaves in Cairo and Smyrna? Poor Lady Tharsitsa, who knows what, has happened to you…

For the Love of Freedom, 2021

The Admantios Korais Library was created in 1792 as part of the Great School of the Nation in Chios. The Library is one of the largest libraries in Greece with a collection of 250,000 volumes. The rst books were donations of the distinguished scholar Adamantios Korais and his circle of the Enlightenment. Today the Library has two borrowing and two book borrowing cars allowing access to those individuals who cannot visit it. On the second oor is hosted the Argenti Ethnological Museum. With continuous donations and purchases, the Library now has more than 250,000 volumes. An invaluable treasure of the Library is the donation of the Great Napoleon in honor of Adamantios Korais "Déscription de l'Egypte", consisting of 14 illustrated volumes (version 1809-1822).

The Repor Stamatis Petrou, Commercial Assistant of “S. Thomas Company”, Amsterdam 1772

Dear respected Monsieur,

I hope that my letter nds you well and that you are in best health, protected by our Lord, you and all your family. Our company and its branches in Smyrna, Constantinople, Chios and Amsterdam, I hear that goes very well. For all the activities here in Amsterdam I can only report successes. For my part, Monsieur, I will do my very best to secure the investment of your respected partners here in Amsterdam. 45.000 silver coins are a good capital to start a business and I value my fortune and the fortune of the other employees to be able to secure our humble existence through your generosity. We are committed to our task to make the company ourish and ensure the pro ts it deserves. Thus, Monsieur, I am writing to you about a very delicate matter, which worries me and I think that now is the time

For the Love of Freedom,

2021

Foreign Custom You know, Monsieur, that I originate from the island of Patmos and you also know, how attached to our language and tradition this population is. Also having worked with you in Smyrna, I have learned even more to value those traditions. Thus, I remark, every day more, that Monsieur Adamantios is exposed to novelties that are generated in France or in other cities of the Europeans, and he seems to deviate from the street of God and our faith. He is excessively curious as a person and obsessed with learning all the new things that the Europeans follow in fashion and behavior, and this, I am afraid, is affecting his thinking and his values.

I dare say, Monsieur, that Adamantios is not a church goer. No, Monsieur, he is not. Neither he is attending the fastening times, sending his servant to buy meat, whenever he pleases! All the Christians here he is driving to madness with his behavior. In regards to the business, fi

to con ne my troubles to you. You see, it is a about Monsieur Adamantios, the son of your respected associate Monsieur Ioannis Korais, whom I have escorted here in Amsterdam. We have found immediately support by our compatriots that are already established here with mighty companies and many and manifold commercial activities.

Fashion and Women

The house next to us inhabits our landlord and his three daughters. One day he paid them a visit and asked one of the daughters to escort him for a walk. But the daughter denied the proposition on the grounds that he is dressed in a strange fashion (our fashion), thus immediately he promised to her, that he will change his appearance! I heard this but at rst, I did not believe he meant to do so. But then he dared to ask Monsieur Stefanos, if he can change to French clothes in the evening and keep our clothing fashion during the day. He rather intends to become an of cer, as he ordered military clothing with gold embroidery on it and even bought a sword! He bought a black coat, which, when he met some friends, they asked him if he was mourning, and who died. Thus, he gave the expensive woolen coat to the priest to get rid of it. And two fur coats, not one, he ordered, mostly to impress his lover, rather than because

little attention he allocates. Instead of frequenting the other merchants and participate the talks about the business, like all merchants do, he prefers to frequent the Opera, even on Christmas and the Easter Day. So much he decouples from our traditions that I start to believe that he intends to become a Calvinist! Sometimes he arrives at home after midnight. As for his expenses, generosity is the driver!

he looked for winter protection. And so, he has changed, that while previously he did not even wish to let a moustache grow, or wear a head cover, now he has a hat collection like the actors do. Let alone that a barber comes every day for one hour to take care of his hair. And the shoe bows, he does not wear them like all merchants do, but imitates his secretary, who wears them in his private fashion. And about the daughter of the landlord, I am most worried. Either he invites her at home, where they spend endless hours in the closed room, or he visit her at her home, where the same things happen. And the parents of the girl, not more than 18 years old is the daughter, do not nd it weird, that those youngsters spend hours locked in a room! Is this, Monsieur, the behavior, of an honorable man?

Bad habits and an English To

Four teachers he is employing already: One is teaching him Dutch, the other Jewish and Spanish, one is for Geometry, another teaches the guitar, which is an English toy, and he learns French songs to sing with the music. And all that he is not doing for any pro t, for Christ’s sake, but just for the praise of other people. And all day long he is engaged with a typesetter! And not only: in the beginning he said it was a sin to have mounted on the

wall’s paintings of women, now he is doing excessively quite the same. He even participated an auction to buy those portraits!

Closing, Monsieur, I can say only one: Big trouble is brewing since Monsieur Adamantios came to Amsterdam, Sir. But I can swear to you, Monsieur, that happened because of the many books he is reading; besides that, please allow me to say so, Monsieur, he does not suit for the profession of the merchant at all. Reading is a widespread habit in Europe, and he, by reading those French books especially, he became a prodigal son. Because it lets the youth perceive the freedom and they start to do as they wish. God help us, Monsieur, Europe is de nitely not for us…

For the Love of Freedom,

2021 City of the Enlightenmen Adamance Coray, Amsterdam, 23rd of September, 1774

I have become the servant, or better the slave, of the completely insane despot and senile old man, Monsieur Stamatis. The “assistant” that my father’s associate gave me to escort me to Amsterdam and sort out things for me is an illiterate, superstitious creature, a disrespectful crook. He is a narrow-minded salesman, from the sort of men, species I should say, that considers to fart (please excuse me for this inappropriate expression) a mortal sin, but to split a happy couple, is not a problem at all!

How could I possibly come to terms with such a creature? It is merely impossible, impossible by all means. Amsterdam is a big and important European commercial center, the one where more skills are required to establish oneself than just the skills to sale some merchandise. It’s a cross roads for the ideas from all Europe. A liberal and tolerant city, not bound on

religion and dogma, a city refuge of the free spirit, the city that incorporates the freedom, a city where all books, elsewhere prohibited, are accessible to read. A city that innovates, open to different mentalities, behavior and style, even commerce and commercial morals are enhanced by this Enlightenment.

And there he is, this faint-hearted servant of the tradition and regression wishing to dictate how I have to behave, to be dressed, to converse and what to read and learn, better give up the last activities entirely. Because I was fortunate enough to come from a small city still governed by the forces of the darkness to the city of freedom, I will never give up my right to read and think. Six years I spent in Amsterdam, not that I wished to become a merchant, but because I did not desire to return to my enslaved country. Especially after having experienced the freedom in Amsterdam it was unthinkable for me to return to any of the Sultan’s lands. Thus, I decided to travel to Smyrna, to ask my father’s permission to study medicine and become a doctor, rstly to avoid living under the Turks and secondly because this is the only profession that the Turks respect. However, an unfortunate turn of events brought me almost literally to insanity: an earthquake and a re on May the 24th in 1777 destroyed most of Smyrna. The city was still shaking when I arrived there, and I found nothing but ashes, where formerly my father’s house stood. And if it

hadn’t been for my friend Bernhard Keun, I would not have endured the four following years intact. Hoping to keep me in Smyrna, my parents suggested a rich marriage, but no love could match to my love for freedom. Thus, my parents gave in and I nally arrived in Montpellier in October 1882. Alas, almost a year after the news of my father’s death arrived, my mother passed away too. May their souls rest in peace…

Nouvelle-Athènes Adamance Coray, Paris 1789

I have completed my studies in medicine in Montpellier, but I burn of my desire to explore the new Athens! Thus, I left for Paris on the 24th of May 1788 carrying in my pocket three recommendation letters by my professors, Broussonet, Grimaud and Chaptal. However, I arrived in Paris in a time, where for the rst time in history a transformation would take place, a transformation that would affect the history, the policy and identity of a nation, a transformation which was at least expected by the French. The French are considered to be “light” by the other nations and it was this transformation the proof for the French nation. It was unexpected that made these

men emerge to the surface and become the legislators of the new polity, the ideal, the new constitution. After 1789, both the revolution in France and the death of my parents, I remained resolute in my conviction never to cohabitate with tyrants again. I have come to realize that it was the spread of education among the French that borne the love for freedom, thus I decided to dedicate myself to spread education among my enslaved compatriots, hoping that they too instill the love of freedom in their breasts. And which other medium can spread education better than books? So, I set as my mission to provide for books presenting the works of Homer, Aristotle, Thucydides, Plato and many others, not only for the students of the ancient language, but to make the content available for all enriched with comments and explanations in the common language. And this mission, I realized right from the start that it was impossible to be coupled with the profession of medicine and any other activity whatsoever and thus I did not hesitate to give up medicine, despite my degree and my dissertation.

The riots that followed the transformation of the French nation in 1789 were caused by demagogues who had nothing to do with the brave and wise leaders of the transformation. It seemed to me that history demanded a new stronger demagogue to tame the others. And this

demagogue was the notorious Napoleon, fully equipped with strategic and governing virtues, made by nature to inspire fear to the rioters and respect to those wishing peace and stability. In one thing he errored though: he did not grasp the expectations of the people, who appreciated his virtues. And instead to liberate the subjugated nations of Europe from their tyrants, he became despot of the despots himself. Instead to sow bliss in the whole of Europe, and be divinely celebrated on earth by the hymns of the current and future generations, alas, he let himself be captured by the hymns of the atterers.

For the Love of Freedom,

2021 The Rosetta Ston Adamance Coray, Paris 1802

My dear Étienne,

I suppose you remember that some years ago, in 1799 it was, during the military campaign of the Emperor in Egypt, a soldier, Pierre Francois Bouchard is his name, discovered a stone with a text on it: the top and middle texts are in Ancient Egyptian, while the bottom is in Ancient Greek. Only because of our knowledge of Ancient Greek, we will be able now to decipher the Egyptian hieroglyphics. Do you understand now, why I am so persistent for the young people to learn not only Ancient Greek and Latin, but also modern languages? Because this is the key to open their horizons, to create the basis of a deep knowledge and get them acquaint with new mentalities and frontiers. As for us, the Greeks, it is the only way to free ourselves from the horrible slavery of the Turks and become and free nation.

Knowing that you support exactly the same task, my dear Étienne, I thank you from the bottom of my heart.

Censorshi Étienne Clavier, Paris 1812

When Coray arrived in Paris on the 5th of May 1788, I offered him lodge at my house. At the beginning Coray was very cautious to accept any favors, but the social upheavals in 1789 urged him to accept my offer. He also came to Nemours with me where we stayed for a year and a half, until 1795. When I was serving as a judge in the criminal tribunal of the Seine, I was urged by Marechal Murat in the trial of General Moreau, who helped Napoleon gain the power, to pronounce the capital sentence for being involved in the Pichegru Conspiracy, which aimed to plot and overthrow Napoleon. This caused Napoleon to force the judges to bring charges against General Moreau, Jean-Charles Pichegru and George Cadoudal, who the police arrested as main conspirators. On April 5, 1804, Pichegru was found dead in his cell, strangled with his own tie and we don’t know if this is murder or a suicide. Cadoudal, Moreau and the rest of the conspirators were brought to trial a month later, on May the 28, 1804.

During the trial le maréchal d'Empire Joachim Murat, was urging me to pronounce the capital punishment for General Moreau, assuring that Napoleon would grant clemency to Moreau afterwards. I declined asking him: “And who will grant clemency to me afterwards?” Cadoudal was executed on June 28, 1804. Moreau was exiled to America. I heard news that a Pennsylvania newspaper wrote that many persons went to visit this “illustrious warrior.” I also heard that when he arrived in New York, it was a big event too and the Evening Post wrote: “He comes to this country an exile one of the bravest and ablest generals. The character of General Moreau, as a soldier and citizen, is the most unexceptionable of any of the leaders of the French Revolution. By his great worth and brilliant achievements, he became uncommonly popular in the French nation and armies. This excited Bonaparte’s jealousy; he therefore sought his downfall, and obtained a decree for his banishment.” The nal curtain takes place in 1811: for defending Moreau I was discharged from my post in the tribunal.

In 1805, when Napoleon desired the translation of Strabo’s Geograhy, he addressed Jean-Antoine Chaptal, comte de Chanteloup. Chaptal was already famous for his Ėléments de Chimie since 1790 and for his career at the newly established École Polytechnique in Paris, while

under Napoleon he became the founder of the National Industry. Chaptal asked then the historian François-JeanGabriel La Porte-du-Theil, the geographer Gosselin and Adamance Coray, whom he knew as a student of medicine at the University of Montpellier. Chaptal has offered them an annual income of 3.000 francs to work on the translations. In 1805 the rst volume of the translation was presented to Napoleon, who decided to grant to La Porte-du-Theil, Gosselin and Coray an annual pension of 2000 francs supplementary to their income. But Coray, who suspected the generosity of Napoleon, and feared that he had to express in future more “gratitude” than required, suggested to La Porte-du-Theil and Gosselin to inform Chaptal, that they resign from their annual income of 3.000 francs and keep only the lesser amount of 2.000 francs. Chaptal accepted their decision and praised them for their character.

A little later, Napoleon thought to employ me as a censor for books published in Latin and to do the same with Coray for books published in Greek. With horror I have declined the “offer” and with the same horror responded Coray.

For the Love of Freedom,

2021 The Inheritanc Philip Argentis, London 1970

After 1788 Korais, - spelled in French as Coray-, lived in Paris, where he was eye witness of the French Revolution. He was in uenced by the revolutionary and liberal ideas of his time and has welcomed this “transformation” as he called it. He also admired Thomas Jefferson and exchanged political and philosophical thoughts with the American statesman. He encouraged wealthy Greeks to open new libraries and schools throughout Greece, then under Ottoman domination. He believed that education would ensure not only the independence of Greece from the Ottoman Empire, but also the establishment of a proper constitution for the new liberated Greek state. He envisioned a democratic Greece, recapturing the glory of the Golden Age of Pericles.

The library he founded in Chios is one of the largest libraries in Greece. It was established in 1792 as a

department of the Great School of Chios, which was realized by another man of the Enlightenment, Athanasios Parios. Today it stores a signi cant collection of over 130,000 volumes. The rst books were donated by Korais, and many of his non-Greek friend in Europe, and also by Greeks living outside of the Ottoman Empire, in Europe. It was founded in 1792 and in fact its roots are connected with the long history of the island, which has grown greatly thanks to the mastic, the only product that thrives exclusively in Chios, but also mainly in shipping. The Library, however, is indissolubly tied to the Great School of Chios, which grew strongly under Athanasios Parios (1721-1813) Parios was not from Chios, but he had to anchor there when the Russian-Turkish war broke out in 1776. Six years later he assumed the administration of the School and together the initiative for the establishment of the Library, which was originally housed in the school building and became a reality thanks to the donations of Korais. In the following years, the Library acquires 20,000 volumes and the school building became inadequate to host it. The Library had solid nancial resources that enabled it to be housed in its own space in 1817 with a reading room and lending department.

The Library was utterly destroyed by the Ottoman forces in 1882. After the Greek War of Independence was

declared on the 25th of March 1821, the Greeks from the island of Samos had arrived on Chios and encouraged the Chians to join their revolt. However, the revolt was unprepared and Chians were merchants and not familiar with the use of weapons. In addition, because of the mastic, Chios, which belonged to the mother of the Sultan each time, was privileged among the enslaved territories. Thus, in response, 30.000 Ottoman troops landed on the island to execute the order of Sultan Mahmut and kill all males over 12 years, all females under 40 years, all males under 2 years and the rest to be sold in slavery. Vahit Pasha, the governor of Chios was very zealous to properly execute the Sultan’s order. The massacre lasted for 25 days and Vahit Pasha sent his report to the Sultan in Constantinople together with 5 loads of cut heads in salt and 2 loads of cut ears also in barrels with salt. In his report on the massacre his classi es with the accuracy of an accountant the content of the barrels as follows: 1.109 heads of priests, local nobles and rebels, 25.000 slaughtered, 5.000 slaves, boys and girls. 120.000 Chians were slaughtered by the Ottoman troops in Chios, others were sold in slavery and barely 2.000 managed to escape.

But even if the Turks had not burnt the Library to ashes, there was nobody on Chios anymore to read books. It took the Library 16 whole years to be reconstituted and be housed in a small room.

Korais had died in 1833, but with his will he left 3,425 valuable volumes and property rights to the Library. His will, however, reached its destination only in 1867, after many adventures. Other donations followed, most notably that of Andreadis, a merchant established in Trieste, which includes 4,331 volumes of ancient and Byzantine writers. In 1864 the new building was built, next to the historic Great School, of Chios, which was completed in six years. The Sphinx, which is the symbol of education and of Chios, was sculptured in the marble slab placed on the facade.

In 1881 a devastating earthquake, which caused damage to the buildings of the island, left the library's building and treasures almost intact. However, it was demolished and with the help of the rising Chian community a new one was built, which was inaugurated in 1885. It was a one-store building with a neoclassical façade, where a new marble inscription was written, which read "A. Korais Library". Ten years after the liberation of Chios from the Ottoman yoke in 1912, the State Law 3645/1922 recognized the Library as an independent intellectual institution under the name Chios Public Library "Korais". The building remained unchanged until 1948, where I have supervised personally the addition of a second oor. In the years to come many other Chians donated their personal collections, as I very gladly did.

For the Love of Freedom,

2021 The Manuscrip Stergios Fasoulakis, 2016

In 1824, two years after the Massacre a manuscript is produced in Arabic language with the title “Land Registry of Chios during the rst counting”. The manuscript has a height of 0.57 cm, a width of 0.25 cm and is composed of 101 paper sheets. The leather-bound manuscript is written in a calligraphic fashion with black ink and red for the important notes. The title of the manuscript is in Arabic and there is a Greek translation of it and a note that facilitates the reader to understand that it is about a record of the properties in Chios after the massacre in 1822.

There exists also another manuscript with a similar context, issued in 1882. According to the Sultan’s order, “all buildings and land properties of the in dels who died, hanged, or escaped must be counted and registered in order to be con scated”. In this way all the

properties of the dead and alive Chians would become Turkish properties. This manuscript is found in So a in 1931. It has been sold by the Turks to Bulgarians as useless paper, 4 tons. The Bulgarians, behaving wiser, have collected and kept those manuscripts, who seemed of historical value to them. The manuscript in question has been elaborated and completed in the time period from 1824 to 1836. This was the time frame required to complete the procedures for the con scation of the properties of the Chians to the Turkish state.

The manuscript in Chios is a rst counting of the properties, while that of So a is a more detailed work to depict the stand of properties after the Massacre in 1822. From the reading of the two manuscripts we can know, who and how many Chians are slaughtered, who managed to escape and how many were captured and sold into slavery or slaughtered. The So a manuscript details that in the city of Chios, only 858 men (heads of families) escaped, 299 died during the Massacre, 328 remained or returned to Chios after the Massacre, 15 were captured and 416 were hanged. These numbers refer only to the city of Chios and not to the entire island, where the number of victims approached 120.000. When the manuscripts are fully disclosed, we will know exactly the family names of the slaughtered, some family names of survivors after the Massacre, details about the

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con scated properties, as well as other elements of the pre-revolution topography and economy of Chios.

The value of the manuscripts is immense, as it is about a historic source coming from the opponent namely the Ottoman Empire and as such it further validates the related Greek, European and American sources about the Massacre of Chios by the Ottoman Turks in 1822.

Illustrations and Pictures INTRODUCTIO Blue jeans and banks: a very medieval story The city of Genoa in a woodcut from the Nuremberg Chronicle, an illustrated, non-hand-written encyclopedia by Hartmann Schedel, 1493. The Light House (Lanterna) can be seen in the left edge of the picture. It is published in 1493 by Anton Koberger in Latin and German. There exist different copies scattered in museum. The original (Handexemplar) by Hartmann Schedel is guarded at the Bayerische Staatsbibliothek, München. Christoforo de Grassi, 1597: “View if Genova and its eet” (copy of 1481), Galata Museo del Mare, Genoa. Matrakci Nasuh, 16th century “Galata” Ottoman Miniatur XVI. yüzyılda Galata’yı gösteren bir minyatür (Matrakçı Nasuh, Beyân-ı Menâzil-i Sefer-i Irâkeyn, İÜ Ktp., TY, nr. 5964, vr. 9a) Retieved at: https:// islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/galata Coats of Arms of the Zaccaria of Phocaea and Chios (1275-1329) The Prototype Palazzo Giustiniani, Via dei Giustiniani, Genova

Libro delle Colonne (Buch mit Listen der Zeichner der Genuesischen Staatsanleihen, die über die Casa di San Giorgio nanziert wurden), San Lorenzo 1485; Archivio di Stato di Genova, San Giorgio, Colonne, 359

The Treaty, 1261 Tale of the Birth Right (Old Testament) Manuscript of Pachymeres' Historia, 14th century. Emperor Michal Palaeologos has recaptured Constantinople from the Latins in 1261. Bayerische Staatsbibliothek München Ferdinand Victor Eugène Delacroix, 1840: "Entrée des Croisés à Constantinople" Musée du Louvre, Paris. Bust of Friedrich I., "Barbarossa", gilded bronze, ca. 1160, Kloster Kappenberg Nordrhein-Westfalen Alexios I Komnenos (r. 1081-1118 CE) : A gold hyperpyron coin of. The coin was introduced in 1092 CE and shows Christ on the obverse and Alexios on the reverse. Source Ancient History Encyclopedia: https:// www.ancient.eu/image/7753/byzantine-hyperpyron-of-alexios-i/ Portrait of Frederick II Hohenstaufen, Holy Roman Emperor (1194-1250). Source: "Manfred manuscript" (Biblioteca Vaticana, Pal. lat 1071) De arte venandi cum avibus. Treaty of Nymphaeum, 1261. Source: Δαμαλάς, Α.Σ. 1998, Ὁ οἰκονομικὸς βίος τῆς νήσου Χίου ἀπὸ τοῦ ἔτους 992 μ.Χ. μέχρι τοῦ 1566, ΑΣΟΕΕ. Black Death, 1346 Wheelis M. Biological Warfare at the 1346 Siege of Caffa ‘La Franceschina,’ a fourteenth-century manuscript. Toggenburg Bible (Switzerland) of 1411. The disease is widely believed to be the plague, although the location of bumps and blisters is more consistent with smallpox.

The Triumph of Death. Pieter Bruegel, 1562. Museo del Prado, Madrid

CHAPTER O1: NEA MON The Golden Seal, Anno Domini 1042 Archangel Michael at the Holy Bema. Unesco-listed Monastery of Nea Moni in Chios The Prophecy Unesco-listed Monastery of Nea Moni in Chios Octagonal Dome: Unesco-listed Nea Moni in Chios, the unique octagonal dome Nea Moni in Chios, Unesco Designation Crown of Constantine IX Monomachus sent to King Andrew of Hungary. Depicted are Constantine Monomachus, Co_Emperor with Empress Zoe and Theodorea of the Macedonian Dynasty and two dancing girls. Archaeological Museum, Budapest Henrici Martelli Germani, 1470, “Scio Urbs Nobilissima. Manuscript Insularium Illustratum”. British Museum, London Zoe, the Purple Born Byzantine eet repelling the Rus' attack on Constantinople in 941 using spurs to smash the oars of the Rus' vessels. Ioannis Skylitzes, Synopsis of Histories (Codex Græcus Matritensis Ioannis Skyllitzes), Biblioteca Nacional de España

Eastern Roman Emperor Basil II of the Macedonian Dynasty (958 – 15 December 1025) led the Empire to its greatest heights in nearly ve centuries. Replica of a miniature of Emperor Basil II in triumphal garb, exemplifying the Imperial Crown handed down by Angels. Replica of the Psalter of Basil II (Psalter of Venice), BNM, Ms. gr. 17, fol. 3r.

Emperor Basil II Crossing the Imperial Gate, Skylitzes Manuscript "Synopsis of History" Biblioteca Nacional de España, Madrid Empress Zoe of the Macedonian Dynasty, Aghia So a Mosaics, Southern Gallery. The Imperial Guard Marble Slab with 4 B insignia, Seaward Walls of Constantinople. Istanbul Archaeological Museum. The 4 B derive their meaning from the Greek "Βασιλεύς Βασιλέων Βασιλεύει Βασιλεύουσαν". The Emperor of Emperors is reigning in the Imperial City". The 4 B with a Cross belong to the standard Byzantine insignia and ags as the two-headed eagle, which is deriving from the Roman military tradition. Emperor Constantine IX, Aghia So a Mosaics, Southern Gallery. Christ Pantocrator, Deesis Mosaic in the Southern Gallery, Aghia Sophia, Constantinople Queen of the Seas Byzantine Emperor Basil II Macedon, Marciana Library, Venice Golden Solidus of Byzantine Εmperor Basil II (976-1025 AD). Jesus Christis depicted on the left side, on the rights side is depicted Emperor Basil II. British Museum, London The man from Caesarea Saint Mardarios, Unesco listed Nea Moni, Esonarthex Ceremony of the Feet Washing (Niptiras) Unesco listed Nea Moni, Esonarthex Façade with Octagonal Cupola, Unesco listed Monastery of Nea Moni,

Exonarthex and Esonarthex (Entrance Spaces) Unesco-listed Nea Moni in Chios,

Betrayal, Mosaic Composition, Esonarthex, Unesco-listed Nea Moni in Chios, Niptiras, Mosaic Composition, Esonarthex, Unesco-listed Nea Moni in Chios, Betrayal, Mosaic Composition, Esonarthex, Unesco-listed Nea Moni in Chios, Catholicon, Octagonal Dome, Mosaic Composition with Cruci xion and cherubs, Unesco-listed Nea Moni in Chios, Catholicon (Main Church), Unesco-listed Nea Moni in Chios, Baptism, Mosaic Composition, Unesco-listed Nea Moni in Chios, Trans guration, Mosaic Composition, Unesco-listed Nea Moni in Chios, Cruci xion, Mosaic Composition, Unesco-listed Nea Moni in Chios Cruci xion, detail with mourning soldier, Mosaic Composition, Unesco-listed Nea Moni in Chios Deposition from the Cross, Mosaic Composition, Unesco-listed Nea Moni in Chios Descend to Hades, Mosaic Composition, Unesco-listed Nea Moni in Chios Descend to Hades, Detailed with of cials, Unesco-listed Nea Moni in Chios Descend to Hades, Detail with Christ, Mosaic Composition, Unesco-listed Nea Moni in Chios, Holy Bema, Deesis (Mary praying), Unesco-listed Nea Moni in Chios, Mosaic Composition

Cistern, Unesco listed Nea Moni in Chios

CHAPTER O2: AVGONIM The Settlers The Colony St. Theodosios, Unesco listed Monastery of Nea Moni The Master of the Mosaics Byzantine Emperor Alexander III (870-913 AD). Constantinople, Aghia Sophia Mosaics Byzantine Emperor John Comnenus and Empress Eirini with their son. Constantinople, Aghia Sophia Mosaics, Southern Gallery. CHAPTER O3: SEAWARD CASTL Crusader Merchants, 1346 Seaward Castle of Chios: view from the inside of the Castle towards the Porta Maggiore Turn of Fate Quinten Massys, 1520 “Tax Collectors” Liechtenstein Collection, Vaduz/Vienna (artwork in the public domain) Hartmann Schedel, 1493: “Genova Medieval Lighthouse” The city of Genoa in a woodcut from the Nuremberg Chronicle, an illustrated, non-hand-written encyclopedia by. The Light House (Lanterna) can be seen in the left edge of the picture. It is published in 1493 by Anton Koberger in Latin and German. There exist different copies scattered in museum. The original (Handexemplar) by Hartmann Schedel is guarded at the Bayerische Staatsbibliothek, München.

Maona di Scio

Seaward Castle of Chios. Porta Maggiore (Main Entrance) with Southeast Bastion At St. Nicholas of the Mole was signed in September 1346 the surrender of Chios to Genova. Codex Berianus Chiensis fol. Vii. Archivio dello Stato di Genova The Brand Coats of Arms of the Genoese Maona Shareholders in Chios Cristoforo Buondelmonti, 1422: “Map of Chios” Argenti Colllection, Historic Public Library of Chios "A. Korais") «BUONDELMONTI, Cristoforo, Liber Insularum Archipelagi [1420]» στο Τόπος και Εικόνα, χαρακτικά ξένων περιηγητών για την Ελλάδα, από σπάνια βιβλία της Γενναδείου Βιβλιοθήκης, Μουσείου Μπενάκη, Ιδιωτικών Συλλογών, τ. I, Αθήνα, Ολκός, 1978, page 66 British Museum D. Wangner, 1829: Pistacea Lentiscus Var. Chiae The English Merchant The Galata Tower was built as Christea Turris (Tower of Christ) in 1348 during an expansion of the Genoese colony in Constantinople. It was the tallest building in the city with 66.9 m. It replaced an older Byzantine tower, which controlled the northern end of the massive sea chain that closed the entrance to the Golden Horn. That tower was destroyed in 1203, during the Fourth Crusade. Cristoforo Buondelmonti, 1422: “ Map of Constantinople” is the oldest surviving map of the city, and the only surviving map which predates the Turkish conquest of Constantinople in 1453. Liber insularum Archipelagi, Bibliothèque Nationale de Paris.

Treaty between the Republic of Genova and the Maona Company of Chios, signed ny Admiral Simone Vignoso on the 26th of Gebruary 1347. Codex Berianus Chiensis, fol. VII.Page One. Archivio dello Stato, Genova

The Albergo degli Giustiani was the seat of the Maona admnistration in Chios Byzantine watertank in the forti ed city with the tower of Koulas in the background Coats of Arms of the Genoese Maona Shareholders in Chios, St. George of the Castle Gunpowder Magazine, close to the Zeno Bastion, under restoration Francesco Solimena "The Massacre of the Giustiniani in Chios” Napoli, Museo Capodimonte Museum (inv. Q 213). The painting is a sketch by the artist for one of the canvases he made to decorate the ceiling of the Sala del Consiglioetto in the Palazzo Ducale in Genoa. It represents the martyrdom of eighteen members of the Giustiniani family in a revolt of the Turks against the Genoese domination in Chios

CHAPTER O4: PYRG Shareholders, 1450 Lucri Gratiae Usury and medieval banks Genoa 1340, British Library, London Venetian Map of Chios, 1554, Marciana Library Venice The Monopoly Coats of Arms of the Giustiniani, Castle of Chios Brave New World

Colombo House in Pyrgi

Frans Hogenberg and Georg Braun, 1572 „Civitates Orbis Terrarum“, Band 1 (Ausgabe Beschreibung vnd Contrafactur der vornembster Stäten der Welt, Köln 1582; [VD16-B7188) Universitätsbibliothek Heidelberg Gentile Belllini,1480: "Sultan Mehmet II", National Gallery of London Sebastiano del Piombo, 1519: “Christopher Columbus”, The MET Online Collection

CHAPTER O5: MEST The Treasure of Chios, 1360 A well thought plan Arms of the Giustiniani in Chios. Levantine Heritage Foundation Digital Collections Joint Venture Rarissimo aspro in argento per Caffa, ex colonia genovese passata nel 1453 al Banco di San Giorgio (Ag, g 1,11). Al dritto il castello genovese, al rovescio la croce maltese The Tower The Church of Neos Taxiarchis stands where formerly the watch tower was, which stood empty after the Genoese were replaced by the Ottoman Turks in 1566. The villagers decided to demolish the watch tower and build their second church on its place. Thus, by occupying the place of the tower, Neos Taxiarchis is the biggest building in Mesta.

Francisco Lupazzulo, 1639: Medieval Mastic Village of Mesta. A. Korais Library, Chios

CHAPTER O6: OLYMPO Resin Tears, 1478 Model of Olympoi, PIOP Mastic Museum, Chios Humble Farmers Mastic Tears: "Adopt a Chios Mastic Tree" Project Mastic Drops: "Adopt a Chios Mastic Tree" Project The Wedding D. Papathanasiou, 2019: Olympoi Central Watch Tower Casa del Mastice Agnolo di Cosimo (Bronzino) Workshop, ca. 1565-1569: “Lorenzo de' Medici". Gallerie Degli Uf zi, Firenze Agnolo di Cosimo (Bronzino), 1544–45: "Eleonora di Toledo col glio Giovanni" Gallerie Degli Uf zi, Firenze

CHAPTER O7: PIOP MASTIHA MUSEU Thirty- ve Days of Intense Labor, 1822 PIOP Mastic Museum Press Kit The Revolt

Athanasios Karantz(ou)las, 2nd half of the 19th century: "Sultan Mahmud II”, Google Art Project

The Flag of the Rebels Theodoros Vryzakis, 1851: "Archbishop Germanos is blessing the revolution ag". The National Gallery Alexandros Soutzos Museum, Athens Konstantinos Volanakis, 1882: "The burning of the Turkish frigate". The small artillery of Dimitris Papanikolis in the port of Eressos, full of explosives and ammable materials, clung to the sides of the Turkish frigate on May 27, 1821. Private Collection, Athens Ludovico Lipparini, ca. 1850: "Lord Byron's Oath on the Grave of Marco Botzaris" Civic Museum,Treviso Louis Chrales Auguste Couder, 1841: « Méhémet-Ali, Vice-roi d'Égypte in 1803 », Versailles, châteaux de Versailles et de Trianon. This image comes from the Bibliotheca Alexandrina's Memory of Modern Egypt Digital Archive. Dealing the Cards Chian Couple in local costume, ca. 1820, coloured lithography from: Κούτσικας, Κ. 1994, Τα χαρακτικά της Χίου. Τόμος Α' Ενδυμασίες, Ακρίτας, Χίος. The Declaration Ioannis Poulakas "Battle in the bay of Salona, 1827”. Bank of Greece Louis Dupré: Nikolakis Mitropoulos raises the ag with the cross in Salona, on Easter day 1821. From: Βλάχος, Μ. (ed.), Louis Dupré, Ταξίδι στην Αθήνα και στην Κωνστaντινούπολη, Αθήνα, ΟΛΚΟΣ, 1994.

Jacopo Ligozzi , ca. 1580-85 “Sultan Selim II with a dragon”. Ligozzi probably painted this sheet as part of a book devoted to gures in Turkish costume, many of whom are accompanied by animals. Rather than drawing from life, he used a variety of costume engravings.

The Dream Paul Emil Jacobs, 1841: Greek War of Independence, Private Collection, Berlin Hippolite Berteaux "Sultan Mahmut II" Topkapi Museum Istanbul Louis Dupré "Turkish Of cer" in: Δ. Φωτιάδη "Η Επανάσταση του 1821", Εκδόσεις Βότση, Αθήνα 1971, σελ. 129 D. Papathanasiou, 2018, Castle of Chios, Dungeon Scoundrels of the Navy Adam de Friedel, 1830: "Nasuhzade Kara Ali Pasha, Kapudan Pasha of the Ottoman Fleet, 1822" In: The Greeks, Twenty-four Portraits of the principal Leaders and Personages who have made themselves most conspicuous in the Greek Revolution, from the Commencement of the Struggle, London, Adam de Friedel, 1830. The Gennadius Library - The American School of Classical Studies at Athens D. Papathanasiou, 2018, Ottoman Cemetery in Chios Fireworks Adam de Friedel, 1830: “Konstantinos Kanaris: Hero of the Greek re-Ships” In: The Greeks, Twenty-four Portraits of the principal Leaders and Personages who have made themselves most conspicuous in the Greek Revolution, from the Commencement of the Struggle, London. The Gennadius Library - The American School of Classical Studies at Athens Nicephoros Lytras, ca. 1865: "The blowing up of Nasuhzade Ali Pasha's agship by Konstantinos Kanaris". Averoff Gallery, Metsovo

Konstantinos Volanakis, ca. 1873, “The Burning of the Turkish Flagship by Kanaris “ National Gallery, Alexandros Soutsos Museum, Koutlidis Collection, Athens

Exemplary Punishment Eugène Ferdinand Victor Delacroix, 1824: Scènes des massacres de Scio: familles grecques attendant la mort ou l'esclavage. Musée du Louvre, Paris.

CHAPTER O8: ANAVATO Outburst of Hell, 1822 The Settlers D. Papathanasiou, 2018: Unesco listed Monastery of Nea Moni D. Papathanasiou, 2018: Anavatos The Siege D. Papathanasiou, 2018: Anavatos Nicephoros Lytras, 1896: Potrait of Lykourgos Logothethis, Samos City Hall. In: Σακελλαρίου, Μ. 2014, Ένας συνταγματικός δημοκράτης ηγέτης κατά την Επανάσταση του ’21. Ο Γ. Λογοθέτης Λυκούργος της Σάμου, Πανεπιστημιακές Εκδόσεις Κρήτης, Ηράκλειο., σελ. 2. In 1822 Logothetis undertakes militarily the initiative of "exporting" the national revolution in Chios after consultation with the Chian Antonis Bournias, without the of cial order of the Assembly of the Revolutionary.

Eugenio and Raffaele Fulgenzi, ca. 1838: Portrait of Sultan Mahmud II (r. 1808–1839), Harvard University. Fine Arts Library, Cambridge, Middlesex

The Last Easter Turkish armed forces. From: Φωτιάδη, Δ. 1971, Η Επανάσταση του 1821, Εκδόσεις Βότση, Αθήνα. Betrayal Eugène Ferdinand Victor Delacroix, 1826: The Combat of the Giaour and Hassan. Chicago Art Institute via the Google Project Greek Schooner. From: Φωτιάδη, Δ. 1971, Η Επανάσταση του 1821, Εκδόσεις Βότση, Αθήνα. A humble g tree Friedrich Campe (publisher, 1825-35), Turkish savagery in Chios (a church is on re in the background, in the right a priest is murdered). Hand-coloured copper engraving (SHP collection).

CHAPTER O9: KAMPO Scent of an Orange Grove, 1824 D. Papathanasiou, 2018: Waterwheel at the Perleas Mansion, Kampos, Chios Founders of the Great School D. Papathanasiou, 2018: Waterwheel at the Perleas Mansion, Kampos, Chios At the Rooftop D. Papathanasiou, 2007: Argenti Mansion, Kampos, Chios

D. Papathanasiou, 2018: Orange Grove at the Perleas Masion, Kampos, Chios

Masterpieces Charles de Ferrioll, 1714: "Receuil den cent estampes" in: Ζαχαρού Λουτράρη, Α. 2008, Βιβλιοθήκη Χίου "ΚΟΡΑΗΣ" Η ιστορία και οι θησαυροί της, Αλφα Πι, Χίος, p.142 D. Papathanasiou, 2008: Ornament in Kampos in Chios D. Papathanasiou, 2008: Water Cistern, Agenti Estate, Kampos in Chios Salon de Paris Slave Trade of Chian women in Smyrna, 1822 from: Φωτιάδη, Δ. 1971, Η Επανάσταση του 1821, Εκδόσεις Βότση, Αθήνα. Yard with Waterwheel, Perleas Mansion, Kampos Chios. Courtesy by "Perleas"

CHAPTER 10: KORAIS LIBRAR For the Love of Freedom, 2021 French Embassy, US, 5th of October 2017 The Report Portrait of Adamantios Korais (1748-18330 in: Ζαχαρού Λουτράρη, Α. 2008, Βιβλιοθήκη Χίου "ΚΟΡΑΗΣ" Η ιστορία και οι θησαυροί της, Αλφα Πι, Χίος, p.74

Foreign Customs

Gautherot, Pierre(1769-1825): "Portrait of M.F. Voltaire", State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg. Accessed via the Digital Collections Fashion and Women Jan Vermeer van Delft, 1669: "The Glass of Wine" Gemäldegalerie, Berlin, via the Google Art Project Bad habits and an English Toy François ClaudiusCompte-Calix, 1850: "Ladies Making Music on a Terrace in the Park” State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg. Accessed via the Digital Collections City of the Enlightenment Ferdinand Victor Eugène Delacroix , 1830: "La Liberté guidant le peuple" Musée du Louvre, Paris Aleksey Antropov, before 1766: State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg. Accessed via the Digital Collections Lefort, 1790 "Portrait of Jean-Jacques Rousseau". State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg. Accessed via the Digital Collections Nouvelle-Athènes Anicet Charles Gabriel Lemonnier,1812: "The First Reading at Mme Geoffrin's of Voltaire's Tragedy 'L'Orphelin de la Chine'", Château du Malmaison, RueilFerdinand Victor Eugène Delacroix, 1830 : "La Liberté guidant le peuple" Musée du Louvre, Paris Remi-Fursy Descarsin, 1791 : "Un garde national et sa femme" Musée de la Révolution française, Vizille The Rosetta Stone

The Rosetta Stone. British Museum, London. Wikimedia Commons

Censorship Jean-Pierre Houël: "The Storming of Bastille, 1789" The British Library William Hamilton, 1794: "Marie Antoinette being taken to her Execution, October 16, 1793". Musée de la Révolution française, Vizille Jaques-Louis David, 1805-7: The Coronation of the Emperor Napoleon I and the Crowning of the Empress Joséphine in Notre-Dame Cathedral on December 2, 1804, Musée du Louvre, Paris The Inheritance Mather Brown, 1786: "Portrait of Thomas Jefferson" National Portrait Gallery, SmithsonianMuseums. Acessible at: https://npg.si.edu/object/npg_NPG.99.66 Theodoros Vryzakis, 1855: " The Army-Camp of Karaiskakis" The National Gallery - Alexandros Soutzos Museum, Athens D. Papathanasiou 2018, Historic Public Library 'Adamantios Korais" in Chios. Reading Hall with Napoleon's "Description de l'Egypte". The Manuscript Peter von Hess, 1829: Palikaren bei Athen, Nationalgalerie der Staatlichen Museen zu Berlin - Preußischer Kulturbesitz, via EUROPEANA

Eugène Ferdinand Victor Delacroix, 1827: "La Mort de Sardanapale", Musee de Louvre, Paris

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Credits Author: Dorothea Papathanasiou Producer: Konstantinos Papanikolaou, COMITECH Art Director: Mauro Scaramella Photographer: Konstantinos Anagnostou Series Editor: Dorothea Papathanasiou eBook creator: Aldo Di Russo Published by: CULTUREPOLIS

This publication is aligned with the principles and guidelines of the European Audio-visual and Media Services Directive, the FaroConvention of the Council of Europe and the EUROPEANA guidelines for IPR. ISBN 978-618-85190-1-5

Place of publication Corfu Date of publication 2021