DevISSues volume 2, number 1, April 2000 by International Institute of Social Studies

Institute of Social Studies

E V E L O P M E N T

ISSues

Volume 2, number 1, April 2000

Children and Development 2

Page

CONTENTS

Inside this issue:

Ben Phillips

Guatemala Caro Nelson

In April-May 2000, the ISS will be delivering a new optional MA Page

Interview Bert Helmsing

course in Children and Development. The course was introduced in response to a request from the Children and Development Network, set up by ISS students in November 1999 to bring together people with a shared interest in children’s issues. The network is now the largest

Page

Capacity Development in Namibia Dele Olowu Page

Sri Lanka David Dunham

Page

Children and Development

Page

International Political Economy Wil Hout Page

nator, explains the context in which the group emerged.

Dum Dum Railway Station, Street Kids Centre, Calcutta

‘I am invisible.’ The opening line of

‘I am a man’. Women’s movements

immaturity nor from some idyllic but

the emergence of the ISS Children

Ralph Ellison’s classic The Invisible

too have stressed our common

disabling ‘innocence’, but from

and Development Network. A group

Man put into three words the exclu-

humanity in asking, as Susan B.

something much more simple - lack

of students with experience of wor-

sion from mainstream discourse that

Anthony did at her 1872 trial for ‘ille-

of power. Children are not ‘invisible’,

king with children decided to see how

the author experienced as an African-

gal’ voting, ‘are women persons?’.

but they are rarely listened to: they are

they could further the development of

American. The black consciousness

Recent developments in child socio-

still ‘seen and not heard’. Top-down

understanding of children’s issues at

movement sought to reaffirm the

logy, together with the political

solutions are not enough. It is time to

the ISS. Meetings were organized,

value of all human beings and to chal-

development of a children’s rights

ask children what they want, and to

an email group established. The centre-

lenge the idea that only white voices

movement, have seen a new claim.

take their answers seriously.

piece of the movement was a student-

needed to be listened to. The claim to

Children, it is argued, are not mere

dignity was perhaps best expressed

pre-adults, but active agents. Their

This challenge to the worn-out but

optional course in Children and

by the black protester holding a

exploitation and marginalization stem

undefeated paradigm of adult-centred

Development. Over fifty people took

placard with the simple message:

in the main not from the ineptitude of

discourse provided the backdrop for

part in one way or another in drawing

initiated proposal to introduce a new

continued on page 6

Aid Effectiveness Geske Dijkstra

Page

joint staff-student body at the Institute. Ben Phillips, network coordi-

Latin America and the Carribean at the Crossroads

Development Challenges Today 9

UC-ISS project Howard Nicholas

Public Lecture: Dr Enrique Iglesias ‘One day, while I was visiting the favelas in Rio de Janeiro, a small boy tugged at my arm and insisted I go with him. He took me to his home, where he proudly showed me the brand-new house number on the wall. This, perhaps insignificant to us, meant very much to him. It was a sign that he was a citizen, with an address, with a traceable location, with rights and duties.’

As an institute for advanced These are the words of Dr Enrique

‘I feel that in last 50 years, we have

Looking back now, that new thinking

on the performance of Latin America

Iglesias, President of the Inter-

had four or five subsequent periods in

heralded the arrival of a new kind of

in the 1950s and 1960s, it was quite

American Development Bank,

which ideas led practice and others in

paradigm to a region that was emer-

exceptional. The region grew by five

speaking at the ISS on 25 January.

which practice led ideas. The first was

ging from the war period, which had

or six percent. The major instrument

Clearly, for Dr Iglesias this child was

the early years of ECLA/CEPAL, of

brought us real dividends, and was

we used was import substitution,

not invisible, or to be ‘seen and not

structuralism, which started with the

now starting to feel the pains of social

which came in for much criticism later

heard’. His address, which was inter-

publication of Prebisch’ manifesto in

transformation. The new thinking was

on but which, in those years, was

human aspects of economic

spersed with many more personal

1949. I was at university when the

the result of mistrust in the neo-classi-

reasonably successful. This was a

and social change, with a focus

anecdotes from a lifetime of work in

report appeared. Our professor told

cal approaches to economics and in

time when ideas were leading facts.

Latin America and the Caribbean,

us to stop using all the traditional

the functioning of the market, and in

looked back on 50 years of develop-

texts that formed the basis of the

Keynesian economics and the revolu-

The second stage started in the

ment in the region and forward to

courses and to concentrate on

tionary ideology of the new socialist

1970s, with the crisis of this structura-

the challenges of the new millennium.

something new and extremely provo-

countries. At that time there was a

list paradigm. There were several

The full text of the address is available

cative. And we discovered that

strong belief that development was

reasons for this crisis.

from the ISS.

economy was something that had

possible, and achievable by the end

Below is a short summary.

life behind it.

of the decade. And if you look back

international education and research, the ISS generates, accumulates and transfers knowledge and know-how on

on development and transition. The ISS is a leading centre in this field.

continued on page 10

E V E L O P M E N T

ISSues Social and Economic Change in Livingston, Guatemala

Reflections and Follow-up Caro Méndez Nelson On 23 November 1999 at the ISS, Caro Méndez Nelson defended his PhD thesis ‘Survival Strategies on a Coastal Frontier: Agrarian Expansion, Resource Scarcity and Social Change in Livingston, Guatemala’. In this article Dr Méndez Nelson offers some reflections on his research and also on what still needs to be done, in research and policy, for the people that have captivated him for many years.

In Survival Strategies on a Coastal Frontier I

focus on the Q’eqchi, a Mayan-derived people

Research inevitably generates not only new

First, because the exposure of detailed living

describe how Guatemala’s social, economic

who have recurrently migrated from the north-

findings but also new questions. I have come

conditions can provide convincing evidence of

and demographic composition has been

ern highlands to the north-eastern lowlands of

to realize the need for further research on the

the need for change in resource management

shaped by international market demands.

Guatemala. The interaction between waves of

severe repercussions on the local population

policies. Second, because innovative fieldwork

Shifts in these demands have resulted in

migrant Q’eqchi, Ladino (of Hispanic descent)

of the processes analyzed in the thesis as

- given the necessary time, resources and

cycles of expansion and contraction of export-

and Garífuna (of Afro-Caribbean origin) is

resource scarcity and competition increases.

creativity - can generate knowledge that remains

oriented activities in diverse ecological settings

described within the framework of national and

These repercussions go beyond a simple

unearthed by standard fieldwork techniques.

that in turn create waves of temporary and

regional history.

‘modernization’ of economic activities, but can

permanent migrants. These migrating groups

better be placed within a spiral of resource

Finally, and looking back, a PhD project

have congregated in Livingston, a coastal

Using a process-oriented approach the study

accumulation, social competition, depletion of

captures only a moment in the dialogue

‘frontier’ in the north-eastern lowlands of

describes the way in which land is appropria-

the environment and eventual deterioration of

between changing reality and ongoing

Guatemala, where they have formed a

ted and labour employed, and the different

the diet and health of the inhabitants. In essen-

research. Because of this a thesis should

composite society.

responses in the economic and social organi-

ce, having analyzed the causes of resource

entice both author and readers to think about

zations of households, communities and

scarcity and social and economic change, my

new questions, methodologies, and methods

With the recent expansion of cattle ranching,

migrant groups. Most notably, natural resource

current interests now focus on the ‘other side’

of data collection.

which basically requires large expanses of land

mismanagement and scarcity, and increasing

of the process, on the feedback process of

and only temporary labour, people have been

limitations on land have forced members of

deteriorating consumption and health, and

For the coming two years Dr Mendéz Nelson

forced into diverse and competing strategies

some groups to shift away from traditional

how it in turn reflects back on the system

will be working as post-doctoral research

through which they contend with increasingly

economic activities into the subsistence

through time. The intention is to identify the

fellow with Dr Eric Ross on the ISS-based

limited employment, physical space, natural

domains of others. As a result, there is

mechanisms by which the unsustainable

research project ‘Coastal Resources,

resources, and opportunities for further

increasing social distance and competition

system being imposed sets in motion a vicious

Migration, Survival Strategies, and Consump-

movement. This process has intensified the

between members of the different groups.

cycle of resource overexploitation and poverty

tion in Livingston, Guatemala’ supported by the

scarcity and unsustainable extraction of

The intricacies and dynamics of such develop-

in a coastal zone that is being constantly

MacArthur Foundation.

natural resources.

ments point to some crucial factors in deter-

reshaped by natural, economic and political

For more information, you can contact the

mining long-term economic success in the

forces.

author at mendez@iss.nl or

The thesis describes past and present produc-

region, including the timing of arrival in relation

tion and consumption strategies of diverse

to cycles of expansion, and the resources

I think these issues should be further explored

For a copy of the book, contact Shaker

groups in the Livingston region, with a special

sought and actually secured.

using innovative data collection techniques.

Publishing BV at www.shaker.nl

carogua@yahoo.com.

From the Rector The move will help us to ‘up-stream’ our academic activities more

surprised to find itself subjected to these processes. After much transition

effectively and to generate and maintain critical mass in several fields,

and modification, driven by our own internal dynamics, the ISS now feels

through closer links with our colleagues in the universities. It will open

the wind of change coming in from the outside, in the form of a range

up opportunities for new and strategically relevant combinations of

of policy initiatives emanating from the Ministers of Education and

cutting-edge methodological and disciplinary expertise and our own

Development Cooperation. One of these is the intention to integrate the

issue-oriented approach, in integrated settings. The change could also

institutes of international education in the Dutch university system.

make the ISS less vulnerable to fluctuations in its financial environment.

Actually I should speak of ‘reintegration’, as these institutes were original-

At any rate, we have been given to understand that the core funding of

ly set up by the universities several decades ago. They became separate

international education will not be reduced as such in the years ahead.

for various reasons, some of which are now outdated. The pendulum is

It was very helpful that this policy initiative came in the form of a request

now swinging back again. Internal forces have already pushed us in the

to the institutes of international education to each find their own, tailor-

direction of strategic alliances with universities and university depart-

made new structural arrangement. At the ISS we are in the process of

ments, and of joint ventures like graduate research schools and joint

exploring the options available and we hope to resolve the issue before

Masters programmes. Now the Dutch government wishes us to forge

the end of the year. To put this all in metaphorical terms: we are moving

structural links through governance relations that will embed us more

our house back into our fathers’ compound. We hope this will be to the

firmly and formally within the university system. The ISS - as well as the

benefit of those in the house as well as of the rest of the extended family.

other institutes of international education - is to retain its autonomy in

And, most certainly, we expect that it will be to the benefit of those we try

crucial respects, but in terms of accountability and funding our relation-

to cater for, through what goes on in and around that house: our teaching

ship with the Ministry of Education will become more indirect.

and research activities and our work on institutional capacity building.

Frankly speaking, this was not really what we had in mind ourselves, but we do see merits in it.

Prof. Hans Opschoor, Rector, ISS

An institute that focuses on development and change should not be

Prof. Hans Opschoor

E V E L O P M E N T

ISSues Interview

Bert Helmsing © Jager & Krijger

Bert Helmsing was recently appointed Professor of Local and Regional Development at the ISS. Bert gave his inaugural address at the Institute, with which he has been associated since 1976, on 27 January. The full text of the address, entitled ‘Externalities, Learning and Governance’, is available from the ISS. René Bekius interviewed him about his work, his new appointment and the changes he has seen in his time at the Institute.

Why were you fascinated by the theme of

longer now within the corporation, but within

work to do with regional deve-

regional development at an early age?

global commodity chains. And, of course, there

lopment projects in these coun-

Was it a reasoned choice or just a matter of

was the parallel development of the ‘weakening’

tries. Of the educational institu-

coincidence?

of the state – which I see less as a weakening

tions, I think the best case was

than the creation of a more ‘responsive’ state.

the Centre for Interdisciplinary

It was a little of both. When I arrived in Tilburg

Studies in Regional Development

to start studying in 1968, the first thing that

In a recent working paper (no. 305, November

in Colombia, which was esta-

happened was a student occupation of the

1999) you examine three phases in the develop-

blished by the late Francisco

university. The engagement at that time at the

ment of regional development policies. Phases

Uribe Echevarría and myself in

university was very high. There was a lot of inte-

1 and 2 are concerned with exogenous and

the late seventies. The Centre

rest in development issues and I decided to do

endogenous factors. The third phase super-

has become successful and inf-

development economics along with public

sedes this dichotomy and relates to basic

luential, producing a new acade-

finance. The decision to specialize in regional

conditions in the external environment, in which

mic journal, and sustaining itself.

development came late and was partly due to

multinational corporations, foreign direct invest-

Because it doesn’t have that

the fact that I came from the provinces and I

ment (FDI), new forms of governance and local

much public support, it depends very much on

it should also develop a larger network of like-

saw differences. Where coincidence came in

development networks all play a central role.

the fees it can get from contract research and

minded organizations to perform comparative

was that in those days you finished your study

Does the theoretical basis of phase 3 lie in the

advisory work.

research on development issues.

after five years, but were given seven years

recent economic developments in countries in

deferment from military service. I therefore still

which you have worked?

The Zimbabwe project on Rural & Urban Plan-

Does it feel as though you have been at the ISS

ning has had more ups and downs, but it still

for 25 years?

had two years to use up. That was when I deci-

Prof. Bert Helmsing

ded to come to the Institute, because it offered

Yes, but I think it’s more than just multinationals

provides programmes to sufficiently large

an international environment and I was sure that

and FDI. It’s also these clusters, and the notion

numbers of students, so from that point of view

No, not at all. Although of late, perhaps, more

my interest in development issues was strong

that I mentioned earlier that local institutions

it is successful. In Sudan, the development

so. I have been back at the Institute for a long

enough to allow me to pursue it further.

become more important in providing an environ-

studies centre is still thriving, but is very much

time now, after spending long periods abroad.

ment that allows firms to learn and grow. We

constrained by the current situation in the

But what I have always liked about the ISS is

Your dissertation, ‘Firms, Farms and the State in

usually look at multinational corporations nega-

country. In Bolivia I was lucky to work with the

the opportunities it provides. If you want to do

Colombia: a study of rural, urban and regional

tively, but we should also see them as a source

previous administration. Together with the

things you can do them. I think that what we

dimensions of change’, was published in 1985.

of information and learning. The important thing

Ministry of Finance, we developed a new

have to make sure of is that we stay ahead of

You stated that it was very difficult to challenge

is not to become too dependent on them. The

policy to finance decentralization. And, despite

developments, by modernizing the capabilities

your theoretical framework because of a shorta-

same applies to the relation between small and

some of the current setbacks, decentralization

and potential of the staff in a pro-active manner.

ge of studies and literature in the field of micro

large firms. There is an argument that small

in Bolivia is, along with Uganda, one of the

If we don’t do that, at some point the need to

development. If you were to write your disserta-

firms can learn from large ones because the

shining examples of the rapid changes that

generate resources will push people instead of

tion today, would you see the same obstacles?

latter are world-class producers, they have to

have taken hold.

their own ideas. And that I think this is the worst

meet the standards of international markets,

scenario you could imagine.

Well, there have of course been new develop-

and they are more used to working on a large-

In 1986 you became a member of the manage-

ments which I could not have foreseen at the

scale. This external nexus is often very impor-

ment of the CERES research school. In 1999

time, as well as a clear increase in interest for

tant to local economic development. I did

the school received a positive evaluation from

institutional economics. Thinking on firms has

indeed research this, in Zimbabwe for instance,

the Royal Academy of Sciences and is now

changed; they are now seen as learning organi-

but the ideas did not come immediately from

entering its second phase (1999-2004). In what

zations with certain competencies. And, of

there. They were based on research on clusters

ways do you think that CERES could be

course, there were far-reaching technological

by the EADI Group, and on more general

strengthened in the near future?

developments, particularly in the second half of

research, for example, on small enterprises in

the 1980s, which led to vertical disintegration,

Europe. I looked at how firms are responding to

Although CERES does not enjoy a high priority

flexible specialization technology, making large-

the need to restructure in Zimbabwe and found

with many members of the ISS staff, it is strate-

scale integrated and hierarchical ‘Fordist’ orga-

that the response is completely differently than

gically very important for the Institute. The for-

nizations less necessary. At the time, verticali-

in, for example, Colombia where I did exactly

mation of research schools in the Netherlands

zation - including centralization within the

the same research.

was a development that the ISS could not

government apparatus - with all its social, politi-

afford to miss. In those days, the early 1990s,

cal and economic consequences, was a great

You have accumulated extensive experience in

the field of development studies in the

problem. But that all changed, quite dramatical-

Africa and in Latin America. Looking back on

Netherlands was very fragmented and consoli-

ly, particularly in the early nineties. However,

the regional development projects you have

dating that into a research school was a huge

and in spite of flexibilization and vertical dis-

been involved in, which do you consider to have

effort, which was often guided as much by

integration, the power of the large corporations

been successful and why?

institutional politics as by real development

had not changed; in certain areas, especially

questions. I think that the challenge for CERES

marketing, logistics and distribution, large-scale

In most cases, I was based at academic institu-

now is to internationalize itself. It should conti-

integration was still very much taking place. No

tions. But of course, you do all sorts of other

nue to be a network within the Netherlands, but

E V E L O P M E N T

ISSues ISS Programme of Assistance to the Government and People of Namibia

Capacity Development for Public Policy Management © ISS

Dele Olowu On 26 October 1999, the President of the Republic of Namibia, Mr Sam Nujoma, formally opened a joint University of Namibia/ISS Master of Arts Programme in Public Policy and Administration. Present at the opening were prominent members of the diplomatic community and most governmental and non-governmental organizations in Namibia, as well as the registered course participants and representatives of ISS faculty. The Rector of the ISS, Professor Hans Opschoor, also traveled all the way from the Netherlands for the occasion.

Prof. Peter Katjavivi (left), Mr Sam Nujoma (middle), Prof. Hans Opschoor (right)

In his opening address, Mr Nujoma

designed to provide critical leader-

Institute of Social Studies in The

The project has several elements, the

Namibian public service. They in-

referred to the consistent support

ship skills to women engaged in the

Hague began on March 12, 1998,

most important of which is the MA

clude a deputy minister, 13 senior

which his country has received from

anti-apartheid struggle against the

when the Vice Chancellor of the

Programme in Public Policy and

national government officials (direc-

the ISS and from the people of the

South African apartheid regime.

University of Namibia, Professor

Administration, which runs over four

tors, commissioners, permanent

Netherlands over a long period of

Today, this programme has meta-

Peter. H. Katjavivi, visited the

cycles of 15 months each. The first

secretaries, etc), two officials from

time. He urged the participants in the

morphosed into an integral and

Institute. He requested assistance in

cycle started in July 1999 and will

the Windhoek municipal authorities,

new MA programme to appreciate

major part of the research and trai-

the development of a graduate

end in December 2000. The ISS is

two each from Namibian parastatals

their pioneer status and do all they

ning activities of the Faculty of Social

programme in the area of public

providing most of the training inputs

and UNAM, one from a private sector

can to ensure that the investment in

and Management Sciences at the

policy and administration, to be deli-

in the first two cycles but, from the

enterprise and another from a multi-

time and money was well worth it.

University of Namibia. Indeed, the

vered in Namibia to reduce costs.

third cycle, it will gradually transfer

lateral development agency (the

Professor Opschoor then spoke of

ISS/UNAM Gender Programme also

responsibility to UNAM instructors.

World Bank, Namibia office).

the Institute’s willingness and com-

hosted an alumni refresher course in

The Institute’s Executive Board sup-

By the fourth cycle, UNAM will be

These 22 participants will be in The

mitment to helping developing coun-

the same week in which the new joint

ported the initiative and, after a series

responsible for two-thirds of the

Hague in May of this year. They will

tries to develop their capacity for

MA course was launched.

of talks in The Hague and Windhoek

training inputs. The project is expec-

be taking a course in policy evalu-

between ISS and UNAM staff,

ted to terminate in the year 2005.

ation and discussing their research

governance, and emphasized the special importance the ISS accords

As noted earlier, Namibia, often

Namibian government officials and

During each fifteen-month period,

paper designs with colleagues and

to Namibia.

described as Africa’s last colony,

prospective donors, a project was

all the participants are expected to

ISS supervisors. A major highlight of

became independent in 1990.

put together by ISS Staff Group 2

come to The Hague for one month,

the visit is a workshop entitled

Since its inception almost 50 years

Political independence thrust upon

(States, Societies and Sustainable

among other things to discuss their

‘Governance and Institutional

ago, the Institute of Social Studies

the young country and its new politi-

Development) and the Public Policy

research methodology. They will

Reforms in the Netherlands and

has been at the forefront of efforts to

cal leadership – most of whom were

and Administration team – with

return to Namibia to complete their

Namibia: Policy Lessons’. The visit

develop the institutional capacity of

former guerrilla commanders with

strong assistance from the Office of

research papers. Other components

will not be all lectures, workshops

developing countries. The Institute’s

minimum experience in running a

Projects and Advisory Services

of the joint project include a library

and research; we are also making

programme to develop the capacity

modern state – the challenge of ma-

(ORPAS). The two main actors, the

development programme, the trai-

plans for the participants to take

for public policy and administration in

naging and transforming a country

University of Namibia and the ISS

ning of two PhD students at the ISS

some time off and do some sight-

Namibia illustrates this commitment.

from its colonial apartheid roots to a

were fortunate that two major donors

and joint research activities between

seeing.

The ISS has identified with the strug-

modern, developmental, democrati-

in the sub-region – the Ford

UNAM and ISS staff.

Dele Olowu is Convenor of the Public

gle of the Namibian people since

cally governed nation.

Foundation of Namibia and the

before the country’s independence in

Discussions on this new collabora-

Harare-based African Capacity

The first batch of participants in the

Project Responsible for the Namibia

1990. The programme of gender

tive venture between the University

Building Foundation – were willing

MA Programme are drawn mainly

Project. He can be contacted at

development assistance was

of Namibia in Windhoek and the

to support the proposal.

from the senior ranks of the

olowu@iss.nl

Policy and Administration Major and

Letters to the Editor Dear Sir/Madam,

Dear Sir/Madam,

Dear Sirs,

To whom it may concern!

I warmly welcome the initiative put forward by Thank you very much for sending me

Thank you for kindly sending me the

the ISS with the publication of DevISSues.

I would like to continue receiving

‘Development ISSues’. I appreciate what you

‘Development ISSues’. I am deeply impressed

The magazine fills a vacuum about informa-

Development ISSues.

have done. Please continue to send it to me

by the love and care of the ISS. As an acade-

tion on ISS activities and the exchange of

I think the magazine is very informative and

regularly.

mician I very much benefit from the informa-

ideas and thoughts about development pro-

interesting.

I am working in the area of development and

tion provided by ‘Development ISSues’. I

posals around the world. The first issue of

You will find enclosed my new address.

the newsletter acquaints me with a variety of

hope the service will continue uninterrupted

DevISSues was a stimulus for my mind,

ideas and concepts.

and I take this opportunity to extend my good

because it triggered several ideas and propo-

will and best wishes.

sals for things to do, like writing my former

Thank you for everything! Yours sincerely,

class mates, or developing new educational With kind regards,

lines at the university where I teach, among

Yours sincerely,

other things. Regards,

Jenet Redwan, Harare, Ethiopia

Dr S. Rajendran, Ernakulam, India

Bernardo Lischinsky, Buenos Aires, Argentina

Thank you for your cooperation. Sincerely yours, Vesna Ozanic, Zagreb, Croatia

E V E L O P M E N T

ISSues Reform, Growth and Insurrection

Sri Lanka

A Note on Sri Lankan Experience David Dunham

Since the collapse of the Soviet Union, there has been much debate about the possible links between economic reform, rising political instability and civil war. The impression has grown that such links may well exist and that, if distributional issues are not adequately addressed, the transition to a deregulated market economy may be accompanied by social turbulence and violence (even economic chaos), rather than stability and growth. This note is a reflection on the nature of that relationship. It looks at the case of Sri Lanka.

Sri Lanka has received much praise in the past

in the 1990s. However, from the start, there was

they were nevertheless employed. However, for

metropolitan Colombo. The latter’s life-style has

for its social welfare policies. Since it opened up

a pronounced metropolitan, middle-class dyna-

the individuals and households concerned, their

been highly visible. And there is evidence it has

its economy in 1977, it has recorded an average

mic to the liberalization process. If regional

long-term prospects had significantly worsened.

been increasingly resented – seen as ill-gotten

annual growth rate of over 5%, and real per

mean incomes are expressed as a percentage

Similarly, anyone who could be undercut by

gains of the rich, and of opportunistic and self-

capita income has more than doubled. There is

of that of the capital, Colombo, then by the mid-

cheap imports felt vulnerable, even if they never

serving politicians.

no evidence of any marked deterioration in the

1980s – in relative terms – they had plummeted

actually materialized. The general point, then, is

distribution of income. (On the contrary, there

everywhere (including what were soon to be war

that reforms affect perceptions, and people

In this situation, macro data seriously under-

has been remarkable stability in the Gini coeffi-

zones). There were variations within the periphe-

react to implied long-term changes in welfare

estimate the pressures and frustrations pent up

cient since independence). And improvements

ry that were not caught by data based on admi-

and inequality, even if these cannot be seen in

in Sri Lankan society – in the refusal of youth to

have been recorded on social indicators. The

nistrative regions, but they were less pronoun-

conventional statistical analysis. Others were

work the land, suicides, mass desertions from

figures suggest that, in material terms, almost

ced than the yawning gap between Colombo

unemployed however you looked at it.

the army, the increase in crime (especially in

everyone is better off today than they were

and the rest of the country.

twenty years ago. And yet, during that period,

violent crime), disillusionment with mainstream In Sri Lanka, the war exaggerated these

political leadership and armed insurrection. The

the country has erupted into violence, transfor-

Inevitably, reforms in the economic environment

problems, particularly in rural areas. The reforms

country has paid a high price for the inadequate

ming its political landscape beyond recognition.

changed many people’s job prospects, they

effectively neglected peasant agriculture.

attention to distributional issues in the course of

There has been civil war in the north and east

cutback social services and they created uncer-

Yields stagnated, profitability fell and off-farm

the liberalization process. And its experience

since the mid-1980s and there was a wide-

tainty. Welfare cuts removed supports for the

job creation was extremely limited. In the main

suggests there are telling lessons to be learned

spread and bloody insurrection in the south

poor, which may have been badly-targeted,

rice area, any improvements after mid-1980

about economic reform, subsequent unravelling

from 1987 to ‘89 – the latter in what appeared,

costly and inefficient, but also had the effect of

were due mainly to inflows – to government

of civil society and instability.

on the surface, to have been unexceptional

buying social peace. But this was not unusual.

transfers under poverty alleviation programmes,

circumstances.

How people saw and responded to these shifts

to injections of cash from war and security-

David Dunham is Associate Professor of

was the crucial issue.

related employment and to migrant remittances

Geography and Regional Planning at the ISS

from employment in the Middle East. The

and can be contacted at dunham@iss.nl

So, have the economic reforms been a contributory factor? Clearly, they were not the only

Perceptions of inequality

government’s capacity to sustain public trans-

factor. The roots of the long-simmering ethnic

Political and social responses to such situations

fers and to achieve high rates of growth was

conflict are far more complex and insurrection

are not so much shaped by the dislocation

stymied by the war; the scope for Middle East

was also a response to other pressures, not

involved as by perceptions of its implications

employment was reaching saturation point,

least centralization of power and a creeping

and underlying legitimacy. Take the case of

and the poor had very few options. They were

authoritarianism. But what role did economic

education. In Sri Lanka, there has always been a

certainly not enamoured with an economic

liberalization play?

widespread perception that ‘free’ education

system that could only offer many of them jobs

(especially free higher education) provided an

in the country’s armed forces.

Reform and inequality

avenue to a better life for the disadvantaged -

One tempting explanation is that it was the war,

even if, in practice, it mainly benefited people

Rising expectations

and not economic reform, that sparked off

from middle class backgrounds. Education

All these feelings were heightened by the

instability in the rest of the country. But that is

offered the prospect of a life-time job in the

rising expectations of rural youth in the wake

not a sufficient answer. The war had a destabili-

public sector.

of economic liberalization. That expectations

zing effect, but life outside the war-affected

rose was quite unremarkable but, arguably, the

areas (and in Colombo in particular) became

Economic reform made a serious dent in this

speed at which they rose was underestimated

remarkably inured to it. The war was distant,

popular scenario. It switched the ‘real’ benefits

and has become a part of the problem. Today,

and it was factored into people’s everyday

from vernacular to English-medium education,

official statistics show one television for every

lives in a way that made it manageable – even

from public to private sector jobs, and (at times)

three households in Sri Lanka. Massive imports

incidental. It was not the major cause of dis-

from job recruitment on patronage to recruit-

of minibuses have transformed local transport.

satisfaction.

ment on merit criteria.

And, even in remote areas, people know all about the ‘goodies’ of a deregulated economy.

And, certainly, policy reforms do appear to have

If youth from low-income rural backgrounds

Many rural youth feel their lifestyle anachronistic

contributed. Whatever the macro data show,

entered the local workforce because they could

and that they live in a time warp. They are not

there was a rise in perceived inequality. Two

not pursue higher education then, statistically,

content with the standard of living their parents

waves of economic reform occurred in Sri

household incomes improved (because there

had, and they see their own situation in stark

Lanka – a momentous policy U-turn in 1977-78,

were now more earners). If they were educated,

contrast to the (misleadingly ubiquitous) consu-

and then little progress at all until a decade later.

but denied the jobs they wanted because of

merism that they see on the television, and to

A more sustained reform programme followed

cuts in the public sector or their lack of English,

the flaunted wealth of the nouveau riche in

E V E L O P M E N T

ISSues Ben Phillips

continued from page 1

attention to the campaign and winning support. A

rejected by the staff and the Executive Board in

Ben Phillips has worked as a teacher in India,

number of staff members with expertise in child-

favour of an approach to student initiative that

Japan, South Africa and the UK.

ren’s issues put together a course outline, and

recognized that information exchange was a two-

He is currently a participant in the Local and

the proposal was accepted. Though some cour-

way process and that, on reflection, there was a

Regional Development Masters Programme.

ses already included children’s issues, the sub-

space for strengthening the ISS’s role in child-

His research paper will focus on the role of

ject of Children and Development, it was deci-

ren’s issues. As an institution, the ISS has emer-

children in local development projects.

ded, was important enough to justify its own

ged from this process with flying colours. To be

Ben Phillips can be contacted at LRD9914@iss.nl

course. The acceptance of the proposal demon-

willing to adapt, it has shown, is not a sign of

strated bottom-up development in action, as the

weakness but a sign of strength.

Village by the water: after football. Darigachi, West Bengal, India

traditional model of ‘teacher knows best’ was

The MA optional course in Children and Development Karin Arts The outline for the new MA optional course in Children and Development was drawn up by Ben White and Karin Arts, together with Brigitte Holzner. The course is intended to deepen students’ understanding of: current ideas and debates about childhood and youth in the social sciences, development studies and (international) law; the importance of children’s rights in development processes, and of their implications for development policy-making; several specific areas of current concern in the field of children and development. The course will start with a general introductory

world. A number of widely shared problems in

stances’, such as child soldiers, children in the

area in the future. Your feedback on the topics

block on ‘rethinking childhood in development:

incorporating children’s rights into national legal

sex trade, street children, or children affected

covered in the course described above, and

an introduction to childhood studies’, which will

systems (e.g. defining childhood, how to

by HIV/AIDS. Throughout the course several

your suggestions as to what else the ISS

generally explore concepts such as child, child-

facilitate children’s participation, socio-cultural

field visits will be organized, to provide students

should do in this area are most welcome.

hood, youth, children and development, and

factors) will also be examined.

with an opportunity to gain insight into the reas-

children’s rights. It will also present an overview

ons for, and the objectives and content of the

Karin Arts is Lecturer in International Studies at the ISS and can be contacted at arts@iss.nl

of theories of child development, analyze child-

The third block of the course will engage

Children and Development policies of several

hood and gender, and look into the institutional

students in a critical overview of changing ideas

relevant governmental and non-governmental

contexts of childhood and youth.

and debates on the place of work and educa-

actors. The course will end with class presenta-

tion in the lives of children and youth, including

tions by students and closing debates on jointly

The course will then address children’s rights in

the hotly debated issue of child labour. It will

defined topics.

the legal context. It will study the UN Conven-

take up several case studies and examples.

tion on the Rights of the Child, its impact on the

The staff involved in developing the Children

discourse on children’s rights discourse and on

The last substantive block of the course will

and Development course hope to be able to

efforts to implement them throughout the

consider children in ‘especially difficult circum-

expand its activities in this crucially important

Working Children in Zimbabwe Michael Bourdillon1 In January this year, a workshop was held in Harare on working children in Zimbabwe. The workshop brought together over 50 people, including representatives of government, trade unions, employers, various NGOs working with children, academics, and working children from various sectors. The issue of working children is of growing concern in

ly: roughly a tenth of these are headed by someone under fifteen.

We have found children working in formal agriculture, sometimes

Zimbabwe. In both urban and rural areas, there are more and

In such a context, it does not make sense to speak of abolishing

for the education and often as an important part of the livelihood

more families that depend on some income from children for

child labour, but we do need to ensure that such children are not

of themselves and their families. We also found children working

sustenance and basic necessities of life. Many children contribu-

abused and are not denied education.

in small-scale agriculture, where the hours are sometimes longer

te to the expenses of their education through their labour, and

The government, with the help of the ILO, has been conducting a

and the remuneration less than in formal agriculture. Even unpaid

many more like to earn a little extra money for their pockets. The

countrywide survey on child labour. There is a growing body of

work on the family plot sometimes interferes with education.

situation is exacerbated by the AIDS epidemic: over 35,000 fami-

qualitative research, based on case studies, on the situation of

There are children in domestic service, where conditions of

lies are now headed by a person under the age of twenty, and in

working children. The workshop on working children in Harare

employment are hard to control and where hours of service are

many more a young person is the main breadwinner in the fami-

arose out of this research.

usually undefined. Children in such service are open to abuse.

E V E L O P M E N T

ISSues continued from page 6

Working Children

In some cases such employment is hidden in real or fictitious

rather focus on children who are working in a variety of fields and

There were some areas that demanded immediate action, parti-

kinship relations. In some cases, too, the guardians of the child-

for a variety of reasons. It was pointed out that the most proble-

cularly where child workers are being harassed or abused. The

ren, such as step-parents, use their position to extract work from

matic areas are not necessarily in formal employment. Even

workshop set up a committee to initiate action on these issues.

the children. There are children whose education has stopped

where there is no abuse in less formal employment, the need to

The committee was asked to see that the national Child Welfare

because they are involved in full-time care of the sick, and their

work impinges on the education and leisure activities of children.

Forum revived its interest in working children and takes action on

families have no alternative access to care.

Sometimes, the household has no alternative to using the help of

long-term issues. These include providing support for child-parti-

There are a growing number of children in the cities employed in

its children. In other cases, children need protection from the

cipation in decision-making; a publicity campaign to get people

informal income-generating activities, either on their own behalf

adults who are supposed to care for them.

to reflect on the rights of children and what communities can do

or with adults. The most common activity is the vending of food

Although there are a number of NGOs helping children in

to protect these rights; the development of codes of conduct for

and other goods, but there are others. Many of these activities

Zimbabwe, for most of them the issue of working children was

child workers; and a review of current legislation on child work.

are not recognized by the law and children face harassment from

peripheral to their main activities. Also there was little coopera-

a variety of sources. Where children work for adults, they are lia-

tion between the organizations.

Michael Bourdillon is a member of the Department of Sociology,

ble to be exploited by being made to work for long hours with lit-

On the second day of the workshop, we heard about Bhima

University of Zimbabwe

tle remuneration. This type of exploitation can be found in small-

Sangha, a children’s movement in Bangalore, which illustrates

scale mining and other small-scale industries.

what children can do for themselves and the importance of child

The first day of the workshop focused on the current situation of

participation in decision-making and planning. The workshop

is due te be published by Weaver Press in Harare around

working children. The argument was that we should get away

then tried to devise strategies that would be appropriate for

August 2000.

from political debates about what constitutes child labour, but

Zimbabwe.

1 Michael Bourdillon’s book, ‘Working Children in Zimbabwe’,

Internationalization, institutions and development Wil Hout With the arrival of two researchers at the ISS in mid-January, work has started on a new research project on internationalization, institutions and development as part of Staff Group 2’s research programme States, Societies and World Development. Jan de Keijser, a political scientist educated at the University of Leiden, has been appointed post-doctoral fellow in data collection and analysis. Anne-Marije Fontein, who took her MA in political science and international relations at the University of Amsterdam, will be participating in the ISS PhD programme. Her PhD will be on the international system and development. In addition to the researchers based at the ISS, three others at the Centre for Business, Environment and Government at the University of Nijmegen will be conducting a significant part of the research. The project is funded by a grant from the Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research (NWO). Wil Hout, the project manager, describes its content and explains its relevance. The conditions under which specific groups or

approaches, and in economics with the focus

extent. This factor has featured prominently in

which may eventually stimulate growth due to

countries succeed in achieving a high level of

on institutional economics. In the second place,

historical explanations of the ‘rise of the West’

the efforts needed to reconstruct devastated

development has been studied in the past by

the role of international (economic and political)

and the inability of earlier civilizations, especially

areas.

scholars from such diverse disciplines as socio-

variables in the development process continues

China in the era of the Ming dynasty (from the

logy, economics, political science and history.

to divide scholars in economics and political

fourteenth to the sixteenth century AD) to

The interrelationship between institutions, mar-

Over the last twenty years International Political

science alike. Over the past few years both

industrialize.

ket processes and economic achievement has

Economy (IPE) has developed as a ‘multidisci-

scholarly journals and the general press have

pline’, studying the linkage and mutual influence

devoted much space to the purported effects of

The proper functioning of markets will depend,

rians. Often, the development of property rights

between political and economic phenomena.

‘globalization’ and internationalization. The

in part, on the working of the international eco-

has been emphasized as a necessary condition

IPE has brought with it an explicit interest in the

debate on these issues has made it clear that

nomy and on international political variables.

for the market to develop. According to this line

‘political’ (or ‘institutional’) variables in the pro-

our understanding of the effects of international

International economic processes that can

of reasoning, people need a relatively stable

cess of economic development. Despite their

economic processes on economic achievement

interfere with the working of markets include the

environment before they are willing to set aside

avowed links with political science and econo-

clearly needs improving, to enhance the quality

spread of crises (not only economic crises but

a large proportion of their income as savings

mics, scholars of IPE have been stressing the

of the discussion and of policy recommenda-

also natural disasters and the outbreak of epi-

for investment purposes. In situations of uncer-

need to take account of insights from other dis-

tions based on it.

demic diseases) that generate uncertainty and

tainty, people’s time horizon will become

hence prompt changes in decisions affecting

shorter and their propensity to consume will

ciplines, most notably sociology (as the ‘mother

been studied extensively by economic histo-

of the social sciences’) and history. In line with

The current research project tries to increase

the allocation of resources. In addition, the

increase. It is often argued that the same

much other work in IPE, this new research

the knowledge of long-term development pro-

development of new ‘cores’ in the world econo-

applies with respect to social and political rela-

theme thus has a distinctly interdisciplinary

cesses by focusing on three core variables:

my might lead to the increase of international

tions. When people feel they can influence their

inspiration and goal.

market processes, international influences and

competition in some markets or to the creation

own destiny, they are inclined to ‘invest’ more

political institutions. Market processes exert a

of new markets, which may influence the effi-

in their own future than in a situation in which

The contemporary study of economic achieve-

crucial influence on the level of economic achie-

ciency of production and the functioning of

they are totally dependent on the whims and

ment seems to be dominated by two main con-

vement of countries or groups. The functioning

markets. International political variables that

arbitrary behaviour of kleptocrats.

troversies. The first is the role of national (politi-

of markets is an important indicator of the diffe-

may interact with market processes include

cal) institutions vis-à-vis the market. This con-

rentiation of the society and economy: the wor-

violent conflict, which may initially disrupt

Wil Hout is Senior Lecturer in International

troversy has surfaced in political science with

kings of the market enable the fruits of the divi-

markets and thereby influence the level of

Relations at the ISS and can be contacted at

the rise and popularity of neo-institutional

sion of labour to be reaped to their fullest

economic development of a country, but

hout@iss.nl

E V E L O P M E N T

ISSues

The Debate On Aid Effectiveness An ISS Contribution Geske Dijkstra The World Bank report ‘Assessing Aid: What Works, What Doesn’t and Why’ (1998) has received much attention, both from policy-makers and from the research community. The main conclusion of the report is that foreign aid is more effective in a good policy environment. It therefore recommends that aid should go to countries that already have such an environment. The current Dutch minister for development cooperation, Eveline Herfkens, has taken this conclusion as a guideline for her policy, reducing the number of countries that receive bilateral aid from over 100 to 21. In the year in which Assessing Aid

Adjustment Programmes of the IMF

conditionality, but through other

always lend support to the statement

Since the first priority for the IMF and

came out, a small group of researchers

and the World Bank, in which aid is

channels and instruments, such as

that ‘aid is more effective in a good

the World Bank is to provide liquidity

at the ISS began to work on an aid

linked to policy conditions. Apart

informal means (receptions etc.),

policy environment’. Apart from the

(especially if debts have to be repaid),

evaluation project for the Swedish

from a study of the trends in and

or non-directive forms of influence

critique on the econometrics of the

they are not likely to be selective in

Agency for International Develop-

rationales for Swedish programme

(persuasion); in other cases, technical

Assessing Aid report, there are

their aid allocation. Bilateral donors

ment (Sida). The ISS team consisted

aid (carried out by our Swedish

assistance or financial support was

problems with the definition of ‘good

can more easily be selective, both for

of Howard White (team leader, now at

colleagues Anders Danielsson and

provided for the implementation of

policies’ and the way the ‘effective-

practical reasons and because they

IDS, Sussex), Jan Kees van Donge

Maria Nilsson), the project involved

specific reforms.

ness’ of aid has been established.

usually give grants and not loans. But

and myself. Many other colleagues in

investigation of the impact of pro-

The World Bank often defines with

bilateral donors will face a dilemma

Sweden, in the developing countries

gramme aid. Since it is impossible

With respect to the impact of pro-

hindsight what ‘good policies’ are.

between giving aid to countries that

studied, and elsewhere also partici-

to separate the impact of Swedish

gramme aid itself, the country studies

Uganda is said to have pursued

need it most, and strict application

pated. Although the relationship

programme aid from that of other

conclude that aid has been able to

good policies, including in the period

of the selection criteria. Furthermore,

with the World Bank project may not

donors, we studied the impact of

increase imports, which has led to a

between 1987 and 1992, although

once they choose to exit a country

be immediately clear, many of the

programme aid in general. We con-

higher growth than would have been

the budget deficit was still large, the

they will no longer be able to influen-

findings of our project challenge

ducted field studies in Nicaragua,

possible in the absence of aid. In our

exchange rate was controlled and

ce policies by informal channels and

the Bank’s conclusions. This has

Uganda and Vietnam, and desk stu-

methodology we attempt to assess

hardly any reforms were carried out.

other instruments – which our evalu-

become increasingly clear during

dies on Bangladesh, Cape Verde,

the counterfactual by, among other

On the other hand, policies are said

ation has shown can make a differen-

several conferences that have been

Mozambique, Tanzania, and Zambia.

things, examining what happens to

to be ‘bad’ in Zambia in spite of the

ce. Indeed, we found that Swedish

organized on the topic, and where

In addition, we wrote several general

other macroeconomic entities when

fact that, from 1991 onwards,

influence has been strongest where it

researchers on the ISS/Sida project

papers on specific topics, and a final

large increases or decreases in aid

Zambia carried out almost exactly

has promoted and facilitated debate,

have met with researchers from the

report, entitled Dollars, Dialogue and

occur, and by constructing counter-

what the IMF and the World Bank

rather than tried to pre-empt its con-

World Bank and other scholars and

Development.1

factual balance of payments on the

had prescribed. The difference is, of

clusions: what we call a shift to

policy-makers. The most recent of

In investigating impact, we examined

basis of suitable assumptions about

course, that annual economic growth

genuine policy dialogue, rather than

these was a conference on ‘Aid and

three questions, which follow on from

other flows.

was 6.5% in Uganda (1987-92) and

the policy monologue of donors

Development’ organized by Sida’s

the ‘logical framework approach’:

zero in Zambia (1991-99). To assess

trying to tell governments what to do

Evaluation Department and held in

Our evaluation of the impact of policy

the effectiveness of aid, the World

– which has been common practice

1. What is the impact of programme

reforms on economic growth and

Bank simply looks at the figures on

in the past.

During the conference, we presented

aid (the money and the ‘policy

poverty reduction gives different

economic growth. However, zero

our findings and they were commen-

dialogue’) on policy reforms?

results for different reforms in diffe-

economic growth does not mean that

Where we agree with Assessing Aid

2. What has been the impact of

rent countries. The Working Paper on

aid has not been effective. In several

is that aid can play a useful role in

programme aid on economic

the impact of reforms examined their

countries, including Zambia from

promoting development. But chan-

growth and poverty reduction?

impact in all eighteen countries that

1991-1999, we concluded that the

ges in aid management are needed if

receive Swedish aid (many of these

country would have been worse off in

this potential is to be realized – and

Stockholm on 20 and 21 January.

ted on by a number of well-known scholars, including Arne Bigsten, Paul Collier, Stefan Dercon, Poul Engberg-Pedersen, Jan Willem

3. What has been the impact of

Gunning and Torgny Holmgren, as

policy reforms on economic

were socialist oriented until the

the absence of aid. In addition, we

these will come about when govern-

well as by representatives of several

growth and poverty reduction?

1980s), and concludes that substan-

concluded that aid was effective in

ments in developing countries (many

donor agencies. Firstly, I would like to

tial liberalization proved to be a

Uganda (1987-1992) in reducing

of which include ex-participants of

summarize the main findings of the

A first conclusion is that, while all of

necessary, though not sufficient

inflation and stimulating growth, alt-

the ISS) take a firmer lead.

ISS/Sida project and then highlight

the countries studied implemented

condition for growth. While some

hough the policy environment was

some of the differences with the

major policy reforms in the 1980s

countries have improved their perfor-

not yet good (according to the World

Geske Dijkstra is Senior Lecturer in

conclusions in Assessing Aid.

and 1990s, the role of donors in

mance after implementing reforms,

Bank’s own criteria).

Economics of Development at the

these reforms was limited. In six out

many others have not. In addition,

The ISS/Sida project

of the eight countries, reforms were

performance on a number of crucial

Our results in the area of the impact

The title of our project was ‘A Global

well under way when programme aid

indicators does not seem to improve

of policy dialogue also challenge the

Evaluation of Swedish Programme

began. In general, domestic political

much if countries move from being

recommendation in Assessing Aid

Aid’. Programme aid is assistance

economy factors proved to be far

moderate to fully fledged reformers:

that aid should be focussed on coun-

1 The thirteen Working Papers and

that is not linked to specific projects.

more important than the setting of

the appropriate mix between and

tries with good policies. The Working

the final report have now been

Usually, programme aid is ‘tied’ to

conditions by donors – we found

state and market is not unambi-

Paper on programme aid and condi-

published as Sida Evaluation

policies: with this aid, donors hope

several cases where conditionality

guous.

tionality shows that one of the reas-

Reports (99/17), and are also

to influence policies in the recipient

had clearly failed. On the other hand,

ons why the formal setting of policy

available from the Sida website

country. Programme aid from bila-

there were issues where donor influ-

Challenging the conclusions of

conditions does not work is that

www.sida.se/programaidevaluation

teral donors is often provided

ence did play a role. This influence

Assessing Aid

sanctions are rarely applied; and if

together with the Structural

was often not exerted through formal

On the whole, our findings do not

they are, they are not very effective.

ISS and can be contacted at dijkstra@iss.nl

E V E L O P M E N T

ISSues

UC-ISS Project

Postgraduate Economics Teaching in Sri Lanka © Howard Nicholas

Howard Nicholas The present link between the ISS and the University of Colombo (UC), Sri Lanka, dates back to August 1987 when the two institutions initiated a joint project to strengthen and develop postgraduate economics training at the UC’s Department of Economics.

Dr Howard Nicholas

When the project was first conceived, in 1985,

Masters degrees in Economics available in Sri

adequate computer base. By the time the pro-

A second major shortcoming of the project is

Sri Lanka was undergoing a rapid process of

Lanka. Anyone wishing to obtain such a qualifi-

ject draws to an end in December of this year,

its failure to maintain the linkage between the

economic liberalization and development that

cation was required to go abroad, meaning that

the department will have acquired a modern

consultancy company, Econsult, and the

was generating a sharp increase in demand

they had to take time off work and/or have

network of 20 machines (used mostly for

Department of Economics. As a result of

from both the public and private sectors for

access to sufficient financial resources. The

teaching purposes) and some 12 stand-alone

misunderstandings and unforeseen circumstan-

economists trained at graduate and post-

introduction of the new programme at Colombo

machines.

ces, ties between the two were formally sever-

graduate levels. Several universities provided

changed all that, providing an opportunity for

training at graduate level, but only Colombo

those in employment to obtain training in eco-

Another of the project’s most important and

quence of the break is that it has damaged the

offered a postgraduate Diploma in Economic

nomics at MA level (the degree being available

enduring legacies is likely to be the economics

flow of rich case-study materials to the

Development. Although the programme was

on both a part-time and a full-time basis) and

library. Its collection currently stands at some

teaching programmes.

extremely popular from its inception in 1984,

several scholarships to ensure that finance was

7,000 books, 1,000 monographs, 50 journals

it soon proved to lack the human and material

not a deterrent.

(going back 15 years or so), and 5 CD-ROM

Thirdly, the project has failed to develop more

resources to be either sustainable or, more

ed in 1995. One particularly unfortunate conse-

databases. The book collection is widely

linkages between the Department of Econo-

importantly, achieve a significant degree of

In the first couple of years, the number of appli-

acknowledged as the best contemporary

mics and other academic institutions in the

international recognition. The UC-ISS project

cants was fairly low and confined largely to the

collection available in Sri Lanka.

Asian region. The only success on this front is

was set up to fill this lacuna.

government sector. The private sector conside-

the link with the University of Ho Chi Minh City,

red the MA too academic. This led to a major

Staff training

Vietnam, through which some 8 Vietnamese

Project phases

rethink and in 1993, after extensive market

Since its commencement the project has

students were trained at MA level and one at

The cooperative project between the ISS and

research, the programme underwent significant

sponsored the training of 10 members of the

MPhil level in Colombo. Attempted institutional

the UC can be divided into three distinct pha-

restructuring. New courses were introduced

Department of Economics staff at MA level and

contacts with academic institutions in India,

ses. The main aim of the first phase, from 1987

and many of the existing courses were rede-

11 at PhD level. When the project formally

Pakistan, Bangladesh and Nepal have borne

to 1990, was to improve the quality of the exis-

signed to make them more practical and attrac-

ends, the department is expected to have more

less fruit.

ting Diploma in Economic Development and

tive to the private sector. To facilitate the

staff with PhDs than the other 12 university

help the UC develop a new MA in Economics.

change, the UC-ISS project began to encoura-

economics departments in Sri Lanka put

The future

The interim phase, from 1991 to 1993, saw the

ge staff to engage in consultancy activities and

together. Obviously, this build up of staff capa-

Given its considerable human and material

formal commencement of the new (taught) MA.

a consultancy company, Econsult, was set up.

city is one of the guarantors of the future

resource base the UC Department of Econo-

Phase two (1994-1997) witnessed the consoli-

By 1994 Econsult had established itself as the

sustainability of the postgraduate programme

mics is confident that it will be to continue and

dation and further development of the new MA

premier supplier of economic information and

initiated by the project.

build on the postgraduate programmes set up

and the launch, in 1996, of an MPhil/PhD. The

analysis to the private sector. Much of this was

project is currently in phase three (1998-2001),

also used in the development of economic

Shortcomings

ces and ensure maintenance of the existing

during which foreign staff inputs are gradually

teaching modules. Within two years of the

The project has also experienced a number

resource base once the project ends the

being replaced by local ones. In this phase, the

restructuring of the programme, applications

of shortcomings. Fortunately, these have not

department has already created two endow-

focus is on curricula development. One of the

and fees more than doubled, and from 1994

been so numerous or severe as to outweigh its

ment funds, one for scholarships and the other

distinctive features of the Colombo MA is its

onwards most applicants to the programme

achievements. Perhaps the greatest short-

for the library. It is currently using its network of

practical orientation, with a lot of Sri Lankan

came from the rapidly growing private sector.

coming has been its failure to achieve one of

alumni and business contacts to help build up

its main aims, the development of a separate

these funds as quickly as possible.

case study material being used in the actual teaching of courses.

under the UC-ISS project. To supplement finan-

To date some 120 students have been awarded

postgraduate school of economics and

Diplomas under the new MA programme while

management science. This would have provi-

Beyond this the department is also seeking

Achievements

1999 saw the first student graduating under the

ded the existing postgraduate programmes

ways of assisting economics departments at

The principle achievements of the project can

auspices of the MPhil/PhD programme.

with a shared institutional base, giving them

other universities in Sri Lanka by establishing

be clustered under the following three head-

space for development, and provided an

Colombo as a resource and training centre.

ings:

The material base

opportunity for the emergence of complimen-

Several universities have expressed interest in

• The development and running of new

Prior to the start of the UC-ISS project the sum

tary programmes. There are fears that many of

these proposals.

total of ‘computing equipment’ possessed by

the resources currently devoted to sustaining

the Department of Economics was one pocket

the existing postgraduate programmes will

Howard Nicholas is Senior Lecturer in

calculator. Already at that stage, it was realized

somehow be dissipated in the not too distant

Economics at the ISS and can be contacted at

that this was entirely inadequate in the compu-

future, particularly in favour of undergraduate

nicholas@iss.nl

ter-dominated world in which the University

teaching and the servicing of the research

The programmes

would be expected to compete. Hence, from

projects of individual staff members.

As mentioned above, before the advent of the

the outset, substantial financial provision was

new MA in Economics, there were no taught

made for the acquisition and maintenance of an

postgraduate courses; • The provision of a good material base to support the programmes; • The training and upgrading of UC staff.

E V E L O P M E N T

ISSues continued from page 1

Dr Enrique Iglesias pline and good monetary management, and the

particularly among indigenous groups and the

globalization. The oil shock was our first expe-

opening up of economies. We also set about

people living on the outskirts of the cities, are

rience of an external, global phenomenon

reforming the state. It was very basic at the

still urgent and unsolved problems. And they are

having a very deep impact on the region. We

beginning, starting with rolling back the state

a permanent challenge to the political system.

started to see the crisis as the result of three

and moving on to privatization. But we also

The coup this weekend in Ecuador is probably a

areas of tolerance. The first was instability. We

took the first steps towards far-reaching

very good indication that all is not going well in

were intent on enlarging the state, without

decentralization and modernization of the state.

that respect.

essentially inundating the government with

There were two other very important political

In this fourth stage, I think we can move forward

demands it could not meet. And that heralded

developments in this period: the return to

on five fronts:

the beginning of a period of instability, when

democracy, and improvement in the manage-

inflation started to become a problem in the

ment of our economic problems. I think that

region. The second was tolerance of inefficien-

during the period of the Washington consensus

solve its problems at 3.5% growth. The

cy. In the early 1950s, Latin America accounted

ideas again led the facts.

region has to grow at 7% or even more, on a

Firstly, in the 1970s we saw the first signs of

having the resources to pay for it. We were

for 10% of world trade. By now we were down

1 An agenda of growth. Latin American cannot

sustained basis for 10 years.

to 3.5%. The major reason for this decline was

Then we come to the end of 1990s and the start

the excessive use of import substitution. The

of the new millennium. We are now on the

rity here is, of course, the alleviation of pover-

third area of tolerance was inequality. We relied

threshold of the fourth stage, in which we must

ty. This is no easy problem to solve but we

very heavily on the nominalist tradition of in-

ask where we should go from here. The move-

come, with the result that, in trying to benefit the

ment in the past decade to put our house in

poorest end of society, we ended up benefiting

order was very important, and the processes of

of our environment. Thousands of civil society

that the agenda comes from their participa-

the middle or the upper-middle classes.

reform were a move in the right direction.

organisations are working to solve environ-

tion and is not imposed from the top.

2 An agenda for social change. Our major prio-

believe it is achievable. 3 An agenda for sustainability and preservation

Dr Enrique Iglesias

democracy. More democracy means more popular participation, so that the people feel

Nevertheless, at the end of the nineties, we still

mental problems in the whole region.

These three areas of tolerance were at the root

had two major problems in the region: external

Consciousness of the importance of environ-

And, of course, we must not forget that chan-

of the crisis of the system which oil money kept

vulnerability, and social vulnerability. Externally,

mental preservation as part of our develop-

ges must take place at enterprise level if we

at bay for most of the seventies, but which final-

Latin America was still too dependent on the

ment effort is now stronger than ever before.

want the region to have an important and suc-

ly hit in the early 1980s, when the entire system

prices of commodities. We have been unable to

4 An agenda for institutional change. We must

cessful business community. Businesses need

collapsed into the debt crisis. The 1970s were a

move into new dynamic and less vulnerable

think seriously about how to come up with a

a revolution of their own, in order to absorb

time when facts preceded ideas.

areas of trade, so that external dependency

new form of government, one that is not only

technology, to change their management, and

continues to be a problem. In addition, some of

efficient, but which also has the capacity to

to become more effective partners in the deve-

In the 1980s, we entered the third phase, the

our economies are highly dependent on short-

make intelligent interventions based on the

loping process.

return to orthodoxy. In Latin America the major

term capital flows. The crises in Mexico and

market. We must also learn how to generate

challenge was to respond to the debt crisis.

Argentina, and the recent crises elsewhere,

a real dialogue between government and civil

Finally, I would like to answer the question

There was help from outside, with the Baker

have proved that this capital moves in and out

society.

asked by Professor Opschoor in his introduc-

Plan and the Brady Plan, but the region itself

looking for better yields. Secondly, there is

also responded with a lot of responsibility. We

social vulnerability. Despite efforts to reduce

more. Without a sound political system, it is

lopment is possible? Yes, I do believe that

were living under the aegis of a new paradigm,

poverty over the past decade, one in three

very difficult to achieve great objectives in the

development is possible, but as Joseph Stiglitz

under the guise of the Washington consensus,

Latins in Latin America still lives in poverty,

economic and the social field. In Latin

said very recently, it is not inevitable.

which aimed to achieve a return to a minimum

which is a very painful fact. In addition, distribu-

America we still have democratic deficits. The

of stability. It proposed a return to fiscal disci-

tion of income, unemployment and exclusion,

only way to confront them is with more

5 Last but not least, politics count – more and

tion to my address: Do I still believe that deve-

Staff News Congratulations

Welcome new staff

Rob Vos was appointed Professor of Finance on 15 December 1999.

Joop de Wit, Senior Lecturer in Public Policy and Development Management (per 1.02.2000).

Gerrie ter Haar was appointed External Professor in Religion, Human Rights and Social Change.

S. Moodley, Editorial Assistant Development & Change (per 14.02.2000).

The chair was established by the development organizations Cordaid, ICCO and the World

Jos Mooij, Lecturer in Agricultural and Rural Development (per 02.04.2000)

Conference on Religion and Peace. Prof. ter Haar will be giving her inaugural address ‘Rats, cockroaches and people like us: views of humanity and human rights’ at the ISS on 13 April.

Staff leaving

Karin Arts, Lecturer in International Studies, defended her PhD thesis ‘Integrating human rights into

Martin Doornbos, Professor of Political Science (retired per 1.1.2000)

development cooperation: the case of the Lome Convention’ on 23 March 2000. The promoters were

Jan Kees van Donge, Senior Lecturer in Public Policy and Administration (per 31.12.1999)

P.J.I.M. de Waart and N.J. Schrijver of the Free University of Amsterdam.

Geske Dijkstra, Senior Lecturer in Economics of Development (per 1.4.2000)

Jan de Keijser defended his PhD thesis ‘Punishment and purpose: from moral theory to punishment

S. Subedi, Senior Lecturer in International Law and Development (per 31.12.1999)

in action’. The promoters were J.A. Michon (University of Leiden) and J.P.S. Fiselier (University of Groningen).

E V E L O P M E N T

ISSues

Anniversary

Development and Change - 30th Anniversary Paula Bownas In 1969, the ISS launched a new journal, Development and Change, now one of the bestknown and most respected journals in the field of development studies. As 1999 passed into the history books, a celebration was held at the Institute to mark the thirtieth anniversary, not only of the journal itself, but also of the uninterrupted membership of Martin Doornbos

Prof. Jan Glastra van Loon, former ISS Rector, member of the first editorial board (left) with Prof. Martin Doornbos.

on the Editorial Board.

The very first issue of Development and Change carried an

The invitation for the reception mentioned three causes for celeb-

Editor for many years, Martin has been instrumental in shaping

Editorial Statement which expressed the commitment of the

ration: the thirtieth anniversary, the expansion of the journal from

the journal, in setting its high editorial standards, and in suppor-

ISS to an interdisciplinary and problem-oriented approach to

four to five issues per year, and the publication of a special

ting and defending it during occasional times of trouble. Those

development issues. The journal, to be edited at the ISS and

theme issue entitled Forests: Nature, People, Power. Ben White,

who have worked on the journal over the years believe that it

published on its behalf, was to reflect this approach, with an

the present Managing Editor, welcomed the guests and spoke

owes a good deal of its success to the spirit of close cooperation

emphasis on discussion and dialogue. Thirty years on, the jour-

about these three aspects. Living up to its name, the journal has

which has been a hallmark of its Editorial Boards. They very

nal is still going from strength to strength, but these remain its

experienced many developments and changes. It has passed

much appreciate the vital contribution which Martin has made to

guiding principles as it seeks to throw light on a whole range of

through the hands of fourteen Editorial Board members, four

this endeavour.

development issues through critical analysis and informed

Assistant Editors and three publishers, whose art departments

discussion.

have graced it with four different cover designs. It has grown

The Editorial Statement which appeared in Volume 1, Number 1,

almost beyond recognition, from a first volume which comprised

expressed the hope that Development and Change would make

On 24 February 2000, a reception was held at the ISS to

three issues and a total of 306 pages, to Volume 30, published in

a meaningful contribution to the study of development. Thirty

celebrate the completion of thirty successful years of publishing

1999, which filled a total of 888 pages in four issues. In 2000, the

years on, there seems little doubt that this hope has been richly

Development and Change. The current Editorial Board (Martin

journal is expanding still further, to five issues per year. The

fulfilled. Here’s to the next thirty years!

Doornbos, Ashwani Saith and Ben White) were joined by ISS

January issue alone (the special theme issue) accounts for 360

staff members and former colleagues who had worked on the

pages – more than the whole first volume from 1969! The journal

journal in the past, including Jan Glastra van Loon, former ISS

is making steady progress in a difficult market place, is available

Rector and member of the founding Editorial Board, Jean

online as well as in print, and even boasts its own book series, as

The contents of the latest number of Development & Change can

Sanders, the first Assistant Editor, and other former Editorial

Blackwell also publishes Development and Change special

be found on the backpage.

Board members. The staff of the journal’s publisher, Blackwell,

theme issues through its books division.

conveyed their congratulations in the form of cards and cham-

Ben then handed over to fellow Editorial Board member Ashwani

pagne, while current ISS Rector Hans Opschoor sent a message

Saith, who revealed the fourth, and until that moment unannoun-

of congratulations, noting the contribution which Development

ced, reason for the celebration – thirty years involvement with the

and Change makes to keeping the ISS on ‘mental maps’ around

journal by Martin Doornbos. As member of the Editorial Board for

the world.

the entire life of Development and Change, and as Managing

Paula Bownas is Assistant Editor of Development and Change

CERES PhD Summer School at the ISS: 28-30 June 2000 As in previous years, CERES is organizing a

taken place in particular during the past two

Summer School for its PhD students, at which

decades in developing and transitional coun-

they can present the progress of their work, and

tries. These transformations have become

participate in advanced tutorial sessions and in

structural in nature, of which some aspects are

‘master classes’ with challenging academic

prominent:

divides, in particular intra-state conflicts, with

days (28-30 June 2000), with the following

contributions on the main conference themes

• rapid withdrawal of the state from direct

vast dimensions and a dramatic human

dynamics. Each day will focus on a main sub-

impact.

theme, combining the research areas and inte-

(by senior CERES researchers and other invited

intervention in economic development, with

keynote speakers). This year the Summer

markets and private agents becoming the

School is being organized by the ISS and will

main drivers of the economy.

• a greater role for civil society organizations

the limitations of the market-based model of

(and local institutions), playing a fundamental

development; and the need for integral attention

role in development processes.

to sustainable livelihoods and resource use.

• erupting conflicts along ethnic and religious

The CERES Summer School will run over three

• expanding strains between economic growth

rests of at least 2 CERES Working Programmes.

and environmental degradation, with growing

The mornings sessions are plenary, with extern-

provide an excellent opportunity for all CERES

• diminishing powers for nation-states in view

externalities and social costs that are not

ally invited keynote speakers, senior CERES

Working Programmes (PhD candidates jointly

of the increased transnationalization of the

internalized by private actors (or markets),

researchers, and poster presentations by PhD

with senior researchers) to present recent work

economies, and the power of large private

giving rise to grave concern on sustainable

candidates. The afternoon sessions are split

international conglomerates.

resource use.

into parallel sessions run by the representatives

and discuss advances in research. It will also provide a platform function for networking. The main theme of the CERES Summer School 2000 is Structural Transformation and

• overthrow of totalitarian regimes and the

from the Working Programme Coordinating

(re)introduction and gradual strengthening of

Some of these structural changes can be defi-

Teams. During these parallel workshops, it is

democratic political systems,

nitely welcomed from a human development

expected that 3-4 junior researchers will present

• increased social disintegration & exclusion,

perspective, while others, on the contrary,

a paper (mostly a draft chapter of their thesis),

Development. This broad theme will provide an

and the loss of socio-cultural identity.

produce great concern and have set in motion

while one of their supervisors will present a

opportunity to reflect on the major, and some-

• continued livelihood and food insecurity,

questions of rethinking the role of the state in

comment on the presentation.

times dramatic, socioeconomic and political

increased differentiation and gender-

development; that of the international commu-

Further information can be obtained at

changes (‘adjustment and transition’), that have

inequality.

nity in conflict prevention and resolution;

PhD@iss.nl

E V E L O P M E N T

ISSues

ISS Working Papers can be purchased or ordered from: The Bookshop P.O. Box 29776 2502 LT The Hague The Netherlands

Refresher courses

Working Papers

‘ASESD Accounting for Sustainable Economic and Social

ISS WORKING PAPERS

Development: Methods and Applications for Policy Analysis

GENERAL SERIES • ISSN 0921-0210

with Special Reference to Latin America’

306

Location: Quito, Ecuador

Telefax: 31 70 4260799 For a complete list of Working Papers see the ISS website.

Peter Waterman International Labour’s Y2K Problem: a debate, a discussion and a dialogue (A Contribution to the ILO/ICFTU Conference on Organised Labour in the 21st Century) (November 1999).

Date: September 2000

307

Nahda Sh’hada Gender and Politics in Palestine: Discourse Analysis of the Palestinian Authority & Islamists

Publications

Convenor: J.V. Alarcon

(December 1999).

308 ‘Engendering Democracy, Human Rights and Good

Yang Guang Facing Unemployment: Urban Layoffs and the Way Out in Post-Reform China (1993-1999). an Empirical and Theoretical Analysis (December 1999)

Governance in South and South East Asia’ Location: Lahore, Pakistan

2000

Date: October 2000

309

Veronica Bayangos A Real Monetary Conditions Index for the Philippines: Is it Useful? (January 2000)

Convenor: Dr S.E. Wieringa

310

Tatiana Mora Poverty matters, but to what extent? Perceptions of poverty through the literary discourse in Costa Rica

‘Gendered Trust: Resources and the Reconstruction of Rural

311

Rob Vos Economic Liberalization, Adjustment, Distribution and Poverty in Ecuador, 1988-98 (February 2000)

312

Christóbal Kay Conflict an violence in rural Latin America (February 2000)

313

Yang Shengwan Who Takes Care of the Rural Elderly? Analysis of Family Arrangement for Old-Age Security in Rural

(February 2000) Livelihoods in Post-conflict Situations in Africa’ Location: Mbarara, Uganda Date: September 2000

China (February 2000)

Convenor: Dr B. O’Laughlin

Summer School Employment and Human Resources

The field of labour market interventions is evolving rapidly. Often

structured training, will be completed in a week and a half. The

The creation of quality employment for their population is one of

the middle and higher level staff of agencies concerned with

second and larger part, taking up 70% of the programme, will

the most important and often challenging objectives of both

employment and human resources do not find adequate time to

consist of tailor-made training, aimed at the specific interests of

industrialized and developing countries alike. Many countries

keep abreast of new developments. There is a need for short,

the participants.

face high levels of unemployment and underemployment and

intensive and practical training in this area for practitioners who

The course is directed at a variety of practitioners in the areas of

low levels of productivity. These are further aggravated in develo-

cannot afford to leave their jobs for a longer period training pro-

employment promotion and human resource development.

ping countries and countries in transition by economic restructu-

gramme.

For further information please contact A. Abdelkarim

ring programmes. All this requires active labour market policies

To fill this gap the ISS is organizing a five-week summer school,

(abdelkarim@iss.nl).

(influencing both the demand and supply sides), together with

the Employment and Human Resource Summer Programme.

appropriate instruments and institutions to implement them.

The programme will consist of two parts. The first, based on

The journal Development and Change is published five times a year by Blackwell Publishers (Oxford, UK) on behalf of the Institute of Social Studies. For more information, see the ISS web site, or e-mail us at d&c@iss.nl. Available online at http://www.blackwellpublishers.co.uk/online

Development ISSues is published three times a year by: Institute of Social Studies PO Box 29776 2502 LT The Hague The Netherlands Tel: + 31 (0)70 4260 443 or 4260 525 Fax: + 31 (0)70 4260 799 ISS website: www.iss.nl E-mail: DevISSues@iss.nl Editors: René Bekius, Andy Brown Editorial assistant: Karen Shaw Editorial Board: Karin Arts, Erhard Berner, Max Spoor, Peter de Valk, Alvaro Mauricia Torres Ramirez (Scholas) Design and Production: Seinen & v. Leeuwen

Material from Development ISSues may be reproduced or adapted without permission, provided it is not distributed for profit and is attributed to the original author(s), Development ISSues and the Institute of Social Studies. Unless otherwise stated, all photographs are by courtesy of the

Volume 31

Number 1

January 2000

SPECIAL ISSUE: EDITORS:

FORESTS: NATURE, PEOPLE, POWER MARTIN DOORNBOS, ASHWANI SAITH AND BEN WHITE

JIN SATO

People in Between: Conversion and Conservation of Forest Lands in Thailand

MARTIN DOORNBOS, ASHWANI SAITH, BEN WHITE

Forest Lives and Struggles: An Introduction

PAUL T. COHEN

Resettlement, Opium and Labour Dependence: Akha–Tai Relations in Northern Laos

t n e m p o l e v e e g D n a h C d n a

ANJA NYGREN

Development Discourses and Peasant–Forest Relations: Natural Resource Utilization as Social Process

Environmentalists, Rubber Tappers and KATRINA BROWN AND SÉRGIO ROSENDO Empowerment: The Politics and Economics of Extractive Reserves RICHARD GAULD

Maintaining Centralized Control in Commu nity-based Forestry: Policy Construction in the Philippines

MELISSA LEACH AND Fashioned Forest Paths, Occluded Histories? International Environmental Analysis in West JAMES FAIRHEAD African Locales

NANDINI SUNDAR

K. SIVARAMAKRISHNAN State Sciences and Development Histories: Encoding Local Forestry Knowledge in Bengal

Unpacking the ‘Joint’ in Joint Forest Management

DAN KLOOSTER

Community Forestry and Tree Theft in Mexico: Resistance or Complicity in Conservation?

JOHN F. MCCARTHY The Changing Regime: Forest Property and Reformasi in Indonesia

EMILY E. HARWELL

Remote Sensibilities: Discourses of Technology and the Making of Indonesia’s Natural Disaster

JOHN KNIGHT

From Timber to Tourism? Recommoditizing the Japanese Forest

projects concerned. ISSN: 1566-4821 The views expressed are those of the individual authors and do not necessarily reflect those of the Institute.

FRANÇOIS EKOKO

Balancing Politics, Economics and Conservation: The Case of the Cameroon Forestry Law Reform