Biophilic Design Dissertation

FINAL YEAR POSTGRADUATE DISSERTATION

BIOPHILIC DESIGN: IDENTIFYING OPPORTUNITIES AND CONSTRAINTS TO THE IMPLEMENTATION OF BIOPHILIC DESIGN IN UK URBAN DESIGN PRACTICE: CASE STUDY: SINGAPORE, BIRMINGHAM & PORTLAND, OREGON, USA

A report

Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Masters of Arts in Urban Design Programme

OF

The University of Westminster, London, Faculty of Architecture and the Built

Environment

Department of Planning and Transport

DEENA M-A BENT 14186321

August 2016

Abstract Studies on Biophilic design used in current practice have focused on most aspects of the city except nature. In this dissertation, I will seek to identify how biophilic urbanism is defined, in the context of urban design, identify the opportunities and constraints to implementing biophilic planning and design in the UK context and assess international case studies in order to extrapolate design implications that can be considered in urban design practice. The effects of urbanization on biodiversity have been broadly studied, and one way of managing the complex and evolving nature of cities could possibly be for Urban Designers to influence or guide developers and built environment players through planning and design propositions that are based on the urban ecological knowledge and sustainable principles that underpin biophilic design.

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Acknowledgements

The success of this research would not have been a reality without the collaborative effort of certain set of individuals. Praise must first be given to God who gave me spiritual assurance and strength to accomplish this research. To my family members, and all friends, who have supported and encouraged me through all phases of my life. Special thanks to the supervisors: Dr. Krystallia Kamvasinou, (Internal Supervisor from the University of Westminster, London) Bill Erickson and other faculty members, whom facilitated my ideas, as well as provided helpful guidance toward completing this dissertation.

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Dedication

To: My parents, my sister and close friends; Mrs Dian Bent, Mr Rudolph Bent, and Denninee Bent for being the supportive pillars of my life.

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Table of Contents Abstract............................................................................................................................. - 2 Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................... - 3 Dedication ......................................................................................................................... - 4 Table of Contents.............................................................................................................. - 5 Chapter 1: Introduction .................................................................................................. - 7 Key Terms ..................................................................................................................... - 9 Definition of key terms (see Appendix 1: Glossary) ....................................................... - 9 Research Aim .............................................................................................................. - 10 Research Objectives ................................................................................................... - 10 Initial Hypothesis ......................................................................................................... - 10 Research Limitations ................................................................................................... - 10 Methodology.................................................................................................................. - 11 Literature Review ........................................................................................................ - 11 Case Study Research.................................................................................................. - 11 Design Guidance ......................................................................................................... - 12 Analysis ....................................................................................................................... - 12 Chapter 2: Literature and Policy Review ..................................................................... - 14 Biodiversity: Urban Biodiversity ................................................................................... - 14 Urban Ecology ............................................................................................................. - 15 Biophilia....................................................................................................................... - 16 Critiques of Biophilia .................................................................................................... - 17 Emergence of Biophilic Urbanism ................................................................................ - 17 Biophilic & Restorative Responses .............................................................................. - 20 Biophilic Design ........................................................................................................... - 22 Environmental features................................................................................................ - 25 Natural shapes and forms............................................................................................ - 25 Natural patterns and processes ................................................................................... - 25 Light and space ........................................................................................................... - 26 Place- based relationships........................................................................................... - 26 Evolved human- nature relationships ........................................................................... - 26 Scale ........................................................................................................................... - 27 Biophilic design elements ............................................................................................ - 27 Building ....................................................................................................................... - 27 Block ........................................................................................................................... - 27 Streets ......................................................................................................................... - 27 Neighbourhood ............................................................................................................ - 27 Community /city ........................................................................................................... - 27 Region ......................................................................................................................... - 27 Indicators of a Biophilic City ......................................................................................... - 28 UK Context .................................................................................................................. - 32 UK Policy ..................................................................................................................... - 32 The Localism Act 2011 and the National Planning Policy Framework (NPPF) (2012) .. - 32 Local Plans .................................................................................................................. - 33 Section Conclusion ...................................................................................................... - 33 Chapter 3: Contextual Analysis of case studies ......................................................... - 34 Assessment matrix ...................................................................................................... - 34 Case A: Eastside City Park, Birmingham ................................................................ - 38 Naturalistic .................................................................................................................. - 39 Aesthetic ..................................................................................................................... - 41 Humanistic .................................................................................................................. - 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Case B: Holman Park and Green Street Bike Boulevard (street), Portland, Oregon ....................................................................................................... - 44 Naturalistic .................................................................................................................. - 46 Aesthetic ..................................................................................................................... - 47 Humanistic .................................................................................................................. - 48 Case C: Singapore, Gardens by the Bay ................................................................. - 49 Naturalistic .................................................................................................................. - 50 Aesthetic ..................................................................................................................... - 51 Humanistic .................................................................................................................. - 53 Section Conclusion ................................................................................................... - 55 Chapter 4: Illustrative Outcome/ Design Guidelines: Redesigning Master Plan Framework for Old Oak Common, London ................................................................. - 56 Conclusions ............................................................................................................... - 60 Appendix ...................................................................................................................... - 61 Bibliography .................................................................................................................... - 63 -

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Chapter 1: Introduction According to the Population Reference Bureau’s World Population Data Sheet (2014) 53 percent of the world’s population live in urban areas, and is expected to climb to 70 percent by 2030. This global demographic change has enormous environmental, economic, and social consequences that are yet to be fully understood. Annan (2002) notes that “the future of humanity lies in cities… and that weak cities will almost act as a brake on national development. Strong cities can be a key factor enabling a country to thrive in the global economy” (cited in Wu, 2014, p. 2). If our cities continue to grow, in order to be sustainable, technological innovations and creative design solutions will play a key role in achieving sustainability at the regional and global scale.

Countries such as Singapore, have long recognized the importance of a green environment to our wellbeing, peace of mind, and sense of belonging. Green spaces such as its botanical gardens, neighborhood parks, nature reserves and water systems are integrated in to the fabric of their city, with their aim of making it to be a City in a Garden. The master plan of the Gardens by the Bay, for example, was predicated upon the needs of the plant material for the landscape, and upon the imperative of providing physical comfort to the people who visit and work on its premises. Of course aesthetic, economic, functional and educational considerations were basis for all the decisions that were involved with the master plan, however, a strong focus was on sustainability of the gardens due to their ecological importance, as well as creating a space to enhance the general well-being of visitors and residents.

According to Dr. Timothy Beatley (2011), an Urban Planner, Professor at Virginia University, and author of several books on sustainable cities, has stated that urban greening efforts focus on everything except nature, and emphasize elements such as public transit, renewable energy production, and energy efficiency in buildings. He believes that these efforts are not enough in order to sustain urban living, as highlighted in Wilson and Kellert’s Biophilia Hypothesis, which assumes that human beings have an innate need to connect with the natural world.

Beatley is key to this research as he is the one who started the

biophilic cities programme. Beatley (2011) goes on to say that in order to build a sustainable urban future, it is necessary to “focus on nature, its presence, conservation and celebration of the actual green features and natural life forms. A biophilic city is more than a biodiverse city, says Beatley, it is a place that learns from nature, and imitates natural forms and images in to its buildings and cityscapes. Furthermore, designs and plans generated have to be in conjunction with nature. According to Wu (2014), biodiversity, ecosystem processes, -7-

services, and human wellbeing in an urban landscape, are influenced by the speed and spatiotemporal pattern of urbanization, which is driven by socio-economic processes. Wu (2014, p. 1) further highlights that human wellbeing is the primary focus for urban sustainability projects, whilst urban ecological studies focus on biodiversity, ecological processes, and ecosystem services, and are key components of urban areas. Cities have been the hub for socio-economic development, but also the centre for major environmental problems, dating back to the 18th to 19th century of the industrial revolution. Global sustainability depends on the success of cities being able to be resilient against its diverse environmental pressures, and hence urban ecology needs to play a key role in the transition towards sustainability.

This research will delve in to designs specific to the scale of the street, neighbourhood and city, and see what design lessons can be learnt that relate to urban design practice and place making. The intended audience for this paper are professional Urban Designers, along with other related built environment professionals. This paper will also help to inform organizations, employers, communities, and developers of the benefits of biophilic design and provide guidance on how to consider it within new urban design projects.

The aim is to provide grounds upon which urban designers are introduced to people’s biophilic response to nature, supported by empirical evidence, case studies and theory research. It is hoped that this may lead to a more integrative approach to projects in the future. (Eberhard, 2009). This builds on several initiatives such as the establishment of the International Society for Bio-urbanism in 2010 (Serafini et al., 2010), which is an Italian based non-profit scientific network for high quality research, theory making, education, and practice in urbanism and architecture. It aims to support research, publishing and education by providing a shared area for the exchange and distribution of knowledge about bio urbanism, as a new approach to cities and biophilic design. Additionally, the launching of Professor Timothy Beatley’s Biophilic Cities Project in 2013, which is an umbrella term that refers to research and policy work on biophilic cities, local and internationally at the University of Virginia’s School of Architecture. Its aim is to advance the theory and practice of planning for biophilic cities.

Currently, there has been growing interest in the UK on issues relating to environmentally friendly development, and as such lead to the development of several policies and initiatives such as the DCLG’s (Department for Communities and Local Government) (Garden City prospectus (2014). The latter aims at ensuring that the development of new planned settlements in England enhance the natural environment, tackle climate change, provide -8-

high quality affordable housing, and locally accessible jobs in beautiful healthy and sociable communities. Additionally, the London Plan’s Chapter 5, Policy 5.10 on Urban Greening (2009), endorsed by the Mayor of London at the time, aimed at promoting and supporting urban greening, such as new planting in the public realm (including streets) and multifunctional green infrastructure to contribute to the adaptation to, and reduction of, the effects of climate change. Additionally, it is an aim to increase the amount of surface area greened in the Central Activities Zone by at least five per cent by 2030, and a further five percent by 2050 (GLA, 2009). These are several initiatives by the Government trying to incorporate more nature in to city areas.

These will act as a basis which biophilic design principles applied to the framework of a master plan will build upon. This research covers a topical issue at a time where biophilic design has been incorporated in to Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) rating system (Innovation in Upgrades and Maintenance (IUOM) credit 1.2: Biophilic Connection), which has set a nationally accepted standard for design, operation and construction of high performance green building in the United States. The UK’s BREEAM rating system on the other hand, was first published by the Building Research Establishment (BRE) in 1990, and is the world's longest established method of assessing, rating, and certifying the sustainability of buildings. However, the UK is lagging behind as currently no requirement or credits are to be had from the incorporation of biophilic design in the BREEAM rating system, the UK equivalent to LEED.

Given the apparent knowledge deficit about biophilic design and how it can be implemented, increasing rates of urbanisation, depression (mental disorders) (World Health Organisation, 2010), the appeal to build 40 garden cities (Policy Exchange, 2014) in the UK, and the inclusion of Birmingham City into the Biophilic Cities project (Beatley, 2014), it is apparent that this is the time to start or continue discussions on how biophilic design can be appropriately integrated into planning policy and the design process of urban design.

Key Terms Biomimicry, biophilia, biophilic design, biophilic hypothesis, biophilic city, biophilic urbanism, environmental design, prospect, refuge, prospect/refuge theory, urban ecology, sustainability, and urban greening.

Definition of key terms (see Appendix 1: Glossary)

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Research Aim This research will seek to identify how biophilic urbanism is defined in the context of urban design, identify the opportunities and constraints to implementing biophilic design in the UK’s Urban Design projects, by examining national planning policy, and identify how biophilic design can be used in urban design practice.

Research Objectives i.

To provide an overview of biophilic design in the context of different scales (street, neighbourhood and community/city) based on case studies.

ii.

To identify the opportunities and constraints to implementing biophilic design in the UK, using national and international case studies of Birmingham, UK, Singapore, and Portland, Oregon, USA.

iii.

To identify urban design implications from literature review and case studies.

iv.

To demonstrate how a master plan framework can be modified to incorporate biophilic design.

Initial Hypothesis Cities that are dense oftentimes provide the mandatory green spaces in the form of parks, and other open spaces, however, the opportunity to connect with nature (biophilia) may be less available in the street, neighbourhood, and community/city context, as space is given over to the built environment. I will be using Birmingham, UK, Singapore, and Portland, Oregon, USA as case studies, to show how cities (at three different scales) can become more nature friendly, and biophilic through urban design practice.

Research Limitations The lack of case studies on biophilic design and data in Urban Design, specific to the UK was also a limitation of the study, as this clearly highlights the lack of an evidence base to support applications of biophilic design. Although several case studies exist linking health, well-being and green space in the UK, such as the Landscape Institute’s “Public Health and Landscape” (2013b) publication, it makes no reference to biophilia or biophilic design.

However, this was remedied by using studies of urban and neighbourhood parks in order to extrapolate the design principles demonstrated, so that readers can see how they can be used in a master plan framework, as well as looking on indicators of biophilic cities.

Additionally, analysing the various design features, and assuming its biophilic and restorative impact on individuals, although substantiated by theory, it is recognized that these reactions - 10 -

cannot be generalized, as different users would have varied reactions and responses based on their own perception of the world.

Methodology This section of the research paper will predominantly focus on giving an in depth description of how the research goal was realized. It aims to outline the different steps and procedures in an effort to anchor the study in the body of external material, as information was gathered from a number of books, journals, and academic papers.

Literature Review

The primary source of information was collected through academic papers and journals. Key texts introducing the concept of biophilia were used in order to get a firm understanding of the theoretical background behind this approach (See bibliography- key texts). Several journals (see Bibliography) were used to gain an understanding of what biophilia, and biophilic cities are, and the theoretical background to them. The Practice of Biophilic Design guidelines by Kellert, and Calabrese (2015) was also key as it explains the design guidelines and showed examples of urban design projects across the world.

Extensive precautions were taken to ensure the credibility, validity, accuracy and reliability of the paper was maintained and that references were appropriately acknowledged through the use of the Harvard style referencing System.

Case Study Research

The research was carried out over a four (4) month period whereby a pluralistic method was used, in which the case studies of Birmingham, UK, Singapore and Portland, Oregon, USA which are presently under Beatley’s biophilic cities project were carefully chosen. Singapore was chosen based on its community/city wide initiatives with successfully making a dense space nature friendly. Portland, Oregon was chosen due to its initiatives based on the street scale, and it is known for its pioneering work on green streets and other innovative approaches to natural storm water management which include bio swales, green roofs and reusing grey water which is some of what defines a Biophilic City. Finally, Birmingham was chosen because of its industrial history, and the need for a space that would spur regeneration, as well as provide a space which contrasts its surrounding urban context, by

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allowing people intimate access to nature. It demonstrates the neighbourhood scale. It is also the first city in England, to become a part of the Biophilic Cities Project by Tim Beatley.

The Biophilic Cities Project is an umbrella term that refers to research and policy work by Professor Tim Beatley and the University of Virginia School of Architecture, whose aim is to advance theory and practice of planning for biophilic cities, through a combination of collaborative research, dialogue, exchange and teaching. Birmingham, Singapore, and Portland are amongst some of the partner cities. The literature review will delve further in to Beatley’s role in the development of the biophilic cities project.

Design Guidance

Design guidance documents such as the Urban Design Compendium, the London Plan, and the resource of the Commission for Architecture and Built Environment (CABE) were reviewed in order to establish what current guidelines exist that relate to biophilia.

Principles of biophilic designs were also extracted from peer reviewed journal articles on green infrastructure, urban greening, and biophilia. Articles such as Nature and Cities by George Thompson et al (2010), Urban Ecology and Sustainability by Jianguo Wu (2014), UN Habitat’s Cities and Climate Change Human Settlement Report (2011), City of Guelph Urban Forest Management Plan 2013-2032, a review of academic papers and their findings were also used to aid in deriving a conclusion based on the hypothesis of this research.

Analysis

A descriptive qualitative approach was taken with a view of combining literature review, with the case studies. The findings were used to form the basis of the discussion and analysis in relation to the aims of the research, and finally, determine how biophilic design can relate to urban design practice.

Biophilic design elements and attributes by three different authors’ work (Kellert, 2005, Beatley, 2010, and Benyus 2008) were adapted and used to formulate a matrix. Each case was then assessed in relation to the matrix and elements that were present were highlighted, and used to help form the conclusion.

Policies were analyzed in order to highlight the lack of specific requirements on developers to incorporate biophilic urban design principles in to projects. Taking examples from the case - 12 -

studies, the research concludes on how biophilic design can be used to restore natural stimuli, to maintain, restore, and enhance our physiological, cognitive, and psychological connections to the natural world through a master plan framework.

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Chapter 2: Literature and Policy Review In carrying out the research, a wealth of secondary data was reviewed in an effort to fully appreciate the emergence of biophilic urbanism, the driving force behind this phenomenon, identify and highlight the theories for and against the capacity of cities being nature friendly, as well as highlight current trends related to biophilic cities. This will further assist with contextualizing the findings in relation to what others have found. This chapter; the Literature Review, is a combination of different viewpoints which have been expressed and circulated in academia on the topic.

Biodiversity: Urban Biodiversity Assessing how urbanization affects biodiversity and ecological conditions has been a major research focus in most ecological and environmental studies of cities during the past several decades. (Wu, 2014) According to Marzluff, 2005 et al, urban development decreases the amount of habitat for native species and increases habitat fragmentation for most native and exotic species.

Additionally, they go on to show that the effects of urbanization on biodiversity,

vary

with several factors based

on

environmental conditions

and

socio-economic settings.

Figure 1: Shows linkages among biodiversity, ecosystem services, and human wellbeing Source: Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (Cited in UNEP’s Ecosystem and Human Welling (Biodiversity Synthesis) (2005)

(See

Figure

1)

Biodiversity

as

defined

by

the

UN1992 Article 2 is “the

variability

among living organisms from all sources including, among others, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part of; this includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems�. Biodiversity represents the foundation of ecosystems through the services they provide, and has an - 14 -

impact on human well-being.( See Figure 1)

Services relating to soil formation,

photosynthesis, and nutrient cycling, climate regulation, flood prevention, disease control, waste management, and water quality, as well as human well-being, recreation, aesthetic enjoyment, and spiritual fulfillment, are amongst some of the key services offered by a healthy mix of biodiversity within cities. (UNEP, 2005) The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment’s findings show that biodiversity loss and deteriorating ecosystem services contribute—directly or indirectly—to worsening health, higher food insecurity, increasing vulnerability, lower material wealth, worsening social relations, and less freedom for choice and action. (UNEP, 2005) At the same time, however, these losses in biodiversity and associated changes in ecosystem services have caused other people to experience declining well-being, with some social groups being pushed into poverty. This is a cause for concern for the health and wellbeing of urban dwellers, given the urban migratory trends.

The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment further states that biodiversity will continue to be lost at high rates over the next 50 years, and given inertia in the indirect drivers and in ecosystems, the loss they showed cannot be halted over this time period. However, opportunities exist to reduce the rate of loss of biodiversity and ecosystems if society places an emphasis on ecosystem protection, restoration and management.

Urban Ecology During a period from the 1900’s up to the 1950’s between the first World War and the end of the Great Depression, periods of growth and change was happening in American cities.

There was a trend of urbanization, where cities were experiencing explosive growth, and was during the time when Chicago emerged as a metropolis. During this period, the concept of urban ecology grew out of the work of Robert Ezra Park, and the Chicago School of Sociology, between 1915 and 1935. Park attempted to provide a model for understanding the processes by which individuals and communities interact with each other and their surrounding urban environment. Gross and Krohn (2005) summarize the central idea that “all parts of the environment are interdependent and are moved by individual, collective, and ecological forces” (p. 69). A key theme related to this research from this theory refers to the unequal level of access that different persons or organisms have to social status of resources, for example, some trees do not have as much access to sunlight as others, or some city dwellers may have lesser access to nature than those in the suburbs. It is important that city dwellers have an equal opportunity to relate with their environment as ourselves as built environment professionals create second nature through biophilic design.

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Biophilia

As more cities boast integrated systems of parks, open spaces, and greenways, providing evidence that nature can return to the urban scene and enhance communities in biological ways, it is the role of landscape architects, urban planners/designers and architects to continue their ways of offering an ecological approach to the design of our urban landscapes. There are different facets to nature as defined by Hunt, (2000), First nature being the wilderness, meaning both the raw materials of human labour and the territory of the Gods. Second Nature (he calls it alteram naturam) which is the cultural landscape, that has been transformed by human activity, for example, agricultural activities, and gardens and parks he defines as the third nature in the sense that gardens are a special combination of nature and culture.

It all begins on the ground, in nature and in our communities. Although much of that ground is already urban, and the pervasive and expansive pattern of settlement, one could ask how could an Urban Designer make cities better? Stemming from the Greek roots, “love of life or living systems”, the term biophilia was first coined by social psychologist Erich Fromm, then was later popularized by an American entomologist Edward O. Wilson in an article called the Prologue in the New York Times Book Review, in January 14th, 1979, p43. This term he popularized, is based on the premise that our natural affinity for life- biophilia- is the very essence of our humanity and binds us to all other living species. He shows in his book Biophilia (1984) that because species diversity was created prior to humanity, and because we evolved within it, he claims it to be one of the reasons we have never understood its limits. As a consequence, he says that “the living world is the natural domain of the most restless and paradoxical part of the human spirit”. He shows how our sense of wonder grows exponentially, whereas the greater the knowledge, the deeper the mystery, and the more we seek knowledge to create new mystery. Scientists who have dedicated their lives to studying nature and its components have been able to shed some light on various species, and to the course of human evolution, with this information now taught in schools, and widely available on the internet for people to better educate themselves about this topic. Wilson concludes that, as people seek to explore nature, the exploration will engage more of the things close to the human heart and spirit. Additionally, “the naturalist’s vision is a specialized product of a biophilic instinct shared by all, that can be elaborated to benefit more and more people.”

(Wilson, 1984) The biophilia hypothesis theorizes humans’ dependence on nature that goes beyond material and physical sustenance, but includes human cravings for aesthetic, intellectual, - 16 -

cognitive, spiritual meaning and satisfaction. (Kellert and Wilson 1993). The hypothesis seeks to test the assumption that the extent to which we come to understand other organisms, we will place greater value on them, and on ourselves (Wilson, 1984). Famous scientists such as Charles Darwin, had biophilia towards earthworms for example, the literature shows he spent forty-four years of his life studying earthworms, and eventually wrote a book called “the Formation of Vegetative Mould Through the Action of Worms, with Observations on their Habitats” in 1881(Kellert and Wilson (1993) He concluded that “Worms have played a more important part in the history of the world than most persons would at first suppose”. This highlights his tremendous respect and amazement for these living beings.

(Kellert, and Wilson, 1993). Other examples are highlighted which shows the happiness whilst interacting and monitoring other species. This forms the premise of the research, as an appreciation for nature, and living organisms more specifically, commands respect for the species which have occupied the earth prior to human life. As cities agglomerate millions of people in one geographical area, those species should not be excluded from the lives of urban dwellers, as constant interaction between humans, other species and nature plays an integral role in our well-being, and happiness. The literature review will delve deeper into the theoretical underpinnings of biophilia, which will form the foundation on which the research will develop.

Critiques of Biophilia Biophobia can be found on the other end of the spectrum of biophilia, and is important to highlight because it is a part of the concept, and when designing cities, the design should be able to facilitate a variety of different users. Biophobia is a fear of or aversion to nature, natural environments and associated stimuli (Ulrich, 1993). The phobia is hypothesised to be genetic to varying degrees, but it is said to be a learned response. According to Clancy (2014), it is hypothesised, like biophilia, to have been an evolutionary trait to avoid danger and enhance survival. This is evident in typical biophobic responses occurring to the presence of blood, spiders and snakes. (van der Berg and Heijne, 2005)

Emergence of Biophilic Urbanism

To delve deeper into the biophilic hypothesis, Edward Wilson who popularized biophilia as the “innate tendency to focus on life and lifelike processes,” (Wilson, 1984 p.1) with an emphasis on the degree to which we come to understand other organisms, argues that we will in turn place greater value on them, and on ourselves. McVay (1993) however, believes that until the biophilic hypothesis is more fully absorbed in the science and culture of our

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times- and becomes a principle of our everyday lives, the human prospects of surviving will diminish, “as the rich biological provision of the water planet is quashed, impoverished, cut, polluted, and pillage.” This highlights his theory on the deterioration of human life in line with the deterioration of biological life.

Several researchers in Wilson (1984) have shown how an innate need and interaction between living creatures have led to significant discoveries as well as a deeper understanding and respect not only for the creatures being studied, but also for the person who is involved. These researchers have affirmed the wonder and sense of connection that can be discovered with the constant interaction of various species and habitats, and what it can mean for human beings.

Given that humanity’s relation to the natural environment is a part of our deep history, the question of what will happen to the human psyche when a defining part of our human evolutionary experience is further diminished or erased is a concern for Kellert and Wilson.

With regards to the continued loss of biodiversity, they state that the first 90 percent of reduction in area of a habitat, lowers the species number by one half, and that the final 10 percent eliminates the second half. (Kellert and Wilson,1993). The fact is that the primary cause of the decay of organic diversity is not from direct human exploitation or malevolence, but from the habitat destruction that inevitably results from the expansion of human populations and human activities. (Wilson and Peter, 1988) This can be related to the increasing urban population which is projected to increase to 66 percent by 2050.(United Nations Report, 2014) Kellert and Wilson (1993) suggested nine hypothesised dimensions of the biophilic tendency, the utilitarian, naturalistic, ecologistic,- scientific, aesthetic, symbolic, humanistic, moralistic, dominionistic, and negativistic. These were used in an attempt to describe how the deep dependence on nature may constitute the basis for a meaningful and fulfilling human existence, and how the pursuit of self- interest may constitute the most persuasive argument for persons to develop a conservation ethic.

This study will only discuss the naturalistic, aesthetic and humanistic values of biophilia as they are more applicable to relate to urban design. The naturalistic relates to the satisfaction derived from direct contact with nature but delves deeper in to a sense of fascination, wonder, and awe derived from an intimate experience of nature’s diversity and complexity.

Kellert (1993) discusses how discovery and exploration of living diversity has in fact been the reason why the acquisition of increased knowledge and understanding of the natural world - 18 -

and this information played an important role in the process of human evolution. According to Seielstad (1989 p285), he has mentioned how “the surest way to enrich the knowledge pool that will keep the flywheel of cultural evolution turning is to nourish the human spirit of curiosity”. City dwellers have the right to satisfy their natural curiosity. Furthermore, the naturalistic tendency has been cited as important to physical fitness and the acquiring of outdoor skills such as climbing, hiking, and tracking. One would not expect a city to provide these facilities, however, this is one criticism where Kellert (1993)’s naturalistic theory focusses on natural activities that would be found in the suburbs, but the principles are applicable to the urban setting. He goes on to add that the mental benefits of these activities have been related to tension release, relaxation, peace of mind, and enhanced creativity derived from the observation of diversity in nature. (Kellert, 1993) According to Fuller, et al, (2007), it is important to note that the psycho-physiological benefits of green space do not increase as land area increases, however, it has been recorded that psycho-physiological benefits from green space increase with higher levels of biodiversity. This is important as it demonstrates how within dense cities, small spaces can be biophilic, hence making biophilic design possible in this type of built environments where land is scarce. (Wall and Waterman, 2010).

The psychological value of outdoor recreational space is studied by Ulrich et al (1991, p 203) who studied over 100 studies of recreational studies. Importantly, they found that the relationship between urban nature areas, and stress mitigation, was the most verbally expressed perceived benefit. Another researcher Kaplan (1983, p 155) has done experiments on the naturalistic experience and has concluded that “nature matters to people, big trees and small trees, glistening water, chirping birds, budding bushes, colourful flowers, all are important ingredients to a good life”. Essentially, the naturalistic typology of biophilia values, relates to the satisfaction from direct experience/ contrast with nature, which satisfies the function of curiosity, outdoor skills, and mental and physical development.

This relates to urban design in the provision of outdoor spaces, as the opportunity to satisfy this naturalistic tendency should be created, when designing the public realm in which people will congregate, walk through or utilize. In contrast, the aesthetical value highlights the physical appeal and beauty of nature, serving the function of inspiration, harmony, peace, and security. The Aesthetic aspect according to Kellert (1993) is brought about by the preference of natural design and pattern, as evidenced by Ulrich (1983, pg. 109) in a study which revealed people’s preference of natural scenes over built views, especially when the built environment lacks vegetation or water features. This relates to urban design in which when considering the orientation of blocks, one could go a step further by considering to - 19 -

orientate blocks and streets, and locate nature areas at minimum (first, second and third nature) to be in clear view for its users.

Additionally, research suggests that this aesthetic preference for nature may be “universally expressed across human cultures” (Ulrich, 1983 pg.110). Kaplan and Kaplan (1989, p 10) suggest that “aesthetic reactions to nature, to that of feelings of tranquillity, peace of mind, and a related sense of psychological well- being and self- confidence, reflects a guide to human behaviour which is both ancient and influential.”

Finally, the humanistic experience of nature reflects feelings of deep emotional attachment to individual elements of the natural environment. It focuses on larger invertebrates, but can also be related to objects which have no form of reciprocity of feelings to humans, such as trees and plants. The humanistic experience as described by Kellert (1993) is a strong affection for individual elements of nature expressed as a feeling of love for nature, although this is usually directed towards domesticated animals. This humanistic experience of nature he says can result in strong tendencies toward the caring and nurturing for individual elements, supporting group bonding, sharing, cooperation, and companionship. This relates to urban design by providing access to parks or greenspaces for the majority of the population within 100 meters, and other opportunities such as green urban features (green rooftops, green walks, trees), walking trails, community gardens and garden plots, wild or semi- wild nature. By providing the urban dweller access to these features, people can develop a love and emotional connection with nature, possibly pre-empting the need to preserve and protect our world’s natural features. (The biophilia hypothesis, Kellert and Wilson 1993). These three theories (aesthetic, humanistic, naturalistic) form the historic basis in order to understand the rationale behind human’s behaviour and preference towards having nature around them, as this will inform how biophilic urbanism can be used in urban design practice.

Biophilic & Restorative Responses A 'biophilic response' can be defined as a measurable response triggered by natural stimuli that leads to the restoration (Browning, Clancy and Ryan, 2014) of depleted human (or personal) facilities (allostasis) (McEwen, 2000) or the enhancement of these facilities to buffer environmental stressors (instoration) (Hartig, Mang and Evans, 1991). These responses can be classified as being either psychological (mood, self-esteem) (Hartig et al, 1996), physiological (blood pressure, hormone levels) (Barton and Pretty, 2010) or cognitive (creativity, mental performance) (Berman, Jonides and Kaplan, 2008).

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According to Clancy, (2014) the underlying causes for triggering biophilic responses are still unknown to an extent (Lee and Maheswaran, 2010, quoted in Clancy 2014). This is despite the measurable effects which have been recorded throughout numerous studies and have attributed to the cause of experiencing (passively or actively) natural environments and stimuli (Brown, Barton and Gladwell, 2013) or even representational nature (de Kort et al, 2006). Current explanatory theories for why such a mechanism exist can be classed as being either evolutionary or cultural (van der Berg, Joye and de Vries, 2013). Evolutionary theories (i.e. the Savannah Hypothesis) claim that humanity developed such an underlying mechanism to trigger a restorative response to aid habitat selection (Heerwagen and Orians, 1993) and to restore psycho-physiological conditions to baseline following predatory encounters (Ulrich, 1993). Cultural theories on the other hand (i.e. the Aesthetics of Care) state that such a mechanism exists due to landscape visual preferences of natural environments with a specific character and geographic range, due to cultural development (Tveit, Sang and Hagerhall, 2013). For example, this can be identified with my love and preference for Caribbean and tropical landscapes.

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Biophilic Design Biophilic design aims to restore natural stimuli in the built environment to maintain, reestablish, and enhance our physiological, cognitive and psychological connections to the natural world. It also goes by the term Restorative Environmental Design (RED) (Kellert, 2005). Biophilic design is not only about the presence of nature, but also about the content within the scene, its configuration and associated semantic content (Browning and Cramer, 2008). Configuration of natural scenes to reflect the landscape preferences of certain user groups 1) increases rates of restoration (van der Berg et al, 2003) and 2) encourages higher participation rates by user groups, resulting in greater numbers engaging in outdoor activities (Forsyth & Musacchio, 2005). In turn, biophilic design has economic, health, cultural, environmental value and (when used as part of an integrative approach) ecological benefits (Browning, Clancy and Ryan, 2014), as it is an attempt to translate an understanding of the inherent need to connect with nature (biophilia).

Currently, there are limited publications relating specifically to urban design and biophilic design in a UK context. This thus limits the awareness and development of biophilic design with urban designers. According to Souter- Brown (2014), he believes that biophilic design, by triggering either a cognitive or physiological effect, offers an opportunity to act as part of a salutogenic approach to health rather than the standard pathogenic approach. The salutogenic approach sees 'health' as incorporating multidimensional factors such as psychological, cognitive, social and environmental influences, rather than just biological (van der Berg, Joye and de Vries, 2013). However, given the variability of efficacy of restorative responses in individuals across cultures and demographics (Kopec, 2006) (Tveit, Sang and Hagerhall, 2013), education on how to implement biophilic design patterns is necessary.

On the other hand, in a broader body of knowledge, writers such as Viljoen (2005), have published work on Continuous Productive Urban Landscapes (CPULs), which is a network of planted open spaces, in a city, which are spatially continuous, oftentimes referred to as green infrastructure. This concept has not been widely implemented as yet. Linear parks are an example or a productive landscape, which can be an open space planted and managed in a way that is environmentally and economically productive, for example providing food through urban agriculture, pollution absorption, the cooling effect of trees or increased biodiversity from wildlife corridors.

CPULS’s theme is to have open spaces traversing through the city continuously, through to the inner city and to the rural areas. This concept is similar to biophilic design in that it aims - 22 -

to make the city more nature friendly, however, it does not aim at satisfying the three theories of biophilia that the research is focusing on, being that of the naturalistic, aesthetic and humanistic values. Furthermore, biophilic design aims to restore natural stimuli in the built environment to maintain, restore, and enhance our physiological, cognitive and psychological connections to the natural world, as opposed to providing functional open spaces for city dwellers.

Another related theme is the history of allotments in the UK, whereby the space is rented to individuals by local authorities. It is a form of urban agriculture and open space land use, whereby persons can grow non-commercial produce. Like CPUL’s, it serves the purpose of functionality in the sense of social, environmental, human, and economic purposes, and hence relates closest to what biophilia design and biophilia is.

It is important to distinguish between these two concepts, as urban space (physical) is where interactions between people and the urban environment occur producing a variety of different experiences (Jacobs, 1961; Gehl, 2010). The concept of urban place on the other hand, goes beyond the physical characteristics of the built environment, and according to Mcdonald (2011), the urban place is the public realm (publicly accessible space) that need to shift its direction in public values in order to take advantage of ecological opportunities that each particular environment may have. Biophilic design in urban places can help promote, protect and strengthen climate and microclimate conditions in cities. (Beatley & Newman, 2013). According to Gehl, (2010) he says that for biophilic design to be truly effective, it should extend beyond buildings into "life between buildings". (Moore & Marcus, 2008).

In an effort to devise principles of biophilic design, Benyus (2008) suggests a set of biophilic design elements inspired by nature namely: organic form and structure, daylighting, natural ventilation, natural sounds, a dynamic palette of colours1, the imitation of natural features, restorative landscapes, and bio- inspired gardens. Benyus (2008) also proposes physical elements and processes from nature that can be applied to design products and artificial processes. (See Figure 2 below)

1

The impact of various colours on humans studied by XYZ findings, can be found in Appendix 4.

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Supertrees, Singapore Supertrees, Singapore Natural light designed block Natural light designed block Natural public amenity space Natural public amenity Urban space water feature Urban water feature Master plan design in to nature

Figure 2: Biophilic design elements inspired in biomimicry. (Benyus, 2008)

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Kellert (2008) defines six elements and attributes which includes: environmental features, natural shapes and forms, natural patterns and processes, light and space, place- based relationships, and evolved human- nature relationships. This is then further broken down in to 70 biophilic design attributes. (see Table 1) Not all these elements affect the public realm.

Similarly, Beatley (2011) focusses on strategies for the integration of nature in to the built environment, by proposing the following levels for the elements of biophilic design in the urban environment. These are building, block, street, neighbourhood, community, and region. He argues that both political and social decision makers should take part in the process of the implementation of biophilic cities. (see Table 2)

ENVIRONMENTAL FEATURES

NATURAL SHAPES AND FORMS

NATURAL PATTERNS AND PROCESSES

Water Colour Air Sunlight Plants Animals Natural materials Views and vistas Faรงade greening Geology and landscape Habitats and ecosystems Fire Botanical motifs Tree and columnar supports Animal (mainly vertebrate) motifs Shells and spirals Egg, oval, and tabular forms Arches, vaults, domes Shapes resisting straight lines and right angles Simulation of natural features Biomorphy Geomorphology Biomimicry Sensory variability Information richness Age, change, and the patina of time Growth and efflorescence Central focal point Patterned wholes Bounded spaces Transitional spaces Linked series and chains Integration of parts to wholes Complementary contrasts Dynamic balance and tension Fractals Hierarchically organized ratios and scales

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LIGHT AND SPACE

PLACE- BASED RELATIONSHIPS

EVOLVED HUMANRELATIONSHIPS

NATURE

Natural light Filtered and diffused light Light and shadow Reflected light Light pools Warm light Light as shape and form Spaciousness Spatial variability Space as shape and form Spatial harmony Inside-outside spaces Geographic connection to place Historic connection to place Ecological connection to place Cultural connection to place Indigenous materials Landscape orientation Landscape features that define building form Landscape ecology Integration of culture and ecology Spirit of place Avoiding placelessness Prospect and refuge Order and complexity Curiosity and enticement Change and metamorphosis Security and protection Mastery and control Affection and attachment Attraction and beauty Exploration and discovery Information and cognition Fear and awe Reverence and spirituality

Table 1: Biophilic design elements and attributes (modified from Kellert, 2008)

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SCALE BUILDING

BLOCK

STREETS

NEIGHBOURHOOD

COMMUNITY /CITY

REGION

BIOPHILIC DESIGN ELEMENTS Green rooftops Sky gardens and green atria Rooftop garden Green walls Daylit interior spaces Green courtyards Clustered housing around green areas Native species yards and spaces Green streets Sidewalk gardens Urban trees Low-impact development Vegetated swales and skinny streets Edible landscaping High degree of permeability Stream daylighting, stream restoration Urban forests Ecology parks Community gardens Neighbourhood parks and pocket parks Greening grayfields and brownfields Urban creeks and riparian areas Urban ecological networks Green schools City tree canopy Community forest and community orchards Greening utility corridors River systems and floodplains Riparian systems Regional greenspace systems Greening major transport corridors

Table 2: Modified from Girling and Kellert, first appeared in Beatley, 2010)

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Indicators of a Biophilic City

According to Timothy Beatley (2010), there are some measurable indicators to which one can test if a city is biophilic, and these were used to assess cities which have joined his research project.

Percentage of population within 100 meters of a park or green space; to which an example of PlaNYC’s target of a park or greenspace for all residents within a 10- minute walk by 2030. His suggestion is to provide a park or greenspace within 100 meters for all residents.

Image 1: Central Park, NYC 27% of NYC is green space.

Source: Central Park Conservancy

Existence of a connected, integrated ecological network; green urbanism from rooftop to region; An example of this is Helsinki, Finland’s regional, connected greenspace network; Keskuspuisto Park provides an unbroken green wedge from old – growth forest at edge of town to very center of the city.

This park from the north ranges from forest through to garden in the south traversing throughout the city.

Image 2: Keskuspuisto Park and Helsinki, Finland Source: http://www.hel.fi/hel2/keskus puisto/eng/1centralpark/

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Percentage of city land area in wild or semi-wild nature; Perth, Australia, its two largest parks; Bold Park and Kings’ Park, are left in native bushland. Nagoya, Japan, has set aside 10 percent of its land for nature preserves, whereby Beatley suggests a 10 percent minimal target of wild or semi – wild nature reservation in cities.

Image 3: Castle park, Nagoya, Japan Part of the 10% of nature preserves in the city Source: 123RF Stock Photos

Percentage of forest cover in the city;Percentage of city land area in wild or semi-wild nature; Perth, Australia, its two largest parks; Bold Park and Kings’ Park, are left in native bushland. Nagoya, Japan, has set Percentage of forest cover in the aside 10 percent of its land for nature city; preserves, whereby Beatley suggests a Sao Paulo, Brazil has 20 percent of 10 percent minimal target of wild or semi its jurisdiction in dense forest.

– wild nature reservation in cities.

Image 4: Urban forest overlooking Sau Paulo Source: Expedia, 2015

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Miles per capita of walking trails; Anchorage, Alaska has 250 miles of trails, and with a population of about 280,000 that converts to about 1 mile of trail per 1,000 population.

Image 5: Walking trail in the Anchorage, Alaska, USA. Source: theknot.com

Number of community gardens and garden plots (absolute and per capita); access to community garden area; Seattle’s P-Patch community program has established the goal of at least one community garden per 2,500 city residents.

Image 6: Community garden in Seattle.

(Source: http://www.kplu.org/post/seattle-settingexample-community-gardens-nationwide)

Extent and number of green urban features (eg. Green rooftops, green walks, trees); An example of this is one green rooftop or other urban green feature per 1,000 inhabitants, or minimum one per urban block. In Chicago, for example, the city now has more than 500 green rooftops.

Extent and number of green urban There are up to 7 million square feet on Image 7: Image of Chicago’s roof-scape with a number features (eg. Green rooftops, green approximately 500 rooftops in the garden of green roofs (google earth)

walks, citytrees); of Chicago today. Chicago has been a An example ofgreen this is roof one installations, green rooftopwith or other leader in more urbansquare green footage feature per inhabitants, or than1,000 any other city in the minimum one per urban In Chicago, United States.

(Cityblock. of Chicago 2015) for

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example, the city now has more than 500 green There are up to 7 million square feet on rooftops. approximately 500 rooftops in the garden city of Chicago today. Chicago has been a

A critique of Beatley’s indicators of biophilic cities is the failure to mention urban water.

Mador (2008) postulates that water should not occupy more than 60 percent of a visual scene or space. He argues that the presence of water beyond this percentage, and the presence of the body of water can trigger feelings of isolation. Sixty percent has been found to be the preferred amount for water to occupy within a space following studies on landscape preferences specially to water. (White et al, 2010)

Examples of biophilic master planned spaces include Hammarby, Sjöstad, Stockholm, Sweden (See Image 8), and Oslo, Norway (See Image 9) These are based on Tim Beatley’s indicators previously mentioned, and are partners of his biophilic cities. Hammarby has shown how nature- friendly design can be a dominant element in an urban space once developed from the initial planning stages. Energy is generated sustainably, zero percent waste generated, sustainable modes of transport, and the use of recreational spaces for health and restoration support are some key features. Its form and design minimizes the impact of cars, and provides connected streets with sidewalks, and trails that connects neighbourhoods to larger networks of greenspace. These are in the form of eco-bridges. On a city scale, Oslo, Norway, is an example of a community/city - wide scale, (See Image 9) which has large forested areas (two- thirds of the city is in protected forest), 94% of the city’s residents live within 300 meters of a park or greenspace, compact urban form, and strengthens connections with nature.

Image 8: Aerial view of blocks at Hammarby, Sjöstad Image 9: Aerial photograph of Oslo with its forests. , Sweden (Google earth, 2016)

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UK Context

The links between planning policy and biophilic design are not as clear as the long established links between planning and health (Landscape Institute, 2013b) There has been some level of attempt between planning and biophilic design, seen in the UK context with the publishing of documents such as: the rise of importance placed on green infrastructure (Landscape Institute, 2009); the release of guidance for Garden Cities by the DCLG (2014b); the release of a position statement by the Landscape Institute (2013b) on the role of landscape in health and well-being; and the release of 'Green Living Spaces Plan' by Birmingham City Council (2013a). However, these are on a landscape-wide scale, and not on an urban design scale.

UK Policy

In order to identify the opportunities and constraints to implementing biophilic design in the UK, one major act and several policies are highlighted.

The Localism Act 2011 and the National Planning Policy Framework (NPPF) (2012)

The Localism Act decentralised planning powers from national and regional level to local authorities, giving them greater power over local planning decisions and development (DCLG, 2011). Subsequently, there was the Local Development Frameworks (LDFs) developed by local authorities and guided by the National Planning Policy Framework (NPPF), which carries the central theme of "presumption in favour of sustainable development" (DCLG, 2012). This meant that development is encouraged, as long as it is sustainable and does not violate local environmental protection orders. The key understanding of sustainable development, put forward by the government under the NPPF, must integrate three pillars of sustainability: 

Economic: Enhancing and creating a resilient, adaptive and competitive economy



Social: Supporting and enhancing vibrant, resilient and healthy communities



Environmental:

Enhancing

and

conserving

our

natural,

built

and

historic

environments for now and future generations There are no direct references to biophilic design in the NPPF or NPPG. However, many of the paragraphs of the NPPF can be utilised as policy mechanisms for implementing biophilic design, as green space and access to nature is recognized within the NPPF as a key health resource in urban areas (DCLG, 2014a). However, the lack of direct references to biophilic - 32 -

design in the NPPF demonstrates the lack of policy guidance and support in favour of promoting biophilic designs in projects.

Local Plans Following the abolishment of Local Development Frameworks in 2010, the NPPF states that every local planning authority in England must have a clear, concise, up to date Local Plan.

Local plans should operate in accordance with the NPP framework, while meeting the needs of the local population, local development and reflect the local community’s and stakeholder’s vision of how the area should develop (DCLG, 2012). No local plan to date makes any direct references to biophilic design. The Birmingham City Council's supplementary planning document (SPD), 'Green Living Spaces Plan' (2013), incorporates Birmingham ` as a biophilic city under one of its seven green living spaces principle, but this policy is not statutory.

Section Conclusion

The literature review provides important information that will be translated into the illustrative design application of the project. Understanding the connection that humans have to the natural world through the biophilia hypothesis provides insight into the way we experience outdoor spaces. This will be considered when making suggestions as to how to incorporate nature in to the public realm. Biophilic design, with its aims and benefits, directly ties in with the NPPF's aim of creating healthy communities, by increasing opportunities for access to and interaction with natural environments and natural stimuli, to reduce health inequalities.

The NPPF also recognises the importance of green space in delivering health and well-being to communities hence making biophilic design a medium for achieving sustainable development, a role for biophilic design that has been discussed by Kellert (2005). (See Appendix 2 for summary of biophilic design elements at different scales) There are many Urban Design implications that have been extrapolated from the literature review that will be important to keep in mind while moving forward to the case reviews and in the conclusions of this project.

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Chapter 3: Contextual Analysis of case studies

Case study reviews are aimed at reviewing context, processes, products, and outcomes which are intended to advance the profession potentially through knowledge transfer, and inspiration. The following case reviews were chosen based on their participation in Beatley’s Biophilic Cities Project, their international recognition for the work that they have been doing as it relates to urban greening, and for their range of urban design interventions in the public realm at different scales. These three cases will broaden the perspective of common practices as it relates to urban design.

Assessment matrix

An assessment matrix was developed for completing the case reviews. (See Tables 3,4,5) The elements for the matrix were chosen based on the literature review and the suggested components for biophilic design elements for urban spaces. The cases were analysed based on three out of the nine hypothesised biophilic dimensions of the biophilic tendency as theorized by Kellert and Wilson (1993), as well as the summary of biophilic elements derived from the literature review. Each case was then filtered through the matrix and elements that are present in the design were highlighted. Salient information regarding design implications was highlighted, and informs the conclusion of this research.

Case A: Birmingham, Eastside City Park Birmingham, is a major city and metropolitan borough in the West Midlands of England, and one of England’s main industrial and commercial areas which acts as an administrative, recreational, and cultural center. (see Image 10) The city lies approximately 110 miles (177km) northwest of London. (Encyclopaedia Britannica).

Historically, during the English Civil War (1642-46), Birmingham supplied Parliamentarians with swords, pikes and Image 10: Shows Birmingham’s geographic location Source: Googleearth

armour, and this made the city emerge with the reputation as a metal working center. By the time of the Industrial Revolution, it has - 34 -

become the industrial and commercial center of the Midlands. (Birmingham City Council) Today, Birmingham remains the chief center of Britain’s light and medium industry, to which its economic success, is said to be based on the diversity of its industrial base, although with an emphasis in metal and engineering trades.

Currently, the city has emerged as a model of a city which addresses environmental and health related problems in a comprehensive and integrated way. The City Council has declared its intention to be green and sustainable, and as a leader in making connections between health and nature. This is reflected in its Green Living Spaces Plan, which includes seven (7) green living principles. One includes “the City’s Greenways, which is to create a pedestrian environment that is connected, safe, and pleasure offering health benefits.

Another is “the City’s Ecosystems” which aims to make Birmingham the first biophilic city in the UK, and using ecosystem services assessment to understand the city’s dependence on nature and derive an economic assessment from that benefit. Birmingham is the first city in the UK to conduct this study. Although the city is reputed for its industrial, un-natural nature, it ranks high in biodiversity, especially with the National Nature Reserve, the 1,000-hectare Sutton Park (the only urban reserve in the United Kingdom), is taken into account, and to which the Council has pledged to reduce carbon emissions in the city by 60 per cent by 2027. Birmingham has declared its intent to be the United Kingdom’s first “natural capital city,” and is working on a “natural capital metric” that will be used to evaluate future development projects (Birmingham Council) The case of Eastside City Park, Birmingham was assessed in more detail at the scale of the community.

Case B: Portland, Oregon, Holman Park and Green Street Bike Boulevard

Portland, is the largest city in the U.S. state of Oregon, (see Image 11) which started to have an increase in population in the 1830’s as its water access provided convenient transportation of goods, and the timber industry was a major contributor to the city’s development. Since the end of the 20th century, the city developed a reputation as one of the most dangerous port cities in the Image 11: Shows geographic location of Portland, USA Source: World atlas, 2015

world, as well as urban problems of urban decay, sprawl, and environmental problems.

However, land use policies and other

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legislation helped to turn around the city making it more liveable and sustainable. Today, Portland is a recognized environmental leader, being a part of the C40 (a network of mega cities aimed at trying to combat climate change) whereby Portland has implemented a range of programs that have ensured its status as a model of sustainable urban development.

(Economist Intelligence Unit, 2011) Today, Portland participates in Timothy Beatley’s Biophlic Cities project, where it is acknowledged for its green street initiative, and its commitment to the protection and appreciation of nature. It has some of the highest parks per- capita acreage in the nation, including large natural areas such as Forest Park, and the Oaks Bottom Wildlife Refuge. At the street scale of biophilic design, Portland is known for its monumental work as it relates to natural storm water management. A number of its streets, mimics natural conditions by using vegetated facilities to manage storm water runoff at its source, which aids to reduce flow, improve water quality, improve pedestrian and bicycle safety, and enhance watershed health. For several years, they have been using water- sensitive urban design elements, such as bio-infiltration pits, and rain gardens, built into storm water curb extensions and sidewalks. Furthermore, these gardens provide visual amenity and habitat, and combined sewer overflows (CSOs) to the Willamette River, and helps to reduce the urban heat island effect. For the purpose of this research, the case of Holman Park and Green Street Bike Boulevard, NE Holman Street at NW 13th Avenue is used.

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Case C: Singapore, Gardens-by-the-Bay Singapore, an island city-state off southern Malaysia’s coast, (see Image 13) is a global financial centre characterized by its tropical climate and multicultural population.

Industrialization in the 1960’s, and by the end of that decade, manufacturing had become the lead sector of the country’s economic growth. Presently, the strong manufacturing and services sectors have become the foundation of the Singapore economy. (World Bank, 2016)

Singapore has recognized the importance of a green environment to its wellbeing, peace of mind and sense of belonging to its citizens, and uses nature as an integral part of their urban landscape. As a highly populated and dense city of 5 million residents, on 700 square kilometres of land mass, with most persons living in high rise towers; incorporating nature was a challenge as identified by the city’s Council. The city however emerged as a world model, with creative designs using extensive park and green areas, with 200 kilometers of Park Connectors, in the form of elevated walkways and canopy walks, and the installation of green walls and green rooftops.

Image 12: Shows the geographic location of Singapore Source: World Atlas, 2015

Landsat Images show that while the city grew in population by some 2 million between 1986

and 2007, the percentage of the island in green area actually increased as well, from 36% to 47%. Few dense cities of the world can boast being “in a garden” in the way that Singapore can. (Beatley, 2011) The case of Gardens by the Bay was assessed in more detail at the scale of the neighbourhood.

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Case A: Eastside City Park, Birmingham

As a public realm project, and Birmingham’s first new park for 130 years, designed by Patel Taylor Ltd., this park spanning 3.4 hectares of public amenity space, plays a vital role and is a key element of Birmingham City Councils’ Big City Plan for Birmingham’s regeneration. (Birmingham City Council) The site was a long chain of brownfield plots that linked the edge of the city centre to the Digbeth Canal. It offers people the option of stopping to relax and enjoy several key features which are in the design. (see Image 13) In terms of Image 13: Shows a few plant motif inspired statues at Eastside City Park Source: Patel Taylor Ltd. 2014

functionality, this park Is both a focal point and principal route in to the district,

drawing people in to Eastside, and enhances the economic prosperity of the area as well as drives new development. (Patel Taylor Ltd.)

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Naturalistic The design is based on a series of different spaces all connected to the city’s existing roads, pedestrian routes, and public transport systems, as well as pedestrian movement throughout the park to the surrounding buildings. (see Image 14) These links, incorporate large trees, which are used to differentiate spaces, direct views, and provide shelter and enclosure. This is then stepped down in to another hierarchy planting of a smaller scale, in different varieties, which is aimed at creating an unfolding experience, with discovery and delight. (Patel Taylor Ltd.) The design element of refuge (see Appendix 2) is the most dominant feature along the main avenue, with eleven (11) individual spaces located along the eastern half of the main avenue.

Image 14: Shows master plan of the Eastside Park development Source:http://markoandplacemakers.com/projects/eastsidepark-birmingham-uk June 27, 2016

Each space consists of a bench, surrounded by vegetation and canopy overhead. The juxtaposition of the benches are adjacent to some form of planting or grass, creating the naturalistic opportunity for users to have direct contact with nature (third nature). (see Image 15) Refuge is evident throughout the space in several individual occurrences, in various forms, types and scales. (See Appendix 3, table 4 for biophilic elements from this case)

Arrangement of benches allows for interaction with people and the trees Arrangement

of

Image 15: Shows park benches allowing for benches allows for interaction between people and tree interaction with

- 39 Source: Patel Taylor Ltd. 2014

-

people and the trees

This allows varying users with differing needs and preferences to get their restorative responses. A point to note however is that the occurrences of refuge for example, take the form of having secluded benches, while others are more inclusive and public.

The intimate opportunities to come in to contact with plants and fauna are what

Image 16: Shows benches facing water feature Source: Patel Taylor Ltd. 2014

support biophilic design. Urban designers

when designing the location of benches in public spaces could consider these small details, ensuring that ample opportunity is provided for the physical and mental interaction with nature. The opportunity exits to go further and suggest benches when possible, can be adjacent or parallel to some form of softscape. (see Image 17 below) Additionally, the benches located along the water feature are biophilic designed, whereby the design avoids straight lines, and is more natural in shape.

The presence of water fountains located at the center of the park and the sounds that are generated, (see Image 16 above) has its own restorative effect on its users, and act as a local landmark and focal point for users. It shoots jets of water randomly, adding a degree of temporality and excitement with the flow of water. This Image 17: Shows a grassed section of the park with adjacent bench Source: Patel Taylor Ltd.

feature draws users in to the public space, but also in to this biophilic design element.

As the water jets are flushed with the

ground, the user is able to walk in to the water feature and experience it haptically.

One can sit near the water, view, listen, touch or even walk through it, which can give an individual control over how they feel within the space.

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Aesthetic

With Kellert (1993) eluding to the aesthetic value of biophilia with the preference of natural design and patterns as revealed by Ulrich (1983, pg.

109) with persons’ preference of natural scenes over built views, this case reveals how all the public spaces in the park allow for prospective views towards the various natural features, such as the water feature and sculpture areas, protecting the user from the harsh sensory impacts of the surrounding urban environment. (see Image 19) This falls under the design element of prospect. (See table 1, Biophilic elements by Kellert, 2008) This design element through the use of long pedestrian Image 18: Shows block fronting on to tracks, is used to instil a sense of calm in the user by canal Source: Patel Taylor Ltd

revealing the surrounding context and location of other biophilic elements. The Thinktank Birmingham Science Museum, the Birmingham Covention Bureau, the Birmingham School of Acting, and the Birmingham City University, have a south facing view of all these third nature elements, (see Image 19) which could trigger aesthetic reactions such as feelings of tranquillity, peace of mind, and a related sense of psychological well-being and self-

Image 19: Shows perspective view of the confidence, as highlighted by Kaplan and Kaplan park in relation to surrounding blocks and street

(1989 p10) from users with this view access. These

Source: Patel Taylor Ltd.

prospective, uninterrupted views of nature to the user, is 365 m in length. This view from the park entrance, surveys the savannah- like grassland areas, the monolithic biomorphic sculptures, and the water fountains. From the steps of Millennium Point, there is a prospective view over the park, looking towards a savannah like 2500m 2 wildflower Image 20: Shows the main walkway at Eastside City Park Source: Patel Taylor Ltd. 2014

meadow. Additionally, the swaying grasses provide visual access to natural systems and non- rhythmic ephemeral stimuli. The sculptures used in the public - 41 -

space, are used to demonstrate the changing of time, and weathering, which are biomorphic in their design, representing the vascular structure of a plant leaf. The impact of the presence of such a view on the dwellers of these blocks, and the biophilic response that could be generated could be based on the evolutionary or cultural theory as van der Berg, Joye and de Vries, (2013) uses to explain. This could potentially have a cognitive or physiological impact on the individuals, and as highlighted by Souter- Brown (2014), and could offer some health opportunities through the incorporation of multidimensional factors such as psychological, cognitive social and environmental influences (van der Berg, Joye and de Vries, 2013). (see Image 21)

Image 21: Shows edible section of park Source: Patel Taylor Ltd.

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Humanistic

Finally, the opportunity to create a humanistic experience that this urban space brings to the life of its users and viewers, is by way of all elements of this public space being unrestricted where the users can sit near the water, view, listen, or walk through it. The varying scales of the greenspace moving from the formal to the wildflower meadow, offers people a chance to interact with flora and fauna. (See image 22) The impact of various variety of vegetation on

Image 22: Shows view at the edible garden section of the park

individuals, from 1st nature to

Patel Taylor Ltd.

third

nature

as

studied

by

Appleton (1996) is not the aim of this study, but is recognized as having varying physical and emotional impacts on individuals. Essentially, it is important to be mindful of this, and provide these variations when designing public places and spaces for individuals in the city context.

The park is easily accessible by Child interacting with water at fountain

various modes of transport, from Curzon street to the south, and Cardigan Street to the east, as well as by pedestrians from the block from the northern section.

The gardens were used as linking spaces, providing space for relaxation, the planting and reaping

Image 23: Shows child interacting with the water feature.

Patel Taylor Ltd.

of vegetables, walking, cycling, play areas for children with access to

trees and plants, sun bathe on the grass, or watch various fauna in their habitat. The undefined form of the 140m 2 water fountain allows for unrestricted sensory and physical interaction for individuals. (See Image 23) (Patel Taylor Ltd.) These allow for one-to-one intimate contact with elements of nature which has the ability for persons to develop an emotional connection and affection to these individual natural elements. This humanistic - 43 -

experience could lead toward the caring and nurturing for individual elements, supporting group bonding, sharing, cooperation, and companionship, which is the essence of response aimed at triggering by biophilic design based on the biophilic hypothesis.

Urban Design Implications Creating spaces that enhance biophilic responses can help people enjoy their surroundings more fully. Not only do we affect our environment, our environment affects us: 

Include natural elements: Human beings like to be near natural elements such as water and plants.



Accessibility, eg. physically accessible water feature



Use of sound: The use of sound from water features in the urban environment is a mode of connection with the natural world and can be used as a therapeutic and pleasurable aspect of urban living.



Edible: Incorporate public spaces in the community with edible landscapes



Views and Vistas (Prospect): Align streets, cycle tracks, and pedestrian tracks to views and vistas of natural features, as this can protect users from harsh sensory impacts from surrounding urban environment.



Variety and sensory stimulation: A variety in landscaping treatment such as grassed area to savannah -like meadow can create additional stimuli eg. from the swaying grass.



Materials: Incorporate a variety of materials, colours and textures for sensory stimulation



Image 24: Showing plant motif in railing

Refuge: Communal spaces should have elements of privacy for refuge, as well as for intimate socialization.



Biomimicry: Community infrastructure could be biomorphic in design



Motifs: Utilize animal or plant inspired motif for additional visual effectiveness for example in railings. (see image 23)

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Urban Design Implications

in Colorado, El Paso Image 23: Source: http://www.cut-it-out.org/public/index.htm

Case B: Holman Park and Green Street Bike Boulevard (street), Portland, Oregon

Project type: Neighbourhood bikeway with green streets and storm water retrofit in adjacent public park.

Urban storm water runoff pollutes rivers and streams and contributes to combined sewer overflows (CSOs) to the Willamette River. The Council of Portland decided to engage on a sustainable street project around the City, in order to reduce the negative impacts of storm water runoff. Referred to as a green street, it mimics natural conditions by managing runoff on the surface at its source. This project was made possible by a special collaboration between the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Portland Bureau of Environmental Services, Portland Parks & Recreation, Portland Bureau of Transportation (PBOT), and Portland Water Bureau.

They proceeded to move the curb line, thus creating an opportunity to expand the landscape area and decrease the paved area. The Woodlawn area neighbourhood played a role in the design process as the existing public space had outdated play structures, two benches in disrepair, and a picnic table. Their desire was to remove the play structure, and have additional seating and a kiosk. Holman Street was then closed in order to enhance bike and pedestrian safety. Storm water is also managed in a nature- friendly manner through the use of stormwater curb extension, by utilizing landscape with plants that

Image 25: Shows Holman park in pink, and

aids in filtering pollutants from stormwater runoff. The

Holman ROW stormwater management facilities in yellow. Source: Holman Park, Green

entire design overall, provides functional space for

street park report, 2012

users’ enjoyment, and well-being.

There are four (4) major catchment areas, shown in different colours. Each catchment is labelled A-D to correspond with the facility type into which it flows. The facility types are as follows: A) infiltration basin, B) infiltration planter, C) green streets, D) landscape filter strips, E) ecoroof. The ecoroof accepts rain that falls on it. (see image 25)

Streets must be re-imagined as not only infrastructure for the conveyance of cars and traffic, but as places that provides habitats for native plants and biodiversity, collect and treat

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stormwater, and a place and space where pedestrians can have an interaction with natural features whilst traversing along it.

Naturalistic This neighbourhood bikeway with green streets and stormwater retrofit, provides multiple opportunities for persons to have direct contact with nature, offering a sense of fascination, wonder and awe, by being intimate with the natural elements of the street.

Curvilinear benches are alongside the street which allow persons to congregate and interact with the plants. (See Image 26). (See Appendix 3, table 6 for biophilic elements from this case) Overall, the street is friendlier as users can enjoy the variety of plant and animal species that are present.

Image 26: Shows Section of Holman Park ‘s green street with planting and sidewalk bench Source: http://www.museumofthecity.org/project/rainwater-projects-in-portland-oregon/ 03/07/2016 Portlands green streets

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Aesthetic With persons’ preference of natural scenes over built views, this case reveals how the street can be retrofitted to make it more appealing to cyclists, pedestrians, and for the home owners living on NW 13th Avenue. Although for the purpose of functionality, for stormwater runoff purposes, retrofitting the street with space to provide vegetation, achieves several aesthetic outcomes. Furthermore, by providing a habitat for biodiversity, “increasing vegetation in urban areas leads to reduced ambient and surface temperatures, and increased evapotranspiration, precipitation interception and reduced runoff. “(Gill et al, 2007) It is therefore considered as an effective option for mitigating against the urban heat island effect.

Additionally, a study conducted by CABE Space (2005), has shown that property value can be increased by 5-18 percent with the presence of a healthy tree cover, as opposed to communities without them. Persons usually prefer these locations as aesthetically, the community looks more attractive with trees and plants. (see image 27)

Green SUDS

street

and

Green SUDS

street

and

Unobtrusive views of green street from residences Unobtrusive views of green street from residences

Image 27: Shows extended curb for SUDS. Source: http://www.museumofthecity.org/project/rain-water-projects-in-portland-oregon/ 03/07/2016 Portlands’ green streets

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Humanistic The opportunity to create a humanistic experience that this green street brings to the life of its users and viewers, is by the way in which all the design elements come together for functional and aesthetical purposes; to transform the street in to a natural amenity space. (See Image 28 & 29) Permeability is increased, and a sense of community and place is created by which a notice board with a green roof is provided. The net benefits of shading effects for human’s thermal comfort is an additional Image 28: Curvilinear benches along feature, by reducing the radiant temperature emitted by Holman Park Green Street

the sun.

Source: Holman Park, Green street park report, 2012

Streets trees also have the potential to regulate air quality by absorbing pollutants and increasing pollutant deposition. (Salmon et al, 2016) The impact of sound from the surrounding urban context can also be regulated by the use of trees, as a study done by Porteous J.D. et al, (1985, pg.86). shows how people prefer natural sounds of leaves rustling, and birdlife sounds, as opposed to anthropogenic sources from urban traffic.

These all can contribute positively to the physical and emotional states of the user of the street, by altering the soundscape of a particular area.

Image

29: Feature used for community advertising of events, creates opportunity for residents to gather as a social space Source: Holman Park, Green street park report, 2012

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Urban Design Implications 

Street as stormwater management utility: Innovative stormwater management that integrate natural elements can be incorporated into street design and serve the purposes of alleviating flooding, provide habitat, and additional public space.



Create interaction: By providing street trees, plantings, and seating along the roadway, this can allow the street to be a focal point for the community.

(Image 30)



Acoustics: The use of trees can be used to reduce sounds from vehicles as well as create natural sounds for sensory stimulation.



Ecosystem: Streets could be designed as ecosystems where man-made systems interface with natural systems.

Urban Design Implications 

Street as stormwater management utility: Innovative stormwater management that integrate natural elements can be incorporated into street design and serve the purposes of alleviating flooding, provide habitat, and additional public space.



Create interaction: By providing street trees, plantings, and seating along the roadway, this can

Image 30:the Shows green street with point amenities for community. sitting on allow street to be a focal for the Lonsdale Street, Dadenong

(Image 30) Source: BKK https://uk.pinterest.com/pin/175781191685440998/ Lonsdale Acoustics: The use of trees can be Street, Dadenong

Architects

used to reduce

sounds from vehicles as well as create natural sounds for sensory stimulation. 

Ecosystem: Streets could be designed as ecosystems where man-made systems interface with natural systems.

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Case C: Singapore

Gardens by the Bay This has been one of Singapore’s strategies to transform the city from Garden City, into a City in a Garden, which has established itself as an international icon and leisure destination.

Designed by Grant Associates, are tree- like structures between 25 meters and 50 meters in height (9 to 16 storeys), 18 Supertrees, which are specially designed vertical gardens, with an emphasis placed on creating a sense of awe, through a vertical display of tropical flowering climbers, epiphytes and ferns. In the night, these canopies, are animated with lighting and projected media.

The Conservatory Complex are buildings which aims to display plants and flowers, and educational- entertainment space within the Gardens. A series of collection gardens namely, the Heritage Gardens, and the World of Plants, are centered on the subjects: Plants and People, and Plants and Planet. Other attractions in this Image 31: Shows the Supertrees in background public space includes a cluster of an additional next to one of the conservatories.

Source: Koh, B.S. (2012) Perpetual Spring, Singapore’s Gardens by the Bay, Marshall Cavendish Editions 2012; Singapore

12 Supertrees, (see Image 31) a dragonfly lake, a promenade along the Marina’s edge, a forest, and an events lawn. The urban design principles

related to biophilia and the research’s three chosen theories will further aim to highlight what can be learnt from this park.

Naturalistic

The Gardens by the Bay offers multiple chances for people to come in contact with nature, but this analysis will only focus on the urban design features.

The cooled conservatories were sited on the water’s edge so that the sun would cast less shadows in an east- west orientation from nearby buildings and trees. This is said to provide maximum light which is Image 32: Shows two conservatories needed for the flowering of the plants. This can have located on Bay’s edge and away from other buildings for maximum sunlight

some design implication on the siting of buildings.

Source: Koh, B.S. (2012) Perpetual Spring, Singapore’s

Gardens

by

the

Bay,

Cavendish Editions 2012; Singapore

Marshall

- 50 -

(see Image 32) The masterplan ensured that open space planning, linking horticulture, with recreation, science, art, and culture, digital information and media, retail and commerce, food, leisure, and education are coherently mixed.

The Conservatories mimics a mammoth, with metallic exoskeletons, and steel arches looking like exposed ribs. (See Appendix 3, table 5 for biophilic elements from this case) They offer the opportunity for visitors to physically and emotionally interact with over 1,000 species of plants from every continent except Antarctica, and seeks to educate people on climate change, and deforestation. This design shows a different land use, one in which the block is for the purpose of housing plants and trees, in order to provide educational, plant and species habitat, as well as for entertainment purposes. The Supertrees, which are constructed vertical gardens allows for interaction through the provision of an aerial walkway, mimics nature as well through asymmetry, and its rounded edges.

Aesthetic

All along the Marina Channel, there are unimpeded views. The Conservatories, and the Supertrees which are covered with epiphytes are visually appealing, and offers an intriguing enhancement by showing innovative habitats for plants to grow on. The skyway allows persons to feel as if they are walking at the top of a canopy of trees. The

Image 33: Shows the use of light to stimulate different emotions and biophilic features.

gist of the Supertrees shows the

Source: Koh, B.S. (2012) Perpetual Spring, Singapore’s Gardens by the Bay, Marshall Cavendish Editions 2012;

effectiveness of simulating natural systems,

Singapore

and how it can be used provide

environmental functions. These mechanical forests are used to generate solar power, act as air venting ducts for the conservatories, and collects rainwater. They also act as temperature moderators, absorbing and dispersing heat, as well as provide shelter Image 34: Shows overhead bridge in between from the hot temperatures of Singapore’s Supertree structures Source: Koh, B.S. (2012) Perpetual Spring, Singapore’s

climate. (see Image 34) They act as an

Gardens by the Bay, Marshall Cavendish Editions 2012;

attraction, provide focal points, and

Singapore

- 51 -

landmarks for way finding. (Grant Associates Ltd., 2012) Seeing that the heights are significantly higher than other structures of the park, habitats and ecosystems, this green structure provides visual interaction for the city’s residents, and shows how biomimicry can play multiple roles in the design of urban spaces. As described by the designers; (Grant Associates Ltd, 2012), at night, lighting is used to engage visitors by helping to convey the power of trees, water, wind, and other natural elements, and also for the creation of spaces to facilitate the discovery of “spiritual forces”. This encourages the biophilic elements of mystery and interactivity.

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Humanistic

There is a collection of four gardens that reflect the history and culture of Singapore’s main ethnic groups, as well as the city- state’s colonial heritage, being Chinese, Malay, Indian and Old Colonial. Each garden explores the rich cultural significance of different plant species including their symbolism, religious significance, trade, food and medicinal uses. This element in urban design practice could be a means of bridging the Image 35: Shows a pond in the Chinese gap between history and the present, as features Garden with replicated animals carved rocks.

Source: Koh, B.S. (2012) Perpetual Spring, Singapore’s

in the public realm or otherwise, could

Gardens by the Bay, Marshall Cavendish Editions 2012;

accommodate replicas that are symbolic to

Singapore

different groups of people. (see Image 35) This is one alternative way the urban designer could

design for inclusion and diversity, as persons which hold significance to each feature, would have an appreciation for that detail.

The design implication of this goes back to the potential to trigger a humanistic experience to which different people of varying background could potentially have a strong affection for each individual element as it ties in to their cultural and social background and identity.

The Dragonfly Lake, as blue infrastructure, is based on the dragonfly, (see Image 36) which is the main theme of Gardens-By-the-Bay, as

Image 36: Shows birds eye view of the

different cultures have different meanings

development, showing its shape of a dragon-fly through biomimicry

attached to dragonflies and what they

Source: Koh, B.S. (2012) Perpetual Spring, Singapore’s Gardens by the Bay, Marshall Cavendish Editions 2012;

represent. Symbolizing purity, good fortune,

Singapore

sustainability, and cultural diversity, the entire Bay’s development, when viewed aerially, forms the shape of a dragonfly. Dating back to 250 million years to the Earth’s Permian period, dragonflies are the most visible indicators of water quality and wetland diversity and health- whereas they gather, feed and breed where the water is clean. This is used to demonstrate how utilizing natural symbols in the design of public spaces, can have some implication on the various experiences of people, as they will - 53 -

be better able to identify with the space in which they will use. This knowledge of born intimate human interaction with a non-human species is conveyed in Barry Lopez’s description of domesticated wolves (1979:282), as he demonstrates how this kind of interaction may also can contribute to evolutionary fitness and knowledge, through the acquisition of skills and understandings of nature. This is demonstrated as visitors to the park are educated on the importance and symbolic importance of the dragonfly. Biophilic design is not only about the physical elements, but also about the emotional commitment and concern about nature and other forms of life, its interest in and curiosity about nature.

(Beatley, 2011)

Urban Design Implications 

Footpaths and bridges: for densely planted areas, overhead footpaths could be

Interact wi used as a way of providing visual and non- visual connection with nature, especially with simulating the experience of one being in a canopy of trees. 

Diversifying land use: When allocating land-uses on a site, horticulture could be included as it can be used as a means for supporting adjacent land uses with energy, educational, amenity space, and opportunities for users to interact with nature.



Biomimicry: Through biomimicry, public art, buildings, and street furniture can serve the purpose of landmarks and aid with place identity.



Green walls: Façade greening creates visual, and non-visual stimuli to users, provide endpoints for vistas, provides environmental cooling, as well as creates a habitat for biodiversity.



Cultural Identity through Nature: Biophilic urban design responsive to diversity and cultural identity, can encourage users to appreciate the natural elements of city more.



Knowledge transfer: Designing urban spaces to educate people on the benefits of nature can be achieved through replication and biomimicry.



Lighting: Lighting of different colours and intensities, can be used to trigger different emotional reactions.



Urban greening: It is possible to increase the provision of natural systems in a dense environment.

Urban Design Implications 

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Footpaths and bridges: for densely planted areas, overhead footpaths could be

Matrix Analysis

Upon assessing the various biophilic elements from each case study, from table 3, (see Appendix 2) it reveals that irrespective of the differences in scale, there are some common features present related to biophilic design, however it shows that the bigger the scale (city wide), the more opportunities are presented to make small to large sized interventions that would ultimately seek to make a city more nature friendly.

Section Conclusion The UK has room for improvement and learn from these case studies within the discipline of place making in street design, community design and city design, as individually, each case study shows that several initiatives at different scales can add- up to major changes, although we cannot generalize. Birmingham as an example, shows its transformation from being industrial, to the only city in the biophilic cities project, and highlights the importance of conceiving, designing and managing urban space. This in turn enhances the attractiveness of our cities to investors and visitors as seen in Singapore, and the importance of retrofitting existing built infrastructure (streets) to move away from one solitary use, to a more integrated and diversified use.

The UK is known for iconic and sustainable buildings, and a range of open green spaces.

However, there are lessons to be learnt on how to improve and create places which will stimulate different reactions from its users, re- connect us to our innate needs, and acknowledge lessons from species that have inhabited the earth centuries before human existence. Design which support wildlife, promote health, wellbeing, a high quality of life, and opportunities to connect with nature, is a sustainable way of envisaging the role and future of urban design as an emerging discipline. These are all necessary to be able to compete in a world of rapid globalization so that UK cities can be better able to compete on an international stage in terms of sustainability.

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Chapter 4: Illustrative Outcome/ Design Guidelines: Redesigning Master Plan

Framework for Old Oak Common, London N

1:5000

Figure 3: Shows biophilic designed master plan framework

- 56 -

N

1:5000

Figure 4: Shows biophilic designed master plan for Old Oak Common, London

- 57 -

N

1:5000

Figure 5: Shows illustrated master plan with extrapolated biophilic design elements

- 58 -

Figure 6: Shows biophilic redesigned street modified from the National Association of City Transportation Officials: Urban Street Design Guide (2013)

Image 37: Streets in Amsterdam with painted facades.

Precedent: Copenhagen, Denmark The use of colour on the facades of buildings in Scandinavian countries is that they alter people’s mood and adds vibrancy to the streets during the harsh winter season. This falls under the element of a diverse colour palette as colour psychology explains the impact of colour on human beings. (See Appendix 4) Source: Claire Webb, http://www.radiotimes.com/offers/travel/news/2016-02-22/explore-the-copenhagen-of-eddieredmaynes-danish-girl 22/2/2016

Precedent: Copenhagen, Denmark - 59 The use of colour on the facades of buildings in Scandinavian countries is that they alter people’s mood and adds vibrancy to the streets during the harsh winter season. This falls under the element of a diverse colour palette as colour psychology explains the impact of

Conclusions This research has proven that opportunities are available to connect city dwellers with nature at the street, neighbourhood, and community/city level using biophilic design. As demonstrated by the case studies, they all showed us ways on how to ensure biodiversity can thrive within spaces in an urban environment, and that the issue is not whether cities has enough green space, or is too dense, but is more about how these spaces can be biophilic to actually create opportunities for people to connect to our innate need. Access to nature should not be a place that is periodically visited, but should be a surrounding feature, whereby doing common daily activities, one without effort has the chance to be relaxed, delighted, soothed, replenished, inspired, or restored by the city that we live in. Additionally, it is clear that Architects, Landscape Architects and designers are beginning to incorporate biophilic designs in their work, however Planners and Urban Designers seem to be lagging behind. The subject at hand about sustainable development, should not be addressed without considering the sustainable preservation of humanity, to ensure that our evolution process does not continue without species diversity which was created prior to our existence. Some successes include highlighting intricate details related to design, which can raise awareness to Urban designers of what extra can be considered when designing a framework.

The opportunity for further research includes researching and analysing the effects of each biophilic element on human beings in order to provide evidence as to why these elements are needed in the city, and working on building a case study evidence base for the implementation of biophilic design in to urban design projects. (See Limitations P 10)

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Appendix 1: Glossary

Biomimicry: the design and production of materials, structures, and systems that are modelled on biological entities and processes.

Biophilia: The innate tendency to focus on life and lifelike processes. The proposition suggests that human identity and personal fulfillment depend on our relationship to nature.

Biophilic design: it aims to restore natural stimuli in the built environment to maintain, restore, and enhance our physiological, cognitive and psychological connections to the natural world.

Biophilic Hypothesis: is an evolutionary theory, stating that the majority of humanity’s evolution was spent in natural environments (Tviet, Sang and Hagerhall, 2013).

Biophilic Urbanism: can be defined as a concept in building construction, as the art and science of blending building with nature. In general, biophilic design incorporates real or simulated natural elements in an effort to promote wellbeing.

Biophilic and Restorative Responses: A biophilic response can be defined as a measurable response triggered by natural stimuli that leads to the restoration (Browning, Clancy and Ryan, 2014) of depleted personal facilities (allostasis) (McEwen, 2000) or the enhancement of these facilities to buffer environmental stressors (instoration) (Hartig, Mang and Evan, 1991). These responses can be classed as being either psychological (mood, self-esteem) (Hartig et al, 1996), physiological (blood pressure, hormone levels) (Barton and Pretty, 2010) or cognitive (creativity, mental performance) (Berman, Jonides and Kaplan, 2008).

Prospect: An environmental condition, situation, object or arrangement conducive to the attainment of a view. (Appleton, 1996) Refuge: An environmental condition, situation, object or arrangement conducive to hiding or sheltering. (Appleton, 1996) Prospect and refuge theory It is important to highlight this theory as coined by Appleton in 1975, and later built on by Hildebrand (1991), which explains how humans are attracted to landscape scenes that have certain conditions, including; broad prospective views, visible locations of refuge, presence of water, plant life, and other living non-threatening species. (Heerwagen and Orians, 1993).

This theory also states that humanity has a deep seated need to be on the edge of defined spaces, for security and to ease perception of fear/danger. The preference for overhead cover is noted, as it allows the restriction of views into the space, but allows external views from within the space, while providing a degree of protection to the surveyor (Hildebrand, 2008). In Urban Design sense, this is useful to show how in well-designed spaces, this

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concept should be taken in to account, as it aids in triggering certain emotional reactions, and behavioural responses to the aesthetics of a place. This could be tied in with biophilic design principles, in order to guide a masterplan framework.

Sustainability: development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.

Urban greening: is an integrated approach to the planting, care and management of all vegetation in cities, towns and informal settlements in urban and peri-urban areas.

Urban Ecology: the study of the relationship between living organisms and their urban environment Vista: a view restricted by conspicuous bounding margins, generally vertical or nearvertical. (Appleton, 1996)

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Journals and Databases

The Urban Forestry and Urban Greening database Journal of Architecture and Urbanism Resource for Urban Design Information (RUDI) Rutledge Research Base Journal of Urban Design The International Society of Biourbanism The Landscape Institute

Key Texts

Biophilia by Edward Wilson, (1984) The Biophilia Hypothesis (1993) by Kellert and Wilson The Landscape Urbanism Reader by Charles Waldheim (2006) Biophilic Design, by Stephen Keller et al (2008) Sustainable Urbanism: Urban Design with Nature by Douglas Farr (2008) Browning, W., Clancy, J. and Ryan, C. (2014) 14 Patterns of Biophilic Design: Improving Health and Well-Being in the Built Environment, Biophilic Cities by Timothy Beatley (2010)

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