CC The Journal 2018

CC The Journal Vol. 13 October 2017

ISSN 1655-3713

Associating Students’ Satisfaction and Quality of Graduate Educational Services in a Catholic Higher Educational Institution in the Philippines Dr. Segundo Chavez Redondo, Jr. Dr. David Cababaro Bueno Dr. Rafael D. Mora Prof. Dorana G. Berzo Prof. Milagros C. Garcia

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------Abstract- This study was conducted to gather empirical data to

ascertain and link the quality of graduate education through students’ satisfaction level during the Academic Year 2015-2016. The researchers used the descriptive cross-sectional design of research and descriptive statistical analysis. The professors are exerting more efforts to assist students in enhancing their research competencies. They utilize instructional procedures to encourage active faculty-student interaction.

The support services for research, thesis and other requirements are provided. Admissions and registration policies are clearly contained in the catalogue. An open-shelf system is adopted in the library. The accounting staffs are honest in collecting and returning the right amount of fees from students. There is a specified room to provide privacy for academic consultation and advising. Technical personnel are always available in case of emergency or sudden breakdown of equipment. Auxiliary services are also made available for students. The degree of students’ satisfaction is attributed by the continuous improvement in the graduate school since the beginning of its voluntary submission to external accreditation.

Keywords: Graduate education, students’ satisfaction, basic services, appraisal, cross-sectional design, Columban College Inc., Philippines

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Introduction

Understanding student satisfaction is critical to educational institutions as it provides inputs towards developing better tools to reach the students. According to Sapri, Kaka, and Finch (2009), student experience and satisfaction matter to educational institutions and students. Students are important to universities; as such; their experiences or knowledge and understanding of the educational institutions must reflect their voices or judgment rather than as defined by the universities. The authors also indicate that measuring student experience using both satisfaction and importance ratings will enable the educational institutions to identify their current level of service quality.

Satisfaction is a well-researched topic in both academic and nonacademic (workplace) settings. In academic settings, students’ satisfaction data helps colleges and universities make their curriculum more responsive to the needs of a changing marketplace (Eyck, Tews & Ballester, 2009; Witowski, 2008). In making curriculum more effective and responsive, it is important to evaluate effectiveness measures concerning the curriculum of each college, department, and program (Ratcliff, 1992; Elliott & Healy, 2001; Özgüngör, 2010; Peters, 1988; Billups, 2008; Aman, 2009). The effectiveness of a curriculum can be evaluated using direct performance measures (comprehensive exams, projects, and presentations) and by indirect performance measures (students’ satisfaction with the curriculum) (Jamelske, 2009; Witowski, 2008). Students’ satisfaction surveys are important in ascertaining whether colleges and universities are fulfilling their mission. It is well known that the most important product of educational institutions is qualified graduates. In order to best prepare students so that they are sought after by employers upon graduation, an effective curriculum is needed. Students must understand the value of their education and be satisfied with their overall experience in order to promote and support their higher educational institution as a student and as an alumnus.

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Satisfaction is a relevant measure because many studies have demonstrated that other factors being equal, satisfied individuals are likely to be willing to exert more effort than unsatisfied individuals (Bryant, 2006; Özgüngör, 2010). Thus, satisfied students are likely to exert more effort in their educational studies by taking actions such as regularly attending their classes and becoming more involved in their coursework and institution.

Satisfied students are more likely to be committed and continue their studies than unsatisfied students, who are likely to be less willing to regularly attend classes, and are more likely to quit their studies (Jamelske, 2009; Borden, 1995). Researchers have assessed students’ satisfaction for many reasons: Several researchers have measured the levels of student satisfaction in order to examine accountability reporting and self-improvement purposes across departments and colleges; others have examined student satisfaction to determine if satisfaction ratings of college programs and services are associated with the satisfaction of the overall graduate education experience. Still others have investigated student satisfaction items related to issues such as student retention and attrition. Given the importance of student satisfaction levels at higher educational institutions, there has been a growing interest in examining factors affecting students’ satisfaction.

Graduate students’ satisfaction has been conceptualized in a number of ways by researchers. For example, students’ satisfaction was conceptualized as “satisfaction with experience” (Elliott & Healy, 2001; Peters, 1988; Billups, 2008), “satisfaction with quality of instruction” (Aman, 2009), “satisfaction with advising” (Corts, Lounsbury, Saudargas, Tatum, 2000; Elliott, 2003; Olson, 2008; Peterson, Wagner, and Lamb, 2001), “satisfaction with online courses” (Banks & Faul, 2007; Heiman, 2008; Beqiri, Chase, & Bishka, 2010), “satisfaction with assessment” (Kane, 2005; Ross, Batzer, & Bennington, 2002), “satisfaction campus-wide” (Benjamin & Hollings, 1997), and “satisfaction with an academic department” (Corts et al., 2000).

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The above studies indicate that there is a growing body of literature on student perceptions of satisfaction. They also suggest that student satisfaction is a complex yet poorly articulated notion (DiBiase, 2004; Garcia-Aracil, 2009).

This study focuses on the approach of indirect performance measures or assessing satisfaction of graduate school students with the curriculum and other support services. Numerous researchers have investigated issues related to students’ satisfaction (Astin, 1977; Bryant, 2009; DeShields, Kara, & Kaynak, 2005; Pascarella & Terenzini, 2005), and most of them agree that highly satisfied students are more likely to remain in, and ultimately, successfully graduate from college. Some research also reveals that student satisfaction is inversely related to student complaints regarding advising, career preparation, and the need for new courses or effectiveness of current courses (Korn, Sweetman, & Nodine, 1996). In this study, however, satisfaction is conceptualized as “satisfaction with curriculum and other support services”. Unlike prior studies, this study intends to contribute to existing literature by determining the extent to which twelve factors affect students’ satisfaction by focusing on a sample of graduating students. Despite the many studies on student satisfaction with graduate-related issues, this student satisfaction survey is intended to assess the satisfaction of the graduate school students regarding faculty, curriculum and instruction, research, admissions and registration office, library, accounting office, and other resources and services to ascertain the quality of graduate education in a private higher educational institution.

Interest in factors affecting satisfaction has increased in both academic and non-academic settings. This is mainly due to the fact that satisfaction (motivation) affects both individual and organizational performance (Cranny et al., 1992; Decenzo & Robbins, 2010). In the workplace, scholars have defined satisfaction in a number of ways (Locke, 1976; Robbins & Judge, 4

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2008). The central theme across studies involves a positive feeling of one’s job resulting from an evaluation of its characteristics. Satisfaction in work environment has been studied both as an independent and a dependent variable. As an independent variable, satisfaction explains outcomes such as performance, absenteeism, and turnover (Cranny et al., 1992; Ramayah & Nasurdin, 2006).

As a dependent variable, satisfaction is explained by factors such as salary, benefits, and recognition (Ramayah & Nasurdin, 2006; Tessema, Ready and Embaye, 2011). In academic settings, satisfaction has been defined as the extent to which students are satisfied with a number of related issues such as advising, quality of instruction, course availability, and class size.

According to Elliott and Healy (2001), student satisfaction is a short-term attitude based on an evaluation of their experience with the education service supplied. Just like in the workplace, satisfaction in academic settings is also treated as both an independent and dependent variable. For instance, satisfaction, as an independent variable, explains college outcomes such as GPA, retention rates, and graduation rates (Jamelske, 2009; Borden, 1995; Noel, 1978; Pascarella & Terenzini, 2005). As a dependent variable, satisfaction is explained by a number of academicrelated factors such as advising, quality of instruction, and class size (Corts, et al., 2000; Elliott, 2003; Peterson, et al., 2001).

Several researchers have identified and empirically tested factors affecting or that are correlated with students’ satisfaction. Since students’ satisfaction has been conceptualized in a variety of ways by researchers, several factors have been examined that affect college students’ satisfaction For instance, Corts et al. (2000) identified five factors affecting satisfaction with an academic department, and Elliott and Healy (2001) identified eleven factors affecting students’ satisfaction with educational experience.

The College, as part of its Strategic Planning Initiative, has provided funding to support the Customer Focus (CF) activity to 5

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address this need for a systems level study of student services.

The primary goals of the CF are to: 1) develop a systems level view of student services and their interrelationships; 2) identify systems level improvement opportunities, including reengineering; 3) recommend changes and/or in-depth studies; and 4) develop implementation plans for changes and/or in-depth studies. As part of the CF activity, there is a need to determine the current importance and satisfaction levels of the students not only in the undergraduate level but similar with the graduate school level with respect to various student services to serve as a baseline to evaluate potential future improvements options.

Thus, this investigation consisted of examining the results of surveys conducted to determine student satisfaction levels, identifying where additional surveys may be required, and evaluating how well surveys are currently being conducted. As a starting point, this report provided an inventory of student satisfaction survey that has been conducted at the graduate school. Thus, the survey is based on the various clusters/ scales summarizing the level of student satisfaction and the degree to which the surveys have been analyzed.

This study was conducted with following objectives: (1) To gather empirical data relative to graduate school students’ satisfaction level regarding faculty, curriculum and instruction, research, admissions and registration office, library services, accounting office, and other resources and services, and (2) To improve the curriculum and instruction, and the basic services of the institution to its clientele.

Methodology The researchers used the descriptive cross-sectional design of research. According to Gay, (1996) it involves collecting data in order to answer questions concerning the status of the subject of the study; it is typically collected through a questionnaire survey, an interview or observation in a specified time. Closed-ended 6

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questions were employed by the researchers. Heiman, (1998) stressed that the close-ended or objective question has an overwhelming strength. A response can be assigned objectively and reliably with a minimum of subjective interpretation or error on the researcher’s part. Best and Khan, (1989) further discussed that this type of study conceals an important distinctions. It describes and interprets what is concerned with conditions or relationships that exist, opinions that are held, processes that are going on, effects that are evident, or trends that are developing. It is primarily concerned with the present, although it often considers past events and influences as they relate to current conditions. The senior and graduating students during the Academic Year 2016-2017 were all considered to answer the satisfaction survey instrument. The instrument was administered to all senior and graduating students through a face-to-face invitation. This was done on June 2016 to February 2017. In this study, a close-ended survey was used to obtain demographic information and data about the students’ satisfaction level from the graduate school program they are pursuing. The participants were informed about their voluntary involvement in the study.

Thus, the researchers carefully explained the major purpose and objective of the study. The participants were assured with the anonymity of their identification, and were not forced to answer the survey form. The items of this survey were forced choice and a five-point Likert type scale (from 5 = “Very satisfied” to 1 = “Very dissatisfied”) was used to measure the participant’s level of satisfaction. The statements included in the questionnaire were clearly stated and aimed at obtaining the needed information about the level of satisfaction from the school services and facilities. For the internal consistency and reliability, they measured the Cronbach’s alpha, which is a method of estimating internal reliability. The researchers got a Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of 0.982 for the items. The Cronbach’s alpha should be greater than 0.7, so this questionnaire is reliable (Bueno, 2017).

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Results and Discussion A. Faculty. The level of satisfaction of graduate school students relative to faculty is reflected. As reflected, the students “strongly agree” that the faculty members in the graduate school maintain professional relationships with students, other faculty and the dean, manifest awareness of modern educational trends, assist graduate students in developing research competencies, prepare well for their classes, show mastery of subject matter, relate current issues and community needs with their subject matter, use library resources and other instructional materials, and provide academic advising for students. This means that the graduate students are very satisfied as regards to various indicators concerning faculty of the graduate school. The average rating is 4.54 which mean “Very Satisfactory”. Social and physical factors of an institution’s services may greatly influence the degree of attractiveness and the students’ overall satisfaction.

Social factors consist of student-faculty member’s relationships, student- administration member’s relationships and studentstudent relationships. Then, physical factors represent the class size and the environment, technology used during the lectures, library and computer laboratory, Wi-Fi connections in the campus, cafeteria and all student related service facilities.

Considering the fact that all such services may have an impact on the students’ attitude toward the institution and their satisfaction, in relatively small size non-profit private higher education institutions, educators have tried to maximize the services derived especially from social factors. The students can come and meet any time with their course instructor as well as with their academic advisor if available (Ali, 2011), and the growing up of qualified manpower was expected generally from universities, especially from post graduate teaching programs. To reach the goals of a post graduate program it is important to bring out the perceptions of self-efficacies of students about the field they 8

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studied during their post graduate education (Vekkaila, Pyhältö, & Lonka, 2013). Research, learning and teaching are basic component of student’s especially in graduate levels and they have critical roles in improving educational processes to develop scientific products in society (Gorji, Darabieniya, & Ranjbar, 2015). Having and honing the research skills that encompass every level of research in various graduate disciplines is a key to an undergraduate developing the foundation for a successful career in research (Showman et al., 2013).

B. Curriculum and Instruction. Curriculum and instruction as area of students’ satisfaction is shown. The average rating given by the student is 4.80 with a descriptive rating of “Very Satisfactory). The result implies that program’s goals and objectives are well-defined; program's course requirements are appropriate and provide adequate preparation for subsequent courses and are reflected in the syllabi. Program's curriculum provides a balanced scope of material needed for overall graduate-level competency in my area of specialization; courses are offered regularly and as scheduled; instructional procedures and techniques in the classroom encourage active faculty and student interaction; evaluation activities measure the attainment of objectives stated in the syllabi; and the quality of curriculum and instruction is very satisfying. These findings were reinforced

by Bueno (2017), when he concluded that the faculty in graduate school were outstanding in achieving the objectives of the graduate program by showing mastery of subject matter, relating current issues and community needs, and participating the activities of professional organizations. Moreover, Bueno (2017), elucidated in terms of instructional procedures and techniques as standards, the faculty members were outstanding in providing opportunities for independent study, utilizing instructional materials with depth and breadth expected for the graduate level, requiring students to make extensive use of print and non-print reference materials, using instructional procedures and 9

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techniques to encourage active students’ interaction; using interdisciplinary and/or multidisciplinary approaches whenever possible; and enforcing definite rules and policies for effective classroom management. However, they were very satisfactory in providing a functional and well-planned syllabus which specifies the target competencies, research and class activities required for course, and in using varied methods and innovative approaches (seminars, fora, field observations, problem-based discussion).

C. Research. Data reveals the satisfaction rating given by the students on research area. As reflected, the average rating is 4.70 with a descriptive rating of “Very Satisfactory�. This implies that in the graduate school, the faculty members teaching research courses or assigned thesis advising have adequate experience; research is an integral part of all course requirements; results are made available for students to help them gain self-understanding; research seminars, workshops and lectures for students are regularly offered; materials and guidelines are provided for the development of research skills; sufficient statistical assistance for research is provided by qualified faculty or staff.; research abstracts are published as monographs or appear in institutional and/or professional journals; intellectual honesty and creativity are values that the school emphasizes; and there are support services for research, thesis and other requirements, like critiquing and editing for language and format of research reports. Quality has become one of the key elements of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). Quality in education aims at bringing the attention to the education for human rights and also emphasize the importance of the economic, social and environmental grounds of a certain area. The definition of quality in higher education is to certain extend complex, although sometimes it is easy to identify it from a multidimensional perspective including teaching, research, staff-students relationships, services and facilities (Rahman & Zarim, 2014).

Thus, all the universities should have a moral obligation to 10

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improve and contribute to the social, intellectual, cultural and economic background of the individuals in the society. In doing so, universities contribute to both the intellectual vitality and the economic well-being of society; produce educated citizens; train the next generation of leaders in the arts, sciences, and professions; and actively engage in community service activities that bring faculty knowledge and research findings to the attention of citizens and industry (Türkiye, Prof, & Caglar, 2014).

Moreover, numerous research have pointed out that there are high proportions of graduate student who fail to complete their studies within the time given. Many factors contributing to this and the major problem is related to the supervisory contribution (Showman et al., 2013). Their needs in this particular matter are always become a conflict as they did not have any other sources in guiding them to go through their studies (Eduljee & Lebourdais, 2015). Lack of student-supervisor relationship will caused them to extend their studies and have difficulty to finish their project (Abiddin & Ismail, 2011). This situation will also lead to a poor quality of students’ research (Japos & Tumapon, 2010).

Whilst the interaction between supervisor and student allows a considerable degree of free expression, it is enacted within a wider context of institutional power which itself is continuously modified by that interaction (Heidari-gorji, Ghorbani, Darabi, & Ranjabr, 2016). Supervision is a complex social encounter which involves two or more parties with both converging and diverging interests (Kurbanoglu, Akkoyunlu, & Umay, 2006). Therefore, balancing these interests is very crucial to the successful supervision of postgraduate research projects.

D. Admissions and Registration Office. Data depicts the degree of satisfaction of graduate students relative to admissions and registration office. As reflected, the rating is 4.59 with a descriptive rating of “Very Satisfactory”. This reveals that the policies of the selection and admission of students reflect the institutional objectives and are strictly enforced; the retention 11

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policies and criteria are clearly stated and made known to the students; policies and procedures are contained in the school’s catalogue or bulletin of information; the staff are prompt in releasing requested credentials; the staff are accommodating to the needs of the students; the staff uphold confidentiality of students’ records; and the services of the staff are very satisfying.

Bueno (2017), emphasized that the school-related factors relevant to graduates' employment statuses are collectively grouped to administration and governance, curriculum and instruction, research subjects, professional and cognate courses, student services like the admission and registration services office, library, internet laboratory, inter-disciplinary learning, and teaching/ learning environment are the related factors which contributed a lot to their current employment status. The results reveal that the presence of these relevant factors really hones their knowledge, skills, and values which are considered by them as a very important instrument for land in various prestigious jobs among the graduates.

E. Library. Data reveals the degree of satisfaction of graduate students relative to library. As reflected, the rating is 4.60 with a descriptive rating of “Very Satisfactory”. This result implies that there are professional librarians to meet the needs of the students; reading materials and references in print and / or nonprint formats are easily accessible; the collection of books, periodicals and other library materials are adequate to support the demands for research and instruction; the written policies covering acquisition and utilization of books, periodicals and nonprint materials are enforced; the library maintains regular and adequate hours of service on the class days and non- class days; the library provides an atmosphere conducive for reading, study and research; the open-shelf system is adopted; and the service of the staff is very satisfying. Important developments and changes occurring in science and technology have influenced the field of education as well. New paradigms have been shaped in learning 12

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and teaching processes and strategies as a result of these changes (Ahmed, 2011). Education as a service is provided by the educators who consider both physical and social environment to positively influence student satisfaction (Saif, 2014). Since the education system has undergone through many changes due to science and technology advancement, so do change all the components of education. Today staff and professors take the role of following, guiding and supporting the students’ learning process accompanied with sufficient library resources (Budiendra, Wandebori, & Marketing, 2012). Moreover, nowadays academic libraries need to be ahead of other information service providers to ensure their existence. They need to know their users’ needs and wishes, have to work effectively and efficiently, and especially should be able to anticipate the future of information services and management needs for the students (Düren, 2012); sustainable areas must be taken into consideration in evaluating library’s sustainability regarding the space, green IT, strategies, collection management, location and environmental awareness of both public and staff (Karioja, 2013); and the library being the most essential pillar of any academic institution needs utmost attention to avoid total collapse of the entire university community (Salman, 2013). That is why, Ogunmodede, and Ebijuwa (2013), emphasized that the libraries in third world countries despite the constraints of finance confronting them still make huge investment on acquisition of library resources, and the deterioration of library resources has been one of the greatest challenges plaguing the libraries.

F. Accounting Office. The degree of satisfaction of graduate students relative to accounting office is reflected. The rating is 4.51 with a descriptive rating of “Very Satisfactory”. The result implies that the members of the accounting staff are prompt in releasing requested information for payments during enrolment; friendly, approachable and respectful to students; honest in 13

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collecting and returning the right amount of fees of students; provides accurate information regarding school fees; and shows evidence of orderliness and systematic work management. The understanding of satisfaction that appears to underpin these somewhat crude measures is a very narrow one. It equates with a form of contentment, with the positive and happy feelings that derive from everything being settled within the school environment with responsive accounting staff and personnel (Tasirin, Omar, Esa, Zulkifli, & Amil, 2015). Bueno (2017) further emphasized that the school-related factors relevant to graduates' employment statuses are collectively grouped to administration and governance, and the student services like the accounting office staff, and other areas such as the library, laboratories, interdisciplinary learning environment are the related factors which contributed a lot to the graduates’ employability.

G. Other Resources and Services. The degree of satisfaction of graduate students relative to other resources/ services is reflected. The rating is 4.66 with a descriptive rating of “Very Satisfactory�. This result implies that photocopying facilities are readily available in school. There are enough classrooms readily available for classes, comprehensive and oral examinations.

Moreover, there is consultation room which provides privacy in the graduate school; there is an internet laboratory for easy website access; and there is a canteen that serves nutritious, safe, well-balanced and reasonably priced meals. Furthermore, the school has maintenance and security personnel; technical personnel are available in case of emergency or sudden breakdown of equipment; there is a functional academic advising system for the graduate students from start until completion of their graduate programs; and auxiliary services such as guidance, dental, medical, religious are made available for students. To achieve good results in higher education, it is important to know what other things and resources are required of students in the learning process. In today's competitive academic environment 14

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where students have many options available to them, factors that enable educational institutions to attract and retain students should be seriously studied (Fitri & Hasan, 2008). Higher educational institutions are putting a lot of emphasis on understanding and attempting to improve student satisfaction due to current competitive pressures in the industry (Kara et al., 2016). In such an environment with sufficient educational services, the students find opportunity to become more familiar with each-other, more helpful and spent much more time with each-other at the university campus. When an educational setting aims at keeping the student in the focus of its services, then each component of the social environment contributes toward student satisfaction (Songsathaphorn, Chen, & Ruangkanjanases, 2014).

They are also encouraged to participate in indoor activities where most of them are part of a student organization. All the faculty members are willing to help the students find connections for their internship opportunities and match them with a study program at a top university abroad. Having a relatively small number of students in a certain field of study, makes it easier to spend more quality time one-on-one with the students (Al-alak, Salih, & Alnaser, 2012).

Conclusions and Recommendations The graduate school students are very satisfied in relation to various factors such as faculty, curriculum and instruction, research, admissions and registration office, library, accounting office, and other resources and services. The degrees of satisfaction of students are attributed by the continuous improvement in the graduate school since the beginning of its voluntary submission to PACUCOA accreditation. Educational institutions can address these issues by allocating more resources to hire the right staff and to provide training and staff development programs to enable staff to continuously satisfy 15

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students. Teaching staff should also reflect their willingness to assist students and be more approachable; not just in the classroom, but also by providing some consultation hours that are flexible to students. Even though students place less importance on physical facilities, these facilitate the interaction process. As such, providing comfortable and conducive learning environment can enhance the core service provided by educational institutions.

Quality and sustainability are emerging as themes that are rapidly spreading within higher educational institutions. The results of this study indicate that quality is vital to students. Educational institutions need to focus on the factors that can be linked to quality education and to be able to sustain them in the future.

With regards to quality improvement, educational institutions may consider introducing quality standards for explicit services and enhancing the quality of teaching and learning aspects. It is important for educational institutions to actively monitor the quality of services they offer and to commit to continuous improvements. Continue the best practices in the graduate school both academic and non-academic factors for the benefits of the stakeholders. The faculty of the graduate school may exert more efforts to assist graduate students in developing research competencies. They may likewise encouraged students to use library resources and other instructional materials. The faculty members may always make use of instructional procedures and techniques in the classroom to encourage active faculty- student interaction. Regular research seminars, workshops and lectures for students may be conducted and evaluated. The admissions and registrations staff may continue being prompt and accommodating to the needs of students. A regular acquisition and collection of books, periodicals and other library materials may be continuously done. The accounting staff may always manifest being friendly, approachable and respectful to students.

Technical personnel always be available in case of emergency or sudden breakdown of equipment. The internet laboratory and 16

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services always be updated for easy and faster website access.

Regular survey of graduate students’ satisfaction level be done to improve services given to them.

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Analysis of Classroom Assessment Skills and Practices across Levels in a Catholic Educational Institution Dr. Segundo Chavez Redondo, Jr. Dr. David Cababaro Bueno Dr. Narcisa Ruano Figuerres

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------Abstract- This study concentrated on the analysis of the classroom assessment skills and practices of teachers across levels in a private Catholic school. The descriptive cross-sectional design was utilized to gather descriptive and comparative data during the Academic.

All teachers from elementary, junior and senior high school were considered as participants. Reliability estimates of teachers’ perceived skill in classroom assessment were done using Cronbach’s Alpha, which was α = .95. The data gathered were analyzed using Mean, and Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) at .05 level of confidence.

The teachers across levels are very skilled in calculating central tendency of teacher-made tests, assessing students’ class participation, using assessment results in planning, decisionmaking, communicating and providing feedback, problem solving, evaluating class improvement, and writing true or false tests.

Moreover, they are skilled in writing multiple-choice tests measuring higher order thinking skills (HOTS). Furthermore, there is a moderate positive correlation between the assessment skills and practices of elementary, junior, and senior high school teachers.

Traditional forms of assessment are more preferred by the teachers compared to the alternative assessment.

Keywords: Classroom assessment, skills and practices, crosssectional design, elementary, junior and senior high school teachers -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------25

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Introduction Educational assessment is an essential component of the teaching profession. It is the process used in the classroom by the teacher to obtain information about students’ performances on assessment tasks, using a variety of assessment methods, to determine the extent to which students are achieving the target instructional outcomes. In this regard, researchers suggest that a sound educational assessment requires a clear conception of all intended learning outcomes of the instruction and a variety of assessment procedures that are relevant to the instruction, adequate to sample student performance, and fair to everyone.

This means teachers should competently be able to choose and develop assessment methods appropriate for instructional decisions; administer, score, and interpret results of externally produced and teacher-made assessment; use assessment results when making educational decisions; develop valid grading procedures; communicate assessment results to various audiences; and recognize unethical, illegal, and inappropriate methods and uses of assessment (Alkharusi, Aldhafri, Alnabhani, & Alkalbani, 2012). Thus, teaching is a multifaceted process that requires teacher competencies in measurement and assessment skills. Such skills may include: test planning and construction; grading; interpretation of test results; use of assessment results to inform teaching and learning; interpretation of standardized tests; and communicating results to relevant stakeholders (Koloikeaikitse, 2017).

Assessment of students is very critical because effective teaching decisions are based on the ability of teachers to understand their students and to match actions with accurate assessments (McMillan, 2008). However, past research has shown that there are many problems associated with teachers’ classroom assessment practices. These include teachers’ lack of an adequate knowledge base regarding the basic testing and 26

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measurement concepts (Stiggins, 2014), limited teacher training in assessment and failure of teachers to employ and adhere to measurement guidelines they learned in measurement courses (Campbell & Evans, 2000). Teachers adopt different classroom assessment practices to evaluate students’ learning outcomes, and they spend much of their classroom time engaged in student assessment related activities. Teachers control classroom assessment environments by choosing how they assess their students, the frequency of these assessments, and how they give students feedback. All these are a clear indication that classroom assessments play an integral part of the teaching and learning process. Just like teachers everywhere, Columban College, Inc. (CCI) teachers are the key drivers of the education process. Their instructional and classroom assessment practices are a means by which the education system is enhanced and defined (Nenty, Adedoyin, Odili, & Major, 2007). For this reason, it is imperative to understand the ways in which teachers feel about assessment practices, their perceptions regarding assessment training and their experiences as they attempt to use various assessment methods to evaluate students’ learning outcomes. It is also important to understand their thought processes as they develop and use assessment methods, grade students’ work and interpret assessment results. Teachers’ assessment practices are an essential element for addressing students’ learning needs, and they can ultimately improve the education system and accountability. Understanding teachers’ assessment practices serves as a way of finding out if teachers adopt or use quality assessment methods to meet the learning needs of students (McMillan, 2008).

The role of student assessment at the various levels in the educational system is to generate information to be used for making “high stakes” decisions, such as selecting and placing students in appropriate training programs. Student assessment in a private educational institution also plays an important role of 27

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helping students prepare for standardized examinations needed for those “high stakes” decisions. However, few formal studies on teachers’ classroom assessment skills and practices have been conducted. This makes it difficult to have a clear understanding about the nature and magnitude of assessment issues of teachers in the elementary to senior high school. This study endeavors to bring an awareness regarding how teachers generally perceive their classroom assessment skills and practices as paradigm shift towards outcomes-based assessment practices.

This study assessed the teacher’s response pattern in a set of items that measured their perceived skills in classroom assessment practices. In order to gain insights into teacher’s response to their perceived skill in assessment scale, an Item Response Theory (IRT) model was utilized. IRT refers to a set of models that connects observed item responses to a participant examinee’s location on the underlying trait that is measured by the entire scale (Mellenbergh, 1994). IRT models have been found to have a number of advantages over other methods in assessing self-reported outcomes such as teacher beliefs, perceptions, and attitudes (Hambleton, Swaminathan, & Rogers, 1991). IRT is a general statistical theory about examinee item and test and how performance relates to the abilities that are measured by the items in the test. IRT models have the potential to highlight whether items are equivalent in meaning to different respondents, they can be used to assess items with different response patterns within the same scale of measurement, therefore can detect different item response patterns in a given scale (Hays, Morales, & Reise, 2000). Thus, IRT is regarded as an improved version of Classical Test Theory (CTT) as many different tasks may be performed through IRT models that provide more flexible information. Test items and traits of the test taker are referenced on the same interval scale (Koloi-keaikitse, 2017). Thus, in order to understand what students know or do not know, educators need assessment. Classroom assessment is 28

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possibly the first and most important part of the teaching and learning process that includes measurement, feedback, reflection, and change. Classroom assessments play an important role as they are essential for generating information used for making educational decisions. Classroom assessments also serve many purposes for teachers such as: grading, identification of students with special learning needs, student motivation, clarification of students’ achievement expectations, and monitoring instructional effectiveness (Stiggins, & Bridgeford, 2014). Thus, classroom assessments must be transformed into the content and use of assessment information and insights as part of an ongoing learning process. The purpose of classroom assessment is not just to generate information for decision making, but also to foster learning improvement. For this reason, if properly offered on a frequent basis it would help students to refine and deepen their understanding of what they learn. Classroom assessments are also essential for conveying expectations that can stimulate the learning (Wiggins, 2008). The more information we have about students, the clearer the picture we have about their achievement, learning challenges and where those challenges emanate. For this reason, there is a need to pay attention to how it is used, as failure to do this may lead to inaccurate assessment of students’ achievement and may ultimately prevent students from reaching their full academic potential (Stiggins, & Bridgeford, 2014). In other words, assessment serves as an important deciding factor for the future of students’ learning outcomes. Educators must have a clear understanding of the assessment practices that teachers use as they assess students, and the assessment challenges teachers face. The most efficient way to measure, understand, and appreciate teachers’ assessment practices is to assess their perceptions about classroom assessment methods.

Classroom assessment involves a wide range of activities from designing paper-pencil tests and performance measures to grading, communicating assessment results, and using them in 29

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decision-making (Zhang & Burry-Stock, 2013). Although there is a great deal of research on teachers’ assessment practices, few empirical research attempts have been made to link these practices to teachers’ skills in the classroom assessment environment.

Thus, there is no empirical investigation on comparative analysis of the classroom assessment skills and practices of the basic education teachers from elementary to senior high school that demonstrates comparative analysis. Given the paucity of such research, Cavanagh et al. (2005) suggest that two strategies can instead be applied: (1) examine the assessment skills in terms of forms/approaches, and (2) examine the actual assessment practices that teachers use. Integrating teachers’ perceptions will build a foundation and rationale for the assessment practice they use in their classrooms, through which one can learn to what extent and in what ways students’ impacts their learning. Thus, the purpose of this study is to examine assessment skills and practices about assessment of teachers particularly in a private educational system.

This study focused on the classroom assessment practices of teachers across levels and departments towards outcomes-based assessment model. The specific objectives of the study are to analyze: (1) the skills of teachers in the areas of classroom assessment; (2) the practices of teachers related to classroom assessment; and (3) relationship between the classroom assessment skills and practices of the teachers.

Methodology A descriptive-cross-sectional design was used to gather descriptive and comparative data for the purpose of describing the characteristics of several groups of teachers relative to their classroom assessment practices. Descriptive cross-sectional design is used to describe characteristics of a population or 30

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phenomenon being studied at a given time. It does not answer questions about how/when/why the characteristics occurred.

Rather it addresses the "what" question. The characteristics used to describe the situation or population is usually some kind of categorical scheme also known as descriptive categories. Surveys can be a powerful and useful tool for collecting data on human characteristics, such as their beliefs, attitudes, thoughts, and behavior (Dillman, Smtyth, & Christian, 2009; Gay, Mills, & Airasian, 2009; Mertens, 2014), hence the survey design fit very well within the framework of this study. All teachers from various levels were covered in this study. Thus, there was no sampling technique used. The elementary school teachers, junior high school and the senior high teachers were included. The Classroom Assessment Practices and Skills (CAPS) questionnaire was used as the data collection instrument. The questionnaire contains closedended items. The initial set of items was adopted from Assessment Practices Inventory (Zhang & Burry-Stock, 2013).

This instrument was created and used in the United States of America to measure teachers’ skills and use of assessment practices across teaching levels, content areas, and teachers selfperceived assessment skills as a function of teaching experience.

The Zhang & Burry-Stock (2013) instrument consists of several items measured on two rating scales “use” and “skill” The “use” scale was meant to measure teachers’ usage of assessment practices on a scale from 1 (never) to 5 (always). The “skill” scale was designed to measure teachers’ self-perceived from 1 (not at all skilled) to 5 (very skilled). To check the content-validity of the instrument, the draft questionnaire was given content experts in classroom assessment and teacher training. They were asked to review the items for clarity and completeness in covering most, if not all, assessment and grading practices used by teachers in classroom settings, as well as to establish face and content validity of the instrument and items. Necessary revisions were made based upon their analyses. The draft questionnaire with 31

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various items was pilot tested with a total sample of 10 teachers from primary school, 10 junior high school, and 10 senior high school to assess the strengths and weaknesses of the questionnaire in terms of question format, wording and order of items. It was also meant to help in the identification of question variation, meaning, item difficulty, and participants’ interest and attention in responding to individual items, as well as to establish relationships among items and item responses, and to check item response reliability (Gay, Mills, & Airasian, 2009; Mertens, 2014).

Reliability estimates of teachers’ perceived skill in classroom assessment were estimated using Cronbach’s Alpha, which was α = .95 indicating high levels of internal consistency (Bueno, 2017).

The researchers sought permission and approval of the school president to allow the data gathering from teachers. The researchers took into account the ethical issues such as the confidentiality of the data gathered and the anonymity of the respondents in the administration of the questionnaires. The data gathered were analyzed using Mean, and Pearson Product Moment Correlation at .05 level of confidence.

Results and Discussion A. Skills on Classroom Assessment. The results of the previous study revealed that primary school teachers, particularly those with a certificate, need more skill training in assessment applications, statistical applications and criterion referenced testing. Primary school teachers reported relatively higher discrepancies on use than perceived skill for statistical applications and objective items, and secondary school teachers reported more skill than use of statistical applications and objective items (Koloi-Keaikitse, 2012). The elementary school teachers (EST) are very skilled using assessment results for decision-making about individual students, assessing individual student participation in whole class lessons, assessment of 32

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problem solving skills, using assessment results for decisionmaking about individual students, using assessment results when planning teaching, communicating classroom assessment results to others, including student improvement in the calculation of grades, using assessment results when evaluating class improvement, writing true or false questions, and providing written feedback comments along with grades. Moreover, the EST are skilled in writing multiple-choice questions, writing essay questions, and writing test items for higher cognitive levels.

However, the EST are moderately skilled in conducting item analysis for teacher-made tests, revising a test based on item analysis, using portfolio assessment, using peer assessments for student assessments, using a table of specifications to plan assessments, developing rubrics for grading students’ assignments, and calculating variability (standard deviation) for teacher-made tests. Thus, the overall mean assessment is 3.88.

This means that the elementary school teachers are skilled in conducting classroom assessment of students’ learning.

The Junior High School Teachers (JHST) are very skilled in writing essay questions, calculating central tendency for teachermade tests, assessing individual student participation in whole class lessons, assessment of problem solving skills, using assessment results for decision-making about individual students, using assessment results when planning teaching, communicating classroom assessment results to others, including student improvement in the calculation of grades, using assessment results when evaluating class improvement, writing true or false questions, and providing written feedback comments along with grades. Moreover, the JHST are skilled in writing multiple-choice questions, writing test items for higher cognitive levels, conducting item analysis for teacher-made tests, and revising a test based on item analysis. However, the JHST are moderately skilled in using portfolio assessment, using peer assessments for student assessments, using a table of specifications to plan 33

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assessments, developing rubrics for grading students’ assignments, and calculating variability (standard deviation) for teacher-made tests. Thus, the overall mean assessment is 4.00.

This means that the junior high school teachers are skilled in conducting classroom assessment of students’ learning.

The Senior High School Teachers (SHST) are very skilled in writing essay questions, calculating central tendency for teachermade tests, assessing individual student participation in whole class lessons, assessment of problem solving skills, using assessment results for decision-making about individual students, using assessment results when planning teaching, communicating classroom assessment results to others, including student improvement in the calculation of grades, using assessment results when evaluating class improvement, providing written feedback comments along with grades, and writing true or false questions. Moreover, the SHST are skilled in writing multiplechoice questions, writing test items for higher cognitive levels, conducting item analysis for teacher-made tests, revising a test based on item analysis, using portfolio assessment, using peer assessments for student assessments, and using a table of specifications to plan assessments. However, the SHST are just moderately skilled in developing rubrics for grading students’ assignments, and calculating variability (standard deviation) for teacher-made tests. Thus, the overall mean assessment is 4.23.

This means that the senior high school teachers are very skilled in conducting classroom assessment of students’ learning. In order to gather information about teaching and learning, teachers use a variety of assessment instruments such as written tests, performance assessment, observation and portfolio assessment (Airasian, 2011; Stiggins & Bridgeford, 2014; Popham, 2008).

Ndalichako (2014) observed that most primary school teachers prefer to use tests and examinations to evaluate students’ learning. However, use of multiple methods of assessment is recommended due to its potentiality in yielding valuable 34

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information regarding students’ strengths and weaknesses in their learning (Gonzales & Fuggan, 2012). There are various methods that can be used to assess students learning such as portfolios, projects, performance assessment such methods offer rich information about teaching and learning. Portfolio is generally defined as a collection of student work with a common theme or purpose (Wolf, 2011; Arter & Spandel, 2012; Damian, 2014; Popham, 2008).

The key characteristic of portfolio assessment is that it highlights student effort, development, and achievement over a period of time and emphasizes application of knowledge rather than simply recall of information (Price, Pierson, & Light, 2011).

The main advantage of using portfolio is the engagement of students in assessing their own progress and achievement and in strengthening collaboration with their teachers through establishing ongoing learning goals (Popham, 2008). Portfolios encourage self-reflection and awareness among students as they review their previous assignments and assess strengths and weaknesses of both the processes as well as the final products (Sweet, 2013). The main challenges associated with use of portfolios are the reliability of scoring, time required to produce the product and to develop a credible scoring system. The findings of the present study affirmed the investigation on teachers’ assessment practices across teaching levels and content areas, as well as teachers’ self-perceived assessment skills as a function of teaching experience and measurement training (Zhang & Burry-stock, 2003). Thus, classroom assessment has received increased attention from the measurement community in recent years. Since teachers are primarily responsible for evaluating instruction and student learning, there is a widespread concern about the quality of classroom assessment (Mullis & Martin, 2015). More research has confirmed this general picture.

Elementary teachers appear to be unaware of the assessment work and do not trust or use their authentic assessment results 35

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(Florez & Sammons, 2017). Both in questioning and written work, teachers' assessment focuses on low-level aims, mainly recall.

There is little focus on such outcomes as speculation and critical reflection (Ndalichako, 2013), and students focus on getting through the tasks and resist attempts to engage in risky cognitive activities (Chih-Min, S. & Li-Yi, W., 2016). Although teachers can predict the performance of their pupils, their own assessments do not tell them what they need to know about their students' learning (Bombly, 2013).

B. Classroom Assessment Practices. Proper choice of classroom assessment method allows teachers to diagnose problems faced by students in attaining desirable learning outcomes and in devising appropriate remedial measures to redress the situation (Looney, Cumming, Kleij, & Harris, 2017). In a nutshell, classroom assessment can be viewed as a totality of all the processes and procedures used to gather useful information about the progress in teaching and learning which facilitates in regulating the pace and strategies of teaching. Frequency of assessment is also considered important in facilitating retention of material learned (Panadero, Brown & Courtney, 2014). They observed that the frequency of assessment has a mediating effect on student engagement in learning. Research by Pryor and Crossouard (2010) showed that when the frequency of testing is increased, there is increased student involvement in responding to questions and in discussing the subject matter. Other scholars maintained that frequent testing helps students to monitor their learning and reinforces their engagement with the course as a result of immediate feedback provided (Lysaght & O’Leary, 2013).

It has also been established that frequent testing has positive impact on future retention of material learned (Looney, 2014).

Since retention of material is one of an important components of master learning (Panadero, Brown & Courtney, 2014), it can be inferred that frequent testing contributes to mastery learning.

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The Elementary School Teachers (EST) are always using multiple-choice questions, essay questions, test items for higher cognitive levels, assessment of problem solving skills, using assessment results for decision-making about individual students, writing true or false questions, and always providing written feedback comments along with grades. The EST oftentimes assess individual student participation in whole class lessons, use assessment results when planning teaching, communicate classroom assessment results to others, include student improvement in the calculation of grades, use a table of specifications to plan assessments, and assessment results when evaluating class improvement. Moreover, the EST sometimes calculate central tendency for teacher-made tests, conduct item analysis for teacher-made tests, revise a test based on item analysis, use portfolio assessment, use peer assessments for student assessments, and develop rubrics for grading students’ assignments. Thus, the teachers seldom calculate variability (standard deviation) for teacher-made tests. The overall mean assessment is 3.64. This means that the elementary school teachers oftentimes use these assessment tools for students’ learning.

The Junior High School Teachers (JHST) are always using multiple-choice questions, essay questions, true or false questions, writing test items for higher cognitive levels, problem solving skills, assessment results for decision-making about individual students, and always providing written feedback comments along with grades. The feedback provided by teachers' written responses to students' homework was studied in an experiment with students involving teachers in schools (WyattSmith & Klenowski, 2013). They trained the teachers to give written feedback which concentrated on specific errors and on poor strategy, with suggestions about how to improve, the whole being guided by a focus on deep rather than superficial learning (Wyatt-Smith & Looney, 2016). Analysis of variance of the results 37

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showed a big effect associated with the feedback treatment in the final achievement. The treatment also reduced the initial superiority of boys over girls and had a large positive effect on attitudes towards the subject (Xu & Brown, 2016). Moreover, the JHST oftentimes calculate central tendency for teacher-made tests, assess individual student participation in whole class lessons, use portfolio assessment, use assessment results when planning teaching, communicate classroom assessment results to others, include student improvement in the calculation of grades, use a table of specifications to plan assessments, and assessment results when evaluating class improvement. Furthermore, the teachers sometimes conduct item analysis for teacher-made tests, and revise a test items, use peer assessments for student assessments, and develop rubrics for grading students’ assignments. The portfolio movement is more closely associated with efforts to change the impact of high-stakes, often standardized, testing of school learning (Young, & Jackman, 2014). There is a vast literature associated with the portfolio movement. Much of it is reviewed by DeLuca & Klinger, 2010), set out some of the issues in education. A portfolio is a collection of a student's work, usually constructed by selection from a larger corpus and often presented with a reflective piece written by the student to justify the selection (Cizek, Schmid, & Germuth, 2013).

Others (Alkharusi et al., 2012) emphasize that it is valuable for students to understand the assessment criteria for themselves, while Brookhart (2011), points out that the practice of helping students to reflect on their work has made teachers more reflective for themselves. However, there is little by way of research evidence that goes beyond the reports of teachers, to establish the learning advantages. Attention has focused rather on the reliability of teachers' scoring of portfolios because of the motive to make them satisfy concerns for accountability, and so to serve summative purposes as well as the formative (Koh, 2011).

In this regard, the tension between the purposes plays out both in 38

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the selection and in the scoring of tasks. Lyon (2011) describes scoring approaches based on a multi-dimensional approach, with the criterion that each dimension reflects an aspect of learning which can be understood by students and which reflects an important aspect of learning. However, the Junior High School Teachers seldom calculate variability (standard deviation) for teacher-made tests. Thus, the overall mean assessment is 3.73.

This means that the JHST oftentimes use these assessment tools for students’ learning.

The Senior High School Teachers (SHST) are always using multiple-choice questions, essay questions, true or false questions, writing test items for higher cognitive levels, problem solving skills, assessment results for decision-making about individual students, and always providing written feedback comments along with grades. Moreover, the SHST oftentimes calculate central tendency for teacher-made tests, assess individual student participation in whole class lessons, use portfolio assessment, use assessment results when planning teaching, communicate classroom assessment results to others, include student improvement in the calculation of grades, use a table of specifications to plan assessments, and assessment results when evaluating class improvement. Furthermore, the teachers sometimes conduct item analysis for teacher-made tests, and revise a test items, use peer assessments for student assessments, and develop rubrics for grading students’ assignments. However, the Senior High School Teachers seldom calculate variability (standard deviation) for teacher-made tests.

Thus, the overall mean assessment is 3.83. This means that the SHST oftentimes use these assessment tools for students’ learning. More than one assessment method should be used to ensure comprehensive and consistent indications of student performance (Alkharusi et al., 2012). This means to obtain a more complete picture or profile of a student’s knowledge, skills, attitudes, or behaviors and to discern consistent patterns and 39

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trends, more than one assessment method should be used.

Student knowledge might be assessed using completion items; process or reasoning skills might be assessed by observing performance on a relevant task; evaluation skills might be assessed by reflecting upon the discussion with a student about what materials to include in a portfolio. Self-assessment may help to clarify and add meaning to the assessment of a written communication, science project, piece of art work, or an attitude.

Use of more than one method will also help minimize inconsistency brought about by different sources of measurement error. Before an assessment method is used, a procedure for scoring should be prepared to guide the process of judging the quality of a performance or product, the appropriateness of an attitude or behavior, or the correctness of an answer (Zhang & Burry-Stock, 2013). It means further that to increase consistency and validity, properly developed scoring procedures should be used. Different assessment methods require different forms of scoring. Scoring selection items (true or false, multiple-choice, matching) requires the identification of the correct or, in some instances, best answer. Guides for scoring essays might include factors such as the major points to be included in the “best answer� or models or exemplars corresponding to different levels of performance at different age levels and against which comparisons can be made (Committee, 2011). Procedures for judging other performances or products might include specification of the characteristics to be rated in performance terms and, to the extent possible, clear descriptions of the different levels of performance or quality of a product (Hendrickson, 2011). Comments formed as part of scoring should be based on the responses made by the students and presented in a way that students can understand and use them (Johnson, 2014). It further illustrates that, comments, in oral and written form, are provided to encourage learning and to point out correctable errors or inconsistencies in performance. In addition, 40

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comments can be used to clarify a result. Such feedback should be based on evidence pertinent to the learning outcomes being assessed. Procedures for summarizing and interpreting results for a reporting period should be guided by a written policy (Koloikeaikitse, 2017).

This means that summary comments and grades, when interpreted, serve a variety of functions. They inform students of their progress. Parents, teachers, counselors, and administrators use them to guide learning, determine promotion, and identify students for special attention and to help students develop future plans. Comments and grades also provide a basis for reporting to other schools in the case of school transfer and, in the case of senior high school students, post-secondary institutions and prospective employers. They are more likely to serve their many functions and those functions are less likely to be confused if they are guided by a written rationale or policy sensitive to these different needs. This policy should be developed by teachers, school administrators, and other jurisdictional personnel in consultation with representatives of the audiences entitled to receive a report of summary comments and grades. The finding of the present study raises the issue of formative feedback by closely examining teachers’ responses to student's work. For example, if the teacher asks students to provide more details about a written work, the practice is characterized as formative; however, a concern arises as to whether the student know what the instructor meant when he or she asks for elaboration and more details (Wiliam & Thompson, 2008). Formative feedback contradicts the traditional evaluative comments teachers frequently use, such as well done, good, or great work and more.

Chappuis and Stiggins (2013) argue that judgmental feedback not only holds less for value for improvement and student learning, but it also discourages students from learning. Black and Wiliam (2013) assert that formative feedback illuminates students’ strengths and weaknesses, provides some suggestion for 41

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improvement, and avoids comparing one student with his or her peers. In addition, Black and Wiliam (2013) point out the importance of oral feedback provided by the teacher, enabling students to reflect on their learning. They write, “the dialogue between pupils and a teacher should be thoughtful reflective, focused to evoke and explore understanding… so that all pupils have an opportunity to think and to express their ideas”. Given the definitions and characteristics of formative feedback, it is an important component of instruction that occurs while the instruction occurs and enables the instructor to adjust instruction based on students’ suppositions respectively.

Thus, reporting of students’ progress takes the form of written reports and conferences (Roemer, 1999). Conferences are face-to-face events involving teacher, student and parents in various combinations for different purposes (students taking the lead in sharing their learning with their parents serves the purpose of encouraging them to take responsibility for their learning (Johnson, 2014). Lastly, those who argue for using traditional assessments argue that just like other forms of assessments, traditional tests are also focused on improving the cognitive side of instruction, i.e. the skills and knowledge that students are expected to develop within a short period of time (Segers & Dochy, 2001). A study conducted by Kleinert, Kennedy, and Kearns (1999) revealed that teachers expressed levels of frustration in the use of alternative assessments such as portfolio assessment. Some major issues that teachers have against the use of alternative assessments are that they require more time for students to complete, and for teachers to supervise and assess.

Thus, the teachers are generally also concerned about competencies they have in reliably grading these forms of assessments and that such assessments are more teacher-based than student-based. The findings also affirmed that evaluation and grading are good performance indicators even in the graduate level, wherein the faculty must be outstanding in 42

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elucidating the grading system to students by using outcomes and other requirements as pointers of the scholarly level of student performance in every subject (Bueno, 2017).

C. Relationship between Assessment Skills and Practices.

Among EST, the value of R is 0.713 and the coefficient of determination is 0.508. Thus, there is a moderate positive correlation between assessment skills and practices of elementary school teachers, which means there is a tendency for a skilled teacher in the preparation of the assessment tool to frequently use the same tool in the classroom (and vice versa).

Among JHST, the value of R is 0.634 and the coefficient of determination is 0.402. Thus, there is a moderate positive correlation between assessment skills and practices of junior high school teachers, which means by normal standards, the association between the skills and the practices of teachers would be considered statistically significant. Moreover, similar result of moderate positive correlation is obtained among SHST, because the value of R is 0.655 and the coefficient of determination is 0.429. Therefore, teachers adopt a variety of classroom assessment practices to evaluate student learning outcomes, and spend much classroom time engaged in assessment-related activities. Teachers typically control classroom assessment environments by choosing how they assess their students, the frequency of these assessments, and how they provide assessment feedback. For these reasons, it is imperative for them to be competent in the various classroom assessment tools (Koloi-keaikitse, 2017). The findings of the study affirm that primarily the current practices of assessment were focused on exams, classroom discussions, classroom assignment, projects, and seminars. In addition, the study found out that an informal exposure to formative assessment (alternative approach) existed among the faculty members and based on students’ responses, overall, as a formal approach, alternative assessment was considered as a new paradigm (Ahmad & Mussawy, 2009).

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Teachers depend on the classroom assessment information to improve their instructional methods, and as such, that information plays an important role in student learning. It is apparent that teachers should be made competent in the collection, analysis and use of assessment information. Zhang and Burry-Stock (2003) argued that to be able to communicate assessment results more effectively, teachers must possess a clear understanding about the limitations and strengths of various assessment methods. Teachers must also use proper terminology as they use assessment results to inform other people about the decisions about student learning. For this reason, teacher educators must find ways in which they can improve their assessment training methods that can equip teachers with needed skills for using and communicating assessment results. This finding equally brings major challenges to school administrators who rely on teachers to provide them with information about student learning that they collect from assessment results. It is clear that items that assessed teachers’ perceived skills about test construction are helpful in providing essential information about teachers’ perceived skills in classroom assessment practices. This finding is important because it shows that if school managers want to know assessment areas that teachers may need to be trained on, they may not ask them about their perceived skills in test construction, but rather they may want to establish if teachers are more confident in using assessment information for improving their instructional methods, or whether they are in a position to communicate assessment results for better decisionmaking about student learning. These results generally imply the need for teachers or assessment professional development specialists to focus their attention on assessment training on skills teachers need most and those they have less perceived skills on. Teachers are one of the key elements in any school and effective teaching is one of the key propellers for school improvement. This study is concerned with how to define a 44

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teacher’s effectiveness and what makes an effective teacher in relation to their skills and actual practices in assessing students’ learning. It draws out implications for policymakers in education and for improving classroom practice. Thus, the results of this study suggest that, although most teachers claimed that their training did have a certain impact on their assessment practices, the changes occurred mostly while the teachers were novice teachers. This finding also indicates that teachers are required to attend workshops or courses to acquire updated assessment knowledge from time to time. Teacher training programs can equip teachers with assessment knowledge by offering assessment courses to pre-service teachers and assessment workshops to in-service teachers.

Conclusions and Recommendations The teachers across levels from elementary to senior high school are very skilled calculating central tendency of teachermade tests, assessing students’ class participation, calculation of grades, using assessment results in planning, decision-making, communicating and providing feedback, problem solving, evaluating class improvement, and writing true or false tests.

Moreover, they are skilled in writing multiple-choice tests measuring higher order thinking skills (HOTS). However, they are moderately skilled in developing rubrics, and calculating variability for teacher-made tests. All the teachers across levels are always preparing and employing multiple-choice question, true or false and essay questions, HOTS, problem solving, assessment results for decision-making and written feedback along with student’s grades. Moreover, they oftentimes employ assessment of individual student’s class participation, results in lesson planning, and evaluating class and student’s improvement, communicate assessment result, and table of specifications.

However, they sometimes use item analysis, revise test items, 45

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peer assessment, and rubrics in classroom assessment, and they seldom use the results of standard deviation for teacher-made tests. There is a moderate positive correlation between the assessment skills and the assessment practices of elementary, junior, and senior high school teachers. Additionally, the results showed that items asking teachers about their perceived skills in test construction and calculation of statistical techniques such as measures of central tendency were the least useful in understanding overall perceptions about assessment skills.

Further examination of the results showed that an item that asked teachers about their perceived skill in portfolio assessment proved to be the most difficult for teachers to use, an indication that most of the teachers were less skilled in portfolio assessment. This means using traditional forms of assessment such as true or false, multiple choice items and essay questions are more preferred by the teachers compared to the alternative assessments such as portfolio assessments. Thus, the findings of the study revealed the perceived strengths and weaknesses of teachers relative to their classroom assessment skills and practices. These findings have major implications for teacher educators and school managers. For teacher educators these results highlight classroom assessment areas that they may need to focus on as they teach assessment courses. Assessment entails a broad spectrum of activities that includes collection of information for decision-making. The responsibility of teachers is to collect information through various assessment methods that can be used to make informed decisions about students’ learning progress. The question is: are teachers competent enough to use or apply assessment information for making students’ learning decisions? From these results it was very clear that teachers are less confident in using assessment information to make informed instructional and learning decisions. The teachers should continue bringing change and preparing students for future endeavors though authentic assessment. It is therefore 46

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imperative to understand their teaching practices particularly how they assess and evaluate student learning outcomes. The gathered information should be used to highlight the level of teachers’ competences in conducting classroom assessments towards planning and conducting teachers’ education and professional development. It is now essential for researchers, educators, and policy-makers in the Philippine context to have a clear understanding of the perceived skills teachers hold about certain classroom assessment practices as it can open avenues informing policy and practice for addressing the needs that teachers have as they wrestle with their day-to-day classroom assessment practices. Furthermore, research to establish why teachers felt least competent and in the use of portfolio assessment is highly recommended.

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Bueno, D. (2017). Research Skills of the Professorial Lecturers: Input to Capability Building. JPAIR Institutional Research, 9(9), 1-17. doi:10.7719/irj.9i9.489 Campbell, C., & Evans, J. A. (2000). Investigation of preservice teachers’ classroom assessment practices during student teaching. Journal of Educational Research Cavanagh, R.F., Waldrip, B.G., Romanoski, J.T., Fisher, D.L., and Dorman, J.P. (2005). Measuring student perceptions of classroom assessment.

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1080/0969594X.2010.516643 Dillman, D. A., Smyth, J.D., & Christian, L. M. (2009). Internet, mail, and mixed-mode surveys: The tailored design method (3rd ed.).

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Gay, L. R., Mills, G. E., & Airasian, P. (2009). Educational research competencies for analysis and applications. Columbus, GA: Pearson Merrill Prentice Hall.

Gonzales, R. & Fuggan, F. G. (2012). Exploring the conceptual and psychometric properties of classroom assessment. The International Journal of Educational and Psychological Assessment, 9(2), 45-60.

Hambleton, R. K., Swaminathan, H., & Rogers, H. J. (1991). Fundamentals of item response theory: Measurement methods for the social sciences series (Vol. 2). New York, NY: Sage Hays, R. D., Morales, L. S., & Reise, S. P. (2000). Item response theory and health outcomes measurement in the 21st century. Medical Care, 38, II28–II42.

Hendrickson, K. A. (2011). Assessment in Finland : A Scholarly Reflection on One Country’s Use of Formative, Summative, and Evaluative Practices. Mid-Western Educational Researcher, 25 (25), 33–43.

Johnson, S. (2012) Assessing Learning in the Primary Classroom.

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Koh, K. H. (2011). Improving teachers’ assessment literacy through professional development. Teaching Education, 22, 255-276. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10476210.2011.593164 Koloi-keaikitse, S. (2017). Assessment of teacher perceived skill in classroom assessment practices using IRT Models. Cogent Education, 38(1), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186X.2017.1281202 Looney, A. (2014). Assessment and the reform of education systems. In C. Wyatt-Smith, V. Klenowski, & P. Colbert (Eds.), Designing assessment for quality learning. Heidelberg: Springer.

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Lysaght, Z., & O’Leary, M. (2013). An instrument to audit teachers’ use of assessment for learning. Irish Educational Studies, 32, 217–232. doi:10.1080/03323315.2013.784636 McMillan, J. M. (2008). Assessment essentials for student-based education (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks: Crown Press.

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Pryor, J., & Crossouard, B. (2010). Challenging formative assessment: Disciplinary spaces and identities. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 35, 37–41. doi:10.1080/02602930903512891 Roemer, K. L. (1999). Student evaluation practices used by Montessori elementary teachers. The University of Memphis Review, 22(19), 2325 Stiggins, R. J., & Bridgeford, N. J. (2014). The ecology of classroom assessment. Journal of Educational Measurement, 22(4), 271–286 Sweet, D. (2013). Student Portfolios: Classroom Uses. Education Consumer Guide No. 8.

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Wyatt-Smith, C. M., & Looney, A. (2016). Professional standards and the assessment work of teachers. In D. Wyse, L. Hayward, & J. Pandaya (Eds.), The Sage handbook of curriculum, pedagogy and assessment (pp. 805–820). London: Sage Xu, Y., & Brown, G. (2016). Teacher assessment literacy in practice: A reconceptualization. Teaching and Teacher Education, 58, 149–162. doi:10.1016/j.tate.2016.05.010 Young, J. E. J., & Jackman, M. G. (2014). Formative assessment in the Grenadian lower secondary school: Teachers’ perceptions, attitudes and practices. Assessment in Education: Principles, Policy & Practice, 21, 398–411. doi:10.1080/0969594X.2014.919248

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Training Needs Analysis of English Teachers in a National High towards a Proposed Development Plan Dr. Allan R. Maroda Dr. Christine Gil O. Almazan

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------Abstract- The study was focused on the training needs of English

teachers of Olongapo City National High School. The descriptive type of research was utilized in this study. Thirty (30) English teachers were purposively selected for the study. A validated survey-questionnaire was the main instrument used for data collection. Data were analyzed using the Percentage, Weighted Mean and ANOVA or F- test. The indicators on classroom management, communication skills, facilitation skills in leaning and work attitude got a descriptive rating of always; pedagogical approaches, curriculum updating and ICT skills got a descriptive rating of oftentimes and research capability skills got a descriptive rating of sometimes. Teaching position had significant variations with work attitude, curriculum updating and research capability skills; length of teaching experience with pedagogical approaches, work attitude, facilitation skills, in learning, curriculum updating and research capability skills; highest educational attainment with communication skills, pedagogical approaches, facilitation skills in learning, curriculum updating and research capability skills; relevant training/ seminars attended with communication skills, pedagogical approaches, work attitude, facilitation skills in learning, curriculum updating, ICT skills and research capability skills; number of hours spent on reading with classroom management, communication skills, pedagogical approaches, work attitude, facilitation skills in learning, curriculum updating and research capability skills. A proposed training and development plan was designed to address the professional needs of teachers.

Keywords: Traning needs, English teachers, descriptive design, national high school

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Introduction

One of the major things that schools are faced with is the quality of teachers in the field. While there are instituted learning and training development programs for teachers, the 21st Century learners have more demands in the light of education than those who were in schools decades ago. The growing diversity of the student population, societal needs, changes in expectations about the quality and assessment of education, rapid changes in information and technology and their impacts on teaching and learning, nature and value of assessment, and paradigms about teaching and learning have made many instructors to reconsider not only the importance of the content they are teaching, but also the effectiveness of their teaching methods based on students’ learning. According to Chism, Lees and Evenbeck (2002), the basic model of teaching changed from teaching as transmission of content to teaching as the facilitation of learning.

The issues and trends in education, the proliferation of technology, the many programs and projects introduced by DepEd, the national scenario on socio-political economic occurrence that have been changing as fast as we see them contribute to the many challenges of establishing quality teaching-learning environment. There is a need to ask if teachers as front liners of the envisioned quality education can really cope with the changes that have been transpiring in the country. Are they using and developing their own communication skills and knowledge? Do they practice effective classroom management?

Do they have pedagogical skills that outwardly respond to the needs of the learners? Are they using information and communications technology? Do they have the right work attitude? Do they take initiative and responsibility in school programs and activities? Do they get involved in planning and decision-making? Do they have research capability skills? Are they even striving for personal and professional development? In other words do teachers have these general competencies in 53

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order to teach effectively and work with their students, and eventually ‘facilitate learning and constantly nurture every learner?’

Huntly (2003)believed that the competent teacher is able to make conscious choices and exercises judgment over the relative importance of elements which impact on successful student learning outcomes. In other words, competence in teaching is the technical skill and professional capabilities that a teacher needs to bring to a position in order to fulfill its functions in the student’s growth and development.

It is imperative therefore to know if teachers are able to fare with the students’ sense of curiosity, personal skills and desire for learning. The avenues for teacher development must be provided and opened for a clearer and more defined direction in the light of delivering quality education, and the pursuit for equitable, culture-based and complete basic education as stipulated in the DepEd’s vision and mission.

Viewed against that reality, this research study finds training needs assessment as instrumental in retooling and upgrading teachers so that they may effectively and efficiently do their jobs inside the classroom.In addition, this study finds it important to consider training needs assessment as part and parcel of identifying teachers’ needs. Man is dynamic in nature, the need to be current and relevant in all spheres of human endeavor’s make staff development a necessity, to keep track with current event and methods (Griffin, 1998). In order to achieve an effective educational reform, faculty development emerged as a key factor. In general, faculty development facilitates the professional, personal, organizational and instructional growth of faculty and faculty members. It promotes improvement in the academy in large part through helping individuals to evolve, unfold, mature, grow, cultivate, produce, and otherwise develop themselves as individuals and as contributors to the academy’s mission (Watson and Grossman, 1994).

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This research is designed to bridge the gap between the theoretical aspects of conducting training needs analysis and its practical delivery in continuing professional training and development activities. Training is an indispensable tool in an organization. Today's work environment requires teachers to be skilled in performing complex tasks in an efficient, cost-effective, and safe manner. Training (a performance improvement tool) is needed when teachers are not performing up to a certain standard or at an expected level of performance. The difference between the actual level of job performance and the expected level of job performance indicates a need for training. With a number of educational reforms instituted by the Department of Education (DepEd), teachers need to keep abreast and be provided with appropriate skills and performance training to effectively serve the organization.

Training Analysis, sometimes called Training Needs Analysis, (TNA), is the process of identifying the gap in employee training and related training needs. As such, there is a need to understand that TNA is a developmental process that deserves utmost attention if schools or DepEd in general is serious about strengthening its workforce – the teachers.Thus, the need for training needs analysis as basis for developing appropriate and responsive training program for teachers. Abiodun (1999), cited that training is a systematic development of the knowledge, skills and attitudes required by employees to perform adequately on a given task or job. Among other schools that highlighted the usefulness of training are Akintayo (1996), Oguntimehin (2001) and Graig (1976). They identified the functions of training as follow: increase productivity; improves the quality of work; and improves skills, knowledge, understanding and attitude.

The intent of this study is to look into teachers’ training needs in relation to the performance of their duties and functions in the classrooms and in the school in general. There are general competencies expected from the teachers. The training needs 55

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assessment may be able to define and concretely identify the collective training needs of teachers and priorities to be considered in the preparation and planning of the training and development plan for teachers.

Training Needs Analysis (TNA) is the key to reshaping the futureof Continuing Professional Development (CPD) Program in the educational system. It is the major component of training programs. It is a crucial component of learning for ascertaining both the needs of the learners and the organization and as such it provides a fundamental link with relevant and effective teaching and learning process.

The essence of TNA is to find out the general areas of work where an improvement is needed that would require CPD. It focuses on identifying needs of the target audience, developing a rationale for a training program, identifying needed inputs, determining program content and setting program goals. To make Continuing Professional Education programs more effective, TNA should be done before designing and conducting any training or workshops and to look into the needs of the organization, job performance and the staff.

A report on the National Competency Based Teacher Standard, (NCBTS) compiled at the Olongapo City National High School, English teachers are found to display low performance on Domain 4, Curriculum, which includes mastery of the subject matter, communication skills, selection and utility of appropriate pedagogical approaches, facilitation of learning and classroom management respectively.

It is therefore necessary that English teachers develop a sense of self-efficacy on the core aspects of the curriculum to be able to establish a stronger link between their practice and students’ learning outcome.

It is the interest of this study to identify theareas of training needs the English teachers are confronted with and develop the skills to improve their teaching performance.

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Methodology

The study utilized the descriptive method using questionnaire as its main instrument. As explained by Zulueta (2006), the descriptive method is concerned with conditions or relationships that exist, opinions that are held, processes that are going on, effects that are evident, or trends that are developing. It is primarily concerned with the present, although it often considers past events and influences as they relate to current conditions. This study also utilized personal interview and classroom observation to validate and support further the data obtained from the survey-questionnaire. Thirty (30) English teachers from the Olongapo City National High School were the respondents of this study. They were permanent teachers during the School Year 2015-2016. These teachers were specifically chosen in this study because they were catalysts of language development among the students of OCNHS. Their teaching competence in the delivery of instruction of the English language plays an important role in the implementation of the Enhanced Basic Education Curriculum (IRR RA 10533).

Results and Discussion Majority of the English teachers were Teacher I. Most of the English teachers had 10 years above teaching experience. A number of English teachers were Bachelor degree holders. Most of the English teachers had attended various seminar/trainings in both regional and national levels. Majority of the English teachers, on an average, spent two (2) two hours of reading every day.

Most of the English teachers were interested in reading and teaching short stories, poems and essays. The Department of Education Order No.66, s. 2007, Revised Guidelines on the Appointment and Promotion of Other Teaching, Related Teaching and Non-Teaching Positions, states that promotion of teachers was based on performance experience, meritorious 57

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accomplishments, education, training, psycho-social or personality traits and potential of teacher-applicants. DepEd teachers are encouraged to pursue graduate education to sharpen skills and competencies to better serve the learners pursuant to RA. 10533 or the Enhanced Basic Education Act of 2013, Rule III. Teacher Qualifications, Training and Continuing Professional Development. Attendance to various trainings/seminars in the national level is strongly encouraged among teachers to keep them abreast with the teaching innovations on content curriculum, assessment, research capability, andpedagogy. The new curriculum provides standards expected of teachers to manifest as they implement the DepEd’s Vision, Mission and Goals. Teachers as catalyst of reading literacy among students need to be able to identify main ideas and details, distinguish between facts and opinions; draw inferences; determine authors’ intent, stance and bias. They should be able to summarize, synthesize two or more reading passage and extend textual information to tasks. This is achieved by exposure to varied reading materials and long hours of reading. The longer teachers spend hours reading, the more they are able to develop repertoire of reading strategies and the ability to apply these strategies meaningfully in their teaching (Anderson 2009). In this study, teachers reading habit and the number of reading hours indicate their ability to encourage their students to get into reading.

Students’ motivation to read is nurtured (Komiyang 2009). The researcher agrees with other language researchers (Anderson 1999; 2013; Banford and Day 2004; Grabe 2010) that reading fluency is developed first and foremost when teacher lead by good example to their students.

The indicators on Classroom Management, Communication Skills, Facilitation Skills in Leaning and Work Attitude got a descriptive rating of Always; Pedagogical Approaches, Curriculum Updating and ICT Skills got a descriptive rating of Oftentimes and Research Capability Skills got a descriptive rating of Sometimes.

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Milner and Tenore (2010) posited that the goal of a teacher is to ensure that students are learning, comprehending and applying knowledge so that they can develop into moral citizens who effectively function in a society. Poor behavior in the classroom hinders these goals. If students are disruptive or inattentive, they cannot learn, as a result, they cannot develop the skills needs to be successful in the work. Research has consistently shown that poor classroom management in urban school environment negatively impacts students. Van Acker and Talbott, 1999 as cited

by Heard, 2012) and good classroom management is critical for student’s learning. Teachers who employ good classroom management promote positive students behavior and high academic achievement while instilling in students both selfcontrol and self- responsibility, good character, perseverance and moral values.(Froyen and Iverson, 2000). Teacher’s attitude towards classroom management is one principal factor that impact student’s achievement and motivation to perform well in school. Butler (2007) and Schatschneider et, al, (2003) conducted a study to identify the major reading , cognitive, linguistic skills that contribute differences in the performance on the reading portion of Florida Assessment Test (FCAT) at the third, seventh and tenth grade teachers. Forty teachers were administered a variety of reading, language and cognitive skills. Results indicated that in the third grade, reading fluency was the dominant factor in explaining the variability of the test performance. In the seventh grade, reading fluency and verbal knowledge similarly explained variability in test performance individual differences. However, in the 10th grade, verbal knowledge and reasoning was clearly dominant factor in explaining variability in test performances on the FCAT. Similarly, in this study, teachers who develop reading fluency skills and verbal knowledge skills are posited to transfer their ideas into writing. Teachers also needed to use technology, digital and non-digital to enhance learning. The overall weighted mean obtained was 4.06 with a descriptive rating of Oftentimes.

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(Kwonget.al. (2007) indicates that Shulman (1986, 1987) has suggested that pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) forms a unique and distinct knowledge domain of teacher cognition. PCK emphasizes the manner in which teachers relate subject matter knowledge (what they know about what they teach) to their pedagogical knowledge (what they know about teaching, how their learners learn and the learner’s conceptions) and how subject matter knowledge is part of pedagogical reasoning. It also includes an understanding of what makes learning of specific concepts, easy or difficult, the conceptions and misconceptions that students of different ages and backgrounds bring with them to the learning environment. Work attitudes such as satisfaction and involvement are criterion for establishing the health of an organization; rendering effective services largely depends on the human resource. Job satisfaction experienced by employees will induce the people to give their best to the organization. Both the attitudes required to enhance the performance of employees.

Attitudes are the feelings and beliefs that largely determine how employees will perceive their environment, commit themselves to intended actions, and ultimately behave. Attitudes form a mental set that affects how we view something else. It has an impact on how we view and judge our surroundings at work. Managers of organizational behavior are vitally interested in the nature of the attitudes of their employees toward their Jobs, toward their careers, and toward the organization itself .Job attitudes of the employees are most important to achieve the individual and organizational objectives through their performance. Job satisfaction does impact future performance through the Job involvement, but higher performance also makes people feel more satisfied and committed. It is a cycle of events that is clearly in keeping with the developmental perspective (Alan Randolph, et.al., 1998). Attitudes such as satisfaction and involvement are important to the employees to have high levels of performance which was conceptualized and supported by the findings of the 60

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study on Job Attitude and Employees Performance of Public Sector Organizations in Jaffna District, Sri Lanka, University of Jaffnaby (Velnamy, 2012).The results of the study and from the formulated hypotheses revealed that attitudes namely satisfaction and involvement, and performance are significantly correlated. Correlation between involvement and performance is somewhat higher than the correlation among satisfaction and performance. In this study, the English teachers’ work attitude revealed a positive outlook and openness to training and innovation to further enhance their professionalism. Support system mechanism in the workplace was evidently seen in the responses. Teachers manifest enthusiasm and affableness to help co-workers accomplish developmental tasks and projects. Taber (2006) posited that the process of teaching is one of relentless problem-solving, where it is the teacher’s job to identify, characterize and respond to problems, many of which cannot be predicted in advance. In this sense the teacher can be seen as having a similar role to a doctor or clinical psychologist who has to constantly apply expertise and experience to new cases, each being somewhat unique and so different from any previously treated case. Indeed, one approach to support teachers in honing their diagnostic skills in the light of the ongoing problems of matching teaching to students’ existing understanding has been labeled as the science learning doctor approach’, and offers a scheme for identifying the major types of learning ‘bugs’ as a first step to finding solutions. The constructivist view of learning suggests that teaching cannot be reduced to a limited number of learnable skills that could be mastered and then applied to particular teaching contexts. Rather, teachers need to be experts in professional problem-solving, who are highly informed about such matters as subject knowledge and pedagogical knowledge (Ball, Thames and Phelps, 2008), and have developed a wide repertoire of educational techniques that they can use to build flexible and evolving strategies in response to the various unique 61

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scenarios they will meet in their day-to-day work. Preparation for teaching through in-service teacher education courses, therefore, has to reflect this. Part of the preparation of teachers will inevitably involve learning about several areas of formal knowledge; about education systems and processes; about facilitation sills in teaching and learning; about the subject(s) to be taught and about subject pedagogy. With all learners, intending teachers will bring to learning their own idiosyncratic knowledge and understanding of education that will include areas of relative strength and weakness, as well as their own personal alternative conceptions that will distort their understanding of the target knowledge in the curriculum (Taber, et al., 2005). The English curriculum is based on the belief that language learning is critical to responsible and productive citizenship, and that all students can become successful language learners. The curriculum is designed to provide students with the knowledge and skills that they need to achieve this goal. It aims to help students become successful language learners. Successful language learners: understand that language learning is a necessary, life-enhancing, reflective process; communicate – that is, read, listen, view, speak, write, and represent – effectively and with confidence; make meaningful connections between themselves, what they encounter in texts, and the world around them; think critically; understand that all texts advance a particular point of view that must be recognized, questioned, assessed, and evaluated. The cultural impact and aesthetic power of texts; use language to interact and connect with individuals and communities, for personal growth, and for active participation as world citizens.

Language skills are developed across the curriculum and, cumulatively, through the grades. Students use and develop important language skills as they read and think about topics, themes, and issues in various subject areas. Language facility helps students to learn in all subject areas, and using language for a broad range of purposes increases both their ability to 62

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communicate with precision and their understanding of how language works. Students develop flexibility and proficiency in their understanding and use of language over time. As they move through the secondary school program, they are required to use language with ever-increasing accuracy and fluency in an expanding range of situations. They are also expected to assume responsibility for their own learning and to apply their language skills in more complex way. The English curriculum focuses on developing the knowledge and skills that will enable students to become effective readers. An effective reader is one who not only grasps the ideas communicated in a text but is able to apply them in new contexts. To do this, the reader must be able to think clearly, creatively, and critically about the ideas and information encountered in texts in order to understand, analyze, and absorb them and to recognize their relevance in other contexts. Students can develop the skills necessary to become effective readers by applying a range of comprehension strategies as they read and by reading a wide variety of texts. It is also important that they read a range of materials that illustrate the many uses of writing. By reading widely, students will develop a richer vocabulary and become more attuned to the conventions of written language.

Reading various kinds of texts in all areas of the curriculum will also help students to discover what interests them most and to pursue and develop their interests and abilities. Reading is a complex process that involves the application of various strategies before, during, and after reading. For example, before reading, students might prepare by identifying the purpose of the reading activity and by activating their prior knowledge about the topic of the text. Teachers help build the necessary background knowledge for students whose life experiences may not have provided them with the information they need to understand the text. During reading, students may use “cueing systems” – that is, clues from context or from their understanding of language structures and/or letters soundrelationships – to help them solve 63

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unfamiliar words, and comprehension strategies to help them make meaning of the text. Comprehension strategies include predicting, visualizing, questioning, drawing inferences, identifying main ideas, summarizing, and monitoring and revising comprehension. After reading, students may analyze, synthesize, make connections, evaluate, and use other critical and creative thinking skills to achieve a deeper understanding of the material they have read. It is important to note that although the specific expectations for each grade may focus on particular strategies that emphasize grade-appropriate skills, they do not impose a restriction on the range of strategies students will apply in that grade. Teachers must use their professional judgment in deciding which comprehension strategies to model and teach, based on the identified learning needs of the students in their classrooms and on the nature of the particular texts students are reading. Jorge (2007) believed that recognizing the importance teachers’ own voices play in their own professional development, the case study reported in this paper aims to illuminate the role that formal instruction and immersion in language curriculum research can play in shaping teachers’ views of teacher-research and of themselves as future enquiring practitioners. Umar’s (2014) study investigated the levels of Malaysian teachers’ ICT skills, namely, Basic and Advanced ICT skills, Internet skills for information seeking and sharing as well as Internet skills for communication. It investigated the correlations between teachers’ years of services and their computer experiences, and the effects of ICT use on teaching and learning. In addition, the study also investigated whether there are any significant differences on the frequency of ICT use in classroom for (i) teaching and learning, (ii)searching educational resources, (iii) creating presentation/delivery materials, and (iv) preparing lesson plan between male and female teachers, and between teachers from different age groups. A set of questionnaire was sent to 7,320 primary and secondary school teachers throughout Malaysia. A 64

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total of 2661 teachers have responded to the questionnaire (a return rate of 36.4%). The findings indicated that the teachers are ‘highly skilled’ in (i) Internet skills for information seeking/sharing (mean: 3.35), (ii) Basic ICT skills (mean: 3.13), and (iii) Internet skills for communication (mean: 3.01). However, the respondents’ level for the Advanced ICT Skills is at the ‘Moderate’ level (mean: 2.31). Also, there is no correlation between the teachers’ years of service and the perceived impact of ICT on their teaching (r: -0.038) and student learning (r: 0.022). A very weak correlation (r: 0.109) was also observed between their computer experience and the impact of ICT on teaching. There is also no correlation between the respondents’ computers experience and the impact of ICT on students learning (r: 0.0069).

Furthermore, the findings indicated that male teachers use ICT in classroom significantly more frequent than their female colleagues for teaching and learning as well as for creating presentation/delivery materials. Moreover, there are significant differences in the use of ICT for searching educational resources, creating presentation/delivery materials, and preparing lesson plan for teachers in the different age groups. Therefore, the relevant parties need to propose an initiative and prepare an action plan so that the teachers, especially the senior ones, acquire the four ICT skills. Ample and continuous trainings should also be conducted to ensure that our teachers are competent in using ICT. This in return, will produce a generation of students with high levels of ICT skills in the future. Chumaidiyah (2013) posited that the decline of customer growth rate, the decline of ARPU rate, and the decline of revenue caused problem of business sustainability for Indonesia telecommunication services companies which majority are small and medium enterprise. To achieve high performance, the companies have to maintain distinctive capability which is own resources consist of technology, technical skill, and R&D capability in order to increase profitability.

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He examined the influence of technology, technical skill, and R&D capability toward profitability in Indonesia telecommunication services companies. The research resulted to significant findings that technology,technical skill, and R&D capability influenced profitability of most companies. This is a solution to establish strong small and medium enterprisethat supports telecommunication business in Indonesia. Meijer and Oolbekkink (2012) described an empirical exploration of three initiatives in which teachers in secondary education (learn to) research their own practice in collaboration with university-based research institutes, aiming at professional development and knowledge construction. They found evidence of professional development, mainly at the level of the individual teacher and to a lesser extent at the school level. Teachers reported that they developed their knowledge and skills with respect to doing research, as well as a more critical attitude, and consciousness of and intentions to change teaching performance. Organizational conditions appeared to be related to results at school level. The article concluded by stating that, if teacher research is to lead to the collaborative development of more scientifically accepted knowledge, greater attention will need to be paid to the dissemination of knowledge as well as to the quality assurance of the research performed. Munthe and Rogne (2014) explained that a research based ITE is important to foster innovative teachers.ITE programs vary both concerning context and content for research based ITE.More faculty with PhDs teach ITE for grades 5–10 than ITE for grades 1–7.Students report their need to read research literature more than faculty. Challenge: How to provide coherent programs for research and inquiry.

Undergraduate research is one way to qualify teachers for professional learning and innovation, but there is little knowledge about how ITE programs address research for students. This study has investigated that question in one country, Norway. Data is survey data from all HEIs providing teacher education, and an 66

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interview study involving 36 teacher educators and 36 students.

Results indicate that ITE programs emphasize research, but teacher-led more than student engagement.

The English teachers’ Teaching Position, Curriculum Updating, Work Attitude and Research Capability Skills were found significant while Classroom Management, Communication Skills, Pedagogical Approaches, Facilitation Skills in Learning and ICT Skills were found not significant. Their Length of Teaching Experience, Pedagogical Approaches, Work Attitude, Facilitation Skills in Learning, Curriculum Updating and Research Capability Skills were found significant. Classroom Management, Communication Skills and ICT Skills were not significant. Their Highest Educational Attainment, Communication Skills, Pedagogical Approaches, Facilitation Skills in Learning, Curriculum Updating and Research Capability Skills were found significant while Classroom Management, Work Attitude and ICT Skills were found not Significant. Their Relevant Seminar/ Training Attended, Communication Skills, Pedagogical Approaches, Work Attitude, Facilitation Skills in Learning, Curriculum Updating, ICT Skills and Research Capability Skills were foundsignificant while Classroom Management wasnot significant. Their Average Number of Hours Spent on Reading every day, Classroom Management, Communication Skills, Pedagogical Approaches, Work Attitude, Facilitation Skills in Learning, Curriculum Updating and Research Capability Skills were found Significant while ICT Skills was found Not Significant.

Reading Interest was found not significant with all indicators on training needs. Peters (1987) as cited by Vail (2010) does not support the belief that tenure is an obstacle to rapid, complex and unpredictable change (Graham et. al 2002). Peter (1987) believes tenure is an essential ingredient to large-scale reform and innovative change because it can provide a sense of job security, leading the ability to take tasks. The faculty’s innate nature to participate in charge was based on the staff’s perception of the 67

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organization’s climate. These include trustworthiness motivation, open and productive dialogue ability to input design making, conflict resolution ability, level of goal orientation, time, materials and methods. It was inferred that teachers’ training needs on curriculum updating, facilitation skills in learning and pedagogical approaches differ and depend whether they are full-pledged Master or Doctoral degree holders or Master’s Unit earners or Baccalaureate degree holders. Vail (2010) explained that teachers changing notes and competencies have investigated teacher’s professional competencies. They have concluded that qualities of a successful teacher can be divided into professional characteristics and professional competencies. Professional characteristics comprise professional values, professional and personal development communication and relationship, along with synthesis and use. They added, professional competencies of a successful teacher, on the other hand, include knowledge and understanding, as well as skills. Knowledge and understanding further encompass the knowing of students, their ways of studying, Professional Knowledge of the taught subject, being familiar with the curriculum, educational system an teacher roles (ability to reflect, administrative chores, legal responsibility, team work). Finally, skills stand for ability to plan content, strategize activities to realize goals, find solutions in case of constraints and offer concrete implementation schemes.Through this study, the training needs of English teachers will help the department push forth the appropriate intervention activities to address the areas of improvement for their professional growth.

Conclusions and Recommendations Majority of the English teachers were Teacher I; had served for 10 years and above; Bachelor’s degree holder; attended seminar/trainings in both regional and national levels; spent average two (2) hours of reading every day and read and taught short stories, poems and essays. The indicators on 68

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Classroom Management, Communication Skills, Facilitation Skills in Leaning and Work Attitude got a descriptive rating of Always; Pedagogical Approaches, Curriculum Updating and ICT Skills got a descriptive rating of Oftentimes and Research Capability Skills got a descriptive rating of Sometimes. Teaching Position had significant variations with Work Attitude, Curriculum Updating and Research Capability Skills; Length of Teaching Experience with Pedagogical Approaches, Work Attitude, Facilitation Skills, in Learning, Curriculum Updating and Research Capability Skills; Highest Educational Attainment with Communication Skills, Pedagogical Approaches, Facilitation Skills in Learning, Curriculum Updating and Research Capability Skills; Relevant Training/ Seminars Attended with Communication Skills, Pedagogical Approaches, Work Attitude, Facilitation Skills in Learning, Curriculum Updating, ICT Skills and Research Capability Skills; Number of hours spent on reading with Classroom Management, Communication Skills, Pedagogical Approaches, Work Attitude, Facilitation Skills in Learning, Curriculum Updating and Research Capability Skills. A proposed Training and Development Plan was designed to address the professional needs of teachers. Thus, the English teachers should pursue relevant graduate studies to get higher positions; attend different international seminars/trainings; spend more time reading multifarious literary genres to expand their skills and expose them to a more interesting variety of selections. The English Department, through the Faculty Professional Development Program, should conduct a series of training in staggered phases and time frame on Pedagogical Approaches, Curriculum Updating, ICT Skills and Research Capability Skills to enhance competence of the English teachers. The school principal through the head teacher should require and monitor teachers’ Individual Plan for Professional Development (IPPD) so that training needs are gradually addressed and that skills in key result areas (KRAS) are continuously developed by the teachers as they acquire higher 69

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educational attainment and teaching experience. The proposed Training and Development Plan should be implemented and continuously monitored by the school principal and department head. A similar study on training needs analysis of teachers should be explored by future researchers.

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Research Skills and Attitudes of Master Teachers in a Division towards Capability Training Dr. Manolito Bada Basilio Dr. David Cababaro Bueno

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------Abstract- The accurate assessment of research self-efficacy may help identify a given self-identified strengths and weaknesses with respect to research, thereby facilitating research training and guidance. This study focused on the Master Teachers’ (MTs) skills and attitudes towards research as basis for research capability building program for MTs in the Schools Division of Zambales. The study used the descriptive-survey design. The data gathered were organized and processed through the SPSS. Majority of the MTs were middle aged, female and married, earned MA/MS units, and have served as Master Teacher I for 1-4 years. A very small percentage of the MTs have attended research-related trainings or conferences and undertaken, published or presented researches. They have average skills in searching, using and evaluating information including their awareness on the various sources of information and where to obtain them. They have fair skills in designing experimental study as well as selecting and developing research instruments, choosing appropriate statistical tools and preparing manuscript for publication.

They strongly value training in educational research but moderately apply research findings to real life context. They have high regards relative to the value of doing research to become better educator. Time, efforts and resources in learning about research findings were essential elements to create positive attitudes towards research. A research capability training program is hereby proposed as the output of the study.

The program consists of various levels from lectures, hands-on workshop, and writing research articles for colloquium and for possible publication.

Keywords- Education, Master Teacher, Research Skills and Attitudes, Capability Program, Department of Education, Descriptive-survey, Zambales

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Introduction

The first academic revolution, taking off in the late 19th century, made research school’s function in addition to the traditional task of teaching. At present, education is usually broken down into three components, namely teaching, research and service. Research is the systematic process of collecting and analyzing information to increase a human understanding of the phenomenon under study. In other words, research is a process comprised of data collection, analysis, interpretation, and assessment procedures conducted in a planned manner in order to find solutions to a problem. Teachers are the one who conduct research in school. Because of the education process and need to submit research for effective teaching, master teachers play an important role in research process.

During recent decades, the construct self-efficacy has been receiving growing attention in educational research. In summary, research self-efficacy refers to one’s capabilities to execute particular tasks in research domain. Research self-efficacy has been found to predict students’ interest in conducting research and is related to research productivity among students (Kahn, 2001). The accurate assessment of research self-efficacy may help identify a given self-identified strengths and weaknesses with respect to research, thereby facilitating research training and guidance. Research has shown that low research self-efficacy can interfere with research training and their willingness to conduct research (Love et al. 2007). Research has also shown that high research self-efficacy is an important factor related to successfully conducting research and pursuing research beyond graduate study (Forester et al. 2004).

However, little is known about research self-efficacy and its correlates among Mater Teachers (MTs) particularly in the Division of Zambales. This knowledge enables us to better understand and minimize elements that could impede or interfere with the research process. Therefore, the goal of this research 75

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was to investigate the MTs personal and professional characteristics, research skills and attitude towards research.

The 1987 Philippine Constitution declares the policy of the State to “establish, maintain and support a complete, adequate, and integrated system of education relevant to the needs of the people, the country and society-at-large.” A strong basic education is the key to this State policy. Teachers, then, play an integral role in ensuring that this policy is carried out. Cognizant of this, the government institutionalized mechanisms in order to “promote and improve the social and economic status of public school teachers, their living and working conditions, their terms of employment and career prospects in order that they may compare favorably with existing opportunities in other walks of life, attract and retain in the teaching profession more people with the proper qualifications” (Magna Carta for Public School Teachers).

One of these mechanisms is the introduction of Master Teacher positions in the Philippines, initially in 1978, at four levels, which match the salary grades of principals and assistant principals. With this, a two-track system of career progression for teachers was made available: school administration and classroom teachers. As in most countries, the career paths of teachers especially talented practitioners lead to headship which is done by progressively reducing classroom work in order for them to take on leadership and management responsibilities (Bush, Glover, Yoon Mooi & Romero, 2015). In order to maintain talented teachers in the classroom, some educational systems established a mechanism which offers alternative promoted posts, often described as master teachers (Bush et.al., 2015). This is also the case in the Philippines.

Master teachers are expected to have more experience in curriculum development, professional development, and mentoring than a traditional teacher; they serve as a role model for all other instructional staff and are considered the “gold 76

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standard” in teaching (NIET cited in Moore, 2015). They are considered the "crème de la crème" of the teaching profession and their teaching practices will be different from the general, nonmaster teachers. (Ibrahim, Aziz & Nambiar, 2013).

McClean (2009) described MTs are as those who have superior preparation, exceptional teaching strategies, motivation and communication skills, sound curriculum knowledge, interpersonal competence, and classroom management proficiencies. Further, MTs are perceived as effective teachers, staff developers, stimuli of curriculum leadership and the strong provider of instructional leadership.

Given this important role of MTs in the educational system, they are in the best position to influence educational policies through research. The importance of educational research in the system needs no further emphasis. Livingstone (2005) of the UNESCO-International Institute for Educational Planning (IIEP) on Basic Elements of Research Design underscores that in an ideal world, educational research has a vital role to play in the improvement of education, whether this be in the development of theory to better explain why things occur the way they do in particular learning situations, or stimulating ideas for innovative practices, or developing new procedures and materials to enhance the efficiency and effectiveness of instruction. Moreover, educational research has the role of providing attested information to improve the quality of decision-making for educational policy.

The conduct of educational research especially in basic education is reinforced in Republic Act 9155 or the Governance of Basic Education Act of 2001 (Chapter 1, Section 7 (5), RA 9155) as it mandates Department of Education (Deped) to “undertake [national] educational research and studies” which can become part of the basis for necessary reforms and policy inputs. Deped Order 43, s. 2015 or Revised Guidelines for the Basic Education Research Fund (BERF) further emphasizes this as it called for 77

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evidence-based policy development through the institution of reforms that strengthen transparency and accountability (DepEd Order No. 43, s. 2015). On top of this policy, DepEd started to provide funding facility for research through the Basic Education Research Fund (BERF) under DepEd Order No. 24, s. 2010. The said fund was made available to internal and external research practitioners that meet the minimum eligibility requirements. To date, DepEd Order No. 43, s. 2015 revitalized this initiative with the revised guidelines for BERF. In the regional level, DepEd Region 3 issued Regional Memorandum No. 144, s. 2015 which underscored the implementation of Rationalization Program of the Department as foreground for the conduct of policy and action researches across hierarchical levels and functional divisions. The Regional Office is mandated to formulate the regional research policies to ensure the unified direction in conducting policy and action researches.

The Region’s goals of formulating research-based policies and strategies across disciplines to support the attainment of the direction of the Department of Education in general and the region in particular; developing professional communities of practitioners in various divisions equipped with scientific and creative thinking skills; and organizing academic gatherings as an avenue for exchange of research outputs – define the Regional Office’s commitment of its contribution towards the attainment of DepEd Central Office’s vision and mission through research.

These research directions bind Schools Divisions to implement research-related programs and projects of the DepEd Central and Regional Offices and formulate and initiate parallel ones that address specific problems in schools.

DepEd Zambales has framed its research initiatives anchored on the objectives of its Schools Division Education Development Plan (SDEDP) covering a period of six years, 20152020 setting out the research direction and priority areas for improvement identified within DepEd’s three general thematic 78

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areas: ACCESS, QUALITY and GOVERNANCE. One of the objectives stated therein is, “To develop a culture of research in the Schools Division.” The SDEDP objectives serve as take-off points for research to guide DepEd Zambales personnel especially the Master Teachers (MTs) who are mandated to do action researches.

These mechanisms manifest the full support of the government to educational research. This provides the perfect environment for Master Teachers to conduct action researches which can become bases for policy proposals and reforms. This is, in fact, part of the duties and responsibilities of MTs based on the Results-Based Performance Management System (RPMS) where it is stipulated under the Position and Competency Profile “conducts in-depth studies or action researches on instructional problems” and “conducts at least one action research every year”.

However, in the Research Capability Training cum Colloquium for Master Teachers (MTs) conducted on September 2-4, 2015 by the Planning and Research Unit of DepEd Zambales, it was revealed that 70% of some 300 MTs in the Schools Division have difficulty conceptualizing an action research proposal which they were required to submit prior to the training. Data gathered in this training served as baseline data besides a survey questionnaire that purports to identify and gauge their ability to conduct action research, methodology skills in particular.

It is upon this premise that this present study was initiated to identify the skills and attitudes of MTs towards conducting research. While the earlier discussion presented the mechanisms, in terms of policy, system and funding that provides an environment where MTs can readily conduct educational research, it is likewise important to look into internal factors such as research skills and attitudes to understand the difficulty being experienced by the MTs when it comes to conducting research.

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In the instrument developed by Meehra et.al. (2011) to measure research skills, two constructs were identified, i.e., information seeking skills defined in the study as “the awareness of the various sources of information that are available and the ability to search, use, and evaluate information” and research methodology skills which “involves identifying and designing appropriate research procedures, understanding the limitations and scope of research design (for example, sample sizes and data type)”. This diagnostic instrument allows the identification of competencies in research knowledge and skills in order to identify the deficiencies which can be addressed through trainings. (Meehra et.al, 2011). In the context of this present study, the particular needs for research capacity building of the MTs can be identified through this research.

On the other hand, attitude towards research is influenced by three contributing factors namely, teacher participation in education research, the perceived value of education research, and the usefulness of research skills (Lazo, Anito Jr., Labrador & Prudente, 2014). A thorough understanding into MTs attitudes towards research would also provide valuable input as to why only a few MTs conduct action researches considering that this is part of their mandate.

This study focused on the skills and attitudes of Master Teachers towards research, specifically action research which they are mandated to conduct as one of their duties and responsibilities as stated in the Results-Based Performance Management System– Position Competency Profile (RPMS-IPCRF) and Civil Service Form 1. The participants profile important factors that will complement and substantiate the data that will be gathered in this study. The research skills being referred to in this research were limited to only two constructs as specified by Meerah, et. al. (2011) relative to information-seeking and methodology skills. Analysis of the questionnaire pertaining to these two constructs embodies all other constructs such as the 80

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statistical analysis skills, problem-solving skills, and communication skills. These two constructs were allowed and given permission by Meerah to be used for the purpose of this study. Data on MTs attitudes towards research were obtained through a survey-questionnaire from Ozturk (2011).

Methodology This study utilized the descriptive-survey design in investigating the research skills and attitude of Master Teachers.

This method is to describe systematically the facts and characteristics of a given population or area of interest, factually and accurately. The characteristics of descriptive research are accumulating a database to describe a situation, event or entity.

The purpose of survey studies are to collect detailed factual information that describes existing phenomena; to identify problems or justify current conditions and practices; to make comparisons and evaluations; and to determine what others are doing with similar problems or situations and benefit from their experience in making future plans and decisions (Bueno, 2016).

The study utilized computer software namely sample size calculator in determining the sample size of 183 respondents from the population of the 346 Master teachers who are stationed in public elementary and secondary schools in the Division of Zambales They are chosen as participants since one of their duties and responsibilities is to conduct action research as stated in their Position and Competency Profile in the Results-Based Performance Management System (Conducts in-depth studies or action researches on instructional problems and conducts at least one action research every year) and as further emphasized in their duties and responsibilities as reflected in their Position Description Form (Civil Service Commission Form 1).

The sampling design to be used is a non-probability sampling, specifically convenience sampling, which entails the use of the most readily, and conveniently available respondents as 81

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sample for the study. Convenience sampling is advantageous especially for pilot studies since it gives the researcher an initial idea about the trends and other basic information of the phenomenon being observed. Moreover, compared to other sampling techniques, it is cheaper, fast, and easy to conduct (Castillo, 2009). In the case of this current study, the most conveniently available Master Teachers from 13 District in Zambales composed of public elementary and secondary schools.

This study used survey questionnaire as main instrument used in data-gathering. The questionnaire that aims to measure research skills (information-seeking skills and methodology skills which are Likert-type with 26 and 13 items each respectively) was adapted from Meerah, et. al. (2011) while the questionnaire that purports to measure attitudes towards research with 29 Likert-type items categorized under eight (8) identified factors was adapted from Ozturk (2011). The instruments which the researcher used so as to gather the data needed was the Survey Questionnaire. The questionnaire consisted of three (3) parts. The first part consists of profile of the respondents such age, gender, civil status, position, highest educational attainment, number of years in service, number of research related training, number of research related conferences, number of research presentation, number of published research, number of research undertaken and current/0n-going research. The said part is of structured type to facilitate presentation of the data collected. The second part of the questionnaire was adapted from Meerah, et. al. (2011) which aims to measure the Master Teacher research skills in terms of information seeking skills which consists of 26 items and methodology skills consists of 13 items. The third part questionnaire was adapted from Ozturk (2011) which aims to measure the attitude of Master Teacher towards research skills which consists of 29 items under the following factors namely educators value training in educational research (items 1, 9, 15, 19 and 26), educators who keep up with research are better 82

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educators (items 2, 16 and 20), educators value doing research in their schools (3, 10 and 17), research findings are applicable to real life context (items 4, 11 and 21), incorporate doing their own research in their practices (items 5, 22 and 27), educators believe that research reports are understandable (items 6, 12, 23 and 28), time and resources to make use of research findings (items 7, 13, 18, 24 and 29) and invest time and effort in learning about research findings (items 8, 14 and 25). Since the instruments were adapted from identified sources and the researcher was allowed to use them through an e-mailed request, there was supposedly not any need for validation as they were constructed and validated by the sources who hold Doctorate Degree, thus considered as authorities and experts in the field, added to the fact that they already have used the instrument in their studies and others’ as well. Nevertheless, the researcher still asked the help of other local experts to carefully look into the questionnaires if they suit the intended participants of the study.

After which, the questionnaires were finalized and administered.

The data gathered were organized and processed through the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS). As one of the rules followed in the use of the software, the formula of the statistical tools used were not reflected anymore since the computer did not follow the steps in the manual computation. The frequency and percentage distribution were used to describe the profile of the respondents. The weighted mean was used to assess the Master Teacher research skills and attitude towards educational research.

Results and Discussion Majority of the MTs were middle aged, female and married, earned MA/MS units, and have served as Master Teacher I for 1-4 years. A very small percentage of them have attended researchrelated trainings or conferences and undertaken, published or presented researches. The MTs have average skills in searching, 83

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using and evaluating information including their awareness on the various sources of information and where to obtain them.

They have fair skills in designing experimental study as well as selecting and developing research instruments, choosing appropriate statistical tools and preparing manuscript for publication. The MTs strongly value training in educational research but moderately apply research findings to real life context. They have high regards relative to the value of doing research to become better educator. Time, efforts and resources in learning about research findings were essential elements to create positive attitudes towards research.

Certain qualifications were set to become a Master Teacher in the Department of Education which includes academic qualifications, performance, teaching experience and leadership potential. In connection with the findings, the lowest age range is 29-34 which means that it takes more or less five years to reach Master Teacher level in order to meet these qualifications. The highest age range is 65-70 since the retirement age in the DepEd is set at 65.

Demographic variables have generally been associated with research productivity. Age has been studied in numerous works, with conflicting results. Many studies about productivity have indicated that the relationship between publication and age is not linear, although the overall rate of publication generally declines with age (Finkelstein, Seal & Schuster 1998; Teodorescu 2000). According to Over (1982), research productivity of academics slightly decreased with age. Bland and Berquist (1997) also observed that the average productivity of academic members drops with age but many senior academics remains active and that there is no significant evidence that age determines a drop in productivity. Teodorescu (2000) investigated faculty publication across 10 countries and discovered that age significantly influences research productivity in the United States. In a study using a random sampling of 228 colleges and universities in the 84

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United States, Kotrlik et al. (2001) found that age does not significantly affect research productivity. As provided in Chapter 6 of said manual on the PCC Scheme for Teaching Positions in Elementary and Secondary Schools, there is a quota system on the allowable number of Master Teacher positions in elementary and secondary schools. This quota system is determined by DepEd in consultation with the Department of Budget and Management and is as follows: For elementary schools: Total Master Teacher positions shall not exceed 10% of the total authorized teacher positions in the district, to wit: • Master Teacher I positions shall not exceed 6.6% of the total number of authorized teaching positions. • Master Teacher II positions shall not exceed 3.4% of the number of authorized Master Teacher I positions. For secondary schools: One (1) Master Teacher position regardless of level may be allowed per subject area with at least 5-7 authorized teacher positions within the school. The findings reflect the need for the upgrading of the educational qualifications of Master Teachers in the division. It is notable, however, that in order to reach the Master Teacher II level, the requirement on educational qualification is Bachelor’s degree for teachers are provided in the Magna Carta for teachers plus completion of academic requirements for Master of Arts. Master’s degree is required only for the Master Teacher III level. Given that a primary purpose of graduate school is to prepare graduate students to assume professorial responsibilities, it is of utmost importance that they develop both teaching skills and research skills. The activity of teaching is critical in the development of teaching skills.

Conducting research is also important in the development of research skills. However, recent investigations into the relationship between teaching and research among graduate students suggest that teaching experiences may also impact graduate students’ research skills while involvement in research has the potential to influence teaching skill development. Lyons, Fisher & Thompson (2005) found that teachers in the graduate 85

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programs reported improvement in their research skills as a result of participation in their graduate teaching fellowship programs. The graduate students in their study participated in teaching experiences specifically designed for graduate students to develop inquiry-based teaching skills (skills that allow teachers to better facilitate students’ ability to ask questions, develop hypothesis, and identify methods that allow them to investigate their questions). As Steigelmeyer and Feldon (2009) explained, inquiry-based teaching methods and research share cognitive processes as “researchers-in-training must reflect carefully on their own experiences and knowledge to refine their understandings of events in a similar way that teachers using inquiry-based methods must carefully analyze knowledge to scaffold students‘ learning effectively”.

Researchers have gained interest in further exploring the relationship between teaching and research and how each of these activities (as well as the integration of these activities) impact the development of graduate students’ teaching and research skills (Deen & Lucas, 2006; Maher, Timmerman, Hurst, & Gilmore, 2009; Robertson & Blackler, 2006; Steigelmeyer & Feldon, 2009). However, one barrier to examining these relationships stems from the lack of validated instruments designed to capture each of these areas in tandem (teaching skills and research skills). The use of a parallel format will allow researchers to compare graduate students’ perceptions of their teaching skills with their research skills. There are several existing instruments that capture either skills of effective teachers or researchers and these instruments will be described in the literature review. This information informed the development of a survey designed to capture graduate students teaching and research skills.

Thus, the main function of graduate schools is to instruct and train people for different professions and to conduct research to advance scientific and technological knowledge. To promote 86

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education for all, many institutions of higher education are now proposing to introduce courses about reading and carrying out research studies as part of their regular program of instruction at undergraduate and graduate levels (Sanyal, 2005). The results reflect the inadequacy of capability trainings on research for majority of the respondents. While the importance of research in education and the teaching profession has been overly emphasized with the mechanisms such as policies and programs already in place, the reality, at this time, is that teachers and, in this case, Master Teachers are not capable of undertaking research due to lack of training. international research-related conferences.

These findings mirror that of the findings on the attendance of teachers in research trainings, i.e., majority have not attended research conferences from the school-level to the international-level. Research productivity in the Department of Education cannot be studied in isolation. One of the strategies for determining research productivity is to assess the quantity of publications which researchers communicated through primary or other sources. Research productivity and research activity are interrelated. Research involves collecting and analyzing data.

Productivity among MTs results from writing, reading, and publishing research reports in professional refereed journals, and displaying it on the web, or to making it known to the public through any other means. According to Creswell (1986), Research productivity is the extent to which lecturers engage in their own research and publish scientific articles in refereed journals, conference proceedings, writing a book or a chapter, gathering and analyzing original evidence, working with postgraduate students on dissertations and class projects, obtaining research grants, carrying out editorial duties, obtaining patents and licenses, writing monographs, developing experimental designs, producing works of an artistic or a creative nature, engaging in public debates and commentaries. Academic staff members 87

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conduct research and their productivity is measured in various ways. Schools primarily measure research productivity based on published works, externally funded grants, and the number of citations the published works received (Middaugh, 2001). The most common productivity measures look at publications that are submitted, accepted or published. The published works could be journal articles (refereed and non-refereed), books (including edited books and textbooks), book chapters, monographs, conference papers, and research proposals written to receive external and internal grants (Middaugh, 2001). Moreover, Uzun (2002) observed a sharp decline in the research productivity of academics in terms of the number of articles published in journals indexed in the Social Science Citation Index database. Aina and Mabawonku (1998) observed that the highest proportion of rejection out of the papers submitted to the Journal of Library, Archives and Information Science (JLAIS) for publication. While reporting on research productivity in developing countries, Arunachallam (1992), as cited by Nwagwu (2007), opined that there were countries whose scholarly works had dominated the developing countries with a 13% contribution to the publishing of 140,000 periodical titles listed in Ulrich's Periodicals Directory.

A few studies have been conducted on the research productivity of academic staff members. Nwagwu (2006) carried out a bibliometric and documentation analysis of articles by authors published. He averred that only the co-author category differs from the inverse power of the law while the other categories do not. In the same vein, Chiemeke, Longe, Longe, and Shaib (2009) conducted an empirical study on the research output from institutions and found that publication remained a yardstick for promotion in the academia. Schools and universities across the world are considered as producers of new knowledge.

Universities are considered as modern entrepreneurial engines and generators of knowledge through research. Hence, the role of academics is not limited to teaching. At the center of intellectual 88

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and scholarly research are academics interested in the creation, dissemination, or preservation of knowledge. McCabe and McCabe (2000) noted that academic staff members in any institution, especially universities, are provided the opportunity to focus on an area of inquiry, develop a research program and later share the knowledge with students and others in the drive to develop professional skills and impact on a field and society, as a whole. Research provides a good platform for teaching faculty members to become successful academics. This is because research develops academic knowledge and reinforces the skills needed for effective knowledge transfer. It also inspires academics towards hard work, fills the gaps of previous researches, and creates an opportunity for future research. Most of the research productivity of academics is disseminated via publications. Research publications enable academics to earn recognition in academic circles locally and internationally. In higher education, research productivity often served as a major role in attaining success in academics circles as it is related to promotion, tenure, and salary (Bassey, Akuegwu, Udida, and Udey, 2007). It is generally accepted that research plays a critical role in promoting the prosperity of a nation and the well-being of its citizens in this knowledge-based era (Abbott and Doucouliagos, 2004). Creswell (2008) reported that research not only aids solving practical problems and brings about material improvements, but it also provides insight into new ideas that improve human understanding of various social, economic and cultural phenomena. Research has always been the main approach to solving problems by all categories of professionals right from the ancient times (Boaduo and Babitseng, 2007).

According to Rashid (2001), research is a conscious effort to collect, verifies, and analyzes information. Research can be understood as having two broad components, namely, knowledge creation and knowledge distribution. Ochai and Nedosa (1998) asserted that the fruits of research are new knowledge and facts, 89

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which are communicated to the academic community through scholarly publications and seminars. In universities, recognition and advancement of individual academic staff members depend largely on the quantity and quality of their research productions, which are communicated in form of journal articles, books, technical reports, and other types of publications (Vakkari, 2008).

Research productivity is the extent to which lecturers engage in their own research and publish scientific articles in refereed journals, conference proceedings, writing a book or a chapter, gathering and analyzing original evidence, working with postgraduate students on dissertations and class projects, obtaining research grants, carrying out editorial duties, obtaining patents and licenses, writing monographs, developing experimental designs, producing works of an artistic or a creative nature, engaging in public debates and commentaries. Few studies have been conducted examining important research skills of developing researchers; however, some work in this area is available. For example, Kardash (2000) developed an instrument designed to capture the developing research skills of undergraduates engaged in research, while Powers and Enright (1987) constructed a survey measuring graduate student research skills that were deemed important by faculty members.

However few studies have examined graduate student development in terms of the research skills that they deem important.

The researchers felt that this was critical in the development of a measure that adequately captures their selfassessments of their teaching and research skills.

In the twenty first century, remarkable for the information explosion, information literacy has become a vital skill that is necessary in every aspect of life. In higher education, information literacy is gaining increasing importance due to the fact that the complexity and volume of information necessitates skills to be displayed by three different subgroups – the student body, 90

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teaching faculty and library staff. Whilst such skills can generally be derived from the definition as outlined by Johnston and Webber (2003) in that information literacy is “the adoption of appropriate information behavior to obtain, through whatever channel or medium, information well fitted to information needs, together with critical awareness of the importance of wise and ethical use of information in society�, Bruce, Edwards and Lupton (2006) assert that different participative groups in the learningteaching context may adopt different perspectives about the processes of information literacy education. It is apparent that information literacy is important not only to librarians though the majority of literature written by them about this topic centers on the views, experiences and strategies of this subgroup themselves. Minimum attention has been given to the beliefs and behavior of university academics towards this subject with the exception of a handful of studies, the most recent by Wu and Kendall (2006), Brooks, Irwin, Kriigel, Richards and Taylor (2007), and Boon, Johnston and Webber (2007). Of course, in a learner-centered approach, such educators who are directly and constantly at the front-line engaging with students are essential agents in the successful promotion and achievement of information literacy. Furthermore, a major theme that has dominated the literature with regards to the successful adoption of information literacy is that of collaboration between teaching faculty and librarians.

Minimum evidence of attention directed on teaching faculty’s perspective of information literacy coupled by a recurring theme in the literature on the importance of collaborative effort between faculty and librarians for the success of information literacy in higher education were two major motivations for this research into the beliefs and behavior of university academics in the promotion of information literacy at the University of the South Pacific (USP). The Statistical Anxiety Rating Scale (Cruise et al., 1985) was designed to measure the 91

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value of statistics, the interpretation of statistical information, test anxiety, cognitive skills in statistics, fear of approaching the instructor and fear of statistics. Other similar instruments included the Statistics Attitude Survey (Roberts & Bilderback, 1980), and the Statistics Anxiety Inventory (Zeidner, 1991).

However, although a number of instruments that measure attitudes toward statistics already exist, they all differ in content and configuration (Dauphinee, 1993). For example, although some instruments represent attitudes as a construct with six factors, others regard it as a uni-dimensional construct which hypothesizes that no meaningful domains exist within attitudes (Roberts & Bilderback, 1980). The identification of the factors that form the structure of the student attitudes toward a research methods course may bear important theoretical and practical implications, especially due to the fact that this has never been examined before. For example, by identifying these subscales of attitudes, research methods instructors may include themselves in the process of learning research from a different angle. By using these domains, instructors may facilitate the learning of research for their students, by enabling them to create more positive attitudes toward such courses. Teacher research, which is defined as systematic, intentional inquiry by teachers into their own school and classroom work, is also considered as important in the professional development of teachers (Cochran-Smith, 2003). Having student teachers read only the summaries of the research that experts in the field have carried out will make the teachers wait for directions on how to improve their instruction.

Besides reading academic literature it is important to have teachers take responsibility for improving student learning by conducting research into improving their practice. This is possible when the teachers are aware of the research methods (Frager, 2010). Cochran-Smith, Barnatt, Friedman and Pine (2009) state that carrying out research encourages student teachers to engage in critical reflection, develop a questioning stance, understand 92

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school culture, construct new curricula and pedagogy, modify instruction to meet students’ needs, and become socialized into teaching by participating in learning communities. Dobber, Akkerman, Verloop and Vermunt (2012) state that teacher research is motivated by different aims such as professional development of teachers, improvement in certain aspects of pupil or student outcomes, influence on policy on the basis of research outcomes, and potential contribution of teacher research to theory. Iqbal (2011) conducted a research to explore the research attitudes of prospective teachers in different degree programs of teacher education like science education, business education, Islamic education, child education, etc. He found significant differences in attitudes of prospective teachers from different teacher education degree programs. He further highlighted that there is urgent need of conducting research in this area. There is scarcely any other research which has explored prospective teachers’ attitudes towards research.

In order for teachers to remain effective over the years, they must keep up-to-date with constant changes in educational research, development and policy. There are frequent changes in curriculum, assessment modalities, and economic realities that affect the teaching and learning environment. Teachers have to keep pace with these new developments and trends or fall behind, lose their competitive edge and place their students at a disadvantage.

As in other professions, teachers must find the time to practice lifelong learning in their subject areas and pursue continuing professional development (CPD). They need to keep up-to-date with new pedagogical methods and best practices in their field. These measures are equally important for inexperienced and veteran teachers. Time does not stand still and students have differing needs. Teachers cannot continue to teach the same content in the same way, in every class, from year to year. The educational context keeps changing. In other words 93

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teachers must keep their subject knowledge, pedagogical skills and communication skills up-to-date on an ongoing basis.

They promote high standards of work and have high expectations for their students. They should also make it a point to share their new knowledge and skills with colleagues and students so that the whole institution benefits. They can also share with other schools through professional organizations or personal networking. Everything should be done to enhance student attainment.

There are many ways for teachers to keep their practice up-to-date. The internet is an invaluable tool in this respect.

Enormous amounts of information on any subject are available online. So is the latest in professional development and communication skills. Educational technology is there for the taking and teachers can take full advantage of it. Bring it more fully into classroom practice and homework. Read educational blogs, newsletters, access podcasts, follow webinars and relevant social media pages. There are also helpful e-books and audio books.

Research mentors can be very helpful in helping to keep teachers up-to-date through research. They can provide needed information and help to hone research and teaching skills.

Teachers should also join or form professional subject organizations and participate in departmental activities that promote excellence and best practices. Each teacher must read educational literature since they need to locate your practice within appropriate educational theory.

Conferences, seminars, Edcamps, research, and projects also play a definite role in keeping teachers up-to-date. Short courses, upgrades of qualifications or professional training, where necessary, can also increase teacher readiness and effectiveness in doing research.

Many educational experts recommend the suggestions given above to keep teachers current with any new research 94

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developments or requirements. They also agree that teachers who remain up-to-date increase their expert power. Their students learn more and their colleagues look to them for leadership.

Up-to-date teachers quickly notice any changes in the educational environment and they prepare their students for them in a timely manner through conducting classroom-based action research. They are also up-to-date with their daily planning, preparation, curriculum pacing, and record keeping relative to their students. The findings imply that at a time when virtually every government around the world is asking how it can improve the quality of its teaching force, the British Educational Research Association (BERA) and the RSA have come together to consider what contribution research can make to that improvement. High quality teaching is now widely acknowledged to be the most important school-level factor influencing student achievement through research activities. This in turn has focused attention on the importance of teacher education, from initial training and induction for beginning teachers, to on-going professional development to help update teachers’ knowledge, deepen their understanding and advance their research skills as expert practitioners. Policy-makers around the world have approached the task of teacher preparation and professional development in different ways, reflecting their distinctive values, beliefs and assumptions about the nature of professional knowledge and how and where such learning takes place.

Furthermore, at a time when teacher education is under active development across nations, an important question for all those seeking to improve the quality of teaching and learning is how to boost the use of research to inform the design, structure and content of teacher education programs. The Inquiry aims to shape debate, inform policy and influence practice by investigating the contribution of research in teacher education and examining the potential benefits of research-based skills and 95

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knowledge for improving school performance and student outcomes. There are four main ways that research can contribute to programs of teacher education: the content of such programs may be informed by research-based knowledge and scholarship, emanating from a range of academic disciplines and epistemological traditions; research can be used to inform the design and structure of teacher education programs; Teachers and teacher educators can be equipped to engage with and be discerning consumers of research; and teachers and teacher educators may be equipped to conduct their own research, individually and collectively, to investigate the impact of particular interventions or to explore the positive and negative effects of educational practice.

At present, there are pockets of excellent practice in teacher education in different parts of the world, including some established models and some innovative new programs based on the model of ‘research-informed practice’. However, in each of the nations there is not yet a coherent and systematic approach to professional learning from the beginning of teacher training and sustained throughout teachers’ working lives. There has been a strong focus on the use of data to inform teaching and instruction over the past 20 years. There now needs to be a sustained emphasis on creating ‘research-rich’ and ‘evidence-rich’ (rather than simply ‘data-rich’) schools and classrooms. Teachers need to be equipped to interrogate data and evidence from different sources, rather than just describing the data or trends in attainment.

The priority for all stakeholders (Government, national agencies, schools, universities and teachers’ organizations) should be to work together to create a national strategy for teacher education and professional learning that reflects the principles of ‘research-informed practice’. Rather than privileging one type of institutional approach, these principles should be applied to all

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institutional settings and organizations where teacher education and professional learning takes place.

Moreover, evidence-based practice is the idea that within the field of education the practice of teachers should be based on evidence from research. As Hammersley points out, there is already a certain rhetorical effect in the title to discredit opposition to it: 'after all, who would argue that practice should not be based on evidence' (Sharhar, 1997, quoted in Hammersley, 2001). This rhetorical effect means that it is difficult for critics to challenge this assertion. There have also have been a number of critiques of the evidence-based approach, Hammersley (2001) highlights the problems and dangers of privileging evidence over experience and of how research knowledge is refined into summary statements for use by practitioners.

There have been more recent calls for the knowledge that is already in existence to be used more effectively to improve these education systems (OCED, 2010). More specifically in the UK, there has been a call to increase access to existing knowledge about education (Pollard and Oancea, 2010). Hence an important area of research is the use of knowledge that is already in existence and how it that can be transformed (Foley and Hargeaves, 2003; Pollard, 2008), so that it can be leveraged.

Although Hammersley, (2001) asserts that this process is not straight forward and can be problematic. Other researchers have pointed out that teachers and school leaders do use research provided it is relevant to their needs (Levin et al., 2011; Biddle and Saha, 2006; Cordingley, 2009). The assumption underlying these debates is that research has a useful role to play in informing practice in schools and can contribute to school improvement. If this assumption is correct, it follows that school leaders can play a critical role in making schools evidence-based by using research themselves to inform their own decisionmaking, by promoting research use more widely within their school and by involving their school in studies which contribute 97

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to the evidence base in education (see Goldacre, 2013). However, traditionally, teaching has been characterized by the acts that involve various activities that help younger people to learn (Szucs, 2009). It involves planning and delivering lessons, marking class and home work, and examining students’ progress.

Teachers, traditionally, were not expected to undertake research in order to explore the problems that they would face in the process of teaching and learning. They have been relying on the experts from other fields such as psychologists, philosophers, mathematicians and scientists for the solutions to their problems.

This is evident from the fact that there has been a substantial contribution, to the field of teaching and learning, from the people who were not trained as educationists (Polya, Thorndike, 1910).

There has been a shift in the role of teachers (Scheirer, 2000) and now they are expected to explore the solution, by themselves, to their immediate classroom problems through action research.

They are also expected to involve in scientific investigations through rigorous research methods (Peterson, Clark & Dickson, 1990). Zeuli (1992) stated that “research of various types forms the bulwark of teachers' professional preparation”. He further said that reading research is imperative for learning to teach. It gives future teachers a vision about the practical implications of different approaches, their validity, rationale for decision making, targeting problems and brining improvements, etc. (The importance of research for education’s future, 2011).That is why initial teacher training program has been added courses on research methods and trainee teachers are also expected to culminate their program with a research project.

Thus, improving the use of research in schools is important to ensure that school practices are as effective as possible in helping students succeed. Many factors contribute to the current situation in education, in which research use is a hit and miss affair. In some cases, the empirical evidence needed to inform practice simply does not exist or is not in a format that 98

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practitioners can find or apply. In other cases, however, credible bodies of evidence do exist but are not incorporated into the daily lives of educators and schools. This may be because the research is not known, or because the ideas are not seen as practical, or sometimes because they do not align with conventional professional wisdom or public belief. Teachers at the undergraduate level, typically tend to view research-related courses with negative attitudes and feelings. These negative attitudes have been documented in numerous studies for a number of years in relation to courses in research, statistics and mathematics (Adams & Holcomb, 1986; Elmore & Vasu, 1980; Wise, 1985).

One of the main problems of these attitudes is that they have been found to serve as obstacles to learning (Wise, 1985; Waters, Martelli, Zakrajsek, & Popovich, 1988). In turn, these negative attitudes have been found to be associated with poor performance in such courses (Elmore, & Lewis, 1991; Woelke, 1991; Zeidner, 1991). Causal models, however, suggest that attitudes are actually mediators between past performance and future achievement (Meece, Wigfield, & Eccles, 1990). Prior research studies have found that negative attitudes toward a course (mathematics) have been found to explain a significant portion of the variance in student learning (Ma, 1995). In turn, these attitudes influence the amount of effort one is willing to expend on learning a subject, which also influences the selection of more advanced courses in similar areas (research and statistics courses) beyond those of minimum requirements. Therefore, assessing students’ attitudes toward a research methods course is important in order to enable instructors to develop instructional techniques leading to more positive attitudes toward the subject (Waters et al., 1988). In a 1980 study, Roberts and Bilderback (1980) found that most students who take statistics are quite anxious. Once this preponderance of negative attitudes was revealed, many more survey instruments designed to measure 99

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university students’ attitudes toward statistics were developed (Dauphinee, Schau, & Stevens, 1997; Zeidner, 1991). One such instrument is the Survey of ‘Attitudes Towards Statistics’ (Schau et al., 1995), which is comprised of four dimensions, those of affect, cognitive competence, value, and attitudes about the difficulty of statistics. There is good evidence that research use can impact positively on teaching practices. Bell et al. (2010) conducted a systematic review of practitioner engagement in and/or with research and its impact on learners. Their synthesis included various studies in education and they concluded that there was ‘strong evidence from these studies of links between teacher engagement in and with research and significant changes in practice with a positive impact on student outcomes.’ (2010).

Impacts on learners included improvements in knowledge and skills, behavior for learning, and attitudes/motivation for learning. Research engagement was shown to contribute to teachers selecting new approaches to their practice based on the evidence of what is effective. Bell et al. particularly emphasize the value to teachers of being engaged with research that focuses on student learning needs, with the most powerful element of the process being the assessment of whether any changes in practice were having the desired impact on student outcomes. These require research funding for related activities. Moreover, the school provides easy access to academic journals, encourages teachers to engage in research-related undertaking, and provides sufficient time and resources for research purposes. Investing time and effort in learning about research findings requires accessibility journals and professional websites. The way research is communicated is a key factor. Hemsley-Brown and Sharp (2003) found that teachers could be deterred from using research because of too much jargon or high-level statistics. Other studies have found that publication format, the sheer volume of research or a lack of skill/confidence to access research findings were factors in teachers’ likelihood to engage with research (Poet 100

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et al., 2010). Wilson’s research found that teachers had successfully been made aware of research through summaries, newsletters, website links, and conferences and training.

Conclusions and Recommendations

Majority of the MTs were middle aged, female and married, earned MA/MS units, and have served as Master Teacher I for 1-4 years. A very small percentage of them have attended researchrelated trainings or conferences and undertaken, published or presented researches. The MTs have average skills in searching, using and evaluating information including their awareness on the various sources of information and where to obtain them.

They have fair skills in designing experimental study as well as selecting and developing research instruments, choosing appropriate statistical tools and preparing manuscript for publication. The MTs strongly value training in educational research but moderately apply research findings to real life context. They have high regards relative to the value of doing research to become better educator. Time, efforts and resources in learning about research findings were essential elements to create positive attitudes towards research. Thus, the MTs should continue upgrading their educational attainment by attending graduate and postgraduate education in the area of specialization, and by attending research-related conferences. The school authorities should consider reviewing incentive package for research-related activities of MTs to include training on research writing and publications. The MTs should acquire higher or advance skills searching and evaluating information as well as designing appropriate method, developing instruments, choosing appropriate statistical tools and preparing manuscript for publication. The MTs should improve their research attitudes related to classroom or school-based action research, applicability or usefulness of research findings to real life context, and reporting and publication of outputs. The research capability 101

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training program consisting of various levels from lectures, hands-on workshop, and writing research articles for colloquium and possible publication should be fully implemented immediately and regularly monitor its effectiveness.

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Bilingualism as Effective Means in Teaching Science among Junior High School Dr. Eric Agullana Matriano Prof. Romnick O. Seguiban

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------Abstract- The study on perceived effectiveness of bilingualism in

teaching Science 8 in Iram High School, Division of City Schools, Olongapo City directed to know if bilingual instruction will aide teaching-learning process to monoliguals. Since English should be the formal language in teaching science according to Bilingual Education Policy, the researcher wanted to know if the type of medium of teaching will greatly help to understand English language in teaching Science. Percentage, mean, and ANOVA were used. There were more students fall under thirteen to fifteen years of age which is likely the ideal age for grade 8 students, the rest were not. The respondents perceived “usually” that bilingual instruction helped them to understand basic Science concepts. Respondents perceived “usually” that bilingual instruction facilitate acquisition of skills. Also, respondents perceived “usually” that bilingual instruction helps them to improve the development of positive values and attitude. There were no significant variations in the perceived effectiveness of using bilingualism in Science teaching when grouped according to age, gender, grade in Science last third quarter, monthly income of the family, and highest educational attainment of the parents. It was assumed that medium of instruction used in teaching might be a factor to improve teaching and learning processes. Preferred language by the students can be used to promote understanding basic concepts, acquiring skill, and development of positive attitude and values. Likewise, if the different reading resources and with the help teachers and parents are fully utilized, the standard medium of instruction for Science should be a least problem.

Keywords: Bilingual education, teaching-learning, Science, descriptive design.

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Introduction "When a person owns two or more languages, there is one integrated source of thought." (Baker, 1996). Problems with the language instruction become more serious in farming villages and other rural areas. The situation is not that serious where the native language of the students is relatively frequent spoken language like Tagalog, since this only involves switching to Tagalog and English, where the native language of the student is a language used by a cultural minority, however it means that the students must be fluent not only in his or her native language but also other common regional languages, English, and Filipino in order to matriculate to higher education and secure professional occupation. Thus, children of farming villages and other rural areas end up being confronted with a social structure that prevents them from matriculating to higher education and joining the upper echelons of society (Yanagihara, 1999).

This study is anchored on the Common Underlying Proficiency Theory, which was developed by Jim Cummins. It is stated that the two languages used by an individual, though on the surface apparently separate, function through the same central cognitive system. This study can also be anchored on the Threshold Theory. This was put forward by Skutnabb-Kangas in 1977 and later developed by Baker in 1996. It suggested that the development of two or more languages in a balanced bilingual person moves upward through three identifiable levels, crossing two distinct thresholds in between levels. According to this theory, positive cognitive advantages are only to be achieved when the first and second thresholds have been crossed. The first threshold is a level that a child has to reach to avoid negative consequences of bilingualism. The second threshold is a level that permits a child to experience positive benefits of bilingualism.

The use of English and Filipino as media of instruction in the Philippine Educational System has been met with controversy.

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History, has witnessed that the use of vernacular or mothertongue was not really encouraged. Therefore, any change in the curriculum greatly impacts on the learning of the students.

Today, the use of both languages in the basic education contributes in making the Filipino youth grow in an educational environment that is full of contradiction and confusion.

The need to be proficient in the use of English among nonnative speakers has become a global phenomenon. Today, educators are faced with the challenge of addressing the needs of the growing number of students whose primary language is not English (Gibbons, 2003).

The way teachers present their subject matter in every learning area should be in the easiest way possible so that the students will not display difficulty in learning such subject.

Medium of instruction in the key subjects such as Mathematics, English, and Science should be learned, of course in English language. They need to be well equipped in understanding such different concepts taught in English language because it is the same medium in textbooks, student’s learning guides, and tests.

Different schools follow orders that key subjects should be obviously taught in English medium. In addition to this, teachers should be proficient in English language in teaching while students have low comprehension if they cannot catch up on what teachers are saying.

More complications arise when the students are more oriented and preferred Tagalog language in learning the different subjects. Poor performance will be associated if they cannot realize such medium in the key subjects especially the standardized tests uses English medium.

Despite of these effects, still, teachers facilitate teaching and learning in same medium where students are not well-adept.

Subsequently, students with difficulty in understanding English medium of instruction grasp idea or even concepts from their peers provided by translation of what the facilitator told in their 111

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sessions. Basically, these students find better comprehension towards the key subjects when the medium is transformed to an easier Tagalog explanation.

Additionally, students when prompted to express themselves in English medium, they exhibit bashfulness thinking that they might commit mistakes in constructing sentences. That is why they opted to recite the way they would want it.

Language is an indispensable tool in the promotion of learning, but as what some of the students shows, they find another way to advance in their studies towards the use of English language in the key subjects. With this mode of alternative way of understanding such lessons in English language, they may perform well in their studies.

With the foregoing claims, the researcher attempted to assess the relationship in the use bilingualism as medium of instruction and their performance in Science. This is somehow helpful the Science teachers to fully understand the effectiveness of bilingualism as the medium of instruction in Grade 8 Science, which may be beneficial in their performance in Science subject.

Methodology In utilizing the gathering of data, methods were devised depending on the purpose and scope for which the study is undertaken. This study utilized descriptive method of research. It encompasses collection of data in order to test hypothesis and/or answer questions concerning the existing status of the subject of the study and to discover causes of a particular phenomenon. A descriptive-survey type is utilized as questionnaire, which is a distinct aspect of procedure for obtaining and analyzing data.

According to Bueno (2006), this descriptive method of research is used to describe systematically the facts and characteristics of a given population or area of interest, factually and accurately. The characteristics of a descriptive research are accumulating a database to describe a situation, event or entity. In addition to 112

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this, obtaining information through personal interviews and class observation will be utilized.

The study involved all sixty-eight (68) Grade 8 students enrolled during this Academic Year 2013 – 2014 at Iram High School. They were taken as the population of the study. The researcher decided to consider the total number of students to maintain reliability and validity of the data gathered though questionnaire. With this number of students in a class, the researcher can be able to easily identify the medium of instruction preference and its effectiveness to their performance in Science class.

The researcher made use of a survey-questionnaire as the main instrument, which was constructed based on his reading from books, periodicals, theses, and as well as internet materials.

The instrument has three dimensions. The first part of the instrument dealt with the personal information of the respondents such as age, gender, and their third grading grade, monthly income of the family, highest educational attainment of parents, reasons why bilingualism is their preferred medium of instruction. The second part covers the main items in the study on effectiveness of bilingualism for Grade 8 Science instruction as assess by the Grade 8 students in terms of understand basic science concepts, facilitate the acquisition of skills, development of positive attitude and values is Science, and difficulties and problems encountered. In addition to this, the third part of the instrument deals with advantages on students in instruction using bilingualism. To ensure the validity and reliability of the instrument, the questionnaire was validated to the students and teachers of Iram High School. The school is not included in the study. The purpose of the pre-test of the questionnaire was to improve some of the items included in the instrument. The opinions of the teachers teaching Science and students were considered. Vague items on the questionnaire were removed and items suggested were incorporated to improve the survey113

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questionnaire. After the questionnaire being reviewed and improved, the instrument was submitted to the adviser for comment and suggestions, and then the final draft was administered.

The researcher sought permission from the Schools Division Superintendent through the School Principal in order to authorize the distribution of the questionnaires to respondents.

The researcher asked help of the class adviser and the class president to administer the instrument to the students, informal and unscheduled interviews, and observations to students as well as the parents were conducted to strengthen the data gathered.

Results and Discussion There were more 13 to 15 years old students than of those who are aging from 16 to 19 years old students. There were fortyone (41) or 60.3 percent female and twenty-seven (27) or 39.7 male. Majority of them belongs to bracket 84to 80 which is equivalent to 55.9 percent. Majority of the respondents were only having a family monthly income of nine thousand to seven thousand pesos which is equivalent to 42.6 percent. There are 37 or 54.4 percent of the respondents whose parent were high school graduates. The respondents always “prefer activities that are explained in bilingual medium” with mean value of 4.559, and “prefer questions to be translated to Bilingual for better understanding” with mean value of 4.765. The respondents perceived that when Bilingual Instruction is used, they usually “recognize terms, concepts, ideas, and facts in science” with mean value of 4.50. The over-all weighted mean 4.39 or perceived usually when understanding basic science concepts. The respondents perceived that when Bilingual Instruction is used, they usually facilitate the acquisition of skills with overall mean value of 4.25. The overall weighted mean for this is 4.25 which is “usually”. The respondents perceived that usually, “Bilingual Instruction helps us to improve development of positive attitude 114

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and values by “justifying answers that lead to the provision of better data outcomes� with the mean value of 4.41. The overall mean is 4.43. The respondents perceived that they sometimes encounter difficulties when the teacher uses terms not familiar to them WX = 3.00. The computed F-value and p-value for age as profile variable were 1.914 and 0.105 respectively at level of significance used is 0.05, hence, it was insignificant. The F-value for gender 2.843 and its p-value was 0.097 and the level of significance used is 0.05. This profile variable therefore was insignificant. The computed F and p-value for the grade in Science last 3rd quarter was 2.084 and 0.111 respectively and level of significance used is 0.05, therefore not significant. For the monthly income of the family, the computed F-value was 0.838 and p-value was 0.506, level of significance was at 0.05. The Fvalue and p-value for highest educational attainment of parents as variable was 0.078 and 0.972 at 0.05 level of significance, which was therefore insignificant. Lastly, the computed of F-value for list of occupation of parents was 0.389 and p-value was 0.855 at 0.05 level of significance, hence, it was insignificant. Therefore, the null hypothesis was accepted.

Selected students were interviewed by the researcher and found out that most male in that area prefers to work at a young age to help their parents in the provision of usual necessities at home. In addition to this, most male in that area skip classes that leads to failing or dropping out. Females are more achiever than the males. In that area, female dominancy is much likely happens in terms of academics and most of them strive harder in their studies for them to finish high school. Young women's expectations of their future labor force participation changed radically. Rather than follow in their mothers' footsteps, they aimed to have careers, not just jobs. These careers were often outside of the traditionally female occupations for women. In high school, they took more science and math courses (Francis, 2011).

The researcher observed that the greater number of students is in 115

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“approaching proficient” level and the mean grade is 84.13. This would mean that students need more focus and prioritization in their academics, especially in Science subject. Students who find it difficult to cope with their studies are those students who are frequently skipped classes due to different reasons like family problem, financial, or habitual. Teaching a child responsibility is another critical factor in school success. Successful students know that they are responsible for their school success and failure. They do not blame the teacher, parents or the school. Successful students act independently. When homework needs to be completed they do it without dispute. When a successful student gets a boring teacher they find a way to master the material despite the teacher. Other students act more dependently. They require parents to set the study schedule or they require the teacher to do all the learning. They do not see that school is their responsibility (Malone, 1993). High school students have different reasons why they choose not to enroll in college. They find it costly and their families have more immediate or important expenses than sending them to college. Another is that if they find a job before going to college which gives a good pay to them. So, they reason out “why should I bother myself going to college if I am earning this much?” (Springfield, 2010). Respondents should be performing well in their Science subject regardless of different factors that might affect their grades. Parents’ participation and cooperation on their studies should continuous even the respondents reached high school. Parents should be one of the great influences in imploring reading at home to amplify better understanding of different terms and expand the vocabulary of students. Preference of language used in the subject like Tagalog, Taglish, and Bilingual should be contributory to their good performance but should not be practiced always. Science, as practiced should be taught in English medium. If the teacher finds out that there are students having difficulties in understanding concepts Science and developing skills and attitudes as well, an 116

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after class tutorial or remedial sessions should done for them to cope up with subject. Every quarter, grades of the students should be well-assessed to know what level or ways the school can help the students to perform well. The school head should be supportive all the way in this kind of method of remediation in school.

Conclusions and Recommendations There are more students fall under thirteen to fifteen years of age which is likely the ideal age for grade 8 students, the rest are not. There are more female than male students involved in the study. Majority of the respondents fall under the third grading bracket of 80 to 84. The mean of monthly income of the family is Php 6,235. Majority of the parents’ respondents are high school graduates. In the “reasons why bilingualism is the preferred medium”, the mean 4.412 which is perceived “usually”. The respondents perceived that bilingual instruction usually helps them to understand basic science concepts and helps them to improve the development of positive values and attitude. The most of perceived difficulty and problem is when students mumble when asked to express ideas and answers in straight English. There are no significant variations in the perceived effectiveness of using bilingualism in Science teaching when grouped according to age, gender, grade in Science last third quarter, monthly income of the family, and highest educational attainment of the parents. It is assumed that medium of instruction used in teaching might be a factor to improve teaching and learning processes. Preferred language by the students can be used to promote understanding basic concepts, acquiring skill, and development of positive attitude and values. Likewise, if the different reading resources and with the help teachers and parents are fully utilized, the standard medium of instruction for Science should be a least problem. Thus, the school administrators and teachers should assess and consider learners 117

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starting from grade 7 based on their age, gender, families’ economic status or income, and what degree that the parents finished in which it might be a factor for the students to perform well not just in Science but other subjects as well. The teacher should consider the perceived effectiveness of the use of bilingualism in creating or designing his/her teaching style or techniques in instruction by means of varied activities suited for the learners. The teacher should evaluate the result of pre-test, quizzes or any test in Science given to the students to see if the problem is relative to medium or language used. Interventions should be followed right after identifying such students having difficulties. The school administrators and teachers should utilize the result of this study by giving full understanding and identification of the perceived effectiveness of bilingualism in Science teaching. Further study is needed to improve dissemination of the perceived effectiveness of bilingualism in Science teaching and to investigate whether the grades may be improved significantly.

References Adesope, O., Lavin, T., Thompson, T., & Ungerleider, C. A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis of the Cognitive Correlates of Bilingualism: Review of Educational Research, 2010.

Aquino, Guadencio V. Essential of Research in Thesis Writing, Manila Phillipines, National Bookstore, 1997.

Baker, C.,Foundations of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism (4th Ed.).

Buffalo: Multilingual Matters ,2006 Biber, D. Spoken and Written Textual Dimensions in English: Resolving The Contradictory Findings. Language, 1986.

Brisk, M. E. Quality Bilingual Education: Defining Success. Northeast and Islands Regional Educational Laboratory, 2000.

Bueno, David C., Elements of Research & Thesis Writing, Columban College, Inc. 2006.

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Bueno, David C., Essentials of Statistics, Columban College, Inc. 2006.

Calderon, Jose and Expectacion Gonzales, Methods of Research and Thesis Writing, National Bookstore, 1997.

Calmorin, Laurentina. et.al. Methods of Research and Thesis Writing, Rex Publication, Phils., 1994.

Calmorin, Melchor. et.al. Statistics for Sciences and Education with Application for Research, Rex Publication, Phils., 1994.

Cline, T. & Frederickson, N. Curriculum Related Assessment, Cummins and Bilingual Children, Clevedon: Multilingual Matters,1996. http://blog.nus.edu.sg/eltwo/2012/06/14/the-effects-of-bilingualinstruction-on-the-literacy-skills-of-young-learners/ http://esl.fis.edu/teachers/support/cummin.htm http://mlephil.wordpress.com/2009/07/28/product-of-philippinehttp://monikmed12.blogspot.com/2012/12/theoreticalframework.html http://www.eal-teaching-strategies.com/theory.html http://www.hks.harvard.edu/pepg/PDF/Papers/biling.pdf http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/09/11/bilinguals-mentalflexibility_n_3908831.html http://www.lingref.com/isb/4/152ISB4.PDF http://www.linguistics-journal.com/November_2006_cjv.php http://www.ncela.gwu.edu/files/rcd/BE021384/Bilingual_Special_Edu cation.pdf http://www.slideshare.net/fvsandoval/bilingual-education http://www.u-keiai.ac.jp/issn/menu/ronbun/no19/19-175_yanagi.pdf http://www.unavarra.es/tel2l/eng/BilingEd.htm http://www-01.sil.org/asia/philippines/books/CurrentIssues_2.7.pdf https://www.academia.edu/323346/The_Metalinguistic_Awareness_of _Filipino_Bilingual_Children Mady, C.. The results of short-term bilingual exchanges keep on ticking: Long-term impact of brief bilingual exchanges. Foreign Language Annals, 2011.

Malarz, L. Bilingual education: Effective programming for languageminority students. Membership, policy, and professional development for educators, 2000.

Punzalan, Twila. Statistics Made Simple. National Bookstore, Philippines, 1994.

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Attributes of Teachers and Attitudes of Junior High School Students towards Mathemtics Dr. Edward R. San Agustin Dr. David Cababaro Bueno

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------Abstract- The study focused on the perceived traits of Mathematics

Teachers and its impact on Grade 7 students’ attitudes towards Mathematics. The researchers utilized the descriptive method of research using a modified standardized questionnaire as the main instrument in data gathering. There were sixty-nine (69) Mathematics teachers and seven hundred eighty-eight (788) Grade 7 students purposively selected from public high schools in the Division of Olongapo City involved as respondents of the study. The data were statically treated using the Percentage, Mean and Pearson product Moment Correlation. Majority of the Mathematics teachers were newly hired, but some have been in the service for over 29 years now. Dominantly were Teacher I, bachelor’s degree holder and some were pursuing graduate studies in the area of specialization; and attended division level and international level seminars. There were still other teachers who have not attended any Mathematics-related seminars for the past 3 years. High positive traits of Mathematics teachers were remarkably evident relative to teacher as a person, classroom management and organization, organizing and orienting for instruction, implementing instruction, monitoring students’ progress and potentials, and teachers’ professionalism. The students have moderately high confidence and anxiety levels, and value towards Mathematics. However, they highly enjoyed the subject and motivated to study. Moreover, they have relatively high (positive) regards to their teachers. There was a significant relationship between teachers’ traits and students’ attitudes towards Mathematics. Teachers’ traits significantly influenced students’ confidence, anxiety, value for Mathematics, enjoyment, motivation to learn; and attitude towards teacher.

Keywords: Mathemtics, attributes, attitudes, descriptive study 120

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Introduction

Mathematics now dominates almost every field of one’s activities. In this age of science and Technology, it has permeated through the human life in such a way that, it has now become every man’s everyday concern. Mathematics disciplines the mind, systematizes student’s thought and reasoning. The subject has also rich potentialities of affording true enjoyment to its students.

Mathematics is an important subject in school curriculum.

It is more closely related to student’s daily life as compared to other subjects. Except student’s mother tongue there is no other subject which is more closely related to student’s daily life as mathematics. Mathematics is considered to be the father of all sciences. Napoleon remarked that- “The progress and improvement of mathematics is linked to the prosperity of the state”. Although there is no standard definition of the term attitude, in general it refers to a learned predisposition or tendency on the part of an individual to respond positively or negatively to some object, situation, concept or another person.

In assessing potential of students and attitudes towards Mathematics and Mathematics learning are frequently cited as factors contributing to success. Several studies have shown that positive attitudes are conductive to good performance.

However, an individual’s attitude towards Mathematics can be influenced by many factors. It is generally held that females exhibit less positive attitudes towards mathematics than males do. The foundation of success, regardless of our chosen field, is attitude.

Teachers are the most important resource for developing students‘mathematical identities. They influence the ways in which student‘s think of themselves in the classroom. In establishing equitable arrangements, effective teachers pay attention to the different needs that result from different home environments, different languages, and different capabilities and perspectives. The positive attitude that develops raises 121

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students‘comfort level, enlarges their knowledge base, and gives them greater confidence in their capacity to learn and make sense of mathematics. Confident in their own understandings, students will be more willing to consider new ideas presented by the teacher, to consider other students’ ideas and assess the validity of other approaches, and to persevere in the face of mathematical challenge.

Improvement in basic education, according to the Department of Education is seen for the past 3 years. It is based on the National Achievement Test Results and the participation and cohort survival rates of public school students. The performance of the Division of Olongapo in National Achievement Test in terms of Mathematics is also gradually improving as reflected on the national achievement. With the Mean Percentage Scores for the past 3 years, 34.89 in 2011, 37.62 in 2012 and 40.75 in 2013. But it is beyond the 75 percent which is goal set by the Department. Thus efforts were continuously done in order to achieve the goals of quality education, from changing the curriculum and up to involving every stakeholder in the school.

Teachers as a source of knowledge and experience are being considered and responsible to whatever the outcomes of the students will be. It is their performance and management of the classroom that matters most. But to the addition of the characters of teachers, according to Addeyemo (2005) writing teacher characteristics influenced teaching and learning in classrooms.

Teachers are no more the people who come to the class, give lectures and walk out. An ideal teacher is someone who seeks the participation of all the students, takes student's opinions into account, uses different teaching media and makes learning a fun activity. As someone rightly said, a good teacher teaches from the heart and not from the book. So, to take up a job as a teacher one must have passion for the subject he is teaching so that he can pass the same passion to his students. One of the important roles 122

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of a teacher is also that of respecting a student's opinion. A teacher must always be open to learn new things and he must keep himself updated with the latest developments in his subject (Dhavale, 2010).

The relevance of teachers’ characteristics on the realization of educational goals and objectives cannot be overemphasized. Their characteristics are those behaviors that they exhibited towards attainment of goals. These characteristics are the combination of peculiar qualities, traits, mental or moral nature/strength and status that make one person or group different from another. Successful teachers’ characteristics are those that have been found by empirical researches to be related to improved achievement by students in the cognitive, affective or psychomotor outcomes of education (Offorma, 1994).

Numerous studies have found that there is a connection between teachers’ attitudes and their students’ attitudes (Anderson, 2007; Ma & Xu, 2004; Relich, 1996). For instance, Relich (1996) found that teachers who had been identified as having low self-confidence in mathematics attributed this feeling to negative experiences in school mathematics, even when they had had a positive attitude towards mathematics previously. Also found in this study was that these teachers had low expectations of their own students, thus perpetuating their attitudes and beliefs about mathematics. The counterpoint belief was found as well, as teachers who had been identified as having high selfconfidence in mathematics, attributed their success and enjoyment of mathematics to a previous teacher or teachers who had had a positive effect on them. As a consequence, these teachers tended to believe that anyone could do mathematics successfully and therefore had higher, more positive expectations of their students.

Anderson’s (2007) research found that “The most significant potential to influence students’ identities exists in the mathematics classroom”. When students, especially younger ones, 123

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are encouraged by teachers and find success in mathematics, their attitudes and beliefs can drastically improve (Ma & Xu, 2004).

Similarly, Midgely, Feldlaufer, and Eccles (1989) found that mathematics teachers’ beliefs in their efficacy to teach mathematics had an effect on their students. A significant relationship between teacher efficacy and students’ confidence and beliefs in their ability to do mathematics was found.

Specifically, students in the classes of teachers with a positive sense of efficacy in teaching were more likely to believe that they were performing better in mathematics than students in the class of teachers with a lower sense of efficacy in teaching mathematics. In addition, students of teachers with high efficacy believed mathematics to be less difficult than students of lower efficacy teachers. Overall, teachers’ attitudes had a stronger relationship to the beliefs in mathematics of low-achieving students than to the beliefs in mathematics of high-achieving students.

Groton (1983) rightly pointed out that if a person is to be successful in his chosen career, that individual also needs a set of ethical beliefs or standards for guidance or direction in the appropriate use of competences. A competent teacher seeks to know his learners’ behavior in teaching, must perceive the individual learner as a whole since he has affective, cognitive and psychomotor talents.

Furthermore, students’ participation in class is critical, where their perception towards the subject requires methods that a teacher can use to stimulate learning in the classroom. The knowledge of how the student think, capacity and perceive can aid the teacher to reflect upon and adjust his/her strategies and methods to enhance student’s understanding and achievement.

The conceptions, attitudes, and expectations of the students regarding mathematics and mathematics teaching have been considered to be very significant factor underlying their

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school experience and achievement (Borasi, 1990; Shoenfeld, 1985).

Why do students have such a drastic change in their attitudes toward mathematics? One possible explanation is that as students grow, they become more aware of their instructors’ interest and enthusiasm for teaching mathematics. They will be less motivated to learn if they feel that their instructor is not happy teaching and does not enjoy being with them in the classroom (Jackson & Leffingwell, 1999). Instructors who care about students must realize that making a positive environment in which to teach and learn mathematics may reduce performance anxiety and encourage enjoyment in mathematics (Furner & Berman, 2003).

Therefore, students’ perception of their teacher’s characteristics could affect or influence their attitude towards their subjects.

Students more often than not judge their teachers in such areas as the teachers’ knowledge of the subject matter, communication ability, the choice of appropriate teaching method and the general classroom management skills.

A teacher who is rated high on these indices in the perception of the students is likely to enjoy the confidence, respect and admiration of his students.

As to the factors contributing negative attitude of students in mathematics, Hannula (2002) stated that students who will express like or dislike of mathematics have experiences that have controlled their emotions, expectations, and values with regard to the subject. There are several factors that affect student attitudes or beliefs about themselves as learners. Previous experiences in mathematics courses influence their actions. Confidence in their ability to learn mathematics, their belief about the usefulness of mathematics, and their feelings about being able to ‘discover’ mathematics all influence student actions (Koehler & Grouws, 1992).

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Research indicates that teacher preparation/knowledge of teaching and learning, subject matter knowledge, experience, and the combined set of qualifications measured by teacher licensure are all leading factors in teacher effectiveness (Darling-Hammond, 2006). Fennema and Frank (1992) agreed that teacher’s knowledge of the subject matter is an indicator of teachers’ teaching effectiveness. Eggen and Kauchak (2011) sub-divided teachers’ knowledge of subject matter into: knowledge of content, pedagogical content knowledge and general pedagogical knowledge. Ball and Bass (2000) had earlier explained that knowledge of mathematics itself (knowledge of subject matter) should go further than the specific content of the discipline to the knowledge of how to teach, present mathematical concepts and that of selection and use of instructional media and resources.

Muijs and Reynolds (2002) posited that teaching effectiveness of the teacher is hampered if he/she is not versed in the contents to be taught. A teacher who has a deep understanding of the concept to be taught is more likely to use unambiguous language; his/her presentation is likely to be more coherent and he/she would offer clearer explanation than those with a weaker background, (Uya, 2011). Huckstep, Rowland, and Thwaites (2003) in their finding on importance of mathematics teachers’ knowledge of subject contents, affirm that effective teaching that can lead to better achievement by the students and provide a positive attitude depends on teachers’ confidence and in-depth knowledge of the subject matter.

Every subject matter needs to be communicated well for students to learn and be more active to participate because they can understand and comprehend what has been taught and what their trying to point out. Communication may be used to mean the transfer, transmission or exchange of ideas, knowledge, beliefs, attitudes or emotion from one person or group of persons to another (Esu, 2004). Ajibade and Ehindero (2012) opined that if there is any act germane to effective teaching it is that of 126

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communicating. Teachers should strive to make their presentation as unambiguous, coherent and logical as possible.

Eggen and Kauchak (2011) underlined the basic aspects of effective communication to include precise terminology, connected discourse, transition signals and emphasis. Afangideh (2011) reported that the purpose of communication in the teaching-learning process is to effect change, to produce a desired response; or to influence action contributing to the welfare of the school system. Afangideh (2011) further highlighted four dimensional objectives of communication as: to inform, to stimulate, to persuade and to remind. Uya (2011) asserted that the effectiveness of any educational system depends to a large extent on the effectiveness of the communication system being adopted. And that the teacher has the capability to change the attitude of another person if there is trustworthiness, belief and validity of what he says. To a large extent the effectiveness of any classroom interaction is determined by the competency of the teacher to initiate and sustain communication between and among his/her students.

The use of appropriate teaching method on students with diverse learning pattern will be strength of a teacher to deliver his/her lesson and with a high percentage on the retention. Tayo (2007), described methods as patterns to be followed in teaching/learning process to drive home a point. Whether in formal or informal education, teaching method effectiveness makes for retention of learnt concepts. The extent to which an instructional procedure is potent depends greatly upon its effective use by the instructor and the impression it leaves on the learner, which is usually evident in their attitude as well as performance. Umoren (2011) in a research on methods of teaching suggested that the ability of the teacher to impart knowledge so depends greatly on the method he applies during the teaching learning process. Where the method is defective, the students stand to lose as they hardly benefit from lessons.

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According to Uya (2011), for teacher to be able to ensure order and enhance classroom learning, they have to possess necessary pedagogical skills which have to be systematic and methodical.

They have to explore and make good use of their knowledge of instructional skills/strategies, whether the method adopted falls within the spectrum of mass or individualized instructional methods (Umoh, 2005). Esu (2004) discoursed that teaching, by its nature requires a variety of methods to facilitate teaching/learning in the class and to develop the child’s knowledge and understanding to the maximum.

Classroom management is the process of leading, directing, ordering or restraining of students in a class in a way that will lead to effective learning. Byrne, Hattie and Fraser (2001) observed that students will perform best in a controlled atmosphere that is conducive to academic and social needs of the students. The atmosphere in the classroom needs to be relaxed, free from threats and anxiety, non-competitive and thought provoking to allow students participate and enjoy the lesson.

Under such atmosphere the students’ interest in and attitude towards the subject taught could be enhanced. Isangedighi (2007) stated that disciplined behavior in the class is the child’s ability to exercise self-control under a given classroom condition. Udofot (1995) explained that while the classroom serves as a theatre stage for learning, the prevailing management and discipline are strong determinants of successful learning and commensurate outputs. Thus, the goal of effective classroom management is to have students display appropriate behaviour during class activities in order to enhance the teaching and learning process that can lead to the attainment of set objectives. Teacher’s characteristics as measured by their ability, knowledge and skills, is therefore a basis for the outcomes of learning and relative to students’ attitudes towards Mathematics.

The research aimed to develop a clear understanding and basis of the characteristics of teachers with relation to the 128

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attitude of the students toward learning mathematics. The researcher considered observable traits of teacher that are judged by students, these are: knowledge of the subject matter, communication ability, teaching method, and classroom management skills. Professional teachers should have the basic knowledge of the subject matter, which has to be fully understand and linked it to other disciplines and application to real world situations. Communication ability of teachers can be evident if he can receive information, understand and synthesize and express it to the class that everyone can comprehend. Teaching method is the ability of teacher to use approaches and strategies depending on that type of students he dealt. Classroom management skill of a teacher is why the lesson runs smoothly in the classroom.

Methodology

The researchers utilized the descriptive method of research using questionnaire as the main instrument in data gathering. This is the most appropriate method to be employed in this study in as much as it aims to find relationship exists between the teacher’s characteristics and student’s attitude towards mathematics. The descriptive research attempts to describe, explain and interpret conditions of the present i.e. “what is’. The purpose of a descriptive research is to examine a phenomenon that is occurring at a specific place(s) and time. A descriptive research is concerned with conditions, practices, structures, differences or relationships that exist, opinions held, processes that are going on or trends that are evident. Descriptive method assists the researcher in knowing how to accomplish our desired purposes in the shortest available time. Moreover, descriptive studies have been used in many areas of investigation for the reason that they apply to varied kinds of problems (Sevilla, et. al., 1988). The researchers utilized the adapted surveyquestionnaires intended for the traits of the teachers and for the students’ attitudes towards Mathematics. The questionnaire for 129

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teacher was adapted from the “Qualities of Effective Teachers” by James Stronge. While the questionnaire for students was adapted from “The Attitudes toward Mathematics Inventory”, created by Tapia and Marsh (2004) was based on the Fennema-Sherman instrument, with some items eliminated in order to focus on only six factors (Confidence, Anxiety, Value, Enjoyment, Motivation, and Parent/teacher expectations). The original FennemaSherman Attitude Scales (1976) were designed to measure the attitudes and beliefs of secondary students. They consist of a group of nine instruments: (1) Attitude Towards Success in Mathematics Scale, (2) Mathematics as a Male Domain Scale, (3) and (4) Mother/Father Scale, (5) Teacher Scale, (6) Confidence in Learning Mathematics Scale, (7) Mathematics Anxiety Scale, (8) Effectance Motivation Scale in Mathematics, and (9) Mathematics Usefulness Scale. The prepared instrument upon checking of the research adviser was tried out to the advisory class of the researcher in which he is teaching fourth year Mathematics. This is to ensure that the directions and every item in the surveyquestionnaire were clear and easy to follow and comprehend.

Items which seemed to be off-tangent, irrelevant and not clear were omitted or modified. The data were treated using descriptive and inferential statistical tools.

Results and Discussion Fifteen (15) Math teachers out of 69 or 21.74% were teaching mathematics for four years now; fourteen (14) teachers for 20 – 24 years now; and some were in the service teaching mathematics for over 29 years now. Most Mathematics teachers were baccalaureate degree holders (47.83%) in Secondary Education, Elementary Education, BS Math, Engineering, Industrial Education and Business Administration. Some (23.19 %) were still completing their Masterate degree; and some (13) were masterate graduates; and others (3) were doctorate degree holders. Majority (94.20%) were Mathematics majors; and few 130

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were drafting (2.90%), and accounting (2.90) majors. Majority (62.32%) of the teachers were Teacher I; seven (7) were Teacher II; eight (8) were Teacher III; six (6) were Master Teacher I; and five (5) were Master Teacher II. Dominantly (40) have attended the division level seminars, followed by international level seminars. Unfortunately, there were teachers who have not attended any Mathematics-related seminars for the past 3 years.

The students rated their Mathematics teachers (strongly agree) relative to the scale “Teacher as a Person” particularly in maintaining confidential trust and respect (4.87). The overall mean was 4.60. The traits of the Math teachers in relations to classroom management and organization were assessed “Strongly Agree”. Evidently, the teachers encourage interactions among students in the class (4.85). The overall weighted mean was 4.64.

All the items related to organizing and orienting for instructions were rated “strong agree”. Lesson plans included activities and strategies to engage students of various ability levels got the highest mean of 4.75. The grand mean was 4.69.

The implementation of instruction was rated ‘strongly agree” by the students. The teachers used a variety of activities and strategies to engage students” and provided feedback with a mean of 4.74. The overall weighted mean was 4.65. The teacher’s traits relative to monitoring students’ progress and potential were rated “strongly agree”. The Math teacher’s documented students’ progress and achievement with a weighted mean of 4.80. The overall weighted mean was 4.63. The level of agreement of students regarding the practice of teachers’ professionalism was rated “strongly agree”. It indicated that have attended and participated on faculty meetings (4.88), and performed assigned duties. The overall weighted mean of the scale was 4.79.

The confidence level of students towards Mathematics was moderately high with a computed mean of 3.28. The anxiety level of students towards Mathematics is moderately high with a computed mean of 3.13. The students moderately valued 131

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Mathematics as a subject with a computed mean of 3.36. The students highly enjoyed Mathematics as a subject with a computed mean of 3.67. The students were moderately motivated to study Mathematics as evidenced by the computed mean of 3.28. The attitude of the students towards their Mathematics teacher was relatively high (positive) with a computed mean of 3.53.

Teachers’ traits were highly correlated with students’ confidence (0.73); enjoyment (0.79); and motivation (0.84) to learn the subject. Moreover, teachers’ traits are moderately correlated with students’ anxiety (0.52); and value of Mathematics (0.63). There was a significant relationship between teachers’ traits and students’ attitudes towards Mathematics.

A small number of studies suggest that teacher experience effects may be evident for a longer period of time. Murnane & Phillips (2011) state that experience had a significant positive effect on student achievement among teachers during their first seven years of teaching. Ferguson (2010) reveals that at the high school level, students taught by teachers with more than nine years of experience had significantly higher test scores than students whose teachers had five to nine years of experience.

Rivers & Sanders (2002) suggest that teacher’ effectiveness increases dramatically each year during the first ten years of teaching”. In the extreme case, Clotfelter et al., (2007) found evidence of growing teacher effectiveness out to 20 or more years in their analyses of teacher data, although more than half of the gains in teacher effectiveness occurred during the first few years of teaching. Stronge et al. (2007) assert a positive relationship between teachers' verbal ability and composite student achievement, verbal ability has been considered an indicator of teacher quality. The basic logic is that teachers rely on talk to teach (explaining, questioning, and providing directions). What verbal ability means and how to measure it, it turns out, are not straightforward. Darling – Hammond (2008) defines well 132

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qualified teacher as one who was fully certified and held the equivalent of a major in the field being taught. Although the formal qualification of teachers is an important indicator for their knowledge and competence in teaching, it has only limited utility in analyzing how well prepared teachers are for what they have to teach in schools. More detailed knowledge of the courses they have taken during their training needs to be compared to the actual content and skills required to teach the high school’s curriculum.

Ruthland & Bremer (2012) refer to teacher qualification in two ways - traditional and alternative qualification routes.

Traditional certification is when an individual completes an undergraduate degree or post graduate program in education.

Alternative routes of certification are based on coursework in pedagogy and subject area without a degree in education. Hardy & Smith (2006) cite short term activities such as mentoring, peer evaluations and workshops as ways other than formal qualifications for improving teaching. More often graduates teachers with first degree content go into teaching if they cannot find another job right away. Although hey often get somewhat lower salary than a fully qualified teacher; they choose not to enroll in the one year post- graduate professional training and therefore lack a basic foundation for teaching. Wilson et al. (2001) suggest that even with the shortcomings of current teacher education and licensing, fully prepared and certified teachers are more successful with students than teachers without this preparation. Ashton (1996) notes that teachers with regular state certification receive higher supervisor ratings and ranks and student achievement than teachers who do not meet standards, but this observation was based on data with virtually no statistical controls having been imposed. In spite of the quantity of research on the benefits of teacher certification and ranking for student learning, little of the past research exercised controls over student “inputs� that would give the critical reader 133

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confidence in the findings. Laczko & Berliner (2001) assert that the impact of certification and ranking status on student achievement. Information included academic rank, the school where they were currently teaching, the grade level taught, the teacher’s certification status, highest degree earned, date and institution where it was achieved, age, and number of years teaching experience. Akinsolu (2010) asserts that availability of qualified teachers determined the performance of students in schools. Coonen (2007) emphasizes that teachers involved in inservice training were more effective in classrooms as compared to teachers who had not undergone training. Wirth & Perkins (2013) indicate that teacher’s proper training and attitude contributed significantly to student attention in classrooms whereas Adesoji & Olatunbosun (2008) illustrates that student attitude was related to teacher characteristics and proper orientation and training. This therefore meant that teacher’s attitude directly affected students’ attitude. On teacher personality, Adu & Olatundun (2007) contend that teachers’ characteristics are strong determinants of students’ performance in secondary schools.

Teachers attendance of in – service training are one of the indicators of experience. Teachers’ motives to attend in-service training can be manifold e.g. increase in salary, career planning, keeping up with developments, filling in lacunae, removing insecurity and meeting colleagues. In the Science Education Project (SEP), the objectives were mainly formulated by the developers after having consulted various experts who had experience with Education. The teachers in this program had been and did not have any experience with practical work. Only in a later stage of their in-service training course they had a better idea of the possible content and methods, did formulating objectives of their own lessons become part of the program (Fullan, 2012).

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Therefore, the more the teachers know about students, the better the teachers can connect with them and the more likely they will be able to benefit from the teachers’ experience in reconstructing their world. The knowledge that teachers need about students in order to connect with them is gained through interaction. For many reasons, measuring the real impact of experience on a teacher’s effectiveness is complex, more so than measuring any other teacher attribute. Consequently, many wellconstructed research attempts to interpret the relationship between experience and effectiveness have produced varying results that reveal no particular pattern. Murnane (2011) found that teacher effectiveness improves rapidly over the first three years of teaching and reaches its highest point between the third and fifth year but found no substantial improvement after year five. Nations (1962) defines teacher as a person, develops understanding for the others, understanding of himself, and satisfying relationship through perspective interaction with others in many situations. He grows by becoming aware of the strengths, weaknesses, needs and desires of others. The teacher as a professional person, is strengthened by improving; (a) his knowledge of the subject matter, the techniques and the processes of the inquiry in which he guides his learners; (b) his knowledge of the learning process; and (c) knowledge of his teaching techniques.

Moreover, Adeogun (2013) opined that the quality of the educational system depends on the quality of its teaching staff and that a school without human resources may not to be able to achieve the goal and objectives of the educational system. Adesina (2011) also noted that teachers are the major indicator and determinant of quality education. Highly professional teachers, who are dedicated, are needed in schools. It has been established that there is high correlation between what teachers know and what they teach. Thus the ability to teach effectively depends on the teachers’ knowledge and knowledge occurs in a variety of 135

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forms. Teacher effectiveness is impeded if the teacher is unfamiliar with the body of knowledge taught and the teachers’ effectiveness is subject-specific. The implication of this for teachers is that they must thoroughly understand the content of what they teach. The teacher whose understanding of topic is thorough use clearer language and they provide better explanation than those whose background is weaker. The way the students perceive the teachers in terms of their (teachers) knowledge of content of subject matter may significantly affect the student’s attitudes and academic performance.

Attitude of some teachers to work has been attributed to poor attitudes and academic performance of students. According to Eggen and Kauchak (2011), positive teachers attitude are fundamental to effective teaching. They identified a number of teachers attitude that will facilitate a caring and supportive classroom environment, they are: enthusiasm, caring, firm, democratic practices to promote students responsibility, use time for lesson effectively, have established efficient routines, and interact freely with students and providing motivation for them.

Fisher et al (2011) also noted that high level of learning occurs and learners feel good about themselves and the materials they are learning when teachers use instructional time efficiently. The way teachers outreach with student’s influences their attitude toward school and their academic performance. How students perceive their teacher attitudes to teaching in the classroom will be measured in this study Qualification, Teaching experience and Teaching skills are variables noted to have effect on student academic performances.

Ehindero and Ajibade (2010) asserted that “students, who are curious stakeholders in educational enterprise, have long suspected and speculated that some of their teachers lack the necessary professional qualifications. That is, skills, techniques, strategies required to communicate concepts, ideas, principles in a way that would facilitate effective learning.” They believed that 136

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these deficiencies contribute significantly to the growing rate of failure and subsequent drop out of students in secondary institutions. These observations by stakeholders necessitate the need to investigate the effects of teacher’s characteristics such as professional qualification, teaching skill and techniques necessary for teaching and learning in secondary schools on academic performance of students. Effective teachers create focused and nurturing classrooms that result in increased student learning (Marzano et al., 2003; Shellard & Protheroe, 2000). These teachers teach and rehearse rules and procedures with students, anticipate students' needs, possess a plan to orient new students, and offer clear instructions to students (McLeod et al., 2003; Emmer et al., 1980). They use a minimum number of rules to ensure safety and productive interaction in the classroom, and they rely on routines to maintain a smoothly running classroom (McLeod et al. 2003).

In fact, it has been noted that classroom management skills are essential in a classroom for a teacher to get anything done. In some ways, classroom management is like salt in a recipe; when it is present it is not noticed, but when it is missing, diners will ask for it.

Furthermore, classroom management is frequently conceptualized as a matter of control rather than as a dimension of curriculum, instruction, and overall classroom climate (Duke, 2011). As our greatest concern has been to try to avoid prescriptive behavior in its general sense within classrooms, there is, in fact, a certain degree of tension and misattribution between flexibility of control and prescriptive attitudes in the classroom atmosphere. Therefore, we have to persuade ourselves that not everyone will express things in the same words or perceive them in the same way, and that not everyone will move at the same rate or in the same direction. Based on the findings of the research conducted by Borphy (2008), it is highly probable that teachers who approach classroom management, as a process 137

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of establishing and maintaining effective learning environments, and as a multi-lateral ambience, tend to be more successful than others who place more emphasis on their roles as authority figures or disciplinarians since classrooms are composed of numerously different personal views, characteristics, ethics and values.

Thus, classroom climate influenced by the teacher has a major impact on pupils’ motivation and attitude towards learning, that is to say, for teachers, having been equipped with pedagogical and professional characteristics would not be enough to establish a positive, learnable, and teachable classroom climate.

Specifically, the factors that best facilitate student learning are considered to be the ones that are described as being purposeful, task-oriented, relaxed, warm, supportive, and has a sense of order and humor in an integrated sense (Guerrero, 2008). He also speaks positively of other factors facilitating students learning in a positive manner such as; mutual respect and rapport etc. all of which stem from conveying to pupils that you understand, share, and value their feelings as individuals on a whole range of matters and experiences, academic, social and personal. Such a climate fosters learning and motivation of students and their attitudes toward learning process. Furthermore, Research indicates that certain personality characteristics influence student evaluations of teachers.

From the students' points of view, teacher-expressive characteristics such as warmth, enthusiasm, and extroversion apparently separate effective from ineffective teachers (Basow, 2007; Best & Addison, 2007; and Radmacher & Martin, 2011) Reasoning in this way, out of three generally accepted characteristics of teachers, namely; professional, pedagogical, and personal, the last one of the three will illuminate, as a neglected vision to follow the end product-shapeable students, the ways of reaching at a better learning atmosphere as well as self-assured students. A combination of my experiences and some other 138

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colleagues’ directed me to study what the teacher was like as an individual and how influential it is over students’ attitudes towards learning and the degree of their engagement with learning. The proposition in mind was that pupils'. According to Broke and Stone (2010) (quoted by E Mulyasa), a teacher’s competence and professionalism is descriptive of qualitative nature of teacher behavior appearing to be entirely meaningful.

Broke defines a teacher’s competence and professionalism is the ability of a teacher to responsibly perform his or her duties appropriately. Another opinion is posed by Sahertian. According to Sahertian (2009), there are three definitions of a teacher’s competence. (1) A teacher’s competence is the ability of a teacher to realize the planned educational aim. (2) A teacher’s competence is the real characteristic of a teacher’s personality showing the way to create fixed educational purpose. (3) A teacher’s competence is the conditioned behavior to reach the educational purpose. Also, Trianto (2009) defines that a teacher’s competence and professionalism as aptitude, ability and skill owned by someone having a job to teach a student to have exalted personality like the educational purpose. It is explained that competence is a set of knowledge, skill, and behavior which must be owned, perceived, and mastered by a teacher in undertaking her/his professional duty. Personality teachers have contributed enough to the success of education, especially in learning activities. Dealing with the statement, W. S Winkelalso found that teachers' competence personality influence student motivation.

With the following statement: "Typical personality traits of teachers, for the most part, seen in the way he does his job. This fact is increasingly true in the work of a teacher who educates young people in schools. Conscious or not his presence in the classroom, teachers have an impact on the development of students including motivation in learning. " Teachers who have a good personality and professional conduct, it fosters motivation in students. Many students were 139

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excited, passionate, and fun to learn with a teacher because of the personality and conduct of the teacher are good and interesting.

But on the contrary there are also some students who feel discouraged, lazy, indifferent, sleepy, noisy, because of the teacher's personality is not good and not interesting. Motivation to learn can arise when a good response to the students' teachers, especially in terms of his personality. In other words, students will have a good response to the competence of the teacher's personality, if the teacher is showing a good person that deserves to be imitated by students, while teachers who show a lack of good personality and conduct, then this will lead to a negative response from students so that they are not motivated to learn.

Rusinov (2010) concluded that sometimes Math problems seem so hard, and student self-confidence is so low, that students start to complain about an instructor’s teaching style. In order to resolve this situation, he suggests that students need to focus more on solutions instead of problems and by doing that, students will raise their confidence in Mathematics. He also recommends the students to, ask more questions, and keep good class notes for further review of the problems and solutions that were done in class. They should contact their professor and ask questions outside of class about mathematical concepts and problem solving strategies. They should study and practice, because by studying more, students will empower themselves with knowledge. By becoming more knowledgeable, students will become more confident.

Moreover, self-efficacy (SE) beliefs constitute a key component in Bandura’s social cognitive theory. The construct signifies a person’s beliefs, concerning her or his ability to successfully perform a given task or behavior. It was found that SE is a major determinant of the choices that individuals make, the effort they expend, the perseverance they exert in the face of difficulties, and the thought patterns and emotional reactions they experience (Bandura, 1986). Furthermore, SE beliefs play an 140

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essential role in achievement motivation, interact with selfregulated learning processes, and mediate academic achievement (Pintrich, 1999). Mathematics anxiety has been defined as feelings of tension and anxiety that interfere with the manipulation of numbers and the solving of mathematical problems in a wide variety of ordinary life and academic situations Math anxiety can cause one to forget and lose one’s self-confidence (Tobias, S., 1993).

Despite its importance, in daily life, mathematics is often viewed as a difficult topic. Such perception is in part, due to the nature of Math. However, it also has to do with preconceived notions about mathematics and the anxiety individuals have for mathematics (Norwook, 2004). A remarkable body of research has been accumulated on mathematics anxiety. There have been a variety of definitions of what constitutes mathematics anxiety.

Richardson and Suinn view it as feelings of tension and anxiety that interfere with the manipulation of numbers and the solving of mathematical problems in a wide variety of ordinary life and academic situations (Gierl & Bisanz, 2005). Mathematics anxiety has to do with a sense of discomfort while required to work on mathematical problems and with fear and apprehension to specific math-related situations (D’Ailly & Bergering, 2012).

Mathematics anxiety exists in some adults (Perry, 2004), including teachers (Haylock, 2003), and is influenced by people’s beliefs (Tobias, 2008). It has been described both as an irrational phobia (Hodges, 2013), and a rational fear rooted in real experience of failure and inadequacy (Perry, 2004). Associated emotional factors include ‘anger’ (Cherkas, 2012), ‘tension’ (Richardson and Suinn, 2012), ‘guilt’ (Cockcroft, 2012) and ‘panic, dislike, anxiety, bewilderment, fear, fright, terror, stupidity, frustration, and a fear of looking stupid’ (Buxton, 2011).

Mathematics anxiety can influence students’ mathematical performance physically by affecting memory (Kogelman and

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Warren, 2008) and creating nervousness and an inability to concentrate (Tobias, 2008).

Cockcroft (2012) found people developing coping strategies for everyday life, and Brady and Bowd (2005) describe people avoiding mathematics where possible.

Being ‘no good’ at mathematics is often admitted (Haylock, 2003), and may be passed on to students by their parents (Furner and Duffy, 2002). Beliefs leading to mathematics anxiety include that a ‘mathematical mind’ is needed (Furner and Duffy, 2002); that the left/right brain is dominant (Austin and Wadlington, 2012); that to be good at the arts means one cannot be good at mathematics (Tobias, 2008); that one must be logical as opposed to intuitive (Frank, 2010) and that there is a set right or wrong way to do mathematics (Cherkas, 2012) with an exact answer (Buxton, 2011).

The abstract nature of mathematics could be a cause of anxiety according to Orton and Frobisher (2006). A common belief appears to exist that rules must be applied in a set way that must be remembered, dependent on previous understanding (Cornell, 2009), with a lack of creativity in reaching answers (Austin and Wadlington, 2012). Students can be prevented from understanding by being taught mathematics without an investigative, open-ended approach (Oxford and Anderson, 2005). If mathematics is portrayed as putting procedure into practice, then students may believe it involves following rules to find the right answer and such learning by rote can lead to mathematics anxiety (Cornell, 2009).

Conclusions and Recommendations Majority of the Mathematics teachers were newly hired, but some have been in the service for over 29 years now.

Dominantly were Teacher I, bachelor’s degree holder and some were pursuing graduate studies in the area of specialization; and attended division level and international level seminars. There 142

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were still other teachers who have not attended any Mathematicsrelated seminars for the past 3 years. High positive traits of Mathematics teachers were remarkably evident relative to teacher as a person, classroom management and organization, organizing and orienting for instruction, implementing instruction, monitoring students’ progress and potentials, and teachers’ professionalism. The students have moderately high confidence and anxiety levels, and value towards Mathematics.

However, they highly enjoyed the subject and motivated to study.

Moreover, they have relatively high (positive) regards to their teachers. There was a significant relationship between teachers’ traits and students’ attitudes towards Mathematics. Teachers’ traits significantly influenced students’ confidence, anxiety, value for Mathematics, enjoyment, motivation to learn; and attitude towards teacher. The findings implied that teacher characteristics and traits correlated with students’ attitudes towards Mathematics. Teachers’ traits such as teacher as a person, classroom management and organization, organizing and orienting for instruction, implementing instruction, monitoring student progress and potential and professionalism significantly influenced students’ confidence, anxiety, value for Mathematics, enjoyment, motivation to learn; and attitude towards teacher.

Thus, the school administration should provide assistance for continuous faculty development program to include attendance to graduate and post graduate studies in the area of specialization and Mathematics-related training and seminars at various levels. The Mathematics teachers should continue portray positive traits and qualities as a person, classroom management and organization, organizing and orienting for instruction, implementing instruction, monitoring student progress and potential and professionalism. The students should enhance their confidence level and value for Mathematics. They should also continue high regards to their teachers, motivation and enjoyment towards learning the subject to lessen their anxieties 143

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in Mathematics. The administration should strictly and continuously monitor qualities of the deployed teachers and its correlates with students’ attitudes and behaviors towards Mathematics such as teacher as a person, classroom management and organization, organizing and orienting for instruction, implementing instruction, monitoring students’ progress and potentials, and teachers’ professionalism.The teachers should continue provide motivation and enjoyment in teaching Mathematics with the students. A parallel study should be conducted among private schools to further generalized the relationship of teachers’ qualities and students’ attitudes towards Mathematics for the improvement of instruction.

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Shellard, E., & Protheroe, N. "Effective Teaching: How Do We Know It When We See It?" The Informed Educator Series, Educational Research service, Stock # 1E-0405. 2000 Sherman, H. J., & Christian, M. (1999). Mathematics attitudes and global self-concept: An investiation of the relationship. College Student Journal.

Tapia, M., & Marsh, G II. (2004). An instrument to measure mathematics attitudes. Academic Exchange.

Tayo, B. (2007). Perception of teacher’s knowledge, attitude and teaching skills as predictor U.N.E.S.C.O. (1986) A Handbook for Biology Teachers in Africa Paris: United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, 1986.

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Supervisory Practices of Public Secondary School Heads in a Division Dr. Marymerlin L. Espolong Prof. Luz N. Ramirez

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------Abstract- The study was focused on the supervisory practices of school heads among public secondary schools in Subic, division of Zambales. The researcher used the descriptive method of research.

A standardized instrument was used to measure level of assessment of teachers on the supervisory practices of the school heads.

Unstructured interviews were conducted to support the data. The data gathered were analyzed with the use of Percentage, Weighted Mean, and t-test. There was a strong agreement on the supervisory practices of the school heads relative to leadership and personnel management; planning and organizing works; problem solving and decision making; staff development; and classroom observation.

However, the variable of the respondents in terms of age has great influence in the assessment on the supervisory practices. There is a significant relationship between the respondents’ variable and the supervisory practices of the school heads. The present study has shown the assessment of the teachers can be applied in the effectiveness and efficiency on the performance of the school heads on their supervisory practices. Topics on management behavior and values maybe included in the staff development program which would provide school administrator valuable insights on things that are worthwhile and desirable to ensure effective delivery of services.

Keywords: Supervisory practices, public secondary schools, school heads, descriptive design

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Introduction

The Philippine school setting, school heads and supervision supplement and complement each other. There are the two educational services. Administration focuses on the management of schools while supervision is directly concerned in curricular development in its vitalization and improvement, in the selection and preparation of materials for instructions, in the upgrading of teaching competence through stimulation and guidance and in the periodic evaluation of the results of instructions. In brief supervision gives directions, measures and substance to program of education.

Serrano (1996) quoted the idea of Sergiovanni that the present supervisory practices are based on the theories of supervision that share a task of faith and trust in the teachers ability and willingness to display as much interest in the welfare of the school as that presumed by administrators and supervisors.

In the field of education, supervision is synonymous with helping, assisting, and guiding teachers to improve their instructions that will redound to welfare of the students in terms of their total learning. The real essence of supervision is the harmonious interaction between the supervised and the supervisor. It is a two-way communication affair based on mutual goal, which is the improvement of learning.

It is apparent that supervision must be centered upon the teacher rather than upon the techniques of teaching. Wills (1987) said, “to improve instructions, supervision must provide effective leadership that develops a unified school program and enriches the environment for all the teachers�, the type of emotional atmosphere in which all are accepted and feel that they belong, opportunities to think and work together effectively as a faculty group, personnel procedures that gives teachers confidence in the school system and a program change based on honest evaluation.

Such supervisory activities produce the type of school in which 153

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teacher grows in their capacity to evolve worthwhile learning experiences for students.

School administrators in this regard should release their greatness in supervision for the improvement of instruction and the development of the potentialities of the teachers. They should help their teachers in improving their methods and skills. Good leaders are made and polished with the passing of time, such that the more exposure and experience they have, the more they mature and mellow in their position as leaders.

In our present day, the role of educational managers in the development of change cannot be over emphasized. They have very crucial role to play in the achievement of educational targets, hence, they need to be equipped with adequate knowledge, skills and values in order to function properly and see to it that the curricular is relevant in term of delivery and purposes that must be the central relevant preparation in development, appropriate training and qualifications.

It becomes urgent for school administrators to be trained as competent professionals which means that they be equipped with the appropriate training for the position. The preparation and training of educational managers is necessary for they are instrumental in helping young people fulfill their dreams. They must see before the prospect of the present, seeing others or observing how they tackle the issues help they solve their own problems and predicaments in their own way.

Among the rare qualities of school administrators, the ability to lead productivity is highly prized. In fact, our quest today is for leaders who can effectively coordinate efforts to meet the challenges of fast changing world. Generally the individual who constitute any group work well when placed under a leader who knows how to manage subordinates with reasonable restraint and intelligent encouragement (Fajardo, 1986). Teachers play a vital role in the development of educational organizations. They collaborate with the school leader in the pursuit of productivity, 154

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quality education, excellence and competitiveness, without them, nothing much can be achieved in the system.

As pointed by Martires (1982), teachers become productive when their school heads keep interpersonal relations pleasant, provide encouragement and support, stimulate self directions and increase interdependence among members.

In the democratic setting, the administrators lead the teacher properly and the latter give full cooperation in the achievement of school objectives. They try to help one another rather than get through competition. The principal in the discharge of their duties and responsibilities need the cooperation of the teachers.

To be successful in affecting the desired changes in the learner, it is necessary to have supervisory leaders who can effect change in teacher in order that student will get the kind of education they deserve. But why are teachers uneasy, nervous and tense when they hear about classroom visitation?

Teachers are unable to start the lesson when observed. They also lost their composure because of emotional tensions. Most teachers also act unnaturally when visited. They cannot feel calm and at loss in the presence of the visiting school officials. What causes their anxieties about supervision?

As a school heads they provides leadership in the formulation and implementation of policies, plans, programs, and projects to carry out the objectives of the education for the secondary schools adopted to the needs of the community.

Prepares the schools program , assignment of teachers as well as testing schedules. Makes available to teachers , students, and other school employees the needed instructional materials and supplies. Prepares the school budget proposals and works for adequate financing of the school: prepares programs of expenditures based on the approved budget. Sees to it that the school is provided with proper health and medical facilities, and supervises the maintenance and up-keep the school plant facilities. Evaluate and rates performance of teachers and 155

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recommends promotions of teachers and employees. Organize the guidance program of the school and maintain good public relations with students, teachers, local officials and the public at large, and conduct in-service education program for teachers and other school employees.

With these observations, the researchers were motivated to undertake a study on the supervisory practices among public secondary schools in Subic, Division of Zambales.

Methodology

This study used the descriptive method of research. This method revealed the different attitudes of the respondents or the administrative and supervisory practices of school heads. The descriptive research is deemed the most appropriate method to be used in this study which sought to ascertain the conditions obtaining in the subject division aid regards the issue considered.

Best (1981) stated that this method of research describes current status and identifies relationships that exists among phenomena or trends that appear to be developing. Likewise Good (1984) claimed that the descriptive survey approved to problem solving which seeks to answer questions as to the real fact relating to existing condition.

All the Public Secondary School Teachers in the District of Subic were taken as the population of the study. The researchers decided to consider the total number of teachers to maintain the reliability and validity of the data gathered through the survey questionnaire.

The major instrument used in gathering data was the survey questionnaire. Unstructured interview and casual observations was employed to generate and supplement the data gathered in the questionnaire. The data gathered through the questionnaire were classified, organized, tabulated, analyzed and interpreted with the use of appropriate statistical tools.

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Results and Discussion

The respondents strongly agreed that the role of the principal in terms of leadership was to motivate subordinates for the work well done. It the role of the principal to strive to win the trust and confidence of their subordinates. The overall mean on the assessment of the teachers was 4.42 or interpreted as Strongly Agree. The overall mean on the assessment of the teachers was 4.41 or interpreted as Strongly Agree. The overall mean on the assessment of teachers was 4.49 or Strongly Agree.

The supervisory practices that pertains to classroom observation was regarded as Strongly Agree, made evident by the mean computed at 4.35. The variable of age is significantly influence on the respondent’s assessment on the supervisory practices of school administrators. The variables civil status, gender, educational attainment are not significantly influence the respondent’s assessment on the supervisory practices of the administrators. The null hypothesis was rejected on the variation of the supervisory practices and the variables such as gender, civil status and educational attainment.

One of the most influencing factors for a relevant and creative School administration and supervision lies in the competence of the school principal. For one, the principal is the key person in the organizational structure of the school. He is viewed more of a leader than a manipulator of things. It is then imperative that an administrator should possess not just the minimum skills and qualification. According to Mc Nally et al (1964) recognized that: “Qualifications for the principalship, therefore cannot be solely met by a formal college education.

They should encompass skills on human relations, understanding of social trends and forces, educational visions and capacity for democratic leadership”. The embracing effect, therefore of these skills relate to competence which stands from adequate professional accumulation of facts, beliefs, values and practices through formal and relevant education. Length of teaching 157

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experiences tell you how committed and dedicated a teacher is; from a traditional teacher to a modern teacher and soon be a innovative principal or school administrator. As long as they are in the field of education. In any organizational structure its major function has to be well defined and delineated to all the participating staff. Its policies should be explicitly draws to operationalize in concrete and simple terms the duties and responsibilities of its members. In the schools, the school administrator is a key figure in the smooth functioning of all the aspects of school management. His position should bridge the gap between the individual member’s motives as against the organizational goal. The mission of the school should precede over among minor influences which may adversely affects its performance. In this case, the modest contribution of every teacher counts much towards the realization of its goal. The succeeding statement is in support of the foregoing ideas Thayer and Levit (1966) stated….”The school should bear witness to its major functions…that each one participating performance his own special works with a full realization of its implication and effects upon his associates and the larger aims for which he is a means… and to make this purposes manifest is the major function of school organization…” To maintain a productive school, administrators must know how to be effective in the three areas of management; leadership, staff development and human relations. A dynamic and stimulating leadership of the school administrator is an important factor that affects teacher’s job satisfaction, according to Herzberg. The school with the school administrator as a leader should promote contentment among teachers who can be effective and instrumental in providing quality education. He should lead his teachers to work together in translating the shared goals into functional and valuable experiences for the school children. Planning and organizing work are the main function f the principals in the school organization.

It’s their duty to plan everything for the improvement of their 158

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school. Thus it will merit the whole stakeholders because of the well-organized distribution of work to their subordinates.

Another function of the school administrator is the decision making. The school administrator stands as the mediator to solve conflict among her subordinates and provides workable solution that will lead to a harmonious relationship. If the administrator provides fair and firm decision which pave the way for teacher’s work performance it will result to a good relationship among the teachers and administrator. Staff development deserves to be a priority in the mind of the school principal. This is so because one factor that may influence student’s performance is the competence of the teaching staff. Brant (1991) defined staff development a “multi-dimensional process that encompasses all aspects of training; from readiness activities, practices and coaching, through follow-up and support activities.” In light of this definition, the assessment of the responses in Table 10 would reflect the views of the respondent in relation to the aforementioned statement. Campbell (1966) commented that “ a wise administrator know that he must capitalize on the creativity of his staff members in building a structure that place a premium upon the cooperative effort required to do his job.”

Conclusions and Recommendations The respondents agreed that the dimensions of decisionmaking, classroom observation, planning and organizing work were integral part of the supervisory practices of the school heads. The variables of age, civil status, educational attainment and teaching experiences hold significantly influenced the respondent’s assessment on the supervisory practices of school heads. In the operation of the school system, the school head as a professional leader should possess the necessary administrative and supervisory skills and raining to be utmost assistance to the teachers and insure effective instructions. Thus, both the 159

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administrator and the teachers should strive for continuing education. As much as possible the administrator should be knowledgeable in all aspects to run the school. A program of regular classroom visits and/or observations, which are opportunities for the school administrator to witness what is actually happening inside the classroom, be established. Topics on management behavior and values should be included in staff development program which would provide the school administrators valuable insights on things that are worthwhile and desirable to ensure effective delivery of services.

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Barth, Roland S. Improving Schools from Within: Teachers, Parents, Principals Can Make Difference, lst ed. San Francisco, Jossey Bass Publishers, 1990.

Belgica, Victoria. What Teachers Want for their Jobs. The Modern Teacher, January 1981 Berger, E. H. (2003). Beyond the Classroom. London: The C. V. Bernardino, Vitaliano, “The Public Administration and Democratic Leadership.” The Philippine Journal of Education Volume LIII June 1994.

Best, John W. Research in Education. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey Prentice Hall, 1991 Boliche, Mag G. School Heads Should Humanize their Jobs. The Modern Teacher, July 1980.

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Fajardo, Reynaldo T. Effective Leadership through Parliamentary Procedures. Manila: Rex Book Store, 1986. Feliciano, Leon E. Improving the Quality of Instruction Through Supervision. The Modern Teacher, Vol.XXXI, No. 3 Aug.1982.

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Klem, A. M. & Connell, J. P. (2004). Relationships matter: Linkin teachersupport to students’ engagement and achievement.

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Supervisory Leadership towards Improving Fast Food Chain Operation Dr. Alejandro Jimenez Dr. David Cababaro Bueno Prof. Carlito S. Galangue Dr. Eric A. Matriano

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------Abstract-The study aimed to assess the leadership practices of fast food

chain supervisors in the City of Olongapo. The researchers utilized the descriptive-survey design of method with the use of survey-questionnaire and interview as main tools in gathering the data needed. The study involved the total number of ten day shift supervisorrespondents and fifty (50) purposively selected day shift rank-in-file employees from various fast food chains. The data gathered were treated statistically using Percentage, Mean, and t-Test. The supervisors usually practice the concepts of leadership for the attainment of the goals of the organization based on the “Path-Goal Theory of Leadership�. There is significant difference in the assessment of the two groups of respondents on the leadership practices of the fast food chain supervisors in the City of Olongapo. Successful leaders know that building team spirit is the key to business growth like the fast food chains in Olongapo City. There truly is power in numbers, and the whole is indeed greater than the sum of the parts. Thus, the findings of the study offer excellent fast food chain operation tips on how to effectively build teams around various leadership practices of the supervisors. The rank and file employees should view supervisory leadership practices as avenue for them to become effective store supervisors when promoted. Open communication and continues feed backing techniques should be properly practiced within the organization.

Keywords: Business operation, supervisors, leadership, fast food chain, descriptive-survey design, Olongapo City, Philippines

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Introduction

An organization has the greatest chance of being successful when all of the employees work toward achieving its goals (Greenberg, 2015). Since leadership involves the exercise of influence by one person over others, the quality of leadership exhibited by supervisors is a critical determinant of organizational success (House & Podsakoff, 2014). Thus, supervisors study leadership in order to influence the actions of employees toward the achievement of the goals of the organization. Leadership studies can be classified as trait, behavioral, contingency, and transformational. Earliest theories assumed that the primary source of leadership effectiveness lay in the personal traits of the leaders themselves. Yet, traits alone cannot explain leadership effectiveness (House, Rousseau, & Thomas-Hunt, 2015). Thus, later research focused on what the leader actually did when dealing with employees. These behavioral theories of leadership sought to explain the relationship between what the leaders did and how the employees reacted, both emotionally and behaviorally (Katerberg, & Hom, 2011). Behavior cannot always account for leadership in different situations. Thus, contingency theories of leadership studied leadership style in different environments.

Transactional leaders, such as those identified in contingency theories, clarify role and task requirements for employees (Klein, Dansereau & Hall, 2014). Contingency cannot account for the inspiration and innovation that leaders need to compete in today's global marketplace. Newer transformational leadership studies have shown that leaders, who are charismatic and visionary, can inspire followers to transcend their own selfinterest for the good of the organization. Leadership is a dynamic relationship based on mutual influence and common purpose between leaders and collaborators in which both are moved to 165

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higher levels of motivation and moral development as they affect real, intended change (Beyer, 1996). Thus, fast food chain supervisors should have the knowledge and characteristics needed to provide leadership to the supervision of staff and other members of the organization (Markham, 2008).

Improving Ideally, supervisors are or have been exemplary supervisors and are well-grounded in the knowledge, skills, and experiences of effective supervision (Markham & McKee, 2011).

They have developed their own models of supervision and know its steps, procedures, and a wide repertoire of techniques. It is beneficial for them to have the basic skills to better assure the success in the organization within their responsibility. Several factors and elements are considered very important in the operation of a restaurant and fast food chain (McFarlin & Sweeney, 2012). In order to operate a restaurant successfully one must at least have a restaurant background or do intense research on the subject. If one has spent his or her working life as an electrician or doctor, the person is not likely equipped to operate a restaurant. When a person has ten years of experience in a field the person has become more knowledgeable than the majority of the population in that area and would benefit from opening a business related to that field (Howell, 1997). People should not open a business in a field where experience was not obtained (Howell 1997). Lee, Renig, and Shanklin (2007) found, based on an independent survey of food and beverage directors and administrators of assisted living facilities, of thirty-four attributes required to be an effective manager the top ten were as follows: One should act as an effective team leader and team member. One should manage all aspects of the operation (House & Mitchell, 2014). Ensure the operation follows state and federal regulations. Demonstrate effective time management practices. A manager should possess the ability to coach team members.

Managers need the ability to communicate verbally and in writing, effectively manage projects and be involved in self 166

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professional development. Furthermore, Kerrii Anderson Executive Vice President of Wendy’s International said the restaurant business is the toughest to operate successfully, in order to do so; the restaurant must be operated by finding new ways to cut costs while developing new products and approaches (Heffes, 2004). Supervisors are involved in relationships with a numerous of dynamics (Lovelace, Manz, & Alves, 2007).

Prerequisite to skilled supervisors is having the interpersonal skills necessary to counsel, supervise, and administer (Mathe & Slevitch, 2013). Relationships develop and interactions occur between them and their subordinates, and between supervisors and their superiors (McCleskey, 2014). They should likewise establish a productive climate within which their organization operates (Silverthorne & Wang, 2001). Their values are reflected in the organization and by the subordinates (Vecchio, & Boatwright, 2002). If they value ethical practice, the worth and dignity of each individual, such are the values of the department, agency, or business. If their personal interactions are characterized by trust and respect, those become hallmarks of the interpersonal climate of the staff (Turner, 2002). As with the other leadership skills and practices, supervisors are able to match their own administrative behaviors to the needs of their employees under their care. Thus, this particular undertaking will enable the researchers to become knowledgeable about leadership behavior and practices of a today’s fast food chain supervisors. With the foregoing observations and claims, the researchers are very eager to venture on the leadership practices of fast food chain supervisors in Olongapo City as baseline information for the improvement of fast food chain operation.

The study assessed the supervisory leadership practices of fast food chain supervisors in the City of Olongapo. It aimed to analyze the (1) supervisory leadership of fast food chains managers; (2) rank-in-file- respondents’ assessment on the leadership practices of their supervisors; (3) significant 167

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difference in the assessment of leadership practices of the fast food chain supervisors; and (4) implications of the findings towards improving fast food chain operation.

Methodology

This study utilized the descriptive-survey design of research. Bueno (2016) defined descriptive-survey as a design, which aims to describe the nature of a situation, as it exists at the time of the study and to explore the cause of particular phenomena.

The study involved the total number of ten-day shift supervisors and fifty (50) conveniently selected day shift rankand-file store crews from various fast food chains in Olongapo City for more convenient distribution and retrieval of the questionnaire.

Thus, convenient sampling technique was only done in the selection of rank-and-file employees. A survey-questionnairechecklist was used. The instrument was subjected to expert validity. It was tried to some fast food chain store supervisors and crews at the Subic Bay Freeport Zones, and graduate and undergraduate school professors of business and hospitality management courses, and store operators. The draft of the validated questionnaire was tested for reliability using TestRetest Method. A coefficient values of .89 was obtained using Pearson Product Moment Correlation. Thus, the instrument was reliable and consistent. A permit was secured from the office of the fast food chain managers and operators. A separate letter was provided to the participants to personally explain the purpose of the study, and to give assurance of anonymity and confidentiality of any information and data gathered. The data gathered were analyzed using descriptive statistics and t-Test for independent samples at .05 level of confidence.

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Results and Discussion Assessment of Supervisors on their Supervisory Leadership. The supervisors are very optimistic in answering that they are always setting personal example of what they expect from others. Moreover, they also talk about future trends that will influence how their work as supervisor gets done which will encourage cooperative relationships among the people they work within the organization. They believe and practice praising people for a job well done. Likewise, they are trying to challenge themselves to try new and innovative ways to their work and follow through on promises and commitment they make in the operation of the store and in dealing with their subordinates. In addition to these practices, they always treat others with dignity and respect, making sure that people is creatively rewarded for their contributions to the success of the projects, and publicly recognizes people who exemplify commitment to shared values, as well as finds ways to celebrate accomplishments in the success of the operation. This means that they are clear about their philosophies of leadership. They speak with genuine conviction about the higher meaning and purpose of our work, and ensure that people grow in their jobs by learning new skills and developing themselves. In addition to aforementioned practices, the supervisor-respondents themselves usually seek out challenging opportunities that test their own skills and abilities, spend time and energy making certain that the people they work with adhere to the principles and standards that they have agreed on, and actively listen to diverse points of view. Good thing to note also that, they usually make it a point to let people know about their confidence in their abilities but they are also open for feedback on how their actions affect other people’s performance, and in return they usually practice supporting the decisions that people make on their own. These are vital in building consensus around a common set of values for running the organization. The 169

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overall mean of their assessment as to their leadership practices is 4.16, which means that they usually practice the aforementioned concepts of leadership for the attainment of the goals of the organization based on the “Path-Goal Theory of Leadership”. A key finding is that leaders educate their subordinates in which knowledge growth and role development are constructed. Educational leadership research is consistent with this finding in that leaders create growth through clear, explicit and ambitious goals that foster a collective professional learning community (DuFour, 2004; Leithwood, 1992). Effective leaders educate their subordinates through analyzing their surroundings to improve and challenge their subordinates’ level of achievement. The finding of educational leadership relates to situational leadership because the manager is using both a high task/low relationship and high relationship/low task style. The manager is using high task/low relationship when stating company policy as well as high task/high relationship to involve the employee to support company policy and to provide opportunities for the employee to mature in their role. By the manager stating what policies the employee should follow, illustrated the high task/low relationship style because the manager is stating tasks of how to address and treat the customer, and high task/high relationship because the manager is attempting two-way communication and trying to sell these policy decisions to the employee. The next narrative entails high relationship/ low task because the manager is sharing the opportunity decision with followers by using the word “we” numerous times; and by using opportunity instead of mistake, may build maturity in the manager’s followers.

Assessment of the Rank-and-File- on the Leadership of Store Supervisors. The assessment of the rank-and-filerespondents validate the assessment made by the supervisors themselves. It is surprising to note that according to the rank-infile-respondents, the supervisors always develop cooperative 170

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relationships among the people they work with. In doing this, they praise people for a job well done and treat others with dignity and respect. Another good practice by the supervisors is asking for feedback on how their actions affect other people’s performance, and "What can we learn?" when things do not go as expected. Thus, there is a support from them when their subordinates are making decision on their own. The same observations are given by the rank-in-file-respondents in saying that their supervisors are publicly recognizing people who exemplify commitment to shared values. They are doing these by finding ways to celebrate accomplishments. Moreover, according to the subordinates, their supervisors speak with genuine conviction about the higher meaning and purpose of our work.

Thus, this shows that the supervisors are clear about their philosophies of leadership. Majority of the concepts of good leadership are usually practiced by these supervisors as exposed by the rank-in-file-respondents. But there also concepts which are sometimes practice only by the supervisors as mentioned like letting people know about their confidence in their abilities, and following through on promises and commitments they make.

Listening actively to diverse points of view is seldom practice by the supervisor. Thus, the overall mean for the assessment of the rank-in-file-respondents on the leadership practices of the supervisors is 3.91, which means that the store supervisors are usually practicing these good concepts of leadership for the attainment of the organizational goals.

Difference of the Assessed Supervisory Leadership of Store Supervisors. The difference as to the assessment of the two groups of respondents on the leadership practices of the fast food chains supervisors in the City of Olongapo is analyzed. It is noted that the overall means of the assessment are 4.16 and 3.91 for the supervisor assessment and rank-in-file assessment respectively. Based on the computed t-value of 2.32 with the degree of freedom of 58, the critical value is 2.00. These values 171

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lead to the rejection of the null hypothesis. Thus, there is a significant difference in the assessment of the two groups of respondents on the leadership practices of the fast food chain supervisors in the City of Olongapo. This can be traced due to higher overall mean assessment of the first group of respondents.

Managers in the quick-service restaurant context utilized teamwork to control stress. Consistent to this finding, teamwork research conveyed that leaders who reciprocate shared values, helpfulness, responsibility, and a positive attitude, essentially contribute and develop a cooperative and synergistic teamwork environment (Crichton, 2005; Griffin, Patterson, & West, 2001; Jones & George, 1998). Leaders that communicate teamwork through high involvement, and create a common goal have been found to motivate a job satisfaction increase from subordinates in which teamwork is highly reliable (Baker, Day, & Salas, 2006; Griffin, Patterson, & West, 2001; Jones & George, 1998).

Consistent with these findings, the theme of Teamwork illustrated primarily high relationship/high task and high relationship/low task styles. First, with high relationship/high task, the manager trained their employees on how to transition from using a screen to fill orders, using two-way communication to promote teamwork and sell the follower on communicating with the manager to control the situation of stress. Secondly, the high relationship/low task style was communicated by the manager because by the manager participating in the stressful situation and handling it, the employee should be handling the stress too.

In other words, the manager is setting an example of high relationship by being right alongside the employee, not just telling the employee a task and then not being involved. Future research should seek to understand how these situational leadership styles influenced the follower to mature in their role and how effective the leader was in using these styles.

Implications to Fast Food Chain Operation. Successful leaders know that building team spirit is key to business growth like the 172

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fast food chains in Olongapo City. There truly is power in numbers, and the whole is indeed greater than the sum of the parts. Thus, the findings of the study offer excellent fast food chain operation tips on how to effectively build teams around various leadership practices of the supervisors. Fast food chain owners know that running a company is not a oneman show. It takes a team of committed and capable employees to get the job done. But good teams do not just happen. They are the results of an intentional effort and practices on the part of the company’s supervisors and owners to create a work environment in which every person feels like his/her contribution is a vital and valued part of the organization’s success. Establish clearly defined roles.

Successful teams share a common characteristic – every person knows the role they are expected to play as well as the roles of the other team members. As the business supervisor, it is his/her job to make sure that every employee clearly understands the role he/she plays in the organization. They can accomplish this by ensuring that every employee has received an accurate job description that is reviewed annually, perhaps during the employee’s annual review. Tools such as organizational charts and staff meetings provide a way for employees to see how they fit into the big picture and to discuss role-related conflicts.

Maintain open channels of communication. Communication is the building block of an effective business team. With that in mind, it is critically important for you to create and maintain open channels of communication with your employees. This means not only maintaining a clear channel of communication between supervisor and the rank-in-file employees, but also helping the employees maintain clear channels of communication with each other. There is no substitute for constantly reminding the employees that the supervisor door is always open and that he/she is always willing to listen to their concerns. Develop a way to resolve conflicts. Inevitably, the team will experience conflicts. Ignoring those conflicts will only cause them to grow 173

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until they become a major problem. So instead of ignoring them, develop conflictresolution skills with the employees and create a mechanism for them to address grievances if they cannot resolve their conflicts on their own. Model a positive attitude. Teams tend to adopt the attitude and practices of their leader. If the leader is positive and upbeat, then team members will tend to be positive and upbeat as well. But if the leader demonstrates a negative or critical attitude, the team will suffer because of the attitude of the team members. By modeling a positive attitude and practices for the employees, the supervisors are setting the standard and creating an expectation of the qualities he/she wants to see reflected in his/her team. Celebrate achievements as a team. Since every employee plays an important part in the success or failure of store operation, it only makes sense to celebrate achievements as a team. Depending on the size of the achievement, celebration can be a simple one. The important thing is that every team member has the opportunity to celebrate a job well done.

Conclusions and Recommendations

Majority of the supervisor-respondents are female, single, and college graduates. The mean age of the group is 28, and have been in the service as supervisor for six years now. The overall mean of the supervisors’ assessment as to their leadership practices is 4.16. This means that they usually practice the concepts of leadership for the attainment of the goals of the organization based on the “Path-Goal Theory of Leadership�. The mean assessment of the rank-in-filerespondents on the leadership practices of the supervisors is 3.91, which means that the store supervisors are usually practicing these good concepts of leadership for the attainment of the organizational goals. There is a significant difference in the assessment of the two groups of respondents on the leadership practices of the fast food chain supervisors in the City of Olongapo. Successful leaders know that 174

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building team spirit is key to business growth like the fast food chains in Olongapo City. Their truly is power in numbers, and the whole is indeed greater than the sum of the parts. Thus, the findings of the study offers excellent fast food chain operation tips on how to effectively build teams around various leadership practices of the supervisors. The supervisors of the various fast food chains should pursue upgrading themselves by attending graduate studies and supervisory leadership trainings. The supervisors should further enhance their leadership practices guided by the “Path-Goal Theory” of leadership for effective fast food chain operation. The rank-in-file should view supervisory leadership practices as avenue for them to become effective store supervisors when promoted. Open communication and continues feed backing techniques should be properly practiced within the organization

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Men’s Knowledge, Attitudes and Participation in Family Planning: An Urban Community Survey Jefferson M. Sadera, MPM Wilma D. Billman, MPA, Ph.D. David Cababaro Bueno, MPM, Ed.D

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------Abstract-The aim of the study was to investigate the knowledge, attitudes, practices and involvement of men in family planning (FP) in the selected communities in Olongapo City. The researchers used the surveyquestionnaire, focus group interview and observation, and the analysis of data utilized descriptive Statistics. The first ten communities were surveyed under purposive sampling. The knowledge about FP is relatively high among men, which provide them the opportunity to plan the number of children, as well as proper spacing of childbirth. They are familiar with FP methods like pills, condoms, injectables; vasectomy, tubal ligation and abstinence. Other methods like intrauterine device, norplant, spermicidal, and prolonged breastfeeding were also identified. Thus, they use safer FP methods such as pills and condoms in the future. Fewer numbers of children and proper spacing of childbirth were due to lack of money for rearing many children, mother’s and child’s health. They are using contraceptives such as condoms, pills, and injectables. Possible reasons for stopping them from using such are fear of side effects, and desire to have more children, and religious belief and source of contraceptive. The decision on the use of FP methods is done jointly by the husband and wife through spousal discussion. A condom still ranked number 1 among users.

They have heard of information about FP through various media and health professionals. Community health centers and hospitals, pharmacy, and friends are their sources of contraceptives. Moreover, the majority has gone to health care institutions for advice with no gender biases.

Keywords: Urban communities, gender studies, male participation, family planning, mixed method, Olongapo City

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Introduction

It is widely acknowledged that the Philippine family planning (FP) program has focused almost exclusively on women and may have missed opportunities to effectively involve men to address these challenges. Research findings from the Philippines show that men are influential gatekeepers for FP acceptance in the household and are an important client group for FP program efforts (Perez, 2000). Due in part to the lack of progress in the Philippine FP program, USAID programs have intensified efforts to include men in FP advocacy and services (Management Sciences for Health, 2003). For more than a decade, there have been increased efforts to include men in FP programs. This is the result of many factors, including the 1994 International Conference on Population and Development (ICPD) Plan of Action, the global HIV/AIDS pandemic, and high quality quantitative data on men from the Demographic and Health Surveys (Ezeh, Seroussi, & Raggers, 1996). There is evidence that working with men in FP and related reproductive health (RH) areas can result in improved health outcomes (Becker, 1996).

USAID’s Interagency Gender Working Group (IGWG) has developed resources that document health program justifications for including men in FP as well as compelling program. Studies show that involving men can have significant benefits to FP programs of contraceptive acceptance, continuation, client satisfaction and efficacy (Wang, 1998). Given these encouraging findings, the Philippine FP program may benefit from the implementation of practical and culturally rooted strategies to involve men in FP. Three important issues should be considered in including men in FP (Clark, Brunborg, Rye, Svanemyr, & Austveg, 1999). First, men’s participation in FP should be constructive; that is, it should always protect women’s interests and not reinforce the traditions of male dominance. Second, 179

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involving men may require added expense and may mean competition for scarce resources. Programs include men in FP need to add rather than subtract resources from existing programs for women (AVSC, 1998). Third, efforts to involve men must be cost-efficient in terms of better outcomes in order to justify additional funds.

Building on previous male involvement approaches (Cohen & Burger, 2000), this framework views man as equal partners of women but acknowledges that gender inequities influence fertility behavior. (Badiane, 2005). The framework emphasizes a partnership between men and women in decision making, and encourages human rights for both men and women. It also proposes an educational approach to sensitize men about male and female gender roles and their consequences (Badiane, 2005).

Approaches to FP activities to involve men can be allocated into three categories: gender exploitative, gender accommodating, and gender transformative. Efforts to involve men should avoid the first two and attempts to use a gender transformative approach.

Work with the Population Council Horizons program has shown that programs that help young men reflect on their gender identity and change gender norms can improve knowledge, attitudes and behaviors related to FP and sexually transmitted infections (STIs) (Pulerwitz, Barker, & Segundo, 2004). For a long time, international FP and reproductive health programs focused exclusively on women (Greene, 1998). As a consequence, population policies were implemented almost exclusively through basic FP programs serving women. If men were involved, it was in a limited way, often to ensure contraceptive continuation and acceptability or to promote the diagnosis and treatment of sexually transmitted infections (Mbizvo et al. 1996). Although, both men and women, have responsibilities and interest in reproductive health and FP, demographic studies on fertility and FP have overwhelmingly focused on women. (Greene and Biddlecom 2000). In practice, the effect that men have on their 180

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own and on women’s reproductive lives may be more varied. To exclude men from information, counseling, and services is to ignore the important role men’s behavior and attitudes may play in the couples’ reproductive health choices (Bloom, 2000). For example, in some countries, societal norms, religious practices, and even legal requirements provide men greater influence over decisions that affect their family’s reproductive health. Perhaps most importantly, around the world, many women and their partners would like to participate more fully in reproductive health counseling and services (Ringheim, 2002). In response to these factors, programs are increasingly seeking ways to develop strategies that allow men’s constructive involvement in FP and other reproductive health services. Studying male involvement, therefore, is important to understand the multiplicity of forces shaping reproductive decisions among women and men (Clark, 2008). Men are more interested in FP than often assumed, but need communication and services directed specifically at them.

Most studies report that men have responded positively to being involved in interventions and that they do in fact care about the welfare of their families (Singhand Arora, 2008). Critics of male involvement have argued that persuading men to view sexual and reproductive health as important and not just women’s responsibility will be very difficult (Narayan, 2000). Some fear that resources earmarked for projects targeting women will be reallocated into projects that target men, and that the issue of addressing men will possibly reduce female reproductive autonomy as an unintended consequence (Berer, 1996). It is also pointed out that couples who talk to each other about family planning and reproductive health can reach better, healthier decisions (Drennan, 1998). Also, involving men in reproductive health is crucial to promote gender equality in all spheres of life and encourage and enable men to take responsibility for their sexual and reproductive behavior and their social and family roles (Bernstein and Hansen, 2006). Successful male involvement is 181

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critically dependent on addressing the social and cultural norms that impede health. It is very difficult for men to access accurate, timely and good quality reproductive and sexual health information and services (Pande, 2006). More recently, however, male involvement in reproductive health has become a popular area among reproductive health program designers, policy makers, and population researchers. Still, the meaning of “male involvement” has divergent interpretations. In the patriarchal culture predominantly prevalent in most of India, husbands have the authority to make legitimate decisions on behalf of their wives, and reviews have suggested that they are also involved in making decisions about their wives’ reproductive health, including contraceptive usage, visit to the health facility and family composition and size (Edmeades, 2011). The program to involve men in reproductive health uses many terms, including men’s participation, men’s responsibility, male motivation, male involvement, men as partners, and men and reproductive health (Finger, 1998). However, there is no consensus about which term best describes this perspective on men (Greene, 2006). It expounds what male involvement entails at the community level, and how it has been interpreted in program and research efforts, specifically focusing on access to family planning information, services and practices in the selected urban communities in a city.

The main aim of the study was to investigate the knowledge, attitudes, practices and involvement of men in FP in the selected communities. Specifically, the study aims to: (1) analyze the knowledge and attitudes towards FP; (2) explain the FP practices; (3) assess the involvement of the husband in FP; and (4) analyze the effects of socio-cultural factors in FP utilization.

Methodology

This study used both quantitative and qualitative methods to offer different, but complimentary data about the involvement of men in the FP. Using mixed methods, this study is designed as a 182

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“concurrent triangulation design. Qualitative and quantitative data were collected at the same time, but separately. The data analysis was also conducted at the same time. Surveys were conducted as the preferred method of quantitative data collection while interviews and focus groups were made to collect qualitative data. The rationale for using mixed methods is to make inferences about the population based upon the sample taken from the selected communities (Creswell, 2003). The researchers considered the four hundred (400) randomly select group of men from various communities to answer the instruments regardless of the actual number of couples in the selected community. Forty (40) participants were taken from each community. This is to gather both quantitative and qualitative data through the surveyinstruments, interview and focus group discussions. The research questions were answered by using the researcher- made surveyquestionnaire. Interviews were conducted with conveniently selected men in order to add a greater depth of understanding than surveys alone. According to Yin (2003), “one of the most important sources of case study information is the interview.� The researchers developed interview questions to provide in depth responses. All questions were open ended in nature. One-on-one in-person interviews were conducted by the researcher.

Interview questions elicited more in-depth responses than the survey questions. Focus groups were conducted at the community health center. The goal of a focus group was to collect data that are of interest to the researchertypically to find the range of opinions of people across several groups. The focus group presents a more natural environment than that of an individual interview, because participants are influencing and influenced by others just as they are in life. The researchers served several functions in the focus group: moderator, listener, observer, and analyst using an inductive process. The researchers sought permission from the city health administrator through the community health center officers. The participants were assure of 183

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their anonymity, and confidentiality of the information. All quantitative data gathered were tabulated, analyzed and interpreted using descriptive statistical tools.

Results and Discussion

Knowledge and Attitudes towards FP. It is observed that knowledge about FP was relatively high among participants, with a proportion of 98% having ever heard of FP, this can partly be attributed to the aggressive FP campaigns on Radio/ TV and barangays health centers being organized in the city by health professionals and other development partners. Two percent, however, had never heard of any FP methods. To find out the depth of knowledge, 57% said, FP gives couples the opportunity to plan the number of their children (limiting family size), 25% said FP is a strategy designed to avoid unwanted pregnancy, 38% responded that, FP is a way spacing childbirth. From the data, 96% of respondents interviewed said they had ever heard of methods to delay or avoid pregnancy, and 4% responded they never heard any FP method before. Findings reveal that a large proportion (98%) had accurate knowledge about FP by indicating that FP gives couples the opportunity to plan the number and spacing of their children. It is observed, 91% have heard the pills; 71% have heard about the used either the male or the female condoms; 47% had ever heard of injectables; 34% said they have heard vasectomy; 21% heard about tubal ligation; 13% have heard about abstinence. Other FP methods like intrauterine device, norplant, spermicidal, and prolonged breastfeeding were also heard by the participants.

The overwhelming proportions that have ever heard of pills and condoms indicated its easy accessibility and relatively moderate price as some of their reasons for use of the method.

When participants were asked to find out the importance of FP, the following responses were given: 99% said “Yes” and only 1% said “No”. Eighty-five percent (85%) said: they want to use FP 184

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methods in the future; 6% answered “No”; and 9% are “unsure”.

Moreover, it is observed, 60% said that the safest method to use is pills and condoms (52%). Other FP methods considered to be safe are injectable, tubal ligation, abstinence and prolonged breastfeeding. To find out the depth of knowledge relative to the purpose of child spacing or fewer number of children, 56% said, lack of money may not allow rearing many children, 55% said for the mother’s health, 35% responded that, for the health of the children, yet, 2% said “I don’t know”. Thus, FP is a deliberate effort by couples to regulate the number of children and spacing of births. It aims at improving family life at the micro level and contributing to sustainable development at the macro level. This is through fertility decline among other mechanisms. However, variables such as education, religion, socio-economic as well as cultural factors affect the effectiveness of FP programs. One factor that deserves attention is the active involvement of males in FP. Male involvement in FP means more than increasing the number of men using condoms and having vasectomies; male involvement also includes the number of men who encourage and support their partners in contraception and peers to use family planning and who influence the policy environment to be more conducive to developing male related programs. In this context male involvement should be understood in a much broader sense than male contraception, and should refer to all organizational activities aimed at men as a discrete group, which has the effect of increasing theacceptability and prevalence of FP practice of either sex (Toure 1996).

Based on the interviews with both health workers and regular people, the second common method of contraception seemed to be the birth control pill, which has been in use in this area for a while. Although some participants had sufficient knowledge of how to use the pill, a majority of the participants lacked knowledge on this topic or had misunderstood important issues. For example, one participant from a focus group said that 185

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pills should be taken twice every day instead of once a day. When asked about the duration of one birth control pill’s ability to prevent pregnancy, respondents had different opinions: one pill could prevent pregnancy for three months, six months, eight months, one year, or even three years. Overall, female participants tended to know more about this contraceptive than the male participants, and male participants were more often misinformed. For example, one male participant from one of the focus groups claimed there existed a birth control pill which had the same effect but was used by men. Other male participants believed that birth control pills had the effect of killing the fetus in the third month of pregnancy. Moreover, several male participants in the focus groups reported that they told women that the pills they swallowed did not dissolve in the body and it had bad effects on them and their fetus. Many shared ideas and stories related to how birth control pills accumulated in the body, as described by a male participant: “The pills accumulated in her stomach. Then she got pregnant. She suffered from a pregnancy complication. She couldn’t deliver the baby (in a normal way).

Then the family took her to a hospital. The pills she took were not dissolved. They were like stones. The pill didn’t work, so she got pregnant. Then a doctor took out both the pills and the baby from her body by surgery. She had 4 children safely before she started to take pills. Then she started to take the pill and that made her unable to have the fifth baby safely. It may have happened due to other causes, but a pill is generally harmful. ”Many seemed to believe that the pill actually remained in the body, and this caused problems during delivery. The beliefs that the pill could be stored in the body made people fear it, also due to the risk of infertility.

Therefore, many participants preferred to use other contraceptive methods than the pill. The health workers, on the other hand, believed: that low usage of birth control pills was due to the fact that women had to come to get a new supply of birth control pills each month at the health post or other medical 186

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facility, which was inconvenient for most women. The health extension workers did not seem to be aware or understand patients’ attitudes and fears related to this particular contraceptive method. Majority of the participants talked about the experiences of contraceptive use and the side effects in a general way, expressing the public or community opinion. Most of the participants said that the attitude towards contraceptive use in the community had changed. Although contraceptives were unpopular when they first arrived, most participants said that the people in the community gradually had accepted the use of contraceptives. They also claimed that their “culture” in general did not prohibit contraceptive use. However, some female participants reported that they were still met with some opposition to contraceptive use, and claimed that women in general did not talk about their own contraceptive use, but took it secretly. A few of the wives of participants said that sometimes their husband’s family and relatives insulted them for using contraceptives. However, the majority of participants said the attitude towards women who use contraceptives had been improving, because many seem to have recognized the importance of family planning from an economic point of view. A male participant from one of the focus groups explains his view: “In the previous period, people begged God to give them many children. But now, it becomes difficult to live a life with many children because of shortage of farmland and children’s education. For example, I have five children and my friend has one child. I buy five pairs of shoes for my children, but he buys one. So that’s why people are motivated to use contraceptives.”

The participants observed positive changes due to FP and recognized the benefit of FP in the household economy. The participant also suggested that the community members had learned and inspired each other due to the visible and practical effects of family planning. Additionally, some participants mentioned that contraceptives often were used by “educated” 187

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people who “understood� the advantage of FP. The fact that those who possessed more knowledge than others used contraceptives seemed to have a positive influence on people’s perceptions of contraceptives. In general, the findings indicate that negative attitudes towards contraceptives and those who use contraceptives have been decreasing, and that there is a movement in the direction of contraceptives being accepted as a method for FP. Family Planning Practices. As gathered, 74% of the interviewed participants have used contraceptives. The reasons given were not different from that given by those who do not approve of FP. It is observed, the majority of them (52%) has ever used the condom; 50% have used pills; 25% had ever gone for injectables. Other contraceptive methods like, iud, withdrawal method, tubal ligation, vasectomy, and prolonged breastfeeding were also used by a few. Again, the overwhelming proportions that have ever used condom and pills indicated its easy accessibility and relatively moderate price as some of their reasons for use of the method. Currently, 57% of the respondents are using FP methods. The most common methods used by them are pills (43%) and condom (32%). Some reasons for currently stopping from using contraceptives are fear of side effects (51%); desire tohave more children (15%); and the partner does not want it (7%). Other reasons given were the preferred method is not available, religion, source of contraceptive is fair and some do not know any reason. Historically, the traditional method of withdrawal has been used as a contraceptive method since biblical times (PAI, 1991), and use of condom dated back 400 years ago (Ross and Frankenberg, 1993). Despite the pioneering role played by the age-old male methods in the evolution of FP, the present contribution of male methods to the total contraceptive prevalence rate is strikingly low. Worldwide, onethird of the eligible couples using FP rely on methods, which require full male cooperation. In the developing countries, about one-fourth of the contraceptors relied on male methods 188

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(Population Report 1986). In the past decade, low use of male methods was likely to remain static in most of the developing countries. Involvement of Men in the FP. The majority (58%) of them convinced others to use FP methods; while 42% have never convinced others. Moreover, the majority (75%) of them has ever convinced their partner to use FP methods. It means that 75% of the respondents have never opposed their partner by using FP. Thus, accordingly, the decision on the utilization of FP methods is done jointly by the husband and wife (80%). There is discussion (81%) about FP with partner; the same with the discussion as to the number of children (76%) for at least twice a month. Ninety percent (90%) of the participants are aware that there are contraceptives for men. The majority (87%) of them mentioned condom; followed by vasectomy (46%); abstinence (15%) and withdrawal (5%). They even know where FP is given (81%). A question was asked those who had never attended FM clinics to find out the reasons why they do not attend the clinics. The following were their responses: they do not attend family planning clinics because there is no confidentiality at the clinics, some said they heard stories that, the nurses sometimes mishandle them anytime they visited the facility, and others do not visit the clinics because they claimed the clinics were far away from their residence. A majority of them do not attend family planning clinics because, they claimed too much time are spent at the facility. According to them, male involvement is necessary because men are the breadwinners of many homes; there is the need for their involvement so as to support their partners financially in terms of giving women money to go for FP methods or counseling services. Again, through discussing FP issues with their partners, women would be in the position to choose the best method to suit them, hence, women who until now would have hidden to practice FP, would instead feel comfortable to consult their husbands in matters relating to FP methods hence, leading to its effective and appropriate use. Others also think that 189

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involving men in FP would help improve FP coverage, since men are the decision makers in most families.

This influence could be used to impress upon their partners to adopt FP methods. Yet others do not agree to men’s involvement in FP issues, they contended that, it is a woman’s business. Also, just like the above, the majority of the participants in this group, asserted that, giving the man’s role in our traditional homes as the head of the family and the fact that, he is the decision- maker in the family, it would not be out of place to involve them in matters bordering FP issues. The husband’s support is found to be a good predictor of future practice and continued use. There are studies done in the Philippines, which indicate that the continuation rate among women whose husbands support their contraceptive practice is much higher than those whose husbands do not give support to their wives (IPPF, 1984). Moreover, according to some health workers and interviewees, most reproductive health and FP service delivery systems are almost entirely women oriented and provide little or no information about male contraceptive methods. Health workers are sometimes poorly trained in counseling men about safer sexual practices and male methods and may communicate negative rumors about them. Many FP programs have now recognized that involving men and obtaining their support and commitments in family planning programs are of crucial importance because most decisions affecting family and political life are made by men. Men hold positions of leadership and influence of the family unit right through national level. Men’s involvement in family planning matters would accelerate the understanding and practice of family planning in general. Sociocultural Factors Affecting FP. One hundred percent of the participants have radio/ TV at home; and 97% ever heard of information about FP through various media such as radio/TV (78%); health professionals (47%); newspapers (37%); and internet (8%). When they were asked where they think they can 190

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get contraceptives, the majority (77%) said, from health institutions (barangays health centers and hospitals); 49% said, from the pharmacy. Others mentioned shop and friends.

Moreover, the majority (56%) mentioned that they have gone to health care institutions for advice or service for FP and the service providers were friendly (51%). A question was asked those who had never gone to health care institutions for FP to find out the reasons why they do not attend the clinics. The following were their responses; 27% said they did not attend health centers because they lack knowledge about FP; 12% said they lack knowledge about the existence of the service; and 10% do not visit the clinics because they claimed they expect that the health workers may not be friendly; and the place is very far.

Furthermore, the participants mentioned that they have no gender preference as a service provider (68%). Some supporters of the use of contraceptives were also reported by them. Some were partner (83%); and society (62%). But they don’t knowwhether their religion (44%) is against the use of contraceptives. Most reproductive health and FP service delivery systems are almost entirely oriented to women and provide little or no information about male contraceptive methods. Health workers are sometimes poorly trained in counseling men about safer sexual practices and male methods and may communicate negative rumors about them (Green et, al. 1995). According to Blau, people might not adopt a behavior if they fear that they are not following social values and norms, and that there will be social sanctions, such as a reproach from family members and community members (Blau, 2010).

Therefore, it suggests that what seems to be a positive change in the community in general, is one of the factors which encourage people to use contraceptives. There are some significant differences in reasons for nonuse between married women and men. More men than women mention that they oppose FP. Men are also less likely to cite the reason such as 191

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infrequent sex / having no sex than women. Religious prohibition, as the reason of non-use, varies little between men and women.

Another reason is that most men want more children because of the socio-economic reasons attached to having more children; hence the use of contraceptive is seen as a hindrance.

Furthermore, lack of desired communication between spouses about FP may also be a serious barrier to contraceptive use. Few men said: they had not discussed with their wives about FP. Of the remaining, while others had discussed it twice or less. Interspousal communication about FP was less frequent among men.

Thus, spousal communication indicated an encouraging proportion of men who talks to their wives about FP and any other issue relating to reproductive health.

Conclusions and Recommendations

The knowledge about family planning was relatively high, which gave them the opportunity to plan the number of their children (limiting family size) as well as proper spacing of childbirth. Men were familiar with FPmethods like pills, condoms, injectables; vasectomy, tubal ligation and abstinence. Other methods like intrauterine device, norplant, spermicidal, and prolonged breastfeeding were also known to them. Thus, the majority wanted to use safer FP methods such as pills and condoms in the future. Fewer numbers of children and proper spacing of childbirth were due to lack of money for rearing many children, mother’s and child’s health. They have been using contraceptives such as condoms, pills, and injectables. Some possible reasons for stopping them from using such were fear of side effects, and desire to have more children, and for some were a religion and source of contraceptive. The decision on the utilization of FP methods was done jointly by the husband and wife through spousal discussion. Condom still ranked number 1 among male users. They have radio/ tv at home; and ever heard of information about FP through various media and health 192

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professionals. Health institutions (Barangay Health Centers and Hospitals), pharmacy, and friends were their sources of contraceptives. Moreover, the majority has gone to health care institutions for advice or service and the service providers were friendly regardless of gender. Some supporters of the use of contraceptives such as partner and society were reported, but they do not know whether their religion is against the use of contraceptives. The level of male involvement in FP programs has been good among communities in the urban communities. The male support to FP practice was encouraging. Thus, an educational module was developed in support to the FP advocacy.

A more intensified advocacy and program should be conducted to further educate men on the use, advantages and disadvantages of various FP methods. Natural FP methods such as abstinence and prolonged breastfeeding should be inculcated in the minds of husbands. Spousal communication, open discussion and decisionmaking relative to the use of FP methods. A clinic and facilities for men should be established so that they could feel comfortable and visit the clinic to access FP services. The community health management team should provide resources and motivate public health nurses, midwives, community health officers and health volunteers to effectively participate and cooperate in FP programs for men. The policy makers should use the mass media in creating awareness and motivation for FP. Community drama programs should emphasize on “Responsible Fatherhood�.

References Amatya, R., Akhter, H., McMahan, J. (1994). The Effect of husband counseling on NORPLANT Contraceptive acceptablity in Bangladesh. Contraception AVSC International. (December 1998). Male participation in sexual and reproductive health: New paradigms. Report prepared for the Symposium on October 1014, 1998, Oaxaca, Mexico (Draft).

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Badiane, L. (2005). The Impact of gender, sexuality, and social institutions on sexual behavior and reproductive health among youth in Bohol, Philippines. Unpublished doctoral dissertation.

The University of Connecticut, Medical Anthropology.

Barker, G. (2004). How do we know if men have Changed? Promoting and measuring attitude change with young men: Lessons learned from Program H in Latin America. Gender equality and men: Learning from practice, Oxfam GB, Oxford.

Becker, S. (1996). Couples and reproductive health: A review of couple studies. Studies in FP. Berhane Y., Eyasu M., Legesse Z., Getachew A. (1999). Perception Of Fertility Regulation In A Remote Community, South Ethiopia,Ethiop. J.Health Dev. Clark, S., Flavier, J., Jimenez, P., Lee, R.B., and Solomon, H. (2005).

Assessing the status of male involvement in family planning in the Philippines.. Submitted to the United States Agency for International Development/ Philippines, Manila, March 2005 (http:// philippines.usaid.gov/documents/ophn/ male_involve.pdf).

Cohen, S. I., & Burger, M. (2000). Partnering: A New approach to sexual and reproductive health. New York: United Nations Population Fund.

Daka K. (2086). Socio-cultural factors affecting family Planning Service in Ethiopia, Addis Ababa.

Ezeh A. (1997). The influence of spouses over each other’s contraceptive attitude in Ghana, Studies in Family Planning.

Fisek, N., & Sumbuloglu, K. (1978). The effects of husband and wife education on family planning in rural Turkey. Studies in FP. Gebrekidan M. (2002). the role of men in fertility and family planning programme in Tigray region, Ethiop. J.Health Dev. Greene, M. (2003). A framework for men and reproductive health programs. Oral presentation at the reaching men to improve reproductive health for all conference. Dulles, Virginia.

Interagency Gender Working Group (IGWG). (2002). Men and reproductive health orientation guide. A complete training workshop available on CDROM in English or Spanish; Population Reference (contact: prborders@prb.org) Washington, D.C. Interagency Gender Working Group (IGWG). (2005). Implementation guide on reaching men to improve reproductive and sexual health for all.

Available at the following URL www.jhuccp.org/ igwg/

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Jacobson JL. (1990). The status of Family planning in developing countries. In: Wallace H.M and Giri. K. editors. Health care of women and children in developing countries. Third party publishing company, California.

Jimenez, P., & Lee, R. (2001). Male sexual risk behavior and HIV/AIDS: A survey in three Philippine cities. Manila: De La Salle University.

Kora A., (1997). Community Based Family Planning Services.A Performance Assessments of Jimma Family Planning CBD project. Ethiop. J.Health Dev. Lee, R. B., & Dodson, P. (1998). Filipino men.s involvement in women.s health initiatives: Status, challenges and prospects. Manila: Social Development Research Center.

Luiy. (1994). Male Participation in Family Planning In China; Finding from a Qualititative research (unpublished).

Management Sciences for Health (MSH). (2003). Matching grant program, Department of Health Community-based monitoring and information system. Updates from the field: Best practices Paulina Makinwa-Adebusoye, (2001). Socio-cultural Factors Affecting Fertility In Sub-Saharan Africa. Workshop on Prospects For Fertility Decline In High Fertility Countries, UN/POP/PFD/2001/2/18 Perez, A.E. & Palmore, J. A. (1997). Re-evaluating the unmet need for family planning in the Philippines. Asia-Pacific Population Reports, 10.

Raymundo, C. & Cruz, G. (2004). Youth sex and risk behaviors in the Philippines. Quezon City, Philippines: University of the Philippines, Population Institute.

Save the Children. (2003). Walking the extra mile. Project report to the Davin and Lucile packard foundation. Save the children Philippine Field Office, Manila, Philippines.

Terefe, A., & Larson, C. (1993). Modern contraception use in Ethiopia: Does involving husbands make a difference? American Journal of Public Health.

Toure L. (1996). Male Involvement in Family Planning: a Review of Programmes and Selected Programme Initiatives in Africa.

USAID Mission. (2005). Assessing the status of male involvement in FP in the Philippines. Notes from USAID Presentation. Vasectomy and the Filipino male: A proposed exploratory study that seeks to determine the factors leading to the acceptance or nonacceptance of vasectomy in the Philippines. Manila, Philippines: De La Salle University.

Wang, C. (1998). Reducing pregnancy and induced abortion rates in China: FP with husband participation. American Journal of Public Health.

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Human Asset Management and Job Conditions towards Faculty Retention Dr. David Cababaro Bueno Rev. Fr. Dr. Roland M. Almo

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------Abstract-The study aimed to analyse the Human Asset Management

(HAM) and job conditions among faculty members a private sectarian school towards developing retention framework. The descriptive-case study design was used with the aid of survey-questionnaire and descriptive statistical analysis. All the regular faculty members were considered as participants for the study. Short listing of candidates, wellmanaged interview sessions, use of valid and standardized tests are practiced. Advertisement of vacant posts and qualification requirements are not strictly implemented. The principal regularly evaluates the teachers as basis for training and development. However, there is no wellformulated and effective performance management policy and framework. The teachers are provided with professional training and development opportunities. Allocation of training budget is limited.

Provisions of health insurance, retirement plan, salary and compensation package, educational assistance, in-service trainings are put in place.

They have clear career paths. A well-defined plan for the career and development is limited. Favorable work atmosphere, health, safety, and welfare are provided. The faculty members are satisfied in terms of supervision, relationship with colleagues, working conditions, pay, responsibility, work itself, advancement, security, and recognition. There is positive relationship between HAM and job satisfaction because of the positive value for correlation coefficient value of 0.921 Therefore, when HAM initiatives are high, job satisfaction level is high. HAM initiatives and job condition factors are used to propose a teacher retention framework.

Keywords: Human asset management, faculty retention, private sectarian school, descriptive-case study design, Olongapo City, Philippine

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Introduction Human Resource Management or Human Asset Management (HAM) is defined as a strategic approach to the management of employees which are the people who contributes to the achievement of the objective [1]. Practices and policies engaged in carrying out human resource aspect also referring to HAM. This comprises of job analysis, human resource planning, compensation, performance appraisal, selection, recruitment, training, development and labor relation [2].

Human resource management practices generate high levels of skill and the heart towards the work, motivation will create the value to reveal the productive behavior of the employees.

Moreover, according to Chew (2015), human resource practices are categorized into two mainstreams which are ethnic-oriented values and British-oriented values. In addition, phenomenon of turnover always displays the weak employee organizational linkages. This is because people are probably wanted to gain better monetary rewards and career development opportunities.

However, once people have base level of money which can make them feel comfortable, it is a failure if using monetary rewards to get them to do creative work [3]. Abraham Maslow’s Theory extended the idea to include his observations of humans' innate curiosity surrounding the Hierarchy of Needs concerning the responsibility of employers to provide a workplace environment that encourages and enables employees to fulfill their own unique potential (self-actualization) are today more relevant than ever.

Maslow divided person’s needs into physiological, safety, social, esteem and selfActualization.

Maslow’s theory is formed in a hierarchical way, so that physiological needs appear to be in the bottom of the pyramid and self-actualization on top. He explains that in order for a person to exist, he, first needs to have food, water and shelter. All these things according to Maslow are necessary in order for the 197

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person to be able to move forward and work on their personal traits. Moreover, Maslow explains that these are the most important needs for every person, which provide them with the initial satisfaction [4]. Safety needs come after physiological ones.

These needs are connected to persons home, work, health, family, etc. People need to feel secure about where they are going to sleep, how they are going to earn money and, consequently, support their families. Those are also very strong needs, which affect every person’s satisfaction and behavior. Next need is a need for socializing. Each person needs to belong to a certain group of people in order not to feel alone and unneeded. They need to feel love and affection in order tofeel more confident and successful. Whenever the three previous needs are satisfied, a person moves forward and experiences the necessity for respect by the other people around him, self-esteem, confidence recognition, achievement etc. A person needs to feel they have a purpose in life and is able to set their own goals. The last need is the self-actualization. While all the previous needs were connected with person’s external factors, this last need starts developing in the persons mind. The process of self- actualizing is very complex and tricky since the needs in this category are not easy to understand. A person might not be aware of the problems they are facing at this stage because those needs are deeper and are connected to a person’s inner self. Maslow’s theory can be a powerful tool in the hands of a leader. Despite its complexity, it illustrates the most important factors which influence every person’s behavior. This knowledge is very useful since it can assist a leader in approaching an employee from a correct perspective. The problem can be solved easily if it becomes clear that a person has difficulty with satisfying one of the above mentioned needs.

A safe working environment should be provided. As financial security is also a kind of safety needs, organizations should pay employees fairly and ensure them stable career. Social 198

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needs create an environment of team spirits, generate a feeling of acceptance and belonging by organizing company parties or company culture trainings. For those who are dispatched to other places, either within national boundaries or abroad offer them enough time to reunite with their families. Esteem needs where leaders should recognize employees’ achievement, either by financial means or spiritual means. The awards should not only be financial motivations but also mental motivations like praises.

The organizations should also make promotions based on achievements rather than seniority and provide status to make employees feel valued and appreciated. Self-actualization needs require leaders who can satisfy employees’ selfactualization needs are the most effective leaders. Organizations can offer challenging and meaningful assignments to encourage and explore employees’ creativity and innovation ability to maximum extent. The implications for this are obvious; organization should offer both pre-work training and on-job training [5].

Moreover, Herzberg’s Two Factor Theory states that there are certain factors in the workplace that cause job satisfaction, while a separate set of factors causes dissatisfaction [6]. He argued that there were certain factors that could introduce that would directly motivate employees to work harder (motivators).

However, there are also factors that would de-motivate an employee if not present but would not in themselves actually motivate employees to work harder (hygiene factors). Motivators are more concerned with the actual job itself. Hygiene factors are factors which 'surround the job' rather than the job itself. Also, the school leaders must make sure that employee’s work is stimulating and rewarding environment so that they are motivated to work and perform harder and better. This theory emphasize upon job-enrichment so as to motivate the employees.

The leadership must ensure that the job must utilize the employee’s skills and competencies to the maximum. Focusing on the motivational factors can improve workquality. Employees are 199

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considered the most valuable assets and a major factor to achieve organizational objectives. Organization can achieve success when its employees are committed and hard workers that can only be possible when they are satisfied with their jobs [7]. Job satisfaction is a means to attract and retain qualified employees. It reflects people’s attitudes to their jobs and to the organizations they work for. It includes certain aspects of satisfaction relating to pay, promotion, working conditions, supervision, organizational practices, and relationships with work colleagues [8].

Thus, the quality of leader-employee relationship has a significant relatedness with employees’ job satisfaction and employees feel satisfied and comfortable with leaders who are supportive. Employees feel stress when they have to work with a leader who is unsupportive and whose behavior is negative [9].

Moreover, Armstrong (2014) suggested a classification into extrinsic factors, intrinsic factors, social relationships in work place, individuals’ abilities to do their work, and the quality of supervision [10]. The study of Madlock (2008) revealed a positive relation between supervisors’ communication competence and employee job satisfaction [11]. It includes the employees’ physical and mental health, sense of happiness and social well-being, which are all attributed with the term “job satisfaction” [12].

Satisfaction would improve to a very great extent when employees are provided with an opportunity to make decisions that they can handle and deciding how to go about one task, and the predictors/variables showed a positive and significant relationship with job satisfaction [13]; and there is a significant strong relationship between job enrichment, job enlargement, job rotation and employee job satisfaction [14]. Moreover, well designed jobs can have a positive impact on both employee satisfaction and quality of performance [15]. Thus, the happier people are within their job, the more satisfied they are said to be [16]. A study also established that training should be conducted to employees, in order to equip them with knowledge, skills and 200

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abilities to efficiently perform duties adequately, and the younger employees rooted for training opportunities as a great motivator to performance and also training acts as a retention strategy [17].

Researchers have established that HRM practices of extensive recruitment and selection, training anddevelopment, and compensation systems have positive relationship with satisfaction [18]. Researchers have contended that lack of personal growth in organizations results in career plateau which in tend leads to increased employees intentions to quit. Human Resource professionals thus have a greater responsibility of managing career plateau and hence minimize employee turnover [19].

A growing number of researchers have argued for instituting complementary bundles of HRM practices to enhance the employee satisfaction [20], and there was an indirect effect of HRM related activities on operational and satisfaction of employees, and there is a very strong positive relationship between job security and bonuses on achievement of targets [21].

The relationship between HAM and job satisfaction has been studied in a wide variety of fields and in an equally wide variety of settings, but few of these studies focus on the relationship in the context of private sectarian school, particularly in Olongapo City.

Thus, this study focuses on the relationship of human asset management and job satisfaction of faculty members in a private sectarian school in Olongapo City towards developing a retention framework.

The study determined the relationship of Human Asset Management (HAM) practices and Job Satisfaction (JS) of faculty members in a private sectarian school in Olongapo City.

Specifically, it aims to analyze the HAM initiatives; the job factors associated with teachers’ satisfaction; the relationship between HAM and job factors; and the retention framework that could be proposed.

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Methodology

The researchers used the descriptive-case study design. The design was used to analyze the impact of human resource management initiatives on job factors among faculty members in a private sectarian school [22]. All the faculty members employed during the time of the study were considered to participate in the study. Interval scale carried out by using the Likert-scale (Hair et al., 2011) is divided into five options and each option has a label and corresponding descriptive ratings: (5) 5.004.20= Strongly Agree (SA); (4) 4.19-3.40= Agree (A); (3) 3.39-2.60= Moderately Agree (MA); (2) 2.59-1.80= Disagree (DA); (1) 1.79-1.00= Strongly Disagree (SD). Pilot testing was undertaken and the Cronbach’s alpha was used to test the reliability of the measures of the questionnaire. Cronbach Alpha is used for reliability and test, as a rule of thumb is also used that states that if the Cronbanch values of the items to be included in the study should not be lower than 0.7 [23]. An introductory letter was sought from school administrators and teachers. All the analyses of data were done using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) Version 22.0. Measures of central tendency and inferential statistics were used. Pearson correlation coefficient analysis was used to measure the strength and direction of linear relationship between two variables.

Results and Discussion A. Human Asset Management (HAM) Initiatives. The teachers strongly agree that short listing of candidates is done professionally; interview panels are well-structured and interviewers are well trained and knowledgeable; and interview sessions are professionally managed. There are no interferences by interested parties; valid and standardized tests are used when required in the selection process; selection of candidates after interviews follows the laid down procedures. As a result no 202

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complains arise based on nepotism, favoritism, bribery, and other ills; school hires teachers through an open, free, competitive, and objective process; there is a clear policy on pre-selection process to come up with the short list of qualified candidates; and selection system in our department selects those having the desired knowledge, skills, and attitude. However, they simply agree that advertisement for position follows the established subject vacancies; and the qualification requirements for promotion are strictly implemented. Thus, the overall computed mean is 4.32, which means strongly agree. Moreover, the teachers strongly agree that principal constantly evaluates them in order to identify their weaknesses and potentials then trains them for acquisition of skills and capabilities that enable me to achieve the targets; and the performance data are used for making decisions like job rotation and staff development program. However, the teachers just agree that school has a well formulated and an effective performance management policy and framework for its teachers; realistic goals/ performance targets against time limits expected are usually set together with realistic ways/ means to achieve them; usually, there is rigorous monitoring of performance outcomes against a limited set of criteria; measurement of actual against planned performance of teachers is usually done by use of appropriate performance measures; teachers are provided with constant feedback in the form of praise and rewards or in constructive criticism; the performance appraisal methods used by my employer are suitable and relevant; the appraisal data are used for making decisions like compensation/ ranking system. Thus, the overall mean is 4.12, which means agree. The teachers strongly agree that they are provided with professional training and development opportunities as part of their job; they attend an inservice training programs related to their subjects every academic year; the school is keen in adoption oftraining and development of its workforce; training needs are identified 203

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thought a formal performance appraisal mechanism; the principal supports and facilities their job training and advancement; there is evaluation of the quality of training to ascertain that training needs are met; and there is sharing of acquired knowledge/ skills by coworkers. However, the teachers simply agree that training programs availed are in line with the teachers training needs; and a training budget is put in place. Thus, the overall mean is 4.41.

Furthermore, the teachers strongly agree that employer has provided them with a good health insurance cover and a generous retirement plan benefits; compensation is decided on the basis of competence or ability of the employee; they are offered educational assistance or reimbursement program where they attend conferences, seminars, take development courses or even further their education through the funding of my employer; job performance is an important factor in determining the incentive compensation of employees; salary offered is quiet attractive for my level of education and experience; employees have the opportunity to earn individual bonuses for productivity, performance or other individual performance outcome; the career progression path is clear and they can see themselves rising up the ladder; and salary is received according to the number of hours and days worked on time, and raises based on job performance. However, some teachers are aware that their salary other benefits are lower compared to other schools. Thus, the computed mean is 4.38 (strongly agree). In addition, they strongly agree that individuals in the department have clear career paths; employee’s career aspirations within the unit are known by his/ her immediate superior; employees in our unit have more than one potential position for promotion; individual growth needs are matched in this unit; each employee is aware of his/ her career path in the unit; qualified employee is given opportunity for career growth within the unit, and are directed toward potential position for promotion. However, they simply agree that there are department plans for the career and 204

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development of employees; and unit prefers an internal employee whenever a vacancy exists. The computed mean is 4.34 (strongly agree). The results are very positive where in the teachers strongly agree that the school management provides a favorable atmosphere of work for effective and efficient teaching; there is sufficient assurance as to the health, safety, and welfare of all users of building within the school, and reasonable staff room for teachers to use for work and for social purposes; good standards of hygiene are always maintained; and employer makes condition of work favorable for them; for instance provision of clean water supply, lightning, security, safe means of access among others.

Thus, the overall computed mean is 4.47 (strongly agree).

B. Job Factors.

The teachers strongly agree that supervisor praises good teaching; provides assistance for improving instruction and receiving recognition; explains what is expected of them; treats everyone equitably; is willing to listen to suggestions; offers suggestions to improve their teaching; and makes available the material they need to do their best. However, they simply agree that immediate supervisor gives them assistance when they need help; makes them feel comfortable; fixes any unsettled issues between teachers and unifies them; and they receive meaningful instructions from immediate supervisor.

The overall mean is 4.32 (strongly agree). Moreover, the teachers agree that they like the people with whom they work with; their colleagues stimulate me to do better work; their colleagues provide them with suggestions of feedback about their teaching; and their interests are similar to those of their colleagues. The overall computed mean is 4.13 (agree). According to the teachers, they strongly agree that working conditions are good and comfortable, and could be improved. Physical surroundings are pleasant; the administration clearly defines its policies. However, they simply agree that working conditions in school could not be worse. Thus, the computed mean is 4.44 (strongly agree).

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Furthermore, they agree that income is barely enough to live on; adequate for normal expenses; and compares with similar jobs in other schools. However, the school teachers simply agree that teaching provides me with financial security; are well-paid in proportion to their ability; income is more than they deserve; and sufficient income keeps them from living the way they want to live. The computed mean is 4.28 (strongly agree). They strongly agree that they can get along well with students; try to be aware of the policies of the school; are interested in the policies of my school; have responsibility for their teaching because teaching provides them the opportunity to help their students learn; and they are responsible for their actions. However, they seem not respected by their student as a teacher; and responsible for planning their daily lessons. The computed mean is 4.32 (strongly agree). They strongly agree that teaching encourages me to be creative and innovative in developing new method with the use of a variety of skills; a very interesting work; and very pleasant.

However, they simply agree that they have the freedom to make their own decisions. Moreover, they strongly agree that teaching provides a good opportunity for advancement; an opportunity for promotion, and to advance professionally; and opportunities for advancement. The overall computed mean is 4.47 (strongly agree). The teachers strongly agree that they are confident of keeping their teaching job; teaching provides them for a secured future; and the school provides them for a secured future. Thus, the computed mean value is 4.39 (strongly agree). Thus, they strongly agree that they receive full recognition forsuccessful teaching; a lot of people tell them that they are a good teacher; and receive significant number of recognition. The computed mean is 4.38 (strongly agree).

C. Relationship between HAM and Job Factors. The HRM variables give a 0.921 correlation value with the job satisfaction variables. Therefore, when HRM initiatives are high, job 206

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satisfaction level is high. The relationship between HRM practices and job satisfaction is very high. The relationship between HRM practices and job satisfaction is significant. It is because the pvalue 0.000 is less than alpha value 0.01. Thus, the null hypothesis is rejected, and HAM initiatives contributed quite significantly to the overall teachers’ job satisfaction. Previous studies conducted established that on overall HAM practices account for a considerable employee performance [24]. Thus, a positive relationship between employee outcomes and corporate performance can be attributed to systems of HR policies, practices, programs and processes that attend to performance needs of employees [25]. Therefore, it would be practical to investigate the impact of HR practices as a whole on job satisfaction.

Conclusions and Recommendations Short listing of candidates, well-managed interview sessions with panels, used of valid and standardized tests with defined procedures are practiced. However, advertisement of vacant posts and the qualification requirements for promotion are not strictly implemented. The principal regularly evaluates the teachers to identify their weaknesses and potentials as bases for training and development. However, there is no well-formulated and effective performance management policy and framework for teachers. The teachers are provided with professional training and development opportunities at least every year through raining needs analysis. However, allocation of training budget is limited. Provisions of health insurance, retirement plan, salary, compensation and incentive package, educational assistance, inservice trainings are put in place. However, there is variation in terms of salary and other benefits between and among private schools. The teachers have clear career paths, and qualified employee is given opportunity for career growth and promotion.

However, a well-defined department plans for the career and 207

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development is limited. The school management provides favorable atmosphere of work for effective and efficient teaching by taking into consideration the health, safety, and welfare of all users of school building. The teachers are generally satisfied in terms of supervision, relationship colleagues, working conditions, pay, responsibility, work itself, advancement, security, and recognition. The relationship between HAM initiatives and job conditions is significant. Thus, the null hypothesis is rejected.

Human resources management practices and teacher job satisfaction are used to propose a teacher retentions framework.

The school administration through the HRD should advertise vacant teaching position and qualification requirements for promotion should be strictly implemented. Effective and efficient performance management policies and procedures should be strictly enforced. A regular training needs analysis with sufficient budget should be conducted. A review of existing salary and other benefits among private schools should be regularly conducted through benchmarking. Department plans for the career and development of teachers should be made clear and known to all concerned employees. Provisions of employee safety, health and welfare should be maintained at all times. A more efficient and functional instructional supervision, interrelationships, working condition, and salary administration should be explored.

Opportunity for career advancement, job security, and regular recognition of teacher’s accomplishment should be maintained.

The proposed “Teacher Retention Framework” should be utilized among private schools.

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