IS IT TIME, CYPRUS?

Despina Iorga P30305 – Conflict, Violence and Humanitarianism

IS IT TIME, CYPRUS? Are today’s political, economical and social conditions in Cyprus suitable for implementing a tangible unification solution?

14 November 2014 Fig.1- A UN peacekeeping soldier patrols the narrowest section of the UN controlled Buffer Zone of Nicosia; (Wainwright, 2008)

Name of student: Despina Iorga Student number: 14005143 Module number: P30305 Module name: Conflict, Violence and Humanitarianism Module leader: Brigitte Piquard Date of submission: 14 November 2014

CONTENTS

Introduction

2

Short history of events leading to 74’

4

Post-74’ course of action in support of reconciliation

8

The situation now as a result of four decades of separation

12

Conclusion

17

Figure List

18

References

19

Bibliography

21

Fig.2- Graffiti artists added some color to the severe border control; (ASC, 2014)

1.

Introduction

“The city [of Nicosia] is marked by the absence of war than the presence of peace.”

(Bollens, 2012)

Four decades have passed since the final segregation proceedings in the island of Cyprus, when a Junta coup overthrew the president of Greek- Cyprus and Turkey responded through the “Attila” military operation. In spite of the generally living in isolation, international and bi-communal actions supporting peace building and reconciliation have produced concrete results. After tackling the economic crisis issue in the past recent years, peace talks have resumed, under the prospect of gas exploitation.

This essay includes a short history of the island, explaining events which led to the 1974 Turkish invasion, followed by a depiction of developments which aimed for reconciliation, and a final analysis of the impacts they had on the political and socio-economical scenery. It aims to determine whether the proceedings going on during forty years of separation have built up to a strong foundation to base a solid unification project on.

A large variety of resources have been used, including broadcasts, news reports, documentaries and press releases. The most relevant theories, published in The Cyprus Review 2007, were: Trimikliniotis’ concept of “actizens”, and Ladisch’s analysis of views on reconciliation; and the most insightful books were: Bollens’ “City and Soul in Divided Cities” and Calame and Charlesworth’ “Divided Cities”.

2.

Fig.3- Rusting: The demilitarized zone has been managed for decades by the UN. The empty scene in the village of Pyla; (ASC, 2014)

3.

Short history of events leading to 74’

The Christian- orthodox island of Cyprus evolved under Ottoman rule over a period of 3 centuries. This ended in 1878, when Britain took over administrative control, formally annexing Cyprus as a colony in 1925. Although Cypriots led convenient lives under Ottoman administration, Muslims benefitted more from the “millet” system (“religious community” (Courses.wash ington.edu, 2008), which slowly caused ethnic segregation and led to the inclination towards “enosis” as part of Greece’s “Megali Idea” to reclaim Byzantine territories: this was seen as “a popular response to both British occupation and the conclusion of Ottoman sovereignty on the island.” (Calame and Charlesworth, 2009) Due to constant destabilizing foreign interventions because of Cyprus’ strategic positioning, after World War II “enosis” swept over Cyprus and erupted into armed conflict between Greek Cypriots and British colonial forces. (The Cyprus Problem, Still Divided 1974, 2012) In 1955 EOKA- National Organization of Cypriot Fightersparamilitary group was formed. Its aim was to weaken British authority which, feeling threatened, responded by recruiting Turkish Cypriots to undermine interethnic relations in order to keep colonial strength. (Calame and Charlesworth, 2009) In 1956 the first act of division was instituted, followed by the temporary boundary informally known as the Mason-Dixon Line and the first official mapping of division (1958).

The violence briefly stopped after signing the London- Zurich Agreement in 1960, which granted Cyprus independence from Britain, excluding “enosis”, while the Turkish community was given power of veto and considerable administrative responsibilities. (The Cyprus Problem, Still Divided 1974, 2012) Archbishop Makarios was elected first president of the Independent Republic of Cyprus but, by 1963 the government was deemed ineffective and intercommunal violence erupted once again. The Mason- Dixon Line became the Green Line and in 1964 a United Nations peacekeeping force was established to monitor and control boundary areas. (Calame and Charlesworth, 2009) 4.

In 1967 a right-wing military Junta overthrew the Greek government, reinforcing “enosis”. Then, in 1974, the Junta led another military coup which put an end to Makarios’ presidency.

The Turkish military invasion, operation “Attila”, soon followed, under the pretext of seeking to protect the independence of Cyprus, invoking the London- Zurich Agreement. (The Cyprus Problem, Still Divided 1974, 2012)

Fig. 4- The Turkish invasion on July 20, 1974; (Stavrou, n.d.)

5.

Fig. 5- The bombarded Presidential Palace in Nicosia after the coup d'état against the Cyprus Republic and its President, Archbishop Makarios on July 15, 1974; (Stavrou, n.d.)

In the summer of 1974, the political scenery of Cyprus changed dramatically: “The constitutional government established in 1960 had disintegrated, the president was lucky to be alive in London, and the world had witnessed the unprecedented military invasion of a neutral country by a NATO member state on behalf of a minority ethnic group”. (Calame and Charlesworth, 2009) The outcome consisted in the collapse of Junta and the final displacement movements resulting in almost perfect division along the Green Line, which still separates Turkish Cypriots from Greek Cypriots today.

6.

Fig. 6- British soldiers using mountain bikes on patrols through Cyprus buffer zone; (Cole, 2008)

7.

Post-74’ course of action in support of reconciliation

After the events of 1974 forever changed the political landscape of Cyprus and finalized its territorial segmentation, a period of over two decades of fruitless, on- and- off UN sponsored peace talks between Turkish and Greek Cypriot officials followed. In 1983 the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (TRNC) declared independence, but up to this day it is solely recognized by Turkey.

In spite of the slow political proceedings for reuniting Cyprus, in the divided capital city of Nicosia, a bi-communal plan started to take shape in the late 70’s, which focused mostly on rehabilitation and development in the buffer zone. This project, called “Nicosia Master Plan”, came as a result of the “unofficial, “offline” friendship” (Bollens, 2012) between the Greek Cypriot mayor, Lellos Demetriades (1971- 2001) and the Turkish Cypriot mayor, Mustafa Akinci (1976- 1990). The project, supported by the United Nations Development Programme, “disregards the dividing line in one vision and plans for the city as a hypothetical unified entity” (Bollens, 2012) as steps on the path for future unification. The most notable accomplishments of the Master Plan are the common sewage system and the continuing preservation and restoration of monuments in the historic center, which represents a common heritage, subjected to physical decay and socio-economic decline.

(Petridou, 2004) The shared sewage system was a pragmatic solution: the Greek Cypriots pay the Turkish Cypriots to process their waste and the latter use gray water for agricultural purposes when irrigation is expensive, usually during summer. (Calame and Charlesworth, 2009) Since 2004 the project’s main focus plan consists of restoration and rehabilitation works, through active citizen involvement. In 2011 the “Nicosia Master plan” won First Prize for Category 2, Research, for “The Architectural Heritage of the buffer zone in the Walled City of Nicosia”, awarded by The Scientific council of Europa Nostra. (The Scientific council of Europa Nostra, 2011).

8.

Fig. 7- This comic print (late 70's / early 80's) commemorates the most efficient bicommunal project- the sewage system- as result of the cooperation between Akinci and Demetriades; (Old Nicosia Revealed, 2013)

In 2004 the island of Cyprus came arduously close to a peaceful unification solution, when both parties agreed to a “referendum that would establish Cyprus as a single state but organized as a bizonal, bicommunal federation”. (Bollens, 2012) This came as a result of Kofi Annan’s (Secretary-General of the United Nations) proposal of a “basis for agreement on a comprehensive settlement” (Mallinson, 2005) in 2002, through which EU membership was granted either for the united island if the referendum passed, or solely for Greek Cyprus if there was no unification. Taking into consideration that “the whole plan was devised to facilitate Turkey’s entry into the EU, while ensuring that Cyprus would not, even as a putative member, be able to veto its application” (Mallinson, 2005), the referendum did not pass and Greek Cyprus became an official member of the EU in 2004.

Other small scale bi-communal projects and efforts of interethnic cooperation can be given as examples of real possibility for reconciliation, such as: the village of Dipkarpaz in TRNC in which

9.

Greek and Turkish Cypriots have been living conjointly without the disruption of the 74’ events; the Bicommunal Choir of Peace founded in 1997, raising awareness through cultural events (Islands: Cyprus, 2013); between 2003 and 2008 six crossing points were opened through the buffer zone of Nicosia; and UN activities regarding the displacement and property issue and the identification of lost family members to help people morn their lost ones.

In the past recent years Cyprus has been trying to manage economic crisis, which struck hard in 2012, by signing a bailout deal with the European Comission, European Central Bank and the IMF. In 2014 there is more realistic hope for fruitful peace talks as hydrocarbons have been found in Israelian-Cypriot waters that can be best exported through a pipeline from the island to Turkey.

(Cyprus: Divided Memory, United Future?, 2014)

Fig.8- The bi-communal Cultural Event UNITED SONGS FOR PEACE featuring groups from Greek-Cypriot and Turkish-Cypriot Communities on Sunday, 14 September, 2008 at the Ledra Palace in Nicosia; (Ministry of Foreign and European Affairs of the Slovak Republic, 2008)

10.

Fig. 9- The crossing at Ledra Street opened in 2008; (grhomeboy, 2008)

Fig. 10- “Bringing life back to the Bandabulyia (old market) of Nicosia� in 2013; (Jules, 2013)

11.

The situation now as a result of four decades of separation

The evolution of political and economical events, as well as bicommunal activities in support of a peaceful solution for unification was slow and more concrete after the turning of the 21st century.

However, recent peace talks became more imminent following the failure of 2004, the economic crisis and the prospects of gas exploitation. In order to understand the situation today and to determine whether it would be suitable for a realistic peace resolution, the effects of the events from the past four decades must be analyzed. While researching the Cyprus issue, three key approaches to project methodology keep recurring: education and awareness; citizen participation; and understanding, dialogue and acknowledgement.

The first two means of investigation are interconnected. The most relevant example of their reliability and substantial results is the “Nicosia Master Plan” which has persisted since 1978. It aims to “restore the urban fabric of two socially, economically and physically neglected areas” through interactive projects, but in spite of the 265 building façade surveys and emergency intervention proceedings in collapsing buildings, large part of the heritage of two rich cultures is being wasted with every year that passes. (Petridou, 2004) Architecture is trapped in the conflict and even used as political statement: “The destruction of Greek heritage was an insurance against future enosis”, while “In the Greek zone, by contrast, Islamic monuments have been safeguarded and even repaired”. (Bevan, 2006) After the 74’ events, Greek Orthodox churches have been vandalized, demolished or turned into mosques, and the rest of the “untouched” buildings in the buffer zone are in a deplorable state, ready to collapse. In this situation, architects can act either as political mediators or as pathologists, working in bi-communal teams involving a large variety of professionals. (Charlesworth, 2006)

12.

Fig. 11&12- Architectural Heritage of the Buffer Zone in the Walled City of Nicosia; (Europa Nostra, 2011)

13.

In an article from the Cyprus Review (2007), Trimikliniotis describes Cyprus “as a permanent state of “exception” par excellence. In this particular “state of exception”, the need to elaborate a “civic sociality” by active citizens or “actizens” to initiate actions from bellow may well complement and kick-start a “social politics of protests” as a normative tool-kit”. (Trimikliniotis, 2007) Such citizen manifestations occur often: inauguration of a center for historical research and coexistence of communities in Cyprus and bi-communal event “Encounter for Peace and Reunification” human chain over buffer zone (2014); 6th year award for bi-communal business cooperation, prize of Stelios’ Philanthropic Foundation; meetings and dialogues between several religious leaders; 3 years of existence in the buffer zone for the “House of Cooperation”. (Unitedcyprus platform.org, 2014)

Fig. 13- Children from both sides of the island painting in the buffer zone, between the two parts of the city; (Old Nicosia Revealed, 2012)

14.

The third analysis method is considered crucial as it emphasizes the importance of the way in which the two ethnic groups of Cyprus perceive reconciliation and highlights the aim as accepting the past and forgiving in order to move forward. Virginie Ladisch interviewed 40 Greek and Turkish Cypriots for her article on reconciliation published in The Cypriot Review and concluded that “there was a significant level of consensus (…). Overall, the GreekCypriot and the Turkish-Cypriot definitions of reconciliation were very similar, focusing primarily on understanding, dialogue and acknowledgement”. (Ladisch, 2007) But these are perceived more in political and economical terms, than spiritual, such as the case of the common sewage system agreed upon as a practical solution.

Nevzat Oznel, senior waste management engineer believes that economical advantages are the only means to determine unification, but past achievements suggest other possibilities as well: “when only one system in a given category is needed, when the nature of the system is apolitical, and when the prospect of duplication is unaffordable”. (Calame and Charlesworth, 2009) Today there might be again need for a pragmatic solution, after hydrocarbons have been found in Israelian-Cypriot waters, which can benefit both parties. Despite the collective view on reconciliation and the means through which to achieve it, there is one essential obstacle which people can’t yet get past: the concern regarding security, resulting from fear and unwillingness to forget and forgive.

(Trimikliniotis, 2007) The study of the consequences of 4 decades of separation is essential when looking at future prospects. It can be carried out from two perspectives and have opposite outcomes. Both implicated parties have their own statement to make through the measures they have been taking since 1974: the Turkish-Cypriots developed the “Turkifying” process by changing the North to Muslim culture/ religion; the Greek-Cypriots have been preserving the status quo creating a frozen scenery to further prove they don’t recognize TRNC. One way of perceiving these manifestations is through the politicized landscape they have created, but the separate growth to strengthen individual identity can lead to further conflict due to unwillingness to accept and more forward.

Another way suggests separation as means of prevention of

15.

further violence and conflict outbursts, as physical boundaries connect people with territory leading to the nullification of cultural and social differences to create a neutral basis for reconciliation.

(Casaglia, 2010)

Fig. 14- Cement filled oil barrels block off streets to the buffer zone from the Greek side; (Wainwright, 2008)

16.

Conclusion

Granting that slow positive bricks have been paved in the path towards unification, reconciliation is seen as a possible, but not in the immediate future. Indeed, bi-communal cultural, social activities have helped the two rivalry groups communicate and support each other, the long separation might prove beneficial, UN efforts for peacekeeping and funding projects has been vital and urban policy-makers have provided one of the few means through which the political congestion can be broken, but there are few impediments which seem unlikely to be conquered in the current political, social and economical scenery. The separate four-decade long development of the two ethnic groups might prove to be a difficult obstacle, buildings are still collapsing everyday due to difficulty of acquiring construction permits, Greek-Cyprus entry in the EU, to which the major incentives for a comprehensive peace settlement and eventual unification were directly tied and, the most essential concern of both Greek and Turkish-Cypriots, the security issue due to reluctance to forget past humiliations.

“Sixty years ago everybody was fighting to get union with his motherland. But now we are grownups, we don’t need our mothers and we can live as orphans.”

(Cyprus: Divided Memory, United Future?, 2014)

17.

Figure list Fig.1- Wainwright, R. (2008) MG_6595. [online image] Available at: http://www.richwainwright.com/blog/foreign-assignments/borders-barrierscyprus-the-buffer-zone/ [Accessed 30th Oct. 2014] Fig.2- ASC (2014) article-2603134-1D06818200000578-0_964x578. [online image] Available at: http://controversialdocumentaries.blogspot.co.uk/2014/06/no-man-landwhere-nobody-has-been.html [Accessed 30th Oct. 2014] Fig.3- ASC (2014) article-2603134-1D064C7E00000578-397_964x637. [online image] Available at: http://controversialdocumentaries.blogspot.co.uk/2014/06/no-man-landwhere-nobody-has-been.html [Accessed 30th Oct. 2014] Fig.4- Stavrou, P. (n.d.)29. [online image] Available at: http://www.kazantzakispublications.org/en/archive08.php [Accessed 30th Oct. 2014] Fig.5- Stavrou, P. (n.d.) 25. [online image] Available at: http://www.kazantzakispublications.org/en/archive08.php [Accessed 30th Oct. 2014] Fig.6- Cole, M. (2008) britarmycyprus2-700-80. [online image] Available at: http://www.bikeradar.com/news/article/british-soldiers-using-mountain-bikesfor-patrols-in-cyprus-19652/ [Accessed 30th Oct. 2014] Fig.7- Old Nicosia Revealed. (2013)

1003008_445870682200569_882350646_n. [online image] Available at: https://scontent-b-ams.xx.fbcdn.net/hphotos-frc3/v/t1.09/p180x540/1003008_445870682200569_882350646_n.jpg?oh=d1c94232c 0471f18ca06bea2b995f3c3&oe=54E361EA [Accessed 30th Oct. 2014] Fig.8- Ministry of Foreign and European Affairs of the Slovak Republic. (2008) Thumb_2020_UNFICYPBicommunalconcertatLPH_175. [online image] Available at: https://www.mzv.sk/en/foreign_policy/bicommunal_dialog [Accessed 30th Oct. 2014] Fig.9- grhomeboy. (2008) 21-03-08_ledra_street3. [online image] Available at: http://grhomeboy.wordpress.com/category/news-national-section/cyprusnews/page/2/ [Accessed 30th Oct.2014]

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Fig.10- Jules. (2013) 9111795514_8312ce0f7c_m. [online image] Available at: http://www.flickr.com/photos/55578087@N08/9111795514 [Accessed 30th Oct. 2014] Fig.11- Europa Nostra. (2011) 5529593572_efbe7d46ed_o. [online image] Available at: https://www.flickr.com/photos/europanostra/5529593572/ [Accessed 30th Oct. 2014] Fig.12- Europa Nostra. (2011) 5529005613_8c0dd67735_o. [online image] Available at: https://www.flickr.com/photos/europanostra/5529005613/in/photostream/ [Accessed 30th Oct. 2014] Fig.13- Old Nicosia Revealed. (2012)

556450_221779891276317_149051404_n. [online image] Available at:

https://fbcdn-sphotos-f-a.akamaihd.net/hphotos-ak-prn2/v/t1.09/556450_221779891276317_149051404_n.jpg?oh=5ddf1980baead8b4dec f39ad51198c89&oe=54F88CD5&__gda__=1423821979_b76cd27a552abcd9 3d5a4e2d8c6f5e34 [Accessed 30th Oct. 2014] Fig.14- Wainwright, R. (2008) MG_6650. [online image] Available at: http://www.richwainwright.com/blog/foreign-assignments/borders-barrierscyprus-the-buffer-zone/ [Accessed 30th Oct. 2014]

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