Cultural ideologies in the poem, The Waste Land

6 Eliot: cultural effects on barren and desolate land.

Cultural ideologies in the poem, The Waste Land Vasso Tsirevelou

Dr. Comparative Literature

Corespondence: e-mail: tsir.up@hotmail.com

Abstract

This article presents a cultural reading of extracts from Eliot’s ‘Waste Land’ in Greek from a hermeneutic aspect. The aim of this paper is to highlight a historical dimension of the translations (1933-1936) and to give an interpretation of the social context, the cultural references that lurk in the translations in Greece with an emphasis on their interpretation. What dimensions of Eliot do they project through translations and on the basis of cultural metaphors? In the current article, we are making an effort to take a further step towards presenting a synopsis of Eliot’s cultural metaphors and (cultural) ideologies as they become originally and primarily transparent throughout his actual poetic work, always in composition with his relevant essay. Our aim is to detect which his main cultural references are, as they are depicted through the basically displayed Modernistic themes of the poem (The Waste Land). Next, an attempt will be made to interpret them, so as to investigate how they are perceived and whether they are directed straight towards the same audience or that of a similar cultural background.

Keywords:

hermeneutic, cultural metaphors, historicity, social context, Modernism. Citation: Tsirevelou V. Eliot: cultural effects on barren and desolate land. Cultural ideologies in the poem, The Waste Land. Theology & Culture. 2020; 1(2): 83-94. Doi: 10.13140/RG.2.2.25665.38245

The wide acceptance of Eliot’s workload, in combination with his having been translated into various foreign languages, has been the firelighter of my being occupied with the poem The Waste Land. This work’s constant intake as a modern artifact can-up to a point- be explained through the emergence of its subject matter as contemporary, but also, through the poem’s creation (in itself) as a structure; the work as a complication based upon the poetic composition of traditional and modern traits, such as fragmentary and unaltered creators’ verses, as configured by the movement of modernism introduced to England by both T. S. Eliot and E. Pound.

G. Seferis pointed out that the option of the translation of The Waste Land (Έλιοτ, 2004) took place on the basis of the amount of difficulty of the original text-verse as well as the multi-semiotics and interpretative possibility of the words, marking characteristically that ‘it has multiple references and every word contains multiple appeals and resonances with both the previous and also the following’ (Αιολικά Γράμματα, 1984, p. 25). One of the most important reasons that make Eliot’s actual poem return to timeliness, and also occupy-via its translation- the Greek literary reality, beyond the borders of creation of its poetic technique and through the composition of its extracts, is that it relates to the subject matter of its content, its allegorical and symbolic meaning, which through its creative composition touches some of the most important problems of today’s world-i.e. the moral collapse, the decline of the European cultural accomplishments. Consequently, according to Eliot’s first translator in Greek, T. Papatsonis, the cultural spiritual stagnation unto which Europe has come is indeed a point of (particular) relevance of the specific work of art with the majority of the young. The reasons for the above, as explained by the poet-translator, are that a younger individual can actually identify with the spirit of the era due to the development of historical facts, and the pessimistic mode (of the period) due to unfulfilled dreams dead-end, without yet disregarding the young spirit for visionary change deriving from the religious poetic dimension (Παπατσώνης, 1965, p. 108-114).

1. The Waste Land: Socio-cultural framework

The poem’s being printed in five parts, starts early October in 1922, firstly in the issues of two literary magazines: Criterion which was under Eliot’s own direction in London and Dial in America, and in December 1922 it is inde-

pendently printed in a book (Rainey, 2005, p. 72). The historical and social conditions that prevail during the writing (1919) and printing periods are the political turmoil after the end of World War I, the painful consequences of war and the spiritual ‘breakdown’ that led to the need for internalization in literary redeployment, as it appeared within the quests of the movement of Modernism (Bradfury and McFarlane, 1991)

2. The Waste Land: Greek historicity

The whole issue is analyzed on two main axes. The first axis briefly refers to the first two printed translations of the poem The Waste Land and Eliot’s first acquaintance with the Greek public in 1933 within a short retrospect. The second features the historicity of their writing, initially Papatsonis’ translation and the actual classical one by G. Seferis (1936).

Yet, what was the socio-historic framework when Papatsonis’ translation was published? The (actual) period 1929-1933 is stigmatized with the financial crisis (the notorious American ‘crash’) which cannot but affect the Greek society (Mazower, 2009, p.159-176). Leafing through (various) historical texts, we can see the political alterations that dominate the area with Greece, via its being in debt towards its creditors, to be led into bankruptcy (Χατζηιωσήφ, 2002, p. 97-106), unemployment, appropriation, illiteracy within a large part of the population, but also, the government (Vennizelo’s government) in agony trying to upgrade and modernize, and conduct pedagogical reforms via appending drastic measures1. The historical ‘contexts’ take place in this period during which the translation is being published (1933), whereas the developments in the political arena are of no less interest.

Respectively, along the same line of movement lies the issue of language in relation with the social, cultural and ideological framework, as this is the main

1 Let us not forget that the immigrants are incorporated in the country whereas a large number of the population lies still in the lowest levels of the social structure due to illiterate individuals and persons of middle or lower class level over whom these new conditions must be set and incorporated. Concerning the whole cultural condition see Peter Mackridge, Language and Cultural Identity in Greece 1766-1976, Oxford University Press, 2008, and M. Mike in particular. The literary journal Ο Κύκλος, phd thesis, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, 1988, pp. 233-4 where it is presented the effort for promotion and domination of ‘ δημοτική’, the disposition towards the modernizing spirit and spelling simplification by Glinos and the Ministry of Education (p. 209) along with the relevant debates (p. 210). According to these facts, the reforms are recommended take place over the following 17 years (1914-1931), without our knowing if they be completed without their controversial debates. Even the publisher, Απ. Μελαχρινός, the whole team of ‘Κύκλος’ are supportive of the effort to establish the colloquial/popular (‘δημοτική’) language style (Mary Mike, 1988, p. 211).

point of dispute, the pole of controversy that is to say, between the established purist Greek ‘καθαρεύουσα’and the ‘abominable’ popular colloquial language style (‘δημοτική’) of common use for the majority of the people.

Eliot’s translation first appears in Greece in the literary journal Κύκλος (1931-1939). It is Eliot’s first dedication to the Greek reading public (1933) (Loulakaki, 2009, p. 26) and it has been the original idea of the journal’s contributors-partners N. Rantos and T. Papatsonis (the first one’s in particular), and not necessarily the publisher’s –Α. Μελαχρινός’ –initiative. T. Papatsonis is triggered to participate by the pioneer N. Rantos for the needs of this feature. These are the main ‘margins’ within which The Waste Land is published in the journal Κύκλος. The target of the ‘festive’ («πανηγυρικού») (Παπατσώνης, 1974) issue mainly, as it is noted in Papatsonis’s essay, is the public’s acquaintance with Eliot-the modern poet whose works such as the poem The Waste Land (1922), its importance towards the reform of literary culture within this new expressive poetic form as well as the request for the reform of the literary tradition-are characteristics that shape the context towards Eliot’s being read in the pioneering magazine Κύκλος.

Seferis’ translation, on the other hand, commenced being written in London (Beaton, 2002) in 1932 which was round about the same period as Papatsonis’, and there is only a time lapse in between during which he works on the translation until it is published in the journal Νέα Γράμματα in 1936. As soon as it appears in Νέα Γράμματα in July 1936, the political condition of the time is quite unstable in all fields, and thus, reform after reform, we end up with Metaxa’s dictatorship (in August 1936) with all the relevant consequential dimensions, whereas the matter of the popular language barrier («η υπόθεση της δημοτικής γλώσσας») reappears in the framework of Metaxa’s political propaganda and his pursuit to promote the third Greek culture.

3. Cultural Ideology

One of the most important characteristics in Eliot’s poem is the use of metonymy and metaphor; with the aid of these tools some of the most important themes are being analyzed-all through metonymies of space, persons and ‘extracts’ like literary quotations from other texts. Nevertheless, there are parallel themes that occupy him into their being attributed with metaphors, and decoded symbols, coherent and cohesive messages that are accredited in accordance with the theoretical prescriptions of poetic modernism (Tsirevelou, 2015). Below we will detect the most important cultural metaphors, the

way they appear in both the original text, and the passage from this emblematic poem into the two Greek translations, promoting thus Eliot’s pluralistic and polyphonic speech through the human geography of space, time, literary quotations and multicultural semiotics. Comparative literature (grammatology), the way Susan Bassnett (Bassnett, 2012) mentions, is pointed towards the cultural study of literature by studying the cultural aspects of artworks, their language and as a cultural ‘opening’ the connections amongst civilizations via the study of translation, their attribution and adjustment into the new (foreign) language on the axis of the readers’ understanding. The most basic cultural metaphors and references are traced in the cultural traits, such as the geography of space, the cultural elements appearing throughout the patterns of thought and literary disposition, the social level and religious field.

4. Waste Land: Symbols, cultural reports and perceptions

The poem’s reference lies within a wide semiotics framework pattern relating to an eclectic and polyphonic text, a multicultural composition and a cultural amalgam. ‘These fragments I have shored against my ruins/…/’(430). Eliot points out this verse based on the infinite disposing elements and extracts from other passages that combine his modern poetry (Southam, 1994). Eliot’s cultural perception, his convictions, his knowledge and the historic framework (the social conditions) that contributed to the creation of the poem of Waste Land concern a civilization that has reached its end, its cultural decadence and its corruption in all fields. The European culture was founded on the ancient Greek and Roman civilizations (Έλιοτ, 1990), but in part A Eliot refers to and wonders of the duration of human deeds as well as the complete Western Civilizations accomplishments. What are the roots that clutch, What branches grow Out of this stony rubbish? (19-20) (Eliot, 1959)

Still, the meaning of civilization and its collapse in Eliot’s poem is analyzed through the facades of social layering (the social classes and employment correlation), religion and its cultural displays, the language (use) (literary quotes and disposition) and the historical circumstances of Eliot’s modern reality. Here, poetry functions as a cultural index that traces literary references and hints, (particularly) as Eliot was aware of the American literary tradition, of the French and the English (Ακρόυντ, 2002, p. 28-51). Civilization in Eliot’s

“Waste Land” is parted by a total of different elements consisting of fragments of Eliot’s literary tradition, American literature (W. Whitman, Leaves of Grass), Christian Theology, movements and connotations such as the poetry of Modernism, the Capitalism of the actual socio-political reality. Simultaneously, the cultural composition is promoted through the presentation of the English social classes and the succession of civilizations (the Jewish Exodus, Classical Antiquity, Roman Domination, Western Civilizations and Contemporary Europe). The poem presents through the symbols and metaphors the collapse of (any possible) cultural remnants. In Part C Eliot promotes the slow ending of a whole culture through (the use of) metaphor (‘The river’s tent is broken the last fingers of leaf Clutch and sink into the wet bank’, 172-3).

5. Cultural elements

Furthermore, we have the citation of cultural elements of the contemporary way of life-characteristics referring to its inner-social level. The contemporary industrialized world, the modernization of London Metropolis (Baudelaire, 2018) are (both) displayed in multiple parts of the extract, the symbols of the capitalistic and technocratic world, frame the end of moral values and the cultural construction of the era in its downturned course. Additionally, we ought to quote any references concerning incongruous social and cultural features of London society and social circles.

According to the critic Μ. Αυγέρη who proceeds with a sociological reading of Eliot’s poetry, the subject-matter chosen by the poet (himself) derives from the commonly shared view, through the senses, of a whole social class within an unballasted world. Emphasis is given to the actual way of the affinity of the modern era with the ‘fragments’ of the civil world of the poet’s time, based on the contextual historical and social conditions of disintegration, the framework of the period and time, and the critique of the social psycho synthesis (Αυγέρης, 1964, p. 172). The characters of Waste Land structure a composite setting: some of them originating from the space of myth (i.e. the Foreseer Teiresias, the inscription of Sibyl), and others from the everyday ‘contemporary’ life of the Metropolitan world, preserving their symbolic nature. Eliot uses characters that represent social classes and originate from the lower social levels. Indicatively, I mention the cultural reports to the social references of the social division of labor, with the description of a conversation between the boss (employer) and the young employee who works in the office, and the characterizations (of the latter’s) as ‘a young carbuncular’, ‘one of the low’

in the fourth part, which displays the class distinction and the hierarchical organization of the English society through the harsh moil of the labor class. The reports reveal the different social layers and in particular through reading between the lines of the insinuating English phrase ‘one of the low’, the middle social class represented by the young fellow at work, from the social middle class arising after the establishment of the industrialized production and the capitalistic mode of life. The urban social categories which Eliot mocks indirectly are distinguished for the special social characteristics and the formulaic mode of life. Additionally, the cultural composition contains Eliot’s reference to specific social categories (of the commercial world), as administered via commercial social sub cultural self-regarding attitudes, as well as elements of actual particularly comprehended deceitfulness. Furthermore, an ironic reference is being used via the cultural metaphor of the proverbial English phrase ‘as a silk hat on a Bradford millionaire’, with which special denotation suggestion is being made by Eliot to the wealthy industrial (actual) location (Bradford), without any trace of interest for the civilization, due to its recession and decay for which the poem is about. This way a synthesis is formed with references in the creations of the Western civilization, the faces of its mass culture and reports of the era’s most popular culture (Chinitz, 2011, p. 67). An example of the popular culture is made up by the reenactment of the dance scene in the parody of the verse of the American song, 1911 (‘That Mysterious Rag’)2 as ‘That Shakespearian Rag’, which was referring to the (actual) singing rhythm (rag) and the ragtime type of music3 (‘Ragtime’, 1986) of the period. Here, of course, Eliot is using it mentioning the actual type of entertainment of the time which attracted him as well (Chinitz, 2011, p. 68), but, indirectly, it is a parody of the palatable period of the time that is agreeable to popular rhythms, though with an indirect reference to the character of the woman of that episode. The actual cultural metaphor remained incomprehensible in Greek though, even for the sophisticated readers and translators of his work. Eliot himself often proceeds with reports to the course of the culture, the desirable-or not-entertainment, stressing out the declining route of the amusing and mass culture, which tends to flatten values and display cheap pleasure in isolation, in contrast with the sophisticated and ‘high’ culture (Williams, 1994, p. 137) -the elite that Eliot defends.

2 That Mysterious Rag (1911), song by G. Buck, H. Ruby, (and) Dave Stamper. 3 Ragtime: popular music and dance of US Negro origin, the accent of the melody falling just before the regular beat of the accompaniment, on Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English (edited by Hornsby A. S.), Oxford University Press, Oxford 1986, p. 692.

Nevertheless, there is no omission of the reminder of the true historical facts through the reproduction of moments of history, such as the report of the Great Fire in London in 1666 when Eliot mentions the popular folk children’s song ‘London Bridge is falling down…’ with the collapse of the trademark of the capitalistic world (Dana Arnold, 2003).

6. Eliot and Religious Theology

Eliot’s dedication to Religious Theology and his work’s connection with the Christian and multi-cultural dialogue are undoubted features of his rich work. Let us not forget that Eliot’s religiousness derives particularly early, (along) with his poem Anabase by Saint John Perse that he translates (Saint John Perse, 1930). Critique, in Greece, was soon to point out the religious concept of the ampulae of Waste Land and Eliot himself, since the poem’s characteristic is the metaphysical dimension, the dispersed religiousness, and, in form of prophecy, the optimistic ending. The first translator in Greece, the poet T. Papatsonis highlights in the introductory note of his translation, the interpretative possibilities, the co-statements of Eliot’s poetic work and his course along with his religious convictions. And, later on, in his written essays on Eliot (Papatsonis, 1972), there are references of Waste Land as an allusion of death, yet as a kind of cultural emptiness and spiritual stagnation of the European culture (Papatsonis, 1976, p. 1508) without therefore omitting his prophetic and optimistic finish at the end. The purpose of Eliot’s poem, according to Papatsonis is formed by the religious uplifting connected to the ideological faith of Christian unity, throughout the ‘Byzantine world’.

In the poem Waste Land we observe the Christian assemblage through the inter-textual and multi-perspective reports unto sayings of holy texts or to references to persons (Christ Tiger, Mary of Woolnoth), in a poetic composition and meaning attribution with the citation, in the form of a collage, of abridged extracts towards the creation of new poetic texts, amerced by the movement of Modernism. A counter-balance to the cultural stagnation is Eliot’s religious belief with impacts of reality-Eliot’s daily life-once his reference to real monuments-locations, such as Martyr Magnus’ Church (Magnus Martyr) in London, is consistent with his frequent visits there, as Eliot used to pray in the specific church every Sunday. Below, we will try to examine more analytically which inter-textual references appear, and what they mean each time (they are used) in fragmentary points of his poem, such as Waste Land.

Religious references and impacts flow within many parts of the poem. Start-

ing from Waste Land, we have to point out that 3 out of 5 parts unto which, The Burial of the Dead is divided, The Fire Sermon, and What the Thunder Said ate found incorporated extracts from religious passages, such as the Ecclesiastes, fragments by prophet Isaiah and prophet Ezekiel, the Confessions of Saint Augustine (Southam, 1994) the trademark of the Western World.

Besides, attention must be paid to the literary citations emanating from the pluralism of the philosophical, theological and cultural (social) views of his work, in combination with his religious Catholicism. Eliot’s Catholicism, of course, opens up a totally foreign dimension to the Greek World, and accordingly, explanations crossrefer to Eliot’s religious reflections throughout referencing. April is the cruelest month breeding, Lilacs out of the dead land, mixing Memory and desire, stirring, Dull roots with spring rain, (1-4)

Ο Απρίλης είναι ο σκληρότερος μήνας, καθώς αναστένει Πασχαλιές μέσα από τη νεκρή γης, καθώς αναγαδεύει Μνήμη και αποθυμιά, καθώς ξεσηκώνει Τεμπελιασμένες ρίζες με εαρινή βροχή. (1-4) (Παπατσώνης, 1933)

April reminds (us) of the Christian Easter, but it also signals the coming of spring with the blossoming of flowers and the fertile period of nature. The actual cultural report obviously becomes easily comprehensible by the Greek audience, as well as the particular month is bounded by the two important facts. Verse is created in an overwhelming manner with contrasting pairs, which are alternated through the verses- ie infertility and euphoria, fertility (‘April’, ‘Lilacs’, ‘dead land’), death and life, metaphorically speaking the resurrection/ reanimation (‘breeding’), as literality and metaphor are (inter-changeably) mixed through the symbols of the Christian Spring. Besides, opposing meanings are emphasized via metaphor ‘dull roots’ where inactivity and stagnation lie right across action and energy, but also the notions of permanence and/or temporality.

Another point referring to Christian quotations is the extract by the proph-

et Ezekiel (6.4-6.6) from the Bible with its encapsulated symbolisms. A heap of broken images, Where the sun beats, And the dead tree gives no shelter, The Cricket no relief And the dry stone no sound of water. Only, There is shadow under this red rock… (v. 19-23)

And in Greek,

‘Ένα σωρό μισές εικόνες, όσες έλαχε να Χτυπάει ο ήλιος, Και το νεκρό το δέντρο σκεπή δεν προσφέρνει, ούτε Ηδονήν ο Γρύλλος, Ούτε η ξερή πέτρα απήχησες των υδάτων, Ψαλμός, επί των ποταμών…

Additionally, particular reference must be made to the quote from Saint Augustine ‘Confessions’, with which he refers to his derelict and squandered youth using unaltered archaic English ‘O Lord thou pluckest me out Burning’ (309-10)/ ‘Κύριε εξέσπασάς με, Κύριε εξέσπασάς με καίγοντας’ (trans. Τ. Παπατσώνη).

Conclusion

The point of this work was the eclectic presentation of the most important points of the cultural metaphors touched by T. S. Eliot in his most classic poem ‘The Waste Land’. The projection, composition and presentation of cultural fragments-through the geographical specifications (streets, London locations, ie. The City), the social categories that signify the cultural setting and the religious fragments along with the included symbolisms- all form the axis unto which the creator sets the poem. Although this modernistic poem of Eliot’s uses particular cultural references, it surpasses the historic reality of its writing whereas its reading brings up new approaches framed by the historical and social background. The constant reading response on behalf of researchers, critics and readers is one of the reasons that allow us to characterize this text as ‘modern’, as one of the ‘classic’ poems of literature.

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