ISSN2050-6732(Print)
ISSN2050-6740(Online)
Winter2024/25
MANAGINGAC-IEDENTERPRISE
AGILEC-IEDENTERPRISES
JIHADISTTHREATDYNAMICSCONCERNINGEUROPE... ARETHEYPOSINGAREALITYORJUST“ARGUMENTUMINTERROREM”?
PROLIFERATIONOFIEDANDBOOBYTRAPDATA ONSOCIALMEDIA
EMERGINGTHREATSOFIEDS HOUTHIAL-QARI’AWEAPONIZEDUUV
NOTREALLYA“HOLLOW”THREAT: TACTICSWITHEXPLOSIVE-LADENDRONESINUKRAINE
EDITORIALANDTECHNOLOGYPARTNERS
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ISSN2050-6732(Print) ISSN2050-6740(Online)
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CONTENTS
IFCSMARTRAYVISION
5ICORTECHNOLOGY/MED-ENG
7NOVODIGITALRADIOGRAPHY
8SAFEPROGROUPINC.
8VIDISCOLTD.
9FOREWORD
ByRobHyde-Bales,ConsultingEditor,Counter-IEDReport
15MANAGINGAC-IEDENTERPRISE
ByPaulAmoroso,anexplosivehazardsspecialist atAssessedMitigationOptions(AMO)consultancy
22THEINTERNATIONALDEFENCEEXHIBITIONAND CONFERENCE-IDEX2025
23AGILEC-IEDENTERPRISES
ByPaulAmoroso,anexplosivehazardsspecialist atAssessedMitigationOptions(AMO)consultancy
28THE13TH ANNUALJOINTCIVIL&DOD CBRNSYMPOSIUM
CONTENTS
29JIHADISTTHREATDYNAMICSCONCERNINGEUROPE... ARETHEYPOSINGAREALITYORJUST“ARGUMENTUMINTERROREM”?
ByLieutenantColonelJoseMRufas,ChiefofAttacktheNetworksBranch, C-IEDCentreofExcellence
37MILIPOLINDIA2025
38PROLIFERATIONOFIEDANDBOOBYTRAPDATA ONSOCIALMEDIA
ByBenScarfe,aformerAmmunitionTechnicalOffcer(ATO)
40EMERGINGTHREATSOFIEDS
ByVincentDeery,CEO,3DX-RayLtd
43HOUTHIAL-QARI’AWEAPONIZEDUUV
ByChiefSuperintendent(ret.)MichaelCardash,SeniorCIEDanalyst, Terrogence-Global
54HOMELANDSECURITYEXPO2025
55NOTREALLYA“HOLLOW”THREAT: TACTICSWITHEXPLOSIVE-LADENDRONESINUKRAINE
ByLieutenantColonelJoseMRufas,ChiefofAttacktheNetworksBranch, C-IEDCentreofExcellence
63DEFENSE&SECURITYASIA2025
FOREWORD
ByRobHyde-Bales,ConsultingEditor,Counter-IEDReport
2024witnessedtherelentlessuseoflandmines, ImprovisedExplosiveDevices(IEDs)andother ExplosiveWeaponsacrosslargeportionsofthe globe.LandmineMonitorReport1,whichwas publishedinNovember2024,recordedatleast5,757 peoplekilledandwoundedbyLandminesandERW worldwidein2023.Civiliansaccountingfor84%ofthe recordedcasualties,andmorethanathirdofall civiliancasualtieswerechildren.Aroundtheworld, atleast58countriesandareasarestillimpacted bylandminecontamination.Myanmarrecordedthe highestnumberofannualcasualties(1,003)forthe frsttime.Syriahadthenexthighestnumber ofcasualties(933),followedbyAfghanistanand Ukraine,whichbothhadmorethan500recorded casualtiesin2023.
Thirty-threestateswithmineclearanceobligations undertheAnti-PersonnelMineBanConventiontreaty reportedasignifcant281,5km2 oflandcleared duringtheyear.CambodiaandCroatialedtheway, accountingforover209km2 or75%ofthetotalland clearedin2023.AccordingtotheCambodianPrime MinisterHunManetaround1millionCambodiansare livingintheareassuspectedtobecontaminatedwith
1 https://the-monitor.org
landminesandunexplodedordnance2 includingthe minefeldsintheheavilyforestedandextremely diffcultmountainousterrainalongtheCambodiaThailandborder.Afterassessingthearea,theCMAA decidedtoextenditsmine-freegoalto2030fromthe previous2025targetinordertogivetheteams moretimetoaccessandcleartheminefelds. InUkraine,upto138,503km2 oftheterritoryare potentiallycontaminatedwithlandminesandother explosiveremnantsofwarandrequiresurveyand clearance.Accordingtothelatestoffcialfgures, around29,4km2 oflandwereclearedfromexplosive ordnancebytheendof2024.3
TheUS,Germany,andtheEuropeanUnion(EU) remainthelargestdonorstowardmineaction,andwe sawahistoricincreaseinglobalfundingformine actioninthepastyear,whentheannualfundingfor mineactionsurpassed$1billion,largelydrivenby supportforUkraine,whichreceivedUS$308.1million ininternationalassistancein2023representing39% ofallinternationaldonorfunds.Atthesametime,the LandmineMonitorReport2024raisedconcernsover decliningfundingforclearanceinotherheavily affectedcountries,includingAfghanistanandYemen.
2 https://www.khmertimeskh.com/501576754/pm-cambodia-still-has-1700-square-kilometres-of-landmines-affecting-1m-citizens/
3 https://demine.gov.ua/en
InNovember2024,USPresidentJoeBidenhas approvedanti-personnellandminestransferto Ukraine.4 TheUSexpectsUkrainetousetheland minesinitsownterritory,thoughithascommittednotto usetheminareaspopulatedwithcivilians.Thedecision tosupplyKyivwithlandmineshasbeencriticisedover concernsabouttherisktheyposetocivilians,which anti-minecampaignerssayisunacceptablyhigh.
REGIONALOVERVIEW
UnitedStates
ThecarrammingattackinNewOrleansandthe subsequentexplosionofaTeslaCybertruckinLas Vegasserveasastarkreminderthatterroristthreats remainadeadlyrealityintheUnitedStates.Both incidentstookplaceon1stJanuary2025.
InNewOrleans,theattackisbeinginvestigatedas anactofterrorisminspiredbytheIslamicState group.Shamsud-DinJabbar,aveteranoftheU.S. Army,waskilledbypoliceafteracarrammingthatleft 14peopledeadanddozensinjured.Theattacker rentedapick-uptruck,acquiredfrearms,andbuilt explosivedeviceswhichcouldberemotelydetonated tocauseadditionalcasualties,createpanicand hinderemergencyservicesresponse.
InLasVegas,aTeslaCybertruckexplodedoutside theentranceoftheTrumpInternationalHotel, injuringsevenpeople.TheinvestigatorssayMatthew Livelsberger,anactive-dutymemberoftheU.S.Army SpecialForces,shothimselfintheheadinthe Cybertruckpackedwithfreworksandcampfuel canisters,shortlybeforeitexploded.
Bothperpetratorshadamilitarybackground5 and rentedvehiclesusedintheattacksthroughthesame peer-to-peerapp,howeveratthetimeofwriting therearenoindicationsthatthetwoattackswere coordinated.TheNewOrleansattackwasintendedto
causemasscasualties,andtheattackinLasVegas, giventhechoiceofthevehicle(manufacturedby Tesla)andthevenue(aTrumpHotel)suggesta politicalmessage.
Europe
IntheHague,Netherlandson7thDecember2024,a seriesofexplosionsandafreatanapartmentbuilding leftsixpeopledead.SubsequentlytheHaguepolice arrestedfourpeopleinconnectionwiththeincident andthereareindicationsthattheexplosionwasan attackaimedatastorethatwaslocatedontheground fooroftheTarwekampbuilding.Inaseparatecase, theDutchauthoritiesarecontinuingtoinvestigatethe discoveryofanexplosivedeviceandaseriesof explosionsinLeiden,Sassenheim,andVoorhoutthat occurredon21st,22ndand23rdofDecember2024.
Russia-Ukraineconfict
Sincethefull-scaleinvasionofUkraineinFebruary 2022,Russiahasseenanumberofhigh-profle assassinationstargetingmediafguresandmilitary personnelusingimprovisedexplosivedevices.
On17thDecember2024,LieutenantGeneral Kirillov,chiefofRussia'sNuclear,Biologicaland ChemicalProtection(CBRN)Troops,andhisaide werekilledinanexplosioninsouth-easternMoscow, Russia,outsidearesidentialbuildingbyaremotely controlledexplosivedeviceattachedtoanelectric scooter.RussianauthoritiesdetainedanUzbek nationalonsuspicionofcarryingouttheattack.6
On13thNovember2024,ValeryTrankovsky,a Russiannavalcaptaininchargeoftheheadquarters ofthe41stBrigadeofRussia’sBlackSeamissile shipswaskilledinSevastopol,Crimeaafteran explosivedevicewhichwasreportedlyattachedtohis vehiclewasactivated.7 Ukrainesecurityservices subsequentlyclaimedresponsibilityforbothattacks.8
4 https://edition.cnn.com/2024/11/19/politics/biden-administration-anti-personnel-mines-ukraine/index.html
5 https://www.msn.com/en-gb/news/world/new-orleans-attack-and-vegas-explosion-highlight-extremist-violence-by-activemilitary-and-veterans/ar-AA1wViTd
6 https://tass.com/society/1888991
7 https://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/russia-ukraine-war-car-bomb-naval-offcer-rcna179938
8 https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2024/12/17/who-was-russian-lieutenant-general-igor-kirillov-killed-in-bomb-blast
InUkraine,on14thDecember2024anexplosion neartheadministrativebuildingofalocalterritorial recruitmentorganisation inthecentralDniprokilled onepersonandinjuredfourothers,includingtwo policeoffcers.Theinvestigatorsdetaineda37-yearoldsuspectinconnectionwiththeattackwho accordingtotheinvestigator’sreportactedonorders fromRussianintelligenceservices.InJanuary2025 theSecurityServiceofUkrainehavedetainedtwo moresuspects,a33-year-oldmanandhis25-year-old wife,whomanufacturedanimprovisedexplosive device(IED)andplaceditinapredeterminedhiding place.Theinvestigationisongoing.9
MiddleEast
On26thNovember2024,aceasefredealwasagreed betweenIsraelandLebanesearmedgroupHezbollah. Twomonthson,theceasefreagreementisstill observedbybothparties,anditishopeditcan eventuallyleadtothecessationofhostilitiesand peacefulresolutionoftheIsraelandHezbollahconfict. Abouttwomonthsbeforetheceasefreagreementwas reached,on17th September2024,thousandsofpagers simultaneouslyexplodedacrossLebanon,mainlyin areaswithastrongHezbollahpresence.Theblasts woundedorkilledusersandsomepeoplenearby, spreadingpanicandconfusion.Thefollowingday walkie-talkiesexplodedinthesameway,killingand injuringhundredsmore.On10thNovember2024 IsraelimediahasreportedthatIsraeliPrimeMinister BenjaminNetanyahuadmittedresponsibilityforthe pagerandwalkie-talkieattacksduringacabinet meeting.InDecembertwoex-MossadagentstoldCBS NewshowHezbollahwasdupedintobuyingthousands ofriggedwalkie-talkiesandpagerswithoutrealising theyweremadeinIsrael.Theagentshaverevealed thatHezbollahusedIsraelimadewalkie-talkiesboobytrappedwithexplosivesforseveralyearsbeforethey weredetonatedintheSeptember2024attack.
On15thJanuary2025QatariPrimeMinisterhas announcedaceasefreandhostagesexchangedeal
9 https://www.pravda.com.ua/eng/news/2025/01/9/7492684/
betweenIsraelandPalestinianterrorgroupHamas. Thirty-threeIsraelihostagesaresettobereleasedin thefrstphaseofthedeal.Negotiationswillresumeon the16thdayoftheagreedceasefrewiththeaimof releasingallhostages.Atthetimeofwriting,three IsraelihostageshadbeenreleasedbyHamasand handedovertotheRedCrossandthentoIsraeli authoritieson19thJanuaryafternearly471daysin Hamascaptivity.
Syria
Oneofthemajorgeostrategicshocksof2024wasthe topplingofthebrutalal-AssadregimeinSyriain December2024.Thismarkedtheendofmorethan50 yearsoftheal-Assadfamilyrule.Basharal-Assad’s presidencywasoneofthemostrepressiveregimesin moderntimes.Thepopulardiscontentwhichledto widespreadprotestsagainsttheal-Assadgovernment in2011escalatedtoaprotracted,full-scale,multi-sided CivilWarwhichdrewinforeignfghters,hardline jihadistsandothercountries.
On8thDecember,afterasweepingadvanceand captureofkeycitiesofAleppoandIdlib,theforcesof Hay’atTahriral-Sham(HTS),aSunniIslamistgroup ledbyAhmedal-SharaatookcontrolofDamascus forcingBasharal-AssadtofeeSyriabyairfor Moscowwhereheandhisfamily,includinghisBritish bornwifenowliveinexile.
Ahmedal-Sharaa,alsoknownasAbuMohammed al-Jawlani(Jolani),theleaderofHay'atTahriral-Sham (HTS)since2017andthecurrentdefactorulerofSyria, beganhiscareerasafghterinal-QaedainIraq(AQI) in2004.Soonafterhewascapturedandincarcerated atCampBuccaprisoninIraq.Afterhisreleasein2010 al-SharaatravelledtoSyriawherehesetupanew jihadistnetworkknownasJabhatal-Nusragroup.
In2017al-Sharaaannouncedtheformationofanew organisation,Hay’atTahriral-Sham,whichwasa mergerofJabhatFathal-Shamwithfourother prominentjihadistgroups,distancinghimselffrom al-Qaeda.10
10 https://www.terrorism-info.org.il/en/ahmed-al-sharaa-syrias-new-leader-from-jihadist-to-stateman/
AstheSyriansemergefrommorethanfve decadesunderabrutalAssadfamilyregime,it remainstobeseeniftheincomingHTSleaderandhis associateswillbeabletonavigatethesectarian divisionsandreturnthecountrytonormality. Throughouttheconficttherehavebeennumerous reportsofthebombings,massexecutionsand chemicalweaponsattacks11,12,13.Itishopedthatthese atrocitieswillfnallybefullyinvestigated,andthe perpetratorsandtheiraccomplicesarebroughtto internationaljustice.
Pakistan
InPakistan,IEDandgunattackscontinuetoclaim livesofthesecuritypersonnelandciviliansandpose aserioussecuritychallengetotheauthorities.In November2024atleast245peoplewerekilled, including68securitypersonnel,127terrorists,and50 civilians,accordingtodatareleasedbythePakistan InstituteforConfictandSecurityStudies(PICSS),an Islamabad-basedthink-tank.KhyberPakhtunkhwa remainedthemostaffectedregion,experiencing50 terroristattacksthatresultedin71deathsand 85injuries.
On9thNovemberataround8:25a.m.,asuicide bomberdetonatedanexplosivedeviceonacrowded platformneartheticketoffceattheQuettarailway stationinBalochistanprovince,wherearound150to 200peoplewerewaitingtoboardatraintravellingto Rawalpindi.Atleast32peoplewerekilled,including securitypersonnelandrailwayemployees,and another62wereinjured.
On21stDecemberatleast16soldierswerekilled inanattackbythePakistaniTalibanonanoutpostin SouthWaziristan.On25December,PakistanAir ForcetargetedfourTehreek-i-TalibanPakistan(TTP) campsinAfghanistan’seasternPaktikaprovince whichledtotherenewedcrossborderclasheswith theTalibanforces.AboutamonthearlierinKhyber Pakhtunkhwa’sKurramdistrictviolenttribalconfict
11 https://news.un.org/en/story/2013/09/449052
claimedlivesofover100people,furthercomplicating thesecuritysituationintheregion.
Yemen
Yemen'sHouthis,theIran-backedgroupcontinueto targetmerchantvesselsinandaroundRedSeaand freballisticmissilesandalargenumberofdronesat varioustargetsinIsraelinsolidaritywithPalestine. Thegroupwhocontrolsnorth-westernYemen, includingSanaaanditsRedSeacoast,hasalso launchedseveralattackstargetingUS-ledcoalition warshipsoffthecoastofYemen.On10thJanuary 2025theIsraeliAirForce,togetherwiththeUnited StatesandtheUnitedKingdom,conductedthe largestcoordinatedairstrikesofthewaragainstthe Houthistargetingundergroundweaponsstorage facilities,launchsites,apowerstationandtwoports usedbytheIran-affliatedgroup.Itremainstobeseen iftheairstrikesandceasefrebetweenIsraeland HamaswouldleadtothecessationofHouthis’attacks onIsraelandmaritimetraffc.
TheUnitedNationsestimatesthat80%ofpeoplein Yemenarelivingbelowtheinternationalpovertyline, makingitthe"poorest"countryintheMiddleEast. Yemenremainsheavilycontaminatedbylandmines andvarioustypesofERWwithHudaydah Governorateasoneofthemostaffectedareas.The ongoinghostilitiesandsecuritysituationinthe countryarecomplicatinghumanitarianaidand deminingefforts.
Nigeria
Nigeriacontinuestoseearson,gunandIEDattacks targetingcivilians,securityforcesandcritical infrastructure.AccordingtotheNationalCounter TerrorismCentre(NCTC)“IEDshavebecomeatool ofterrorusedbyinsurgents,militants,banditsand criminalelementstodestabilisecommunities,destroy infrastructureandinfictfearandsufferingon innocentlives.”InnorthernNigeriaactsofvandalism
12 https://www.opcw.org/media-centre/news/2024/02/opcw-identifes-isil-perpetrators-2015-chemical-attack-marea-syria
13 https://press.un.org/en/2017/sc13060.doc.htm
andattacksonpowertransmissioninfrastructure areexacerbatingthefrequentblackouts.Inthelast twoyears,thegovernment-ownedTransmission CompanyofNigeria(TCN)recorded108attackson itstowersandpowerlines.
InDecember,inZamfarastate,threeexplosions occurredatdifferentlocationsalongDansadauroad, andkilledandinjuredanumberofpeople.The ZamfaraStatePoliceCommandblamedtheattacks onthenewlyformedLakurawaterroristgroupciting thefactthatlocalbanditgroupsinZamfaralackthe technicalexpertisetomanufactureexplosives devices.TheNigerianArmysaidLakurawamembers wereoperatingfromheadquartersinthecountry’s SokotoandKebbistates.Themilitaryhasconducted airstrikestargetingLakurawamembersandlaunched groundassaultsonthegroup’scampsinthe northernstates.
InOctober2024,theGovernmentoftheUnited KingdominpartnershipwiththeUnitedNationsMine ActionService(UNMAS)hasprovidedtheExplosive OrdnanceRiskEducation(EORE)trainingfor75 offcersoftheNigerianPoliceForce,andtheNigeria SecurityandCivilDefenceCorpsenhancingthe securityforces’capacitytoraiseawarenessaboutthe dangersofexplosiveordnance,promotingasafer environmentintheNortheast.
Thailand
InThailand,IEDscontinuetobeusedagainstcivilians andsecurityforces.
On4thDecemberthreepeoplehavebeenkilled andatleast48havebeenwoundedwhenan explosivewasthrownintoacrowdattheRedCross DoiLoyfafair,heldannuallyintheUmphangdistrictin thenorthernTakprovincewhichsharesaborderwith Myanmar.
On21stDecemberanexplosivedevicewas thrownattheBorderPatrolPoliceOperationBasein Kokkiensubdistrict,inNarathiwatprovinceinjuring fouroffcers.
On4thJanuarythreepoliceoffcerswereinjuredina bombexplosionastheywereabouttosetupasecurity checkpointnearaschoolinPattani'sSaiBuridistrict.
Thedevicewasplacedinthebatteryboxofa"Stop" signthatpoliceinstalledthereearlier.Itisbelievedthat theattackwastomarkthe21stanniversaryoftheraid onamilitarycampon4thJanuary2004,inNarathiwat's ChoAirongdistrict,inwhichmorethan400gunswere stolenandfoursoldierswerekilled.
INTHISEDITION
InacontinuingseriesofarticlesforCounter-IED ReportonnationalandregionalCounter-IED initiatives,theauthor,PaulAmorosoofAssessed MitigationOptionsprovidestwomorearticlesforthis Edition.Inthefrstarticleheexaminesthestructures andapproachesneededtosupporttheeffectiveand effcientmanagementofaC-IEDenterprise.Once operational,theenterprisemustensurethatitremains frstlythreataligned,secondlyeffectiveinultimately preventingIEDusage,andfnallyensuringa meaningfulreturnofinvestmentintheorganisation. Tomeettheabovethreerequirements,acontinuing processofmonitoring,evaluatingandlearning–MEL –mustbeimbeddedintheenterprise.Theauthor opinesthatagoldstandardC-IEDenterpriseisone thatencompassesacomprehensivewholeofsociety approachbasedonunityofeffortbyallstakeholders. Herecommendstheformationofanenterprise coordinatingcommitteetofacilitateeffective managementoftheoverallprocess.Heunderlinesthe needforsynchronisationofactivitiesandunityof effort.Heconcludesthatthesuccessfulmanagement ofsuchanenterpriseischallengingandrequires agilityofactivitiesthroughtheMELtogetherwith timelyadaptationwhennecessary.Inhissecond articletheauthoremphasisestheneedforagilityor fexibilityinaC-IEDenterprise.Thisfexibilityis requiredastherateofmaturityfordifferentC-IED effortsmayvary,thethreatenvironmentmayevolve, andthesecuritysituationchange.Thesefactorspoint totheneedforaC-IEDenterprisetobebothagileand fexibleinnature.Themanagementofsuchan enterprisehasakeychallengecomparedtothe managementofmanyotherendeavoursinthatthe IEDsystembeingcounteredhasadirectand signifcanteffectontheenterprisebydeterminingthe
threatbeingcountered.TheevolutionoftheIEDthreat dictatestheneedforanembeddedMELprocessinthe enterprise.Therequirementfortheenterprisetoremain agilerequiresthefollowingthreesteps:
•MonitoringandEvaluationtofacilitatethe LessonsLearnedprocess,
•TheprovisionofstrategicC-IEDdirection,
•Theadaptationoftheorganisationwhen necessary.
Theauthorconcludesthattheneedforan embeddedMELprocessintheC-IEDenterprise, togetherwithtimelyandeffcientmodifcationofthe C-IEDeffortsasrequiredareneededtoensurethatthe enterpriseremainsthreataligned,effcientand effective.Onceachieved,theCounter-IEDenterprise canbedescribedasagile.
InhisarticleBenScarfe,aformerAmmunition TechnicalOffcerATOintheBritishArmy,providesa timelyreminderoftheneedtobeawareofthe securityrisksinherentwithsharingC-IEDinformation oninsecuresocialmediaoutlets.Heoutlineswaysin whichsomeindividualsororganisationsinvolvedin C-IEDactivities,maydescribeindetailC-IEDTTPs onsocialmedia.Clearlysuchinformationinthewrong handscouldbeofconsiderablevaluetoanadversary. Whilstthereisanunderstandablewishtosharesuch information,itmustbedonesensiblyandwith caution.HefurtherwarnshowtheuseofOpenSourceIntelligence–OSINT-mustbesubjectto verifcation.HedescribeshowEODoperatorshave publisheddetailsofIEDdetectionequipmenttogether withimageryofRCdevicesandboobytrap schematicsonsocialmediaoutlets.Herecommends thatacentralbody–possiblyUNMAS–couldbe responsiblefortheprovisionofcountryrisk assessmentstothosehumanitarianorganisations/ NGOsdeployingonoperations.Healsosuggeststhat allrelevantorganisationsshouldberequiredto reportincidentsontoacentrallymanageddatabase. Organisationsshouldberesponsibleforsettingstrict parametersforinformationdestinedforsocialmedia. Companiesshoulduserecognisedandauthorised organisationsfortheprovisionofriskandthreat assessments.■
RobHyde-Balesbiography
DuringhiscareerintheUKRoyal Engineers, RobHyde-Bales was responsibleforlandmineclearance inLibyaand,morelatterly, Afghanistanintherunningofthe frstUnitedNationshumanitarian landmineclearancetraining programme–OperationSalam.The programmetrainedAfghanmalerefugeesinlandmine clearancetechniques,andAfghanwomenand childreninmineawarenessandavoidancetraining. MorerecentlyhesetuptheCaribbeanSearchCentre inKingston,Jamaica.TheCentreisdesignedtotrain securityforcesacrosstheCaribbeaninmodern searchtechniques.Afterretiringfromthearmyhe joinedCranfeldUniversityatShrivenham,near Oxford,andundertookaresearchprojectonbehalfof theUKMinistryofDefencethatexaminedwaysto improvethesharingofIEDthreatinformation betweenthemilitaryandcivilianorganisationsin hazardousareas.
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