Urban Regeneration utilizing Urban Divides: Railway lands in Celaya, Mexico.

U RBA N REGENERATION STRATEGY A PPLY I NG EMPTY UR BA N D I V I D E S RAILWAY L AN D S I N C EL AYA , MEX I C O EDUARDO DE L A L A STR A VA L L EJ O

UNIVERSITY COLLEGE LONDON FACULTY OF THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT BARTLETT SCHOOL OF PLANNING

MAJOR PROJECT

URBAN REGENERATION STRATEGY APPLYING EMPTY URBAN DIVIDES: RAILWAY LANDS IN CELAYA, MEXICO.

EDUARDO DE LA LASTRA VALLEJO Word count: 10,389 words (8,714 main text - 1,675 visual materials) Being a Major Project in Urban Design and City Planning submitted to the faculty of The Built Environment as part of the requirements for the award of the MSc in Urban Design and City Planning at University College London, I declare that this project is entirely my own work and that ideas, data and images, as well as direct quotations, drawn from elsewhere are identified and referenced.

30 August 2019

Acknowledge page

I would like to thank the following people and institutions without whom I would not have been able to complete this research.

Thanks to my major research project tutor, Urban Initiatives Studio Director Hugo Nowell for helping me through this process, whose insight and knowledge into the subject matter steered me through this research.

To the module coordinator Dr Filipa Wunderlich, to former Masters Director Dr Juliana Martins, and to Dr Pablo Sendra for making this master a life-changing experience.

Special thanks to Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología (CONACYT), Fundación Mexicana para la Educación, la Tecnología y la Ciencia (FUNED) and Fondo para el Desarrollo de Recursos Humanos (FIDERH, Banco de México), for providing me with the necessary economic tools to achieve my master’s degree.

To my partner Javier Fernandez, for sharing this experience. Achieving an extra step in our personal and professional career has been the best part of being in London.

And most importantly to my beloved parents, María Guadalupe Clara Vallejo Macías and Rafael Pablo de la Lastra Posada, without whom I would not have made it through my master’s degree.

Table of contents Abstract and introduction Abstract Introduction Critical Research Question Objectives

p.02 p.03 p.04 p.04

Literature review What are urban divides?

Categories of urban divides Urban divides and urban emptiness Types of urban emptiness Re-using linear Infrastructure: rail tracks

p.06 p.08 p.08 p.10 p.14

Case studies The High Line, New York City, USA Dequindre Cut, Detroit, USA Ferrocarril de Cuernavaca, Mexico City, Mexico The Rail Park, Philadelphia, USA Bajo Puentes, Mexico City, Mexico Case studies conclusions

p.16 p.18 p.20 p.22 p.24 p.26

Methodology Conceptual framework p.28 Methodology diagram p.30

Application City analysis - macro-level City analysis - urban sprawl City analysis - conceptual City analysis - rail tracks context Line A & Line NB aerial photos Sections map and methodology for site analysis Sections 1 to 8 Strategic SWOTs Strategic proposal applying empty urban divides Images of intention: strategic design Urban regeneration strategy map

p.32 p.34 p.36 p.38 p.40 p.42 p.44 p.52 p.54 P.56 p.58

Conclusion Conclusion p.60

Reference lists Reference list Websites reference list Notes reference list Image reference list

p.62 p.63 p.64 p.64

List of figures

Figure 09 - p. 08 Urban divides concept.

Figure 10 - p. 09 Precedents of different devices and types for urban divides in Celaya, Mexico.

Figure 11 - p. 10 Urban emptiness types.

Figure 12 - p. 11 Visual examples for each typology of urban emptiness.

Figure 15 - p. 16 Analysis of urban divide devices and urban emptiness typologies for the High Line.

Figure 16 - p. 17 Different buildings along the High Line prove diverse dynamics of architecture as a product of neoliberal consumption.

Figure 17 - p. 18 Analysis of urban divide devices and urban emptiness typologies for Dequindre Cut. Figure 18 - p. 19 Infrastructure such as abutments “jumping” the old railways serves as elements to

intervene with graffiti. Ruins from industrial buildings do not integrate correctly with the green line proposal.

Figure 19 - p. 20 Analysis of urban divide devices and urban emptiness typologies for Ferrocarril de Cuernavaca.

Figure 20 - p. 21 New public realm infrastructure in rail tracks which are still operating once per week.

Figure 21 - p. 22 Urban divide device and urban emptiness types for the Rail Park.

Figure 22 - p. 23 A project including three different types of material sources.

Figure 23 - p. 24 Urban divide device and urban emptiness types for Bajo Puentes.

Figure 24 - p. 25 Different types of interventions on Bajo Puentes project mainly focused on commercial land-use.

Figure 25 - p. 28 Conceptual frameworks for empty urban divides strategies.

Figure 26 - p. 30 Methodology for empty urban divides strategies.

Figure 27 - p. 32 Celaya´s municipality analysis.

Figure 28 - p. 34 Celaya´s urban area analysis.

Figure 29 - p. 36 Industrial archaeology concept. Buildings to support identity conceptualization, Celaya, Mexico.

Figure 30 - p. 38 Industrial archaeology concept. Railway infrastructure in Celaya and ZMLB, Mexico.

Figure 31 - p. 40 Aerial images of Celaya´s railway system Line A and Line NB. Chosen urban divide device to create strategy.

Figure 32 - p. 42 Sections analysis, satellite view.

Figure 33 - p. 43 Methodology for site analysis for URS. Figure 34 - p. 43 Sections, site analysis, plan.

Figure 35 - p. 44 Section 1, Line A. Figure 36 - p. 45 Section 2, Line A. Figure 37 - p. 46 Section 3, Line A. Figure 38 - p. 47 Section 4, Line A. Figure 39 - p. 48 Section 5, Line NB. Figure 40 - p. 49 Section 6, Line NB. Figure 41 - p. 50 Section 7, Line NB. Figure 42 - p. 51 Section 8, Line NB. Figure 43 - p. 54 Summary diagrams for strategic proposal applying empty urban divides in Celaya, Mexico.

Figure 44 - p. 56 Images of intention for strategic proposal applying empty urban divides in Celaya, Mexico.

Figure 45 - p. 58 Summary map for strategic proposal applying empty urban divides in Celaya, Mexico.

ABSTRACT A ND I NTROD UC TI ON

1

Abstract Urban divides are elements that influence how urban fabric grow and develop. They separate -physically or figuratively- space, movement and connections. It is the juxtaposition between Types, which is the context where the device can be found and Devices, which are the objects which divide.

When an urban divide ceases to operate, it changes, disappears, or stay as ruins, leading to urban emptiness (a multilayer phenomenon in the city system.).

This Major Project aims to explore different urban relationships related to urban divide typologies and devices, urban emptiness typologies and how urban regeneration projects using urban divides work as strategy axes to improve cities, allowing the design of macro-strategic projects. Therefore, this proposal focuses on analysing rail tracks as elements for urban regeneration. Projects using urban divides and urban emptiness across Mexico and United States of America are analysed to understand the effects on the urban fabric and how this practice provides tools to generate relationships between society, government and private sectors.

The chosen site for the project uses two historical railways in Celaya, Mexico. These will cease to operate in 2020 when a new railway system outside of the city is completed. These rail tracks divide Celaya´s urban sprawl into four quadrants and have a complex relationship with their urban environments, as they cross diverse urban typologies, gated communities, informal settlements, historical sites, factories and industrial archaeology.

To create an Urban Regeneration Strategies applying urban divides, a detailed analysis on smaller urban divides devices within the urban fabric is important to understand the complexity of urban relationships, as these will disclosure strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats for improving the distribution of urban equipment, social equality, new green infrastructure, legibility, opportunities and accessibility.

This approach is an opportunity to encounter common identities in order to improve the development of urban growth and the life of their inhabitants using urban divides that will cease to operate.

2

Abstract and introduction Introduction Urban growth is strongly influenced by urban divisions resulting in a variety of urban typologies and connections responding to urban divides through time.

Several concerns arise when a linear urban divide use disappears and urban emptiness becomes a new interaction: What are the implications of shifting from physical urban divisions to spatial emptiness? Does emptiness have to be given new programmatic uses to improve urban physical relationships? What happens when urban emptiness is transformed into new physical connections?

The aim of this project is to explore urban divisions, specifically, rail tracks as these elements provide complex relationships between urban divisions and these elements could act as a catalyst for urban regeneration projects in relation to urban divide

typologies, devices and emptiness typologies. Whilst supporting concepts with pictures to explain the theories used in this Major Project, the objective is to understand and apply these concepts to a particular site on the rail tracks which will cease to operate in the city of Celaya, Mexico to deepen the possibilities for a strategic urban project.

In the Mexican urban context, cities lack quality public spaces, transport infrastructure, green areas and places for recreation, collaboration, interaction and connectivity. Urban divisions result in urban security problems. An additional complexity in Mexican cities is the growth of informal settlements and the interaction of these with the wider city. Urban security within these divisions is one component to analyse, particularly when the use of urban division disappears and spatial relationships change. This security problem in Mexico has resulted in diverse projects of gated communities

Figure 1: Old Train Tracks Turn into Philly’s Own High Line (Kyle Huff, 2016.)

3

(planned or vernacular) approved by planning authorities, resulting in future problems regarding mobility, legibility and urban connectivity. This has reinforced inequality and exclusion in the city.

Aims of the project This Major Project aims to explore different urban relationships related to urban divide typologies and devices, urban emptiness typologies and how urban regeneration projects using urban divides linear elements inside the urban fabric work as an axis to improve quality of life, delivering macro strategic projects to improve the urban context in the future.

Secondly, the project aims to highlight the role of industrial empty lands (specifically rail tracks) in the development of urban regeneration, particularly in urban conditions of the city chosen as a case study, which could be replicated in similar urban contexts in Mexico and Latin America. Finally, this work is a wakeup call to visualize what could happen when emptiness appears, how this urban phenomenon is an opportunity to create macro strategies and highlight the usage of abandon urban divisions to create strategies for urban design practice.

Figure 2:JesĂşs PĂŠrez goes to Celaya (Casasola, 1920)

Critical research question When an urban divide use ceases to operate and spatial emptiness appears, does transferability of uses in urban divides promote urban regeneration strategies?

Objectives

Figure 3: The High Line Viaduct (Joel Sternfeld, 2001)

To analyse visually different types and categories of urban divisions To understand how urban divides have a direct impact on the urban typologies adjacent to them To understand the physical interactions between urban sprawl and urban divides and how diversity of uses provide different physical interactions To analyse how urban divides have an impact on the growth and development of the city To understand what happens when urban divide usages cease to operate, memory remains and emptiness appears 4

Figure 4: Unequal Scenes (Johnny Miller, 2016)

L ITER ATUR E R EV I EW

5

What are urban divides?

Urban divides are elements that influence how cities grow and develop. These elements can change through time, specifically in their initial purposes or usages.

From an infrastructure element, such as a highway or a railway track, to an object like a fence or a door, these elements tend to divide physical space, movement and connections. Nowadays, urban divides can change, disappear or in some cases remain as ruins, creating emptiness in the urban tissue. New questions arise as the usage of urban divides ceases to operate, does all empty urban spaces have to be filled? Urban emptiness provides new solutions to existing problems in urban design practice and landscape urbanism.

Figure 5: This highway clearly divides the barrio section from the mansions and estates of Santa Fe, Mexico City. (Johnny Miller, 2016)

Urban divides can be understood as a phenomenon that triggers anthropological mutations, as it directs the way cities sprawl, hence affecting the urban landscape (Ingersoll, 2006). Cities tend to program themselves constantly and changes in the uses of urban divides could become an opportunity to improve connectivity and quality of life for the immediate surrounding built environment.

Urban divisions are elements with a strong sense of memory, as they can exist or be found beyond the physical site itself in our recollection of place. These are the symbolic constructions that connect our idea or image of a place to its physicality (Hornstain, 2011).

An example of memory construction through Urban Divides is Berlin’s Wall (Note 1). In ‘The Ghosts of Berlin: Confronting German History in the Urban Landscape’, Brian Ladd describe:

Figure 5 6

Literature review

Monuments are nothing if not selective aids to memory: they encourage us to remember some things and to forget others. The process of creating monuments, especially where it is openly contested, as in Berlin, shapes public memory and collective identity. (2008, p. 11) Note 1: To understand visually Berlin’s context before the fall of the Wall, I recommend to watch Wings of Desire, as it portraits the essence of the city in 1987.

Figure 6

Figure 7

Figure 6: Tracks of the Berlin elevated railroad stop at the border of American sector of Berlin in this air view on August 26, 1961. Beyond the fence, communist-ruled East Berlin side, the tracks have been removed (AP Photo/Worth, n.d.)

Figure 7: A woman and child walk beside a section of the Berlin Wall (AP Photo, n.d.)

Figure 8: West Berlin citizens hold a vigil atop the Berlin Wall in front of the Brandenburg Gate on November 10, 1989, the day after the East German government opened the border between East and West Berlin (Reuters/David Brauchli, n.d.)

Figure 8

7

Categories of urban divides To better understand the categories of urban divides, the crowdsourced photo essay ‘Evidence: visualizing urban divides’ by McAllister and Sabbagh how urban divides can be catalogued by visual evidence, juxtaposing iconic divisions with everyday urban conditions to lead the reader to identify the ubiquity of urban divides (Note 2).

The categories for types introduced are affordable housing, refugee camps, walled cities, upscale towers, enclaves, upscale housing, university campuses, security fences, gated communities, special economic zones, upscale malls, trade zones, upscale markets, informal settlements, Olympic zones, exclusive parks, parking places, informal markets, etc.

Urban Divides Juxtaposition between Devices + Types

The categories for devices revealed are walls, highways, security check-points, gates, ornaments, doors, fences, topography, built height, sign-age, murals, infrastructure, railway parks, vacancy, river and rail tracks, etc.

Note 2. The visual exercise of categorization by McAllister and Sabbagh, both types and categories for Urban Divides require more examples to be added in order to deepen the relationships between built juxtapositions. Hence, to define divides in particular contexts is necessary to analyse individually types and devices in each specific context.

Urban divides and urban emptiness

Devices: The object which divides

Urban growth is strongly influenced by urban divisions, resulting in a variety of urban typologies and connections responding to urban divides through time.

However, several concerns arise when an urban divide use disappears and emptiness becomes the basis for new urban interactions in the urban fabric.

Firstly, urban emptiness adopts material, social, temporal and semantic dimensions of what the city is. It is a phenomenon integrated into the complexity of urban form and acts as a catalyst for the future development of cities seeking to limit urban sprawl.

Secondly, diffusion of sprawl does not depend so much on positions in space, but on how citizens move within these urban spaces (Ingersoll, 2006). Nevertheless,

Types: The context where the Device can be found Figure 9: Urban divides concept

8

Literature review

Device: Wall

Type: informal settlement

Device: Fence

Type: unsafe urban area

Device: Fence

Type: regular urban area

Device: Railway

Device: Built Height

Type: regular urban area

Device: Infrastructure Type: affordable housing

Type: regular urban area

Figure 10: Example for different Devices and Types for Urban Divides in Celaya, Mexico.

9

urban emptiness is not researched enough, leading to speculation of propositions in city planning, landscape urbanism and lack of generalizability of results to urban planning contexts (Petrova & Nenko, 2018).

Types of urban emptiness As claimed by Petrova and Nenko in ‘Urban emptiness as a resource for sustainable urban development’, urban emptiness acts as multilayer phenomenon integrated into the complexity of the city system (Note 3) and as a resource for sustainable urban development, especially to limit urban sprawl. Emptiness depicts physical aspects of the built environment as well as idealistic features of the perceived city space (p.389, 2018). Urban emptiness can be intentionally left blank (restricted or alienated areas next to highways or railways, for example) or it can result from improper urban planning. As a result, the typologies of urban emptiness are categorized as follows: Emptiness of natural resources: reveals the quantity and quality of natural items in the urban space. Natural environment destroyed (A), modified (B) and/or responding to controlled infrastructures (C).

Emptiness of material sources: multilevel system of space, undergroundlevel or low-level (D), ground-level (E) and aboveground-level (F).

Emptiness of time: intensive (G), low (H), overall or scarce (I) usage of urban space. Further, time is analysed through the distribution of daily (J), weekly (K) and seasonal activities (L).

Emptiness of meaning: Lack of images (M), symbols (N) and senses (O) communicated by space. Monotonous public spaces are constructed along with the ideology of consumer society. They exhibit a lack of identity and opportunities for selfexpression.

Emptiness of function: Monotony of the urban environment (P), function affected by land regulations (Q) and lack of opportunity to meet various functions (R).

A

B

C

D

E

F

G

H

I

1

7

J

K

L

M

N

O

1

P

Q

Figure 11: Urban emptiness types 10

R

Literature review

12.1 River destroyed for avenue, Mex

12.2 Cheonggyecheon Stream, Seoul

12.3. Wollaton Park wall, Nottingham

12.4 Underground Rail track, New York

12.5 Ground-level railtrack, Berea

12.6 Above-ground viaduct, NewYork

12.7 Open space parking

12.8 Empty parking

12.9 Abandoned Factory, Kladno

12.10 Macy´s Store (american retail)

12.11 Empty retail store (no brand)

12.12 Retail buildings, USA 1

12.13 Underbridge with fences

12.14 Underbridge with small pyramids

12.15 Underbridge with volumes

Figure 12: Visual examples for each typology of urban emptiness. (Source: Image Reference List) 11

Note 3: Petrova and Nenko describe Cities as a selfsufficient system with five components to understand complex juxtapositions:

Urban divides, as urban surfaces, facilitate or impede the events and dynamic processes that move through a functioning matrix of the urban connective tissue.

City as a natural environment: this is the terrain, nature and climate which provide initial conditions and options for the emergence and development of the city.

The urban surface is the field that allocates roads, utilities, natural habitats, neighbourhoods, buildings and open public spaces. Connectivity infrastructure such as rail tracks, streets and highways have rarely been recognized as collective spaces unto themselves (Corner, ed., 1999).

City as a material environment: this is represented by the built and constructed material forms.

City as mobility: this means the city as a process.

Space turns from the organizing element into an object of dynamic, changeable demand.

City as a localized identity: this is the process of identification. Globalization and migration destroy the authenticity of the cities.

City as an information environment: this is how information (data) shapes the usage of space.

Nonetheless, urban divides are constantly evolving, particularly industrial divides. This land-use change is caused by the constant relocation of industrial facilities and activities outside cities.

The movement of industries and urban transferability generates emptiness in the built urban form. This, consequently, can create new opportunities to regenerate and create new connections between diverse urban typologies and neighbourhoods.

Figure 13 12

Literature review Nevertheless, it is important to address the different problems that could arise when the industrial uses of urban divides cease to operate.

Commonly, industrial space urban divides have negative connotations in the collective memory as they are perceived as symptoms of conflict or of a failed society (McAllister & Sabbagh, 2017). To reinforce this particularity, Petrova and Nenko argue:

speed, which generate fragmentation and political boundaries. The potential for physical and psychological segregation when using linear urban divides in urban design practice is immediate. Linearity commands violent and controlling actions in the urban form.

Figure 13: Villa 31, Buenos Aires, Argentina (Ricardo Ceppi, 2016)

In general the term “emptiness” has negative connotations, while it is associated with discourses of loss of meaning, social ties, material structures, or discourse of improper usage. Urban voids can be regarded as ballast, they do not possess any features of “places”, such as locale, location, or sense of place. (p.

388, 2018)

Cuff argues that the concept of linearity is to understand the power of the line in architecture and urbanism, to grasp its translation from real space to abstraction, to a projected real space and, finally, to the violent actions the line prescribes (2017, p16). An example of this violence through linearity is the development of gated communities in Latin American cities, and how these typologies change the urban fabric into a segregated entity.

Linear infrastructures as urban divides are powerful elements for pollution, noise, material topography and

Figure 14: Unequal Scenes. Santa Fe, Mexico (Johnny Miller, 2016)

Figure 14 13

Yet, emptiness of space can be transformed into a series of opportunities to improve quality of life in urban areas, as citizens can engage and perform in organizing or selecting pathways to enhance the memory of these new empty spaces. Collective memory is valuable in cities because it contributes much to a cohesive sense of community (Dobraszczyk, 2017). Additionally, Petrova and Nenko conclude: Looking at the city system through the prism of urban emptiness allows us detecting the areas devoid of emptiness as well as gaps that exist in the urban cloth and can be rethought as the potential for territorial development within the existing city borders. (2018, p. 15) To conclude, the urban design perspective serves as a tool to understand relationships between emptiness in the urban fabric. Empty spaces in the urban form are elements which could increase demand for green areas and public domain spaces and increase the landscape value of the site (CĂŽrnu, 2014).

1

1 km

2

1 km

3

Re-using linear infrastructure: Rail Tracks For the purpose of this Major Project, urban projects in railway track spaces are selected as case studies, as these devices combine clear juxtapositions between types and devices of urban divides, thus contrast the concept of emptiness as a tool for urban regeneration.

In addition, there are clear linear elements in their contexts.

Furthermore, the categorization of urban emptiness types for these urban divides (railways) is fundamentally important to highlight results for these projects as macro-scale strategies for urban regeneration.

Finally, impacts on the social, economic and political development in their immediate contexts are important to visualise and understand how macro-scale strategies transform the city, and thus, to prevent different negative effects when approaching the application of the macroscale strategic proposal.

1 km

4

1 km

5

The following case studies relevant for the project are: 1.2.3.4.5.14

The High Line in New York Dequindre Cut in Detroit Ferrocarril de Cuernavaca in Mexico City The Rail Park in Philadelphia Bajo Puentes in Mexico City

200m

C A SE STUD I ES

15

The High Line, New York City, USA

The physical structure (device) is a steel rail track viaduct dominating landscape from the West Side of Manhattan. The viaduct was constructed between 1929 and 1934 to relieve street level congestion and safety hazards by lifting the railway six metres overhead.

The structure reflects functionalism and aesthetics of architectural modernism. In the 1950s and 1960s, industry was able to decentralize from congested urban districts in Manhattan and, in 1991, the railway was closed entirely.

2.33 km

Upper Rail Track Viaduct

West Manhattan

The owners of the viaduct in 1991, CSX Corporation, commissioned the Regional Planning Association (RPA) to conduct a feasible study for the reuse of the viaduct. In 1999, Joshua David and Robert Hammond were interested in saving the structure form demolition.

They cofounded Friends of the High Line (FHL) that became the force behind creating the High Line Park.

(Linder and Rosa, ed., 2017)

Urban emptiness types:

The High Line always had… a public mission: to remake a piece of urban infrastructure into a public amenity that all neighbors and city residents would use. (2017, p. 35)

Above ground level

Raw vegetation

However, one problem The High Line had was setting in second place to community decision-makers when designing the project, leading to unexplored assumptions about what ‘good design’ is: Overall, the design process was much more concerned with conceptual and aesthetic consistency and form than it was on creating a space inclusive of a wide range of spatial practices. (2017, p.37) The first stage was opened in April 2009 and was finally completed in late 2014. The High Line express the relationships among citizens, the state and other institutions of power (Linder and Rosa, ed., 2018).

For the fundamental characteristic of capitalism dynamics of New York, it generates a constant reproduction and definition of spatial inequalities and unequal relationships (Oswalt and Kultustftung, 2005).

The project still cuts through Manhattan, but now leaves wealth and gentrification along its path. It ignores the social, political, economic and cultural particularities of the context involved (Duany, 2013).

16

Abandoned rail track

1

7

Completely closed

1

Figure 15: Analysis of urban divide devices and urban emptiness typologies for the High Line

Case studies

Figure 16.1

Figure 16.2

Figure 16.3

Figure 16.4

Figure 16.5

Figure 16.6

Figure 16. Different buildings along the High Line prove diverse dynamics of architecture as a product of neoliberal consumption.

17

Dequindre Cut, Detroit, USA

The railroad line (device) was built in the 1830s. The maximum capacity for operations was in the 1920s, and in the late 1930s, sixteen crossings where built to jump the infrastructure. By 1980, usage had decreased and in 1982, passenger service was discontinued. In 2000, Canadian National sold the Dequindre Cut lands.

It became an area where graffiti artists intervened the under bridges with graffiti masterpieces. Dobraszczyk describe these graffiti interventions:

3.21 km

Rail track

The cut of the green-way does much more than simply clean up the former ruins of the railway line, rather, it represents an attempt to include some of those ruins within the new environment and embrace what would have previously been regarded as the defacing of those ruins with tags and other forms of graffiti. (2017, p. 169) The Dequindre Cut Greenway is an urban recreational path that opened to the public in May of 2009. A half-mile extension of the Dequindre Cut officially opened in April 2016. The greenway currently houses a paved path with separate lanes for both pedestrians and bicycles.

Access ramps to the Cut have been constructed at Lafayette Street, Gratiot Avenue and Wilkins Street.

Graffiti on the bridge abutments along the trail were intentionally left in place during the construction of the greenway.

The 3.21-kilometre greenway was developed through a public, non-profit and private partnership (comprising the federal government, the City of Detroit, the Community Foundation for Southeast Michigan and the Detroit Economic Growth Corporation) and offers a pedestrian link between the East Riverfront, Eastern Market and several residential neighbourhoods in between. To conclude, Dobraszczyk reviews this project positively, and argues: [The Greenway] is remarkable for the ways in which it incorporates the ruins of the former railway into itself, principally the concrete abutments of the many bridges that used to cross the railway... the ‘cut’ of the greenway does much more than simply clean up the former ruins of the railway line; rather, it represents an attempt to include some of those ruins within the new environment. (2017, p. 169)

Downtown Detroit

Urban emptiness types:

Underground Low Level

Abandoned rail track

1

7

Completely closed

Graffiti interventions Abutments 1

Figure 17: Analysis of urban divide devices and urban emptiness typologies for Dequindre Cut 18

Case studies

Figure 18.1

Figure 18.2

Figure 18.3

Figure 18.4

Figure 18.5

Figure 18.6

Figure 18: Figure 18: Infrastructure such as abutments ‘jumping’ the old railways serves as elements to intervene with graffiti.

Ruins from industrial buildings do not integrate correctly with the green line proposal.

19

Ferrocarril de Cuernavaca, Mexico City, Mexico

The linear park is built on a rail track inaugurated in 1898 which connected Mexico City with Acapulco. This project is an important attempt at land-use change before deindustrialization happens, as it provides empower-ment for citizens to appropriate these lands, and thus improve their con-text. The first stage of this project, a 1.4 km-long stretch, was opened in November 2017. The project runs from Nuevo Polanco area to Popotla. Aguayo describes the Nuevo Polanco area adjacent to the project:

4.60 km

Rail track

[The Nuevo Polanco aim is] to transform urban passives into social and economic assets with the goal of ‘taking the old industrial zone of Polanco to the avant-garde and turning it into a cosmopolitan city-center, where art, business and quality of life become the main actors […] The project also includes public-private cooperation with the City Government to transform the Ferrocarril de Cuernavaca rail-road in a 9.4 km walkway. One of a few of the zone’s green projects, the walkway includes the creation of a public, open-air, walk-ing and cycling space (a “linear park”) recovered along a stretch of the old railway. (2015, p. 655) The gentrification of Nuevo Polanco is a major problem. Social segrega-tion will increase if land- use in vacant lands with potential for develop-ment does not use public space as guidance for designing new policies. Furthermore, factories among Ferrocarril de Cuernavaca have very defined boundaries. These typologies could become a problem if new developments use this same physicality in the future by ‘copying‘ the same en-trance fluxes to access the land, as this will reduce the potential of the project for integrating the city. Aguayo critiques the poor prospective for public place-making strategies by private developers: The only project [...] creating green spaces in the area is the conversion of the [...] railroad into a linear park. [...] urban planning in private hands has absolutely no interest in open-use of green spaces. A city is not in the making, instead, buildings dis-articulated from residential areas are being developed; most projects located in the area of reference operate as closed units with few integrated services and no proposition for the city. (2015, p. 659) 20

West central Mexico City

Urban emptiness types:

Ground-Level

Low usage

1

7

Runs 1 day per week

Change of land use

Various Functions 1

Figure 19: Analysis of urban divide devices and urban emptiness typologies for Ferrocarril de Cuernavaca

Case studies

1

Figure 20.1

Figure 20.2

Figure 20.3

Figure 20.4

1

Figure 20.5

Figure 20.6

Figure 20: New public realm infrastructure in rail tracks which are still operating once per week.

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The Rail Park, Philadelphia, USA

The Reading Viaduct was built in 1891 and opened in 1893. It transported people and freight into and out of the centre of Philadelphia for nearly a century.

From the Reading Terminal on Market St, the elevated train line ran through the factories and warehouses of North Philadelphia. Following the region’s decline in manufacturing, train traffic ceased in the early 1980s and the viaduct has remained vacant ever since (Studio Bryan Hanes, 2018). In 2010, the Centre City District and the organization Friends of the Rail Park began to evaluate options to convert the abandoned viaduct into an elevated park.

The first stage of this project, which was 400 m long, was opened in June 2018. This ‘linear park strategy’ incorporates two types of urban emptiness for material source. The viaduct (aboveground level) is an elevated section of the unused rail line, the cut (low groundlevel) is an open-air section that runs below street level lined with 9-metre high stone walls and crossed by bridges which cross from north to south. The tunnel (underground level) is a 915-metre underground railway with some natural light entrance and ceilings reaching 7.62 metres. It crosses 10 different neighbourhoods and the vision for the community purposes involve arts, education, culture, health and wellness.

The project has a clear design line to follow for the viaduct. Architectural elements and materials of similar industrial scale and character to the original structure were used for the platforms, benches and guardrails (Urban Engineers, 2018), following design principles similar to those used in the High Line in New York.

Even so, concerns arise for design strategies for the cut and the tunnel. Without a clear project strategy to justify the full intervention and no existent physical connections at ground level, one conclusion is aboveground level railways are easier to intervene in because they act as objects instead of vacant land and have clearer guidance for landscape design. Further, there is no clear strategy on how the cut and the tunnel could be integrated into the urban tissue as an urban regeneration project, demonstrating that ground level and underground level rail tracks are more difficult to justify using as urban divides due to physical conditions.

4.82 km

Rail track and Rail Viaduct

Philadelphia Downtown

Urban emptiness types:

Underground and Low Level

Above Level

Abandoned rail track

1

7

Completely closed

1

Figure 21: Urban divide device and urban emptiness types for The Rail Park 22

Case studies

Figure 22.1

Figure 22.2

Figure 22.3

Figure 22.4

Figure 22.5

Figure 22.6

Figure 22: A project including three different types of material source.

23

Bajo Puentes (Under Bridges project), Mexico City, Mexico

The purpose of this case study is to analyse specific interventions on empty types of function as a precedent.

The Authority of the Public Space from the Mexico City Government describes the project: ‘it focuses on the residual spaces generated under bridges in Mexico City to transform them into interconnection points’.

The objective is to generate spaces for interaction and social inclusion, and which are safe for pedestrians, generating interconnections between different neighbourhoods. Vacant land is a multifaceted concept, applicable to land that was once developed as well as to land that has never been developed (Greenstein & Sungu-Erylmaz, ed., 2004)

9 projects

Underbridge Infrastructure

Urban emptiness types:

The initiative uses an innovative incentive law called ‘Permisos Administrativos Temporales Revocables a Título Oneroso (PATR)’ which translates as ‘Revocable Temporary Administrative Permits’ (RTAP) which permit private investors from intervening in public spaces with contracts of a durability of 10 years, which can be renovated if the private investors prove they are able to responsibly manage the project proposed. For these specific RTAP permits, these projects have to reach 50% public spaces, 30% commercial spaces for rent and 20% (free or charged) parking lots. Nowadays, nine ‘Bajo Puentes’ are operating, resulting in 52,000 ‘new’ square metres in the city.

Nevertheless, some of the issues Bajo Puentes have are high rents in the commercial areas; the cost of parking makes users prefer to visit a shopping centre rather than these commercial spaces; the RTAP gives the responsibility to the private investor to rent and give maintenance to the commercial and public spaces, which is a flaw in how to control quality in this exercise of public/private space if the revenue is not as expected.

Notwithstanding this, some of the most successful results for this land-use change permit are projects which include government offices, information modules and police stations instead of just-food or retail usages.

Also, playground areas, green wall projects, skate parks and other sites of various uses promote the success of this initiative. Therefore, this case provides tools to understand how emptiness type of time is an element to consider to create successful under bridges projects linked to change in regulation and usage of function emptiness types.

Mexico City

Ground-Level

1

7

Empty spaces

Monotonous Spaces

Change of Various land use Functions 1

Figure 23: Urban divide device and urban emptiness types for Bajo Puentes.

24

Case studies

Figure 24.1

Figure 24.2

1

Figure 24.3

Figure 24.4

Figure 24.5

Figure 24.6

Figure 24: Different types of interventions on Bajo Puentes project. Mainly focused on commercial land use.

25

Case studies conclusions

Ferrocarril de Cuernavaca

The High Line 1 The viaduct acts as an object rather than vacant land. This resulted in clear design principles to follow for architectural conceptualization. Linearity is present as a controlling object.

2 Vacancy in adjacent industrial buildings and empty lands allows developers to use the device as a real estate booster.

3 Neoliberal economic structure displaced community decision-makers, thereby making the proposal not inclusive for all.

4 Gentrification happens across the project, displacement and rise in property and services prices.

Developers lead to building excessive architecture as a brand for the area.

Dequindre Cut 5 The railway at low ground level had complicated multiple access points.

6 Prior graffiti interventions provided a strong sense of meaning for the project proposal, thus mixing meaning and function emptiness types as a powerful tool for the feasibility of the project.

7 The promoters had a clear line to follow by just transforming the cut into a green path, therefore limiting possibilities to transform and mix vacant industrial lands with the urban divide.

8 Inexpensive execution, due to the materiality of the device at a low ground level.

26

9 Rail tracks at ground level can support new urban usages if the emptiness of time is available, being a precedent replicable on different urban areas across Mexico.

10 Land-use policies have to change to increase public activities in private lands adjacent to the linear park.

11 Old factory typologies have to promote and improve public space facing the rail tracks.

12 The project addresses the importance of public realm strategies. Gentrification could become a problem if policies stay static.

The Rail Park 13 The full project vision is disconnected. Two types of material source emptiness lead to two different approaches. While the viaduct used The High Line in New York as a precedent and delivered a similar intention, the cut and the tunnel have no clear execution strategy.

14 Underground and low-level material sources are more difficult elements to justify an intervention.

15 This vision is not a strategy for urban regeneration.

Bajo Puentes 16 Under bridges physical infrastructure contributes clear guidance for architectural interventions with a variety of programmatic usages.

17 The government has to regulate public areas to avoid gentrification and allow the maintenance of these spaces.

18 Successful projects achieve the best performance by mixing retail and government service points.

ME THOD OLOGY

27

Conceptual framework 1

It is the juxtaposition between

2 and

=

Urban Divides divides -physically or figurativelyspace, movement and connections.

+ Types which is the context where the device can be found

Devices which are the objects which divide

it changes, disappears, or stay as ruins, leading to

The five different types of urban emptiness are subcategorized as follows Destroyed

Modified

4

Intensive

1

Low

Overall or scarce

7

Daily

Weekly

Seasonal

Lack of images

Symbols

Senses

Case Studies urban regeneration projects using rail tracks.

Additionally, one case study to understand UET of Function.

The High Line, USA

Underground-level Ground-level Aboveground-level

Time

Urban Emptiness (a multilayer phenomenon in the city system)

Controlled

Natural resources

Material source

3

When an UD ceases to operate,

Meaning

Dequindre Cut, USA

Ferrocarril Cuernavaca, MX

The Rail Park, USA

1

Monotony Function

28

Affected by regulations

Lack of various functions

5

Bajo Puentes, MX

S

Raw vegetation as the main concept Clear Design Above Ground Level

A ra ban il tra don c e C k d o cl m os p ed let (1 ely 99 1)

N

at ur al re so R ur (m aw ce ai ve s n g co et M nc ati at ep on er t ia ls ) ou A le bov rce ve e l v gro ia u Ti du nd m ct e

Methodology

Real Estate Booster Gentrification Abandoned Rail Controlling object Track Excessive architecture

A ra ban il tra don c e C k d o cl m os p ed let (1 ely M ea 982 ni ) ng G (m raf ai fiti n c Fu onc ep nc t) tio n Ab ut m en ts

M

at er ia ls ou U Lo nde rce w rg Le ro ve un Ti l d m e

Gentrification and unequal relationships

e pe uns rw 1 ee da k y Fu nc tio n C ha ng e la nd Va us rio e us Fu nc tio ns

e ve

l

rc

R

us w Lo

G

Ti m

ro

e

un

d-

ag

Le

ou ls ia er at M

O

T

S

W

Graffiti as the main concept Low Ground Level Cheap execution The linearity of the Meaning + Function proposal The green path could Detroit economic have more uses decay Adjacent industrial archaeology

O

Connects (but not solve) urban tissue. Linearity is part of it.

1 1

S

W Weak land-use jurisdiction system Destruction of industrial heritage

New public realm policies Design approaches for developers

Gentrification aside the project Developers poor vision

A ra ban il tra don c e C k d o cl m os p ed let (1 ely 98 0)

M

at

er ia l Ab sou le ov rce ve e l v gro ia u U duc nd Lo nde t w rg Le ro Ti vel und m e

S

ns io

us

C la han nd g us e o Va e f rio us Fu nc t

Fu n

ct

io

ac sp y

Em

pt

ng ni

ea M

n M Sp on ac oto es no

l ve Le

dun

ro

es

e rc ou ls G

er ia at

1

Legal flaws on RTAP. The government lose authority.

T

W

The intention of programmatic uses Neighbourhoods alongside proposal

Viaduct is physically disconnected from cut and tunnel.

Not clear strategy

Discussion on how to use diverse UDD and Material UET for Urban Design

The design vision of viaduct is not applicable to cut and tunnel

O

Different types of the material source but unclear phasing.

T

Time and Function as main concept Green public area Ground-level

O

Challenges land use to provoke new interactions/necessities

M

W

High Prices Not inclusive for all Displacement of neighbours

T

S

W

Usage of abutments and UET of Function More public spaces

RATP Legal scheme challenges gov. authority on public space

New public realm policies Design approaches for developers

Gentrification Segregation of other forms of public usage

O

is a project vision

T

is a project result

Figure 25: Conceptual framework for empty urban divides strategies.

29

Methodology diagram

1

The following methodology diagram explains the basic steps to solve an urban regeneration strategy applying empty urban divides:

2

1.

Select an urban area with a large linear urban divide (preferably one that is going to stop operating or disappear).

2.

Produce a macro analysis of the urban area, to identify strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats (SWOT analysis), of the urban environment as a whole.

UDD

3.

Cut down the chosen urban divide into smaller sections for a focused site analysis.

UET

4.

Then, place all different Urban Divide Types (UDT), Urban Divide Devices (UDD) and Urban Emptiness Types (UET) under each relevant section.

Also, map similarities with case studies observations.

The aforementioned will result in a strategic catalogue.

5.

When all analysis sections are complete, bring them together to establish a large strategy proposal.

Select which UDT, UDD and UET category is most adequate to solve SWOT analysis.

S

W

O

T

3

UDT

A

UDT

C D

UDD

C G

G

UET

4

A

D

I

I

5 S

6.

Design an urban regeneration strategy including all SWOTs. Answer and conclude: When an urban divide ceases to operate and urban emptiness appears, does the transferability of uses in urban divides promote urban regeneration strategies?

W VS

O

T

6 S

W

O

T

Figure 26: Methodology for empty urban divides strategies.

30

A PPL I C ATI ON

31

City analysis - macro-level Celaya is a municipality part the State of Guanajuato, in Central Mexico. This area in central Mexico is known as ‘Bajio’ and includes the states of Aguascalientes, Guanajuato, Queretaro, San Luis Potosí and Zacatecas.

The Bajio area has the best economic performance in Mexico, with a growing rate of 5.3% (INEGI, 2018).

(27.1) Guanajuato State has 5,853,677 inhabitants, of which 48.28% are male and 51.72% are female. The average age of the population is distributed by 28.9% from 0–14 years old, 64.5% from 15–64 years old and 6.6% from 65-–84 years old. Celaya is the principal city of the Metropolitan Area Laja-Bajio (ZMLB) with a total population of 1,048,462 inhabitants. (27.2) Celaya Municipality has a population of 494,304 inhabitants, of which 72.65% live in the urban area. It is the third-largest populated city in the state (Encuesta intercensal, 2015). Celaya´s annual population growth rate is 1.2%. The city has 129,705 dwellings in use, with 4.1 habitants per dwelling. 99.5% of the dwellings have electricity, 99% have access to water supply and 98.1% access to the sewer system (Encuesta intercensal, 2015).

The municipal land area has 55,309.11 ha, of which 70.21% is designated to agriculture (27.3), 19.92% to natural resources and forests (27.4) and 9.87% to urban areas. (27.5) The Celaya Valley aquifer is the only water supply for the ZMLB. It has an area of 2,793.71 km2, with an average extraction depth of 148 metres (27m minimum and 330m maximum extraction depth). It supplies water for 11 municipalities, covering a total population of one million inhabitants. The volume of water extraction is 593 million m3 per year, of which 67% is destined for agriculture, 4% for industrial consumption and 23% for human consumption. Water injection into the aquifer has a deficit of 161.3 million m3 per year, which has affected the stability of the soil, resulting in a series of geological faults crossing the urban area. The annual soil subsidence in the fault crossing the urban sprawl is 15 cm per annum (27.6) Federal infrastructure extends across the city, affecting the city infrastructure and site for this proposal. PEMEX (Mexican Petroleum) has a network of pipelines inside the city of Celaya. Part of the network is underground

of the railway system inside the city (27.7). CFE (Federal Electricity Company) has a network of power lines crossing the urban area. Nowadays, this network serves to build the avenue network inside the city.

Furthermore, a network of cycle paths had been built under this power line network (27.8).

The average altitude of the city is 1767 MAMSL. The highest point is at 2,000 MAMSL (27.9). The main hydrological current of the municipality is the Laja River.

The river flow affects the southern area of Celaya with floods during rainy seasons. The latest severe floods were in 2003 and 2018. (27.10) The chosen site for the project uses two historical railways in Celaya, Mexico. These will cease to operate in 2020, when the new railway system outside of the city is completed. These lands have a concession for the companies Kansas City Southern (NB-line) and Ferromex (A-line) (27.11). These rail tracks divide Celaya´s urban sprawl into four quadrants. A-Line has a distance of 7.72 Km, runs from east to west and was inaugurated in 1878. The NB-line has a distance of 9.11 Km, running from north to south and it was inaugurated in 1883. The total of 16.84 km only considers the path inside the urban area that will be abandoned. Both lines have a complex relationship with their urban environments, as they cross diverse urban typologies, informal settlements, historical sites, factories and industrial archaeology.

27.1 Mexico has 32 States. Bajio includes five States.

27.2 Guanajuato has 46 Municipalities. Nine include ZMLB Figure 27: Celaya´s Municipality analysis

32

Application

27.3 Agricultural land use

27.4 Natural resources and Forests

Geologic Faults due to water extraction

27.5 Urban area and land-use map

CFE Power lines

Pemex Pipelines

27.6 Faults. Celaya´s urban sprawl

27.7 Oil pipelines network

27.8 CFE Power lines network

Laja River Kansas City

Ferromex Flooding area

27.9 Celaya´s urban sprawl in a flat valley North

27.10 Laja River and flooding area

Ferromex New Rails

New railyard

Kansas City S New Rails 27.11 New railway system of Celaya

10 km 33

City analysis - urban sprawl The city centre area is surrounded by the rail tracks on the north and west and it is the most affected area by the geological faults crossing from north to south.

The first contemporary industrial area is located in the north of the urban sprawl. It is the only not connected industrial area to the railway system. The industrial area in the east has heavy industry; the south is where Honda Motor Company factory is located with a surface of 800 ha. To the west, factories supplying automotive industries can be found outside the urban sprawl. (28.1) Celaya lacks green areas. Few parks can be found in the city centre. Most of the green area infrastructure is located in the north part of the Ferromex A-Line. In the west, the construction of a 6 km linear park on the Laja River was abandoned due to corruption, the high cost of execution and maintenance. This is the most criticized project proposed by the Federal Planning authorities. (28.2)

Heavy industry Medium industry Line NB KCS

Urban sprawl Geological fault

Line A Ferromex

City centre limit Listed city centre Honda Motor Co.

28.1 City Centre, geological faults and main industrial areas

Commercial land use is well defined in the main avenues. On the north-west area of the city, new shopping centres, private schools, hotels and other equipment are being built. However, the city centre is still the most important commercial area of the city.

(28.3) The avenue system connects the east and west urban fabric effectively, mainly for the movement of vehicles, public transport and products from Mexico City to Bajio (Highway 45 and Pan-American Highway). Effective north–south connections need to be proposed and built. (28.4) Planning authorities have four categories for dwelling density. These provide tools to understand the urban fabric and its growth (28.5). The north-west area of the city is the least densified area. It has the highest cost of land per square metre and is where vacant lands, gentrification and speculation phenomenon can be found (28.6). Nowadays, the city centre has a low rate of inhabitants (28.7). Nor-Poniente area is the fastestgrowing urban area due to the Federal Government’s strategy for social housing. This area has problems regarding habitability, due to the poor quality of dwelling construction and inefficient connections. Most of the social housing built in the last 20 years is alongside Highway 45 (28.8). In present years, new typologies are being approved, allowing to build towers in the North-west area of the city. This land-use policy shows future speculation in the south-east area (28.9).

City Centre Public parks Green areas Sports facilities 28.2 Green areas

Equipment land use Commercial land use 28.3 Commercial and equipment land use.

Figure 28: Celaya´s urban area analysis

34

Application

mx

28.4 Large, Medium and Small Avenue system

Raquet Club 1980 $$$

Alameda $$$ 1920

28.5 Celaya´s Land Use Map (all Layers)

Mexico $ 1980

Campestre $$$ 1980

Eje NP $$ 2000

Arboledas 1970 $$$ City Centre $$ 1570-1920 28.6 Dwelling density: H0 (30 p/ha) to H2 (200 p/Ha)

28.7 Dwelling density: H2.5 (201 p/ha) to H3 (300 p/ha)

E. Zapata -$ 1960 Nor poniente $ 2000 Olivos $ 2010 Del Valle -$ 1950

New Social Dwellings $ 2010

Jardines 3ra $$ 1990

28.8 Dwelling density H3.5 (301 p/ha) to H4 (400 p/ha) North

0

Tower Tyoe Land use (not built)

TowerType $$$ 2010

28.9 Towers HDB (400 p/ha) HDA (450 p/ha) HDM (500 p/ha)

5 km 35

City analysis - conceptual

Celaya was founded by the Spanish Kingdom on 12 October 1570, where an Otomi community named Nat-tha-hi was located. In 1655, building a city was considered and in the first part of the nineteenth century, Celaya became economic and architecturally important for Guanajuato. Fabric production became the most important economic activity in 1825 and, in 1878, the first railways were built to connect Guanajuato with Mexico City.

In 1910, the industrial Water Tower was built to commemorate the first centenary of Mexico Independence by President Porfirio Diaz. This industrial structure was fabricated by German engineers Schรถndube and Brandenburg and continues to supply water to the city centre today. In 1915, The Battles of Celaya changed the course of the Mexican Revolution. These conflicts used the industrial buildings as battlefields and, thus, they became relevant for Mexican history.

The Water Tower, the rail infrastructure and industrial archaeology are the most iconic monuments in the city.

Hence, industrial archaeology is an important part of local identity, allowing this conceptual approach to be part of the strategy proposal.

29.1 Water Tower, city centre, Celaya, Mexico

As in other cities in Mexico, the destruction of industrial archaeology awakens the need to understand society and what these buildings represent. Renovation or conservation with new architectural and urban programs, may allow cities to preserve our collective memory and reflect who we are as a productive society.

Industrial archaeology allows (physical) observation when it comes to the concept of productivity, the complexity of the social systems related to them and the common identity of production. It is important to rethink the role that industrial archaeology can play in architecture and urban design practice. If these spaces are the recipients of political, economic and social events of the past, then preserving them becomes essential in order to understand the process of existing and upcoming social constructions.

The following images express the context where the strategic proposal takes place. (29.1 - 30.9) 29.2 Water Towers (Bernd & Hilla Becher, 1972)

36

Application

29.3 Zempoala Factory, Celaya, Mexico

29.4 La Favorita Factory, Celaya, Mexico

29.5 La Internacional Factory (1929), Celaya, Mexico

29.6 La Harinera Factory, Celaya, Mexico

29.7 Thermoelectric CFE, Celaya, Mexico

29.8 La Hacienda factory, Celaya, Mexico

Figure 29: Industrial archaeology concept. Buildings to support identity conceptualization, Celaya, Mexico 37

City analysis - rail tracks context

Railway lands in Mexico are mainly used for moving merchandises across the country. The passenger railway system ceased to operate in late 1994 as a result of the privatisation of rail lands, a consequence of NAFTA. Nowadays, railway infrastructure is strictly linked to industrial and logistic purposes. Companies such as Honda Motor Company and Mazda, use this infrastructure to transport their products to North America. Therefore, these circumstances led to building a new railway system outside the urban sprawl to improve operations. Additionally, the Mexican Government (2006-2012) specified the importance to remove railways inside the urban sprawl to reduce risks, illegal activities and improve quality of life for the population. This new infrastructure should be completed by late 2020.

30.1 Line A and Line NB intersection in Celaya, Mexico

In 2019, the Federal government (2018-2024) became interested in building new railway systems for passenger service as a strategy to decentralize the Mexican economy from Mexico City Valley. This strategy attempts to use the same railways’ lands to achieve low-cost construction. The first project for this new policy is “Tren Maya”, in the Yucatan Peninsula and South East Mexico.

Guanajuato State government (2018-2024) attempts to build a new passenger railway system from Guanajuato to Queretaro. The viability is high, 7.89 million people live in both States (INEGI, 2015). This area in Mexico has economic and social systems linked across the cities of San Juan Del Rio, Queretaro, Celaya, Salamanca, Irapuato, and Leon. However, the same strategy of low-cost construction will guide to re-use the old railway system inside Celaya´s urban sprawl.

This decision could generate a negative impact on the population of Celaya. Infrastructure to cross-over a ground-level railway does not exist and needs to be built to reduce risks. Also, a larger volume of operations will occur with this new use. Consequently, contradicting the main reason why the Federal Government decided to build a new railway system outside the urban sprawl would be likely to happen. A common political and economic fault is to manage (figuratively) the Bajio area as a linear city system. This reduces the opportunities on what an urban divide could mean for the growth of Celaya, its competitiveness and social development.

38

30.2 Line A railyard inside Celaya, Mexico

30.3 Line NB steel bridge & abutments, Celaya, Mexico

Application

30.4 Bridge abutments, Av. Anenecuilco, Celaya, Mexico

30.5 Listed train station, Line A, Celaya, Mexico

30.6 Line A rail track, North-west Celaya, Mexico

30.7 Family living in a train car, Line A, Villagrรกn, Mexico

30.8 Empty lands beside Line A, Celaya, Mexico

30.9 Listed train station, Line NB, Comonfort, Mexico

Figure 30: Industrial archaeology concept. Railway infrastructure in Celaya and ZMLB, Mexico 39

Line A & Line NB aerial photos

31. 1 Base map for aereal images of Line A (east to west) and Line NB (south to norht) railtracks in Celaya, Mexico.

31.2 Line A from west to east

40

31.3 Line A , Zona de Oro and Las Fuentes, north to south

Application

31.4 Line A, Xochipili I and II, sotuh to north

31.5 Line A, Railyard, Alameda, north to sourth

31.6 Line A - Line NB intersection. La Favorita, north to south

31.7 Line A - Line B intersection. Alameda. east to west

31.8 Line NB, Adolfo Lopez Mateos Avenue. south to north

31.9 Line NB, Honda Motor Company, north to south

Figure 31: Aerial images of Celaya´s railway system Line A and Line NB. Chosen Urban Divide Device to create strategy.

41

Sections map and methodology for site analysis For a specific site analysis, the chosen urban divide will be divided into 8 sections. The section order will be followed from east to west for Line A (1-4), and from north to south for Line NB (5-8). (32) For an Urban Regeneration Strategy (URS) applying urban divides, the main Urban Divide (UD) A relate to smaller Urban Divide Devices (UDDs) B. Also, diverse Urban Divide Typologies (UDTs) would be found C. Firstly, smaller UDDs are physical objects such as walls, fences, vegetation, and so on D. Secondly, UDTs analysis will focus on land-use categorization E. Vacant lands are the most valuable UDT. Further,

for the possible integration to URS, measurements are added to map the “possible integration to URS�.

As a result, section analysis will disclosure which UDDs could disappear (value 3), be modified (value 2), or be static (value 1) F. Additionally, UDTs accesses could be private (value 1), public/private (value 2), or public (value 3) G. Finally, when categorizing UDDs and UDTs, values need to be summed in order to map the five possible outcomes to integrate them into URS H. Urban Emptiness Types serve for SWOT analysis conclusions I (33). This methodology was created for this particular project.

5

9.11 km

3

2

1 7.72 km

4 6 Line A

7

8

Line NB Figure 32: Sections analysis, satellite view 42

1:1250 North

2,500 m

0m

Application B

D

4

=

5

6

3

3

disappear = 3

4

F

or M e

modified = 2 static

=1

2

private

=1

1

+ 4

3

H

ss Le

G

=

E

2

C

=3

to le on ib ati ss g r po te in

pub / priv = 2 public

5

A

1

2

3

I

Figure 33: Methodology for site analysis for URS

5

3

2

1

4 6

7

8

0m

2,500 m

North 1:1250

Figure 34: Sections, site analysis, plan 43

Sections 1 & 2

1

urban equipment

education

heritage

commercial

shopping

sports

business

hotel

culture

public interest

religion

hospital

vacanct lands

government

gated community

gated community

informal settlement

parks

community

community centre

gas station

production

industrial-business

entertainment

Satelite image april 2019, GoogleEarth

1

Figure 35: Section 1, Line A. 44

1 : 250 North

500 m

0m

Application

UDD static (1)

new path mapping

real connection

UDD modify (2)

UDD high opportunities

possible connection

UDD disappear (3)

new connections

not-possible connect

private access (1)

risks mapping

new connection

+/- access (2)

geological fault

new infrastructure

public access (3)

pipelines Pemex

mobility improvement

cycle path related

car-related

strategic mobility

pedestrian-related

public transport-related

conceptual value

2

Satelite image april 2019, GoogleEarth

0m

500 m

North 1 : 250

Figure 36: Section 2, Line A & Line NB. 45

Sections 3 & 4

3

urban equipment

education

heritage

commercial

shopping

sports

business

hotel

culture

public interest

religion

hospital

vacanct lands

government

gated community

gated community

informal settlement

parks

community

community centre

gas station

production

industrial-business

entertainment

Satelite image april 2019, GoogleEarth

Figure 37: Section 3, Line A. 46

1 : 250 North

500 m

0m

Application

UDD static (1)

new path mapping

real connection

UDD modify (2)

UDD high opportunities

possible connection

UDD disappear (3)

new connections

not-possible connect

private access (1)

risks mapping

new connection

+/- access (2)

geological fault

new infrastructure

public access (3)

pipelines Pemex

mobility improvement

cycle path related

car-related

strategic mobility

pedestrian-related

public transport-related

conceptual value

4

Satelite image april 2019, GoogleEarth

0m

500 m

North 1 : 250

Figure 38: Section 4, Line A 47

Sections 5 & 6

5

urban equipment

education

heritage

commercial

shopping

sports

business

hotel

culture

public interest

religion

hospital

vacanct lands

government

gated community

gated community

informal settlement

parks

community

community centre

gas station

production

industrial-business

entertainment

Satelite image april 2019, GoogleEarth

Figure 39: Section 5, Line NB. 48

1 : 250 North

500 m

0m

Application

UDD static (1)

new path mapping

real connection

UDD modify (2)

UDD high opportunities

possible connection

UDD disappear (3)

new connections

not-possible connect

private access (1)

risks mapping

new connection

+/- access (2)

geological fault

new infrastructure

public access (3)

pipelines Pemex

mobility improvement

cycle path related

car-related

strategic mobility

pedestrian-related

public transport-related

conceptual value

6

Satelite image april 2019, GoogleEarth

0m

500 m

North 1 : 250

Figure 40: Section 6, Line NB. 49

Sections 7 & 8

7

urban equipment

education

heritage

commercial

shopping

sports

business

hotel

culture

public interest

religion

hospital

vacanct lands

government

gated community

gated community

informal settlement

parks

community

community centre

gas station

production

industrial-business

entertainment

Satelite image april 2019, GoogleEarth

Figure 41: Section 7, Line NB. 50

1 : 250 North

500 m

0m

Application

UDD static (1)

new path mapping

real connection

UDD modify (2)

UDD high opportunities

possible connection

UDD disappear (3)

new connections

not-possible connect

private access (1)

risks mapping

new connection

+/- access (2)

geological fault

new infrastructure

public access (3)

pipelines Pemex

mobility improvement

cycle path related

car-related

strategic mobility

pedestrian-related

public transport-related

conceptual value

8

Satelite image april 2019, GoogleEarth

1

7

0m

500 m

North 1 : 250

Figure 42: Section 8, Line NB. 51

Strategic SWOTs S

W

The economic growth of Bajio.

Young population of the City.

The Principal City of ZMLB. Agricultural production.

The flatness of the city for mobility.

S

Industrial, service and agriculture activity.

Connections east to west.

A mix of land-uses in the city centre.

Changing policies to build social housing near the city centre.

Densification with new land-use densities allows more green areas.

Fault crossing the city centre.

Flooding due to bad management of water resources.

Zoning economic development.

High prices of land in the least densified area of the city.

The decay of the city centre.

Water extraction deficit.

Geological faults.

Location of urban sprawl within the municipal boundary.

Pemex pipelines.

Laja floods in southern Celaya.

Unequal distribution of public resources to improve infrastructure.

Increase natural reserve lands.

New railway system outside the urban sprawl will increase competitiveness.

Power lines to improve cycle paths.

Improve basic services to all population.

O

T

O

SWOT macro-level

S

Vacant land facing rail tracks.

Good integration to rail tracks in vacant lands.

Increase density for social housing.

Improve public infrastructure for informal settlements.

Low usage of existing infrastructure at different times of the day.

1

Not clear identity.

1

S

W

Intersection line A-NB. Large vacant land where the rail track intersection is placed.

Industrial archaeology (La Favorita).

Social segregation due to economic differences between neighbourhoods.

The high price of land.

Gated communities facing back to railways.

O

T

Create a large green area in the centre of the urban sprawl.

Integrate informal settlements and improve public services.

Usage of other forms of urban emptiness types.

Connections from east to west areas of the city.

Create a connection with the northern area of the municipal lands for future infrastructure projects (e.g.

International airport).

Rail tracks to improve urban equipment.

W

O

5

52

A large number of static UDDs will make integration of vacant land to the urban fabric a difficult task. Thus, risks on low interests for government and private sector to invest.

T

S

Informal settlements growing in the north area of 45 Highway.

Construction of an avenue in rail tracks lands could segregate more deprived neighbourhoods.

T

W

Connection to principal avenues in the city.

Clear connections from deprived neighbourhoods to improve urban infrastructure.

Poor quality of urban infrastructure.

SWOT section 5

Urban divides devices (UDDs) facing back to large vacant land.

Social segregation due to UDD.

SWOT section 2

Social segregation due to industrial zoning. Industries are disconnected from social issues from the area.

Industrial area for job generation for families living close by.

2

O

SWOT section 1

S

T

SWOT urban sprawl

W

Connections to new industrial areas and closeness to Queretaro.

Economic growth.

Hotel service.

W

Poor green infrastructure.

Planning decisions (corruption).

Society is not the main axis for city planning authorities.

Bad distribution of urban equipment for the city.

Connections (north to south).

Social housing development.

Usage of other forms of urban emptiness types.

Rail tracks serve to connect north-south urban fabric.

Industrial archaeology to highlight the importance of water.

O

6

Clear division due to gated communities on the west area of the rail track.

Poor public transport and cycle paths to connect east-west urban fabric.

Construction of an avenue could generate segregation from deprived neighbourhoods.

Insecurity due segregation of west neighbourhoods.

T

SWOT section 6

Application S

W

S

W

Neoclassical architecture.

Industrialism as local identity.

The water tower still supplies water to the city centre.

Water tower as an iconic industrial element.

No incentives to rescue industrial archaeology, either from government or private sector.

Geological fault destroys heritage.

New railway system outside the urban sprawl.

Empty urban divides to promote an urban regeneration strategy.

Urban emptiness as heritage to improve quality of life.

Mexico lacks passenger service in the national railway system.

Insecurity in areas near rail tracks due to different levels of jurisdiction.

The large vision of the Bajio as a whole limits local solutions for local problems.

Fabric production as a lost identity Importance of industrial archaeology identity due to historical events.

Recent incentive to transform 1929 Factory into a tech-hub.

La Harinera as a milestone.

Destruction of industrial archaeology.

Thermoelectric never worked due to water extraction (figurative conceptualization of water extraction problem).

Improve competitiveness.

Improve quality of life for inhabitants near rail tracks.

A new system for passengers is better located outside the city in the new railways, this will make Bajio more competitive against other areas in North America.

Concessions on rail lands will lead to legal flaws on new usages.

If the new passenger service uses the same railways inside the urban sprawl, high segregation and risks will happen.

O

T

O

SWOT conceptual

S

A large amount of urban equipment.

Closeness to the city centre and historical architecture.

Blunt accesses to rail tracks from urban fabric in the south area.

Strategy to connect existing urban equipment and graffiti with rail tracks.

Usage of other forms of urban emptiness types.

Create a clear connection due to fault.

SWOT rail tracks context

W Social inequalities close to rail tracks.

3

Existing urban equipment accesses facing against the rail tracks.

Geological fault breaking underground infrastructure.

O

T

S

Best integrated into the urban fabric.

Almost no presence of gated communities facing the rail tracks.

Entertainment area.

Variety of land uses.

Industrial archaeology.

Transform public urban equipment into a large strategy for the city.

Create mix land-use strategies to generate a business hub.

Connections to western ZMLB cities.

Pemex pipelines.

Geological faults.

Vacant lands.

Closeness to Honda Motor Company and new rail yard project.

Generate a green area inside the urban fabric.

A new area for social housing inside the urban sprawl and close to job centres.

Improve legibility in south Celaya.

7

W

Floods from Laja River.

Growth of informal settlements in vacant lands.

T SWOT section 7

4

Mobility conflict area in the north curve of the rail tracks.

New infrastructure needs to be built to solve this issue.

Use rail tracks to improve vehicular movement.

Hospital area needs new transport infrastructure to improve relationships between rail tracks and urban fabric.

T

SWOT section 4

Low presence of urban equipment.

The growing presence of gated communities in the urban fabric.

O

W

O

SWOT section 3

S

T

S

W

Usage of industrial lands for multiple public infrastructures and government offices.

Honda Motor Company.

New rail yard infrastructure.

Social housing in a well-connected area.

Potential for large scale proposal for business area connected with large scale companies.

Low usage of government infrastructure.

8

Flooding lands.

Flooding lands near Laja River Speculative vacant lands.

Corruption from previous Governments in lands adjacent to Laja River.

O

T SWOT section 8 53

Strategic proposal applying empty urban divides

54

Urban equipment

Industrial areas

Cycle and pedestrian network connections

Commercial hubs

Vacant lands

Conflict areas (urban divide devices)

Gated communities

Existing connections

New connections

Application

The proposal would increase distribution of urban equipment in the urban fabric, also it would allow easy access from different parts of the city to existing infrastructure. It would promote the construction of new infrastructure to support social equality. The rail tracks will become into two green corridors for the city, permitting to access green areas in perpendicular directions, emphasising the importance of saving natural resources in the 16 km new green axes.

The proposal would improve access to industrial and business centres with a sustainable public transport system, improving times and reducing pollution.

Companies and the Government would partner with the project proposal to improve social inequalities.

The rail tracks would improve cycle paths and pedestrian movement, to increase the government aims of becoming a pedestrian-friendly city.

Commercial infrastructure would grow in different areas of the green corridor, using emptiness as a tool to expand economic growth for the people.

Vacant lands would allow developing social housing and urban equipment inside the urban sprawl, leading into a denser city to benefit movement and access to equal social opportunities.

The proposal would increase the legibility of urban fabric, reducing the number of urban divisions, a product of insecurity.

Gated communities would improve architectural proposals to integrate the new green axis to their real estate products. The market would shift interest to access public areas in the rail tracks to increase properties value.

The proposal would boost existing connections to improve interaction between neighbours in a different parts of the city. It would generate a strong local identity.

New connections would appear to improve existing urban infrastructure, transforming the city into a better working entity. Likewise, underground infrastructure such as water pipelines and electricity systems would increase the capacity of vacant lands to receive higherdensity construction proposals.

Figure 43: Summary diagrams for strategic proposal applying empty urban divides in Celaya, Mexico.

55

Images of intention: strategic design

56

44.1 Image of intentions 1

44.2 Image of intentions 2

44.5 Image of intentions 5

44.6 Image of intentions 6

Application

44.3 Image of intentions 3

44.4 Image of intentions 4

44.7 Image of intentions 7

44.8 Image of intentions 8

Figure 44: Images of intention for strategic proposal applying empty urban divides in Celaya, Mexico.

57

Urban regeneration applying empty urban divides

1

1

7

Figure 45: Summary map for strategic proposal applying empty urban divides in Celaya, Mexico.

58

CONC LUSI ON

59

Conclusion Doing this research project allowed me to understand urban divisions as complex elements within the urban fabric. When designing strategies are applied, juxtapositions of urban divides show evident complex relationships.

However, the feasibility of transforming these elements into new urban interactions is high. Surprisingly, when an urban divide is no longer operational, the device is not the most important element to recognise and analyse. Urban emptiness categories are.

Limited research has been done on how urban divides and urban emptiness interact with each other as tools for urban regeneration. Nonetheless, urban design practice uses emptiness to create or transform the urban fabric without deepening those substantial relationships.

The rare opportunity Celaya will have when the rail track system will cease to operate will provide a unique chance for a regeneration strategy proposal and understanding relationships between urban divides and urban emptiness is imperative. A considerably large area of the city could be improved. Highlighting these concepts for future proposals is an important achievement for the future of these railways.

Emphasising the importance of this railways (physically and figuratively) for the future of social equality in Celaya is needed to guide all social interests to a similar objective. People’s well-being is the most important part when approaching a new use for these lands.

Governments and private sectors need to understand the opportunities this event will generate, and observe the potential threats when deciding on how to intervene.

Organized society has to be part of the decision-making process for a clear line to follow. Likewise, urban design practices have a unique chance to generate an open discussion if this proposal becomes a reality. National and international competitions for design and analysis would have to take place to expand knowledge on urban divisions, creating information which will serve for similar projects in the future.

This work is a wake-up call for urban designers to look beyond what has been documented and analysed and seeks to provide concepts for further urban design practice discussions.

60

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63

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Notes Reference List Note 1 Ganz, B., Dommartin, S., Sander, O., Bois, C., Falk, P., Wenders, W., Dauman, A., Handke, P., Alekan, H., Przygodda, P., Knieper, J., 2008. Wings of desire. Axiom Films, U.K.].

4 películas para entender la arquitectura y el urbanismo en la posmodernidad [WWW Document], 2019. . Plataforma Arquitectura.

URL https://www.plataformaarquitectura.cl/cl/921133/4-peliculas-para-entender-la-arquitectura-y-el-urbanismo-en-la-posmodernidad (accessed 7.18.19).

Note 2 McAllister, M. Sabbagh, M. 2017 Evidence: visualizing urban divides. Perspecta 50. Yale University. School of Architecture, Yale University. School of Design, 1952. Perspecta. MIT Press, Cambridge.

Note 3 Petrova, M., Nenko, A., 2018. Urban emptiness as a resource for sustainable urban development. Management of Environmental Quality: An International Journal 29, 388–405.

Figure Reference List Figure 1 Diction, S.&, 2016. This is the Rail Park. [WWW Document]. Medium. URL https://medium.com/smith-diction/this-is-the-rail-park7ebdf936d5c4 (accessed 8.21.19).

Figure 2 Jesús Pérez se dirige al pueblo de Celaya, al paso del candidato Ignacio Bonillas [WWW Document], n.d. . Mediateca - Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia. URL https://mediateca.inah.gob.mx/repositorio/islandora/object/fotografia%3A51122 (accessed 4.2.19).

Figure 3 In Disuse [WWW Document], n.d. . The High Line. URL https://www.thehighline.org/photos-videos/historical/high-line-in-disuse/ (accessed 4.11.19).

Figure 4 Unequal Scenes - Mexico City [WWW Document], n.d. URL https://unequalscenes.com/mexico-city-df (accessed 6.4.19).

Figure 5 Unequal Scenes - Mexico City [WWW Document], n.d. URL https://unequalscenes.com/mexico-city-df (accessed 6.4.19).

Figure 6 Taylor, A., n.d. The Berlin Wall, 25 Years After the Fall - The Atlantic [WWW Document]. URL https://www.theatlantic.com/photo/2014/11/the-berlin-wall-25-years-after-the-fall/100845/ (accessed 7.18.19).

Figure 7 Taylor, A., n.d. The Berlin Wall, 25 Years After the Fall - The Atlantic [WWW Document]. URL https://www.theatlantic.com/photo/2014/11/the-berlin-wall-25-years-after-the-fall/100845/ (accessed 7.18.19).

64

Reference list Figure 8 Taylor, A., n.d. The Berlin Wall, 25 Years After the Fall - The Atlantic [WWW Document]. URL https://www.theatlantic.com/photo/2014/11/the-berlin-wall-25-years-after-the-fall/100845/ (accessed 7.18.19).

Figure 9 Urban Divides Concept. De la Lastra, 2019 Figure 10 Example for different Devices and Types for Urban Divides in Celaya, Mexico. De la Lastra, 2019. Google Street View, 2019 Figure 11 Urban Emptiness Types. De la Lastra, 2019.

Figure 12 Visual examples for each typology of urban emptiness.

This diagram include the following images: 12.1 50 Fotos Históricas De La Ciudad De México Parte 7 Imágenes Taringa [WWW Document], n.d. URL https://bestfreephotos. eu/50-fotos-hist%C3%B3ricas-de-la-ciudad-de-m%C3%A9xico-parte-7-im%C3%A1genes-taringa.html (accessed 4.10.19).

12.2 Unknown, 2015. travel~^^: Walking around Seoul ,Cheonggyecheon Stream & Cheonggye Plaza (청계천 & 청계광장). travel~^^. URL http://kanjunglemap.blogspot.com/2015/02/walking-around-seoul-cheonggyecheon.html (accessed 8.7.19).

12.3 Geograph:: Wollaton Park wall (C) John Sutton [WWW Document], n.d. URL https://www.geograph.org.uk/photo/2473406 (accessed 8.7.19).

12.4 Photo by Danny Fuchs. The Low Line, A Park in an Abandoned Manhattan Subway Station, 2011. . Laughing Squid. URL https:// laughingsquid.com/the-low-line-a-park-in-an-abandoned-manhattan-subway-station/ (accessed 4.10.19).

12.5 Filer, A., 2008. From <a href=”http://www.everydot.com” rel=”nofollow”>www.everydot.com</a>.

12.6 New York’s High Line Sky Park to Open in June, n.d. URL https://inhabitat.com/the-high-line-the-park-in-the-sky-due-to-open-injune/ (accessed 4.12.19).

12.7 Photo by Flickr photographer paulswansen, Wide Open Spaces, 2013. . Sightline Institute. URL https://www.sightline. org/2013/07/25/wide-open-spaces/ (accessed 4.10.19).

12.8 Why are Stockton’s parking lots so big and empty?, 2013. . Stockton City Limits. URL https://stocktoncitylimits.com/2013/12/31/ why-are-stocktons-parking-lots-so-big-and-empty/ (accessed 4.10.19).

12.9 Photo by Martin Vorel, Abandoned Factory | FREE image on LibreShot, 2018. . LibreShot. URL https://libreshot.com/abandoned-factory/ (accessed 8.7.19).

12.10 Caldorwards4, 2009. English: Vacant Macy’s at Karcher Mall.

65

12.11 Photo by Brian Ulrich. The Death and Life of the American Shopping Mall [WWW Document], n.d. . Time. URL http://time. com/4865957/death-and-life-shopping-mall/ (accessed 4.10.19).

12.12 Photo by Photo Darren MacDonald. Rainbow Mall a poor fit for library/art gallery, report argues [WWW Document], n.d. . Sudbury. com. URL https://www.sudbury.com/local-news/rainbow-mall-a-poor-fit-for-libraryart-gallery-report-argues-805545 (accessed 4.10.19).

12.13 Pinterest (México / Mexico) [WWW Document], n.d. . Pinterest. URL https://www.pinterest.com.mx/bevwindjack/deterrents/ (accessed 4.12.19).

12.14 Area under Ballard Bridge fenced off to keep out homeless campers – My Ballard [WWW Document], n.d. URL http://www.myballard.com/2018/02/07/area-under-ballard-bridge-fenced-off-to-keep-out-homeless-campers/ (accessed 4.12.19).

12.15 Picos de cemento bajo los puentes en China [WWW Document], 2012. . Marcianos. URL https://marcianosmx.com/picos-de-cemento-bajo-los-puentes-en-china/ (accessed 4.12.19).

Figure 13 Cué, C.E., 2016. La 31, de villa miseria a nuevo barrio de Buenos Aires. El País. URL https://elpais.com/internacional/2016/08/30/ argentina/1472565308_299661.html/ (accessed 7.18.19).

Figure 14 Unequal Scenes - Mexico City [WWW Document], n.d. URL https://unequalscenes.com/mexico-city-df (accessed 6.4.19).

Figure 15 Analysis of Urban Divide devices and Urban Emptiness typologies for The High Line. De la Lastra, 2019.

Figure 16 Different buildings along the High Line prove diverse dynamics of architecture as a product of neoliberal consumption. De la Lastra, 2019.

This diagram include the following images: 16.1 In Disuse [WWW Document], n.d. . The High Line. URL https://www.thehighline.org/photos-videos/historical/high-line-in-disuse/ (accessed 4.11.19).

16.2 In Disuse [WWW Document], n.d. . The High Line. URL https://www.thehighline.org/photos-videos/historical/high-line-in-disuse/ (accessed 4.11.19).

16.3 Photo by Art Industry News: How the High Line Became a Vulgar “Mirage” of Its Cultural Promise + Other Stories [WWW Document], n.d. URL https://news.artnet.com/art-world/art-industry-news-january-8-2019-1433671 (accessed 4.11.19).

16.4 The Standard, High Line New York [WWW Document], n.d. URL https://www.kayak.fr/New-York-Hotels-The-Standard-High-LineNew-York.208111.ksp (accessed 4.11.19).

16.5 A day at the Whitney Museum plus lunch, galleries and a night on the town [WWW Document], n.d. . TripSavvy. URL https://www. tripsavvy.com/cheleas-art-scene-4011827 (accessed 4.11.19).

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Reference list 16.6 Vessel (structure), 2019. . Wikipedia.

Figure 17 Analysis of Urban Divide devices and Urban Emptiness typologies for Dequindre Cut. De la Lastra, 2019.

Figure 18 Infrastructure “jumping” old railways serve as elements to intervene with graffiti. Ruins from industrial buildings do not integrate correctly with the green line proposal. De la Lastra, 2019.

This diagram include the following images: 18.1 Hyperakt, 2019. Russell Street Deli [WWW Document]. On the Grid. URL https://onthegrid.city/detroit/eastern-market/russell-street-deli (accessed 4.12.19).

18.2 Hyperakt, 2019. Russell Street Deli [WWW Document]. On the Grid. URL https://onthegrid.city/detroit/eastern-market/russell-street-deli (accessed 4.12.19).

18.3 Imagen: Dequindre Cut | www.imagenesmi.com [WWW Document], n.d. URL https://www.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http:// wacots.org/nailhed/EasternMarket/images/IMG_3164_jpg.jpg&imgrefurl=https://www.imagenesmi.com/im%C3%A1genes/dequindre-cut-d8.html&h=583&w=778&tbnid=KBdThwhXo9nRHM&tbnh=194&tbnw=259&usg=K_Cn0BTvxt0p47TXtXjbOCIzNABd0=&hl=es-419&docid=KxNPAdzqVGHtmM&itg=1 (accessed 4.12.19).

18.4 Dequindre Cut [WWW Document], n.d. . High Line Network. URL https://network.thehighline.org/projects/dequindre-cut/ (accessed 4.11.19).

18.5 Dequindre Cut [WWW Document], n.d. . High Line Network. URL https://network.thehighline.org/projects/dequindre-cut/ (accessed 4.11.19).

18.6 Dequindre Cut [WWW Document], n.d. . High Line Network. URL https://network.thehighline.org/projects/dequindre-cut/ (accessed 4.11.19).

Figure 19 Analysis of Urban Divide devices and Urban Emptiness typologies for Ferrocarril de Cuernavaca. De la Lastra, 2019.

Figure 20 New public realm infrastructure in rail tracks which are still operating once per week. De la Lastra, 2019.

This diagram include the following images: 20.1 PARQUE LINEAL FERROCARRIL DE CUERNAVACA: PRIMER TRAMO | [WWW Document], n.d. URL http://www.arquitecturapanamericana.com/parque-lineal-ferrocarril-de-cuernavaca-primer-tramo/ (accessed 4.11.19).

20.2 Photo by Arturo Arrieta. Gaeta-Springall Arquitectos inaugura el nuevo Parque Lineal Ferrocarril de Cuernavaca en Ciudad de México [WWW Document], 2018. . Plataforma Arquitectura. URL https://www.plataformaarquitectura.cl/cl/886446/gaeta-springall-arquitectos-inaugura-el-nuevo-parque-lineal-ferrocarril-de-cuernavaca-en-ciudad-de-mexico (accessed 4.11.19).

20.3 PARQUE LINEAL FERROCARRIL DE CUERNAVACA: PRIMER TRAMO | [WWW Document], n.d. URL http://www.arquitectura67

panamericana.com/parque-lineal-ferrocarril-de-cuernavaca-primer-tramo/ (accessed 4.11.19).

20.4 PARQUE LINEAL FERROCARRIL DE CUERNAVACA: PRIMER TRAMO | [WWW Document], n.d. URL http://www.arquitecturapanamericana.com/parque-lineal-ferrocarril-de-cuernavaca-primer-tramo/ (accessed 4.11.19).

20.5 PARQUE LINEAL FERROCARRIL DE CUERNAVACA: PRIMER TRAMO | [WWW Document], n.d. URL http://www.arquitecturapanamericana.com/parque-lineal-ferrocarril-de-cuernavaca-primer-tramo/ (accessed 4.11.19).

20.6 Cautiva y molesta tren en Nuevo Polanco [WWW Document], n.d. URL https://www.reforma.com/aplicacioneslibre/preacceso/ articulo/default.aspx?id=255517&v=4&urlredirect=https://www.reforma.com/aplicaciones/articulo/default.aspx?id=255517&v=4 (accessed 4.11.19).

Figure 21 Urban Divide device and Urban Emptiness types for The Rail Park. De la Lastra, 2019.

Figure 22 A project including three different types of material source. De la Lastra, 2019.

This diagram include the following images: 22.1 The Rail Park [WWW Document], n.d. URL https://urbanengineers.com/projects/the-rail-park-reading-viaduct (accessed 7.19.19).

22.2 The Park [WWW Document], n.d. . Friends of the Rail Park. URL https://www.therailpark.org/the-park/ (accessed 7.19.19).

22.3 The Park [WWW Document], n.d. . Friends of the Rail Park. URL https://www.therailpark.org/the-park/ (accessed 7.19.19).

22.4 The Park [WWW Document], n.d. . Friends of the Rail Park. URL https://www.therailpark.org/the-park/ (accessed 7.19.19).

22.5 WORK [WWW Document], n.d. . studio | bryan hanes. URL http://www.studiobryanhanes.com/work (accessed 7.19.19).

22.6 WORK [WWW Document], n.d. . studio | bryan hanes. URL http://www.studiobryanhanes.com/work (accessed 7.19.19).

Figure 23 Urban Divide device and Urban Emptiness types for Bajo Puentes. De la Lastra, 2019 Figure 24 Different types of interventions on Bajo Puentes project. Mainly focused on commercial land use. De la Lastra, 2019.

This diagram include the following images: 24.1 Galeana, M., 2018. Restaurantes bajo puentes en la cdmx: cuatro lugares para descubrirlos. Chilango. URL http://www.chilango. com/comida/restaurantes-bajo-puentes-cdmx/ (accessed 7.19.19).

24.2 Galeana, M., 2018. Restaurantes bajo puentes en la cdmx: cuatro lugares para descubrirlos. Chilango. URL http://www.chilango. com/comida/restaurantes-bajo-puentes-cdmx/ (accessed 7.19.19).

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Reference list 24.3 Galeana, M., 2018. Restaurantes bajo puentes en la cdmx: cuatro lugares para descubrirlos. Chilango. URL http://www.chilango. com/comida/restaurantes-bajo-puentes-cdmx/ (accessed 7.19.19).

24.4 Galeana, M., 2018. Restaurantes bajo puentes en la cdmx: cuatro lugares para descubrirlos. Chilango. URL http://www.chilango. com/comida/restaurantes-bajo-puentes-cdmx/ (accessed 7.19.19).

24.5 Público, A. del E., n.d. Programa de Recuperación de Bajo Puentes [WWW Document]. Autoridad del Espacio Público. URL https://www.aep.cdmx.gob.mx/programas/programa/proyecto-de-recuperacion-de-bajo-puentes (accessed 7.19.19).

24.6 PRI en el Senado pide investigar concesiones de negocios en bajo puentes de CDMX [WWW Document], n.d. URL https://www. milenio.com/politica/congreso/senado-piden-investigar-concesiones-negocios-puentes-cdmx (accessed 7.19.19).

Figure 25 Figure 25: Conceptual Framework for empty urban divides strategies. De la Lastra, 2019.

Figure 26 Methodology for empty urban divides strategies. De la Lastra, 2019 Figure 27 Celaya´s Municipality analysis, De la Lastra, 2019 Figure 28 Celaya´s urban area analysis. De la Lastra, 2019 Figure 29 Industrial archaeology concept. Buildings to support identity conceptualization, Celaya, Mexico. De la Lastra, 2019 This figure include the following images: 29.1 Water Tower, City Centre, Celaya, Mexico. De la Lastra, 2013 29.2 Water Towers. Bernd & Hilla Becher, 1972 29.3 Zempoala Factory, Celaya, Mexico. De la Lastra, 2013 29.4 La Favorita Factory, Celaya, Mexico. De la Lastra, 2013 29.5 La Internacional Factory (1929), Celaya, Mexico. De la Lastra, 2013 29.6 La Harinera Factory, Celaya, Mexico. De la Lastra, 2013 29.7 Thermoelectric CFE, Celaya, Mexico. De la Lastra, 2013 29.8 La Hacienda factory, Celaya, Mexico. De la Lastra, 2013 69

Figure 30 Industrial archaeology concept. Railway infrastructure in Celaya and ZMLB, Mexico. De la Lastra, 2019 This figure include the following images: 30.1 Line A and Line NB intersection in Celaya, Mexico. De la Lastra, 2013 30.2 Line A Railyard inside Celaya, Mexico. De la Lastra, 2013 30.3 Line NB steel bridge & abutments, Celaya, Mexico. De la Lastra, 2013 30.4 Bridge abutments, Av. Anenecuilco, Celaya, Mexico. De la Lastra, 2013 30.5 Listed train station, Line A, Celaya, Mexico. De la Lastra, 2013 30.6 Line A Rail track, North-west Celaya, Mexico. De la Lastra, 2013 30.7 Family living in a rain car, Line A, Villagrån, Mexico. De la Lastra, 2013 30.8 Empty lands beside Line A, Celaya, Mexico. De la Lastra, 2013 30.9 Listed train station, Line NB, Comonfort, Mexico De la Lastra, 2013 Figure 31 Aerial images of Celaya´s railway system Line A and Line NB. Chosen Urban Divide Device to create the strategy.

This figure include the following images: 31. 1 Base map for aerial images of Line A and Line NB rail tracks in Celaya, Mexico. De la Lastra, 2019 31.2 Line A from west to east. De la Lastra, 2013 31.4 Line A, Xochipili I and II, South to North. De la Lastra, 2013 31.5 Line A, Rail yard, Alameda, North to South. De la Lastra, 2013 31.6 Line A - Line NB intersection. La Favorita. North to south. De la Lastra, 2013 31.7 Line A - Line B intersection. Alameda. East to west. De la Lastra, 2013 31.8 Line NB, Adolfo Lopez Mateos Avenue. South to North. De la Lastra, 2013 70

Reference list 31.9 Line NB, Honda Motor Company, north to south. De la Lastra, 2013 Figure 32 Sections analysis, satellite view. De la Lastra, 2019 Figure 33 Methodology for site analysis for URS. De la Lastra, 2019 Figure 34 Sections, site analysis, plan. De la Lastra, 2019 Figure 35 Section 1, Line A. De la Lastra, 2019 Figure 36 Section 2, Line A & Line NB. De la Lastra, 2019 Figure 37 Section 3, Line A. De la Lastra, 2019 Figure 38 Section 4, Line A. De la Lastra, 2019 Figure 39 Section 5, Line NB. De la Lastra, 2019 Figure 40 Section 6, Line NB. De la Lastra, 2019 Figure 41 Section 7, Line NB. De la Lastra, 2019 Figure 42 Section 8, Line NB. De la Lastra, 2019 Figure 43 Summary diagrams for strategic proposal applying empty urban divides in Celaya, Mexico. De la Lastra, 2019 Figure 44 Images of intention for strategic proposal applying empty urban divides in Celaya, Mexico.

De la Lastra, E., ed., 2013. Proyecto 01: Celaya / Eduardo de la Lastra, editor. Eduardo de la Lastra Vallejo, Celaya.

Figure 45 Summary map for strategic proposal applying empty urban divides in Celaya, Mexico. De la Lastra, 2019.

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FACU LT Y O F THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT T H E BARTLETT - SCHOOL OF P L A NNI NG M S C U R BA N DESIGN AND CITY PL A NNI NG 74