The Reproductive System

The Reproductive System The Complete Guide to the Human Reproductive System

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Table of Contents What Is Reproduction?

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Meiosis- The Story of A Nucleus ​ Page 8 Key Terms About Chromosomal Mutations ​ Page 11 Part of the Male and Female Reproductive Systems Page 13 Puberty ​ Page 15 The Menstrual Cycle ​ Page 18 Fertilization and Childbirth ​ Page 19 Birth Control ​ Page 29 Sexually Transmitted Diseases​ Page 30

Relationships with Other Systems ​ Page 35

What Is Reproduction?

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WHAT IS REPRODUCTION? Reproduction is the process by which new organisms are produced. Reproduction also causes genes to be passed down.

WHY IS REPRODUCTION IMPORTANT? Reproduction is important because it causes more organisms to be produced. This allows the population to not become extinct or endangered. In addition, reproduction allows traits to be passed down from parents to their offspring. This passing down of traits also involves mutations, which are changes in the genetic code. Some mutations have positive benefits, while others can have adverse effects. Through mutations being passed down and species changing, evolution occurs.

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WHAT THINGS REPRODUCE? All living things reproduce!

How To Identify Living Things: If something carries out these processes and fits these characteristics, then it's living!

● Movement ● Respiration (Breathing) ● Sensitivity (Responding to change) ● Growth and development ● Excretion (Releasing waste) ● Reproduction ● Nutrition (Eating) ● Made up of cells and has an organization ● Uses energy ● Homeostasis

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WHAT IS ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION? Asexual reproduction is when there is only one parent involved in the process of reproduction. All the genes originate from the single parent.

TYPES OF ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION ● Binary Fission:​ This form of reproduction is commonly done by bacteria. In this process, the cell elongates, the DNA is copied, the cell wall and plasma membrane begin to divide, and eventually the parent cell splits into two daughter cells. ● Budding: ​ In this type of asexual reproduction, the bud, or offspring, is a small unit that grows on the body of the parent. As each bud becomes bigger, it procures more qualities of the parent. Eventually, it falls off and becomes an individual, or it may separate from the parent after it has completely developed and grown. An organism that reproduces through budding is a sponge. ● Mitosis:​ Mitosis is the process in which two daughter cells are formed from a parent cell, which are identical. This is commonly known as cell division. Look below to see each step of mitosis and what happens.

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THE PROCESS OF BINARY FISSION

THE PROCESS OF BUDDING

Observe each step of binary fission, along with a drawing stimulating the situation of the cell.

Observe each step of budding of the Hydra, along with pictures of the organism at each step.

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BINARY FISSION FROM AN ELECTRON MICROSCOPE This picture was taken by an electron microscope of a bacteria going through binary fission. Can you guess what stage this is by using your knowledge and other resources on this Smore?

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WHAT IS SEXUAL REPRODUCTION? Sexual reproduction is the process by which an organism is created by two different parent organisms. This means that the genetic information of the offspring is not completely identical to one parent, but is a mix of the two parents.

TYPES OF SEXUAL REPRODUCTION ● Transformation: ​ Organisms, most commonly bacteria, pick up DNA from their surroundings and attempt to use it. This causes the merging of two different sources of genetic material. ● Transduction: ​ The DNA of one bacterial cell is moved to another through a virus. After the virus is released from the host cell and goes to infect another cell, at times, viruses cut out a bit of the host cell's DNA, so as they go around, they carry bacterial DNA, which 5

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they pass around. In addition, when the bacteria keeps reproducing, and the virus is in a stagnant state, the viral DNA, which is a part of the host DNA, is passed around in the form of bacterial cells.

Meiosis:​ This process is vital for sexual reproduction. It makes gametes, or sex cells, such as the sperm and the egg. The sperm and egg are vital because they carry genetic information of two different organisms, and if the two cells merge to create a zygote, it can form into an embryo. An embryo is an offspring which is still developing.

Conjugation:​ A pilli (a hair that is used for sticking to things, commonly found in bacteria) has a gene that causes it to become a tube. Through the tube, the cell connects itself to another bacterial cell. Then, a copy of genetic material (copy of DNA or a copy of the genes in the plasmid) is sent to the other cell through the tube.

Fertilization:​ Fertilization is the process in which two gametes (sex cells which have only one set of chromosomes) join together, or fuse. This causes the development of a new offspring to begin.

Human Fertilization: ​ Through the process of sex, when the sperm cells of the male, enter the female in the form of semen, find an egg, and fertilizes it, a zygote is created.

The zygote will eventually, if correctly maintained, will form into an embryo, which, after an approximated time of 9 months, will be brought out of the female.

Pollination:​ Since angiosperms, or flowering plants, can't move and reproduce like humans do, they need a pollinator to help transfer the genetic material from the male parts of a plant to the female parts of another plant. Pollen carries the genetic material from the male parts, which is carried from plant to plant by a pollinator. A pollinator is usually a bird, bat, or a bee. Flowers attract the flying animals to come and find nectar.

Nectar is a liquid that is sugary that plants release. When the pollen is left on the other plant, it fertilizes the plant's ovary, and a seed begins to form.

TRANSFORMATION, TRANSDUCTION, AND CONJUGATION

MEIOSIS Image Courtesy of Encyclopedia Britannica

ONE EGG, MULTIPLE SPERM Image Courtesy of Animal­Kid

Image Courtesy of Boundless

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PROCESS OF POLLINATION

HUMAN FERTILIZATION

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POLLINATION BASICS Image Courtesy of Easy Science for Kids

ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION VS. SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

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MEIOSIS THE PROCESS FROM THE POINT OF VIEW OF THE NUCLEUS

Image Courtesy of Encyclopedia Britannica

WHAT IS MEIOSIS?

Meiosis is the process in which gametes (or sex cells) are produced. The purpose of meiosis is to produce haploid gametes. (Haploid means "containing only one set of chromosomes").

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OVERVIEW OF MEIOSIS

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Diploid (Cell with two sets of chromosomes) ­> Cell that has replicated its DNA (Tetraploid­ cell with four sets of chromosomes) ­> Cell splits into two diploid cells ­> The two diploid cells split into 4 cells which all have one set of chromosomes.

STEPS OF MEIOSIS IN THE POINT OF VIEW OF THE NUCLEUS

Refer to the diagram of meiosis above as you follow along with this narration.

INTERPHASE It's the beginning. This cell is about to be split. I can feel it. It's going through interphase.​ The DNA is getting replicated, and now there are four sets of chromosomes in this cell. ​ As we are getting ready for meiosis, ​ our one centrosome duplicates and becomes two.​ The start of this process has me wondering: where will we end up?

PROPHASE I The ​ four chromosomes are lining up in the middle of the cell, in sets of two, which is called synapsis. ​ This makes it look like there are four sister chromatids lined up in one; this tetrad is going to go through the most intriguing concept I've ever had to understand as a nucleus: crossing over. The DNA is exchanged between the chromatids.​ When I studied about this, it's said to cause genetic variation and new combinations of traits.This is why all of the gametes that 9

the parent cell will form are different. Controlling all of this makes me feel proud. There is always the potential of a new individual being born, due to my commanding. Along with the crossing over, the ​ centrosomes (they're also called centrioles sometimes) move to the poles of the cell and start to make spindle fibers.

METAPHASE I Here, in this phase, it's fairly calm in the cell. The ​ tetrads are at the equator of the cell and have attached to the spindle fibers made by the centrosomes.​ But as they say, it's always quiet before the storm.

ANAPHASE I This is when it all breaks apart, literally.​ The spindle fibers begin to shorten and pull the sister chromatids (or a singular chromosomes) towards the pole.

TELOPHASE I This is perhaps the first goodbye I will be saying. It does give me great pain to see my cell split, but I know it is for the good of the body. Soon enough, this will help it reach its potential. ​ The sister chromatids reach the poles and the cell divides into two diploid cells.

PROPHASE II It's common to hear that all good and bad things come in sets of three, but for now I believe they come in sets of two, just like meiosis. Prophase II begins the second part of meiosis. ​ The chromatids move to the equator. However, there is no crossing over in this phase.

METAPHASE II Once again, the quiet before the storm settles into place. However, the cells have gotten used to it. ​ The chromatids line up, once again, at the equator and attach to the spindle fibers of the centrosomes.

ANAPHASE II The centromere breaks; the chromatids begin to move towards the poles.​ Now, there is no chromosomes. There are only chromatids.

TELOPHASE II The last meeting. The last time these chromosomes will be in a cell together. Memories are made, but these memories will be forgotten. Only I will have a faint recognition of them. For the last time, the chromatids reach the poles of the cell and the ​ last cell division occurs. Now, there are four haploid cells, meaning there are four cells that all have only one set of chromosomes.

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Key Terms About Chromosomal Mutations

Haploid (1N) An organism or cell with one set of chromosomes. EX: Sex cells (Egg and Sperm) Diploid (2N) An organism or cell with two sets of chromosomes. EX: Normal human beings Tetraploid (4N) An organism or cell with four sets of chromosomes. EX: The parent cell in meiosis interphase, when the DNA replicates.

Mutation A change in the nucleotide sequence of DNA Chromosomal Mutation A mutation that produces change in the entire chromosome. It changes the number or structure of chromosomes.

Chromosomal Deletion A gene is deleted. This makes the chromosome shorter.

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Chromosomal Duplication An extra copy of all or parts of a chromosome is made and attached. This makes the chromosome longer.

Chromosomal Inversion Specific parts of a chromosome are "flip flopped" or have a change in the order.

Chromosomal Translocation A gene breaks of off one chromosome and attaches to another.

Mutagen A chemical or physical agent in the environment that causes a mutation.

Karyotype A picture of chromosomes.

Normal Amount of Chromosomes 46 chromosomes (22 pairs and 2 sex chromosomes)

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Parts of the Male and Female Reproductive Systems

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Male Reproductive System: ● Seminal Vesicles​ are exocrine glands that store, and produce some of the semen. ● Ejaculatory Duct​ opens and releases sperm. Then the sperm travels to the Urethra. ● The ​ Prostate​ is another exocrine gland. It produces most of the liquid fluid in semen. ● Cowper's Glands​ are exocrine glands, which add extra fluid to the semen. They add this fluid, during the ejaculation process. This now thick fluid acts as a lubricant. With a less watery environment, it may be more suitable for sperm survival.

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● The ​ Penis'​ main function is to deliver semen into the vagina. This should happen during sexual intercourse. ● The ​ Urethra​ is where the semen exits the body, along with urine. The Urethra is a 8 to 10 inch long muscular tube. ● Testes​ , also referred as testicles, produce sperm and testosterone . The sperm are the male gametes, and the testosterone are the male hormones. ● The ​ epididymis ​ is where the sperm are stored. Sperm produced in the testes move into the epididymis to mature, before being passed through the male reproductive organs. ● The ​ scrotum​ is a combination of muscle and skin that surrounds the testes. These sac­like organ regulates the temperature for the testes.

Female Reproductive System: ● The ​ fallopian tubes ​ are a pair of muscular tubes. The fallopian tubes end in a funnel­shaped structure called the infundibulum, which is covered with small finger­like shapes, called fimbriae. The fimbriae are located just outside of the ovaries to pick up released ova and carry them into the infundibulum. Which then takes the egg into the uterus. Every month during ovulation, a mature ovum(egg) is released. It travels from the ovary to the Fallopian tube where it waits to be fertilized before, reaching the uterus. ● Ovaries ​ produce female sex hormones, such as estrogen, progesterone, and ova.

Ova are commonly called eggs, which are the female gametes. Ova are produced from oocyte cells that slowly mature during a woman's life. They reach maturity after puberty. The ovaries are 2 small glands on both sides of the pelvic. They are lateral to the uterus. ● The​ uterus​ is also known as the womb. It provides support and surrounds the developing fetus, during pregnancy. ● The ​ cervix​ acts as a barrier to protect the uterus from infection. Also, it is the opening of the women when giving birth. ● During sexual intercourse, the ​ vagina​ provides a passageway for the sperm. It carries the sperm through the uterus and to the Fallopian tubes. Aside from this, the menstruation(blood) of the menstrual cycle flow exits through the vagina. ● The ​ vulva​ surrounds the external ends of the urethral opening and the vagina.

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Puberty What is Puberty?

For both genders, puberty is the time your body starts to mature into an adult. During this transition, you will notice changes in your body.

Puberty prepares your body to be capable of sexual reproduction.

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What is the Science Behind Puberty?

When your body is ready to begin puberty, it sends a message to your pituitary gland to release special hormones. You have different hormones, based on whether you're a girl or boy. Girls have hormones called estrogen, and boys have hormones called testosterone. A little while after the message is sent, your body begins to grow pubic hair.

Pubic hair is hair that grows on your genital areas. Also,during puberty you might notice something red pop up onto your face. That is called a pimple. This happens when your body overproduces oil and it gets stuck in your skin follicle. All of these changes are perfectly normal. In addition, individuals begin to grow taller.

Puberty in Girls 15Â

Girls tend to hit puberty earlier than boys, around the age of 8-13. The indication that a girl has hit puberty is when she gets her period. This is a common word for her menstrual cycle. Also, during puberty the girl starts to grow pubic hair and underarm hair . Lastly, her breasts begin to grow and develop.

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Puberty in Boys

Boys commonly experience puberty at the age of 9-15. Boys go through many changes, during their phase of puberty. To begin with, they grow facial, underarm, pubic, and sometimes, chest hair. Also, you will begin your growth spurt. During puberty, expect your penis and testes to grow. Also, random erections become common. Erections are when a boy gets sexually excited, and blood rushes to his penis. This causes the penis to rise, and release semen.

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Emotional States During Puberty Boys

Girls

● Emotional Ups and Downs in daily life

● Mood Swings During Menstrual Cycle

● Feeling self conscious

● Irritated easily

● Getting Sexual Feelings

● Getting Sexual Feelings

Both genders experience mood changes, when progressing through puberty. You might feel sad on moment and happy the next. Mood swing are usually minor, if they affect your everyday life and function seek medical help.

What Does One Need To Do When They Hit Puberty?

When you have hit puberty, you will need to start using deodorant. This is because you body will now start to sweat more often, and release toxins.

Picture courtesy of Clip Art If you any further questions about puberty, ask a parent, doctor, or trusted adult.

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Menstrual Cycle

What is the menstrual cycle?

It is a series of changes a woman's body goes through, to prepare for pregnancy.

When does it happen?

You get your first period between the ages of 11-14.

How long does a period last?

A regular period last between 4-7 days. The menstrual cycle happens on an average of every month. At the age of 50, you will reach menopause.

What are the phases of the menstrual cycle?

Follicular Phase: This is where the mature egg is waiting to be released.

Ovulation: The mature egg is released into the Fallopian tubes and is waiting to be fertilized.

Luteal Phase: The 13-15 day window for the egg to be fertilized, which allows you to become pregnant.

When an egg is not fertilized, it is released through a blood flow that lasts 4-7 days.

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Fertilization and Childbirth

Fertilization:​ The process in which a sperm joins with an egg.

When the male ejaculates sperm through the penis and into the vagina of the female, thousands of sperm swim into the Fallopian tubes, which is where the egg is present.

The egg has binding sites; the sperm attach to these specific locations.

When the sperm is attached, the sperm releases enzymes to break down a specific layer of the egg. Both gametes, or haploid cells, join and form a diploid, or something with two sets of chromosomes.

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Did you know that an egg cell has granules that attach to the surface of the egg to stop other sperms from entering the egg after one already has?

Zygote: ​ A zygote is a fertilized egg.

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Mitosis of the Zygote

When the zygote is still in the Fallopian tubes, it begins to go through mitosis, which is cell division. Each time the cell divides, the total number of cells doubles. By four days, the zygote is called a ​ morula​ , and it has about 64 cells.

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3 Early Stages of Development: ● Implantation: A cavity forms in the center of the morula. This causes the morula to have a blastocyst (inner cavity). This blastocyst attaches itself to the uterus of the mother. The embryo releases enzymes to help with the process.

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● Gastrulation: This is the migration of cells, which causes three layers of the blastocyst to be created. The three cell layers are the ectoderm(will eventually become the skin and nervous system), the endoderm (will eventually form the lining of the digestive system and other digestive organs), and the mesoderm (which will form many internal tissues and organs). ● Neurulation: The development of the nervous system. Slowly, parts of the mesodermal tissue begin to form parts of nervous system, like the spine and brain.

Implantation

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Gastrulation

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Neurulation

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Membranes of the Embryo

The chorionic villi and lining of the uterus create the ​ placenta​ . The placenta is the organ of the embryo that allows it to respire, excrete, and get nourishment through the mother. The placenta is the connection between the mother and the embryo.

Membranes form to protect the developing embryo. The two membranes that form are the ​ amnion ​ and the ​ chorion.​ The chorion, by the end of the third week of development, begins to form chorionic villi. (Villi are small things that stick out from the embryo).

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Fetus

The fetus is the embryo after eight weeks of development. Most of its organs and tissues are formed, its muscular system is almost completely developed, has a mass of an average of 28 grams, and a probable height for the fetus is 8 centimeters long.

The umbilical chord is also formed. It is made up of two arteries and one vein. It connects the fetus to the placenta.

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More Development!

4th­6th months after fertilization: a. Tissues become more specialized and begin to work. b. The heart can be heard with a stethoscope. c. Hair begins to grow on the fetus's skin. d. Bone replaces the cartilage.

6th­9th months after fertilization: a. Lungs and organs go through changes that help prepare them to live outside of the uterus. b. Fetus can control body temperature. c. The central nervous system(brain and spinal cord) and lungs finish developing.

Image Courtesy of Britannica

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Childbirth

How does childbirth begin?

The hormone, oxytocin, is released from a gland in the mother's body. This hormone causes labor to occur because it affects the large involuntary muscles of the wall of the uterus.

How does childbirth occur?

The cervix of the mother begins to open so that it is large enough for the baby's head to go through. Then, a sac breaks in the uterus, and fluid begins to come out of the vagina. The baby comes out, usually head first, through the vagina.

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Sexually Transmitted Diseases

What are STDs? How does one treat STDs? How do STDs affect an individual? ●

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S​ exually ​ T​ ransmitted ​ D​ iseases are diseases that spread in between people by contact. (Contact includes any type of sexual intercourse, skin­to­skin contact, or exchange of bodily fluids) Some STDs can cause infertility (the ability to not become a mother) and even death. (Death in the cases of HIV/AIDS) Having sexual intercourse at a young age, as well as having lots of unprotected sex from different people are factors that increase the probability of someone getting a sexually transmitted disease.

There are cures for bacterial STDs, if the issue is addressed at an early stage.

However, if it a viral STD, there is no cure. One can only manage and keep their symptoms low and not adverse.

Refraining from sexual activities, using condoms every time, and visiting the doctor regularly do help in preventing one from getting an STD.

Herpes Simplex Virus ● ●

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The ​ Herpes Simplex Virus​ , or HSV, is usually infects an individual by entering through the mouth, or a tear in the skin.

One can get HSV by using the same utensils or razors with a person who has the virus, kissing someone who has the virus, or making contact with the saliva of the infected individual.

HSV causes cold sores. Cold sores are blisters that appear mainly around the mouth.

There are two types of the Herpes Simplex Virus. (HSV­1 and HSV­2). However, both types cause cold sores around both the mouth and the genitals.

Not all people with HSV get cold sores. However, it is best to watch out for symptoms because cold sores can be incredibly painful for some people. Symptoms: Pain in the mouth and lips, fever, or a sore throat.

Cold sores usually pop open, release a liquid, and disappear in a span of a few days to two weeks.

For methods in treating cold sores, ask a doctor. A common treatment is a skin cream.

There is no cure for the HSV that causes cold sores.

To avoid getting cold sores, one should not kiss or exchange fluids with someone who is infected with HSV.

HIV 30

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HIV, or ​ H​ uman ​ I​ mmunodeficiency ​ V​ irus, is a virus that weakens your immune system. Once you get HIV, you have it for the rest of your life. HIV destroys the CD4 (or T Cells) of your body, which decapitates your immune system from fighting and makes it incredibly weak. The final stage of HIV is AIDS, which is a collective amount of diseases and symptoms, that one gets when their immune system is deficient.

HIV is spread through bodily fluids, such as blood, semen, and breast milk. It is spread through sex, needles that have not been properly cleaned after being in contact with someone with HIV, deep kissing with blood involved, or being bitten by someone with HIV. If you have HIV, it does not mean that you will display symptoms; some people do, some people don’t.

Symptoms of HIV include fevers, swollen glands, sore throats, rashes, headaches, fatigue, and muscle pains.

Symptoms of AIDS (the last stage of HIV) include weight loss, very heavy sweating, diarrhea, pneumonia, memory loss, or depression.

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HPV, or ​ H​ uman ​ p​ apilloma​ v​ irus, is the most common STD in the United States of America. There are different types of HPV. HPV is transferred from person to person through vaginal, oral, or anal sex.

If one is infected with HPV, they may or may not show symptoms; it can even take years for symptoms to show.

HPV can cause genital warts and cancer. The warts can be diagnosed and treated.

From HPV, one can get cancer in the vulva, vagina, penis, anus, or the back of the throat. People with weaker immune systems are more likely to get these other diseases from HPV. To help prevent HPV, get the HPV vaccine, use latex condoms the correct way each time you have sex, and get screened for cancer.

Chlamydia ● ●

Chlamydia is one of the most common STDs in the US. Chlamydia is easily spread because the disease does not always cause symptoms.

Symptoms of this sexually transmitted disease are not always shown. However, if they are, the symptoms appear 1­3 weeks after sexual contact. In women, some symptoms are painful periods, itching around the vaginal area, and pain when the individual urinates. In men, some symptoms include discharge on the penis, possible pain around the testicles, possible swelling around the testicles, and pain while urinating.

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Chlamydia is treated by antibiotics like Zithromax.

If Chlamydia is not treated in women, it can cause pelvic inflammatory disease.

Pelvic inflammatory disease can cause damage to the fallopian tubes and fertilization. If it is remained untreated, the risk of ectopic pregnancy increases. This is when the egg is fertilized and develops out of the uterus; this can be dangerous to the mother, and is very likely to cause the child to die.

If Chlamydia is not treated in men, it can cause infection of the urethra and inflammation of the rectum.

To prevent Chlamydia, one should use condoms every time they have sex and have sex with only one person (preferably uninfected). It is best to not have sex with many people. Also, it is important to consult a doctor if you have any doubt about your sexual situation.

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Syphilis is a STD caused by ​ Treponema pallidum ​ that is spread through sex (vaginal, oral, and anal), kissing, and very intimate body contact. It is very contagious. It is common for people to not know that they have Syphilis.

There are three stages of Syphilis Early syphilis: In this stage, infected people will develop sores around the mouth or genitals. These sores begin to appear after around one to ten weeks after the person got the STD. Treatment isn’t required for this stage.

Secondary stage: During this phase, the infected begin to get rashes on their palms and the soles of their feet. Warts may appear, and the infected can develop a fever and lose weight.

Latent syphilis: The infection is dormant, or inactive. It does not cause any symptoms.

Tertiary syphilis: If the infection has not been treated, then it can cause detrimental issues with the heart, brain, and nerves. These problems can lead to paralysis, blindness, deafness, and even death.

Syphilis is diagnosed through a blood test.

Syphilis, depending on how long it has been since the individual has been infected, can be treated by antibiotics, like penicillin. As the stages progress, more doses of antibiotics will be needed to help treat the STD. To avoid syphilis, try not to have close contact or sex with anyone who is infected.

If you do not know if the person is infected, then use a condom.

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​ Image Courtesy of Wikipedia (Image of Syphilis)

Image Courtesy of Microbe Wiki 33

​ Image Courtesy of Wikipedia

Image Courtesy of Wikipedia (Image of Chlamydia)

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The Relations that the Reproductive System Has With Other Systems

Endocrine System: ​ The Endocrine system produces and releases hormones that control the reproductive system. They not only produce the male and female hormones, such as testosterone and estrogen, but they also produce other hormones that begin puberty and childbirth.

Skeletal System: ​ Bones of the body are very vital for the reproductive system. For example, in the female reproductive system, the bones are adjusted in order to make room for the fetus in the mother’s uterus. In addition, during childbirth, the bones of the body must be very strong, in order for nothing fatally damaging to occur to the mother and the baby.

Nervous System:​ ​ The reproductive system works closely with the nervous system, for the nervous system is responsible for maintaining homeostasis. Homeostasis is extremely vital for the body to function, especially when there is also another organism developing. The nervous system also controls movement, which is needed in sexual advancements. For example, the nervous system is responsible for mating behaviors (sex), as well as the development of feelings.

Circulatory System:​ One of the functions of the circulatory system is to deliver and transport oxygen through the bloodstream. Every organ needs oxygen to function and it isn’t any different for the reproductive organs. The circulatory system helps the reproductive organs work. The circulatory system is also a transport for the hormones from the endocrine system. During erection, there is a surging blood rush, which is caused by the blood being moved and circulated to the specific organs, by the circulatory system. This system, in the female system, also plays a role, for during menstruation, the blood that is released from the body is sent around due to the circulatory system.

Muscular System: ​ Muscles contract and expand during childbirth. This allows the baby to be brought out of the mother’s stomach and into the world.

Immune System: ​ The immune system attempts to fight against any STDs, or sexually transmitted diseases. Also, HIV destroys the CD4 cells of the immune system, which greatly weakens it. In addition, the immune system’s success in keeping the body safe can also affect the fetus. To expand, if the immune system can’t defend against a disease or a STD, it can damage organs and fetuses.

Respiratory System: ​ The respiratory system brings oxygen into the body. Oxygen is needed for all the organs to function; the reproductive organs function due to the oxygen brought by the respiratory system.

Excretory System: ​ The excretory system and the reproductive system have organs that are tracts that are used in both systems. For example, in the male, the urethra is used for urination and the ejaculation of sperm during an orgasm, or the sexual climax.

Digestive System:​ The digestive system is responsible for breaking down food into nutrients.

These nutrients are vital for the development of the offspring in the mother’s uterus.

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