13.7 Instruments

a battery of the fastest computers that were available. Anyone who remembers the IRCAM concerts of the 1980s and 1990s can probably still conjure up the image of rows of computers and bundles of wires and the not unrealistic feeling that everything could crash at any moment. This form of live electronics can now be realised by one well-instructed student with a laptop.

There is yet a third possibility of live electronics, one that has completely replaced playing a sound file or tape to which everyone adapts. What used to be the tape is cut up into a large number of sound files that can be played with one push of a laptop button. The main advantage of this is that whoever operates the laptop can respond to the player, ensemble, or conductor (I applied this method myself in orchestral works, for example in Gravity Music). The laptop operator thus becomes one of the performers on stage. In addition, musicians may also control starting a sound file themselves.

13.7 INSTRUMENTS Over the years, quite a few instruments with an electric sound source have been developed. Prior to 1945, this was even the most important application of electronics and music. I will limit my overview to those instruments that can still be found, admittedly in some cases with some difficulty. Some of the early instruments can be self-built by technically inclined composers. For the history and technical details of the instruments I refer to the information available on the internet. - Trautonium (1929) Frequently used as an effect machine in movies (The Birds). Paul Hindemith wrote pieces for it. - Theremin (1928) Is still being used, for instance by Kalevi Aho and Moritz Eggert. The hit single Good Vibrations (Beach Boys, 1966) led to a wave of interest in the pop world for the Theremin, although the instrument used on that record was actually an improved version, the Electro-Theremin. The instrument is frequently used in soundtracks in film and television. - Ondes martenot (1928) This instrument was used very persistently - sometimes to the despair of his followers - by Olivier Messiaen, and for that reason alone is here to stay. - Hammond organ (1935) Here, the principle is: an electric current is created from rotating a metal tone wheel near an electromagnetic pickup. The signal is then strengthened by an amplifier. It then goes to a loudspeaker, which usually is a Leslie speaker. The Leslie adds an interference effect to the sound by

means of a rotating soundboard in a holder, comparable to a tremulant in a pipe organ. The Hammond organ was built for a practical purpose: as a substitute for the large and un-movable church organ, so that the typical organ sound and the possibilities of multiple keyboards and a pedal could be used anywhere, not just in church. It was an enormous success, especially in the world of jazz, gospel, rhythm and blues, and reggae. Virtuoso players of the Hammond organ often gave the instrument a dominant place in a jazz band. The instrument was also popular among organ players, as they were no longer dependent on the whims of local sextons if they needed to practice. - Analogue synthesizer (1960-70) The synthesizer came into being by applying the technology of the early analogue computers and testing devices that had been developed for the laboratory. It was made of a number of independent electronic modules, that were combined in a patch bay via cables. Synthesizer modules consisted of voltage-controlled oscillators (VCO), voltage-controlled filters (VCF), and voltage-controlled amplifiers (VCA). They also used envelope generators, low-frequency oscillators, sequencers and mixers. Various companies competed to dominate the ever-growing pop market. The most successful one was Moog Music with its Moog Synthesizer and the simpler version, the Minimoog. The synthesizer was used a lot in music for films, partly because it was good at imitating the sound of strings and was a lot cheaper than a real string orchestra. The synthesizer, and notably the Moog, became a permanent fixture of many electronic studios. - Digital synthesizer (1973) The difference between an analogue and digital synthesizer is that an analogue one is made up of sound generating circuitry and modulators, whereas a digital synthesizer is in fact a computer with a music keyboard. In the last ten years we see a renewed interest in the specific sound of the analogue synthesizer, with its warmer and less clean sound compared to its digital brother. Commercially speaking, Yamaha and Roland are now dominating the market. The Yamaha DX-7 and the Roland D-50 are standards and are still being used. These instruments come with a large number of sounds, developed by the manufacturer. They include excellent sounds that come in useful and some composers use these standards in their compositions (for instance John Adams). It is easy to add digital sounds made in the studio to these devices. In the past few years (from the current year 2018) the top line in synthesizers is the Nord Stage II and III