DevISSues volume 3, number 2, August 2001

Institute of Social Studies

D

E V E L O P M E N T

ISSues

Volume 3, number 2, July/August 2001

CONTENTS

Inside this issue:

Local Government Transformation in South Africa 2

Page

New Msc Programme

Page

Wim Naudé

3

Opening New Phd Programme

Page

4

Nigeria: Religon and Human Rights Gerrie ter Haar Page

7

Rural Women’s Groups Helen Hambly Odame

Page

8

IE and Immigration Jan Nederveen Pieterse

Page

A radically new local government system was introduced in South Africa following municipal elections on 5 December 2000. While the expectations of the new system to further economic development are high, the tensions that the new municipalities will have to manage are often contradictory in nature.

This article argues that the manner in which municipalities manage these contradictory forces will determine the future patterns of local and regional economic development in South Africa. 1

4

Japan: Growth and the Environment Hiroyuki Nakanishi Page

Implications for Regional and Local Economic Development

8

The new system of local government

Since 1994 the local government

Councils (TRCs) and Transitional

The new system of local govern-

came into effect on 6 December 2000

transition process in South Africa has

Representative Councils (TREPCs) in

ment in South Africa

following the first fully democratic

been given a very strong legal boost

rural areas. District Councils (DCs)

The existence of municipalities as

local government elections. The elec-

through three pieces of legislation.

were also established as a higher

‘developmental local government’ is

tions marked the completion of the

The Local Government Transition Act

administrative level in non-metropoli-

contained in section 152 of the 1996

extended period of local government

(LGTA) explicitly mapped out three

tan areas.

South African Constitution. Section

transformation that South Africa

phases of transition for local govern-

embarked on in 1994. Even after six

ment in South Africa: a pre-interim

The second piece of legislation was

government the right to an equitable

years it may be argued that the trans-

phase (1993-1995), an interim phase

the Development Facilitation Act. The

share of national government reve-

formation is not yet really complete.

(1995-1999) and a final phase (1999

DFA coined the term ‘developmental

nue. In addition, sections 24 and 25 of

Many municipal administrations still

to the December 2000 elections). In

local government’ to indicate a break

the South African Bill of Rights have

carry with them the burden of the

the interim phase, local government

with the past. Developmental local

fundamental implications for local

‘mindset’ of apartheid, characterized

consisted of 843 municipal institu-

government is local government with

development, stating that everyone

by an excessive emphasis on top-

tions, which differed according to

a special constitutional mandate to

has the right to ‘an environment that

down physical planning, lack of con-

location. In metropolitan areas there

foster development. The Demarcation

is not harmful to their health or well-

sultation, outdated information tech-

was a two-tiered system. In non-

Act has reduced the number of muni-

being’ and to ‘access to sufficient

nology, cumbersome bureaucratic

metropolitan areas, there were

cipalities from 843 to 284. This radical

food and water’.

procedures and few concerns with

Transitional Local Councils (TLCs) in

change was largely driven by econo-

economic development.

urban areas and Transitional Rural

mies of scale imperatives.

229 of the Constitution gives local

continued on page 10

i-Face: ICT for the poor

50 Years of the ISS Page

9

Next year, the Institute of Social Studies will be celebrating © ISS

The Sardar Sarovar Project in India Ranjit Dwivedi

its 50th Anniversary. To commemorate this milestone, Development ISSues is running a series of articles by prominent figures in the Institute’s history. In the last

As an institute for advanced

issue, the first Secretary of the Institute Frits Hondius international education and

described the first ten years of the ISS. In the second artiresearch, the ISS generates,

cle in the series, to be found on page 6, Professor Louis accumulates and transfers

Emmerij describes his time as Rector of the Institute, from

Dies Natalis 1980

knowledge and know-how on

1976 to 1986. Since leaving the Institute Professor Emmerij has held many international positions and is currently human aspects of economic

Co-director of the UN Intellectual History Project, an independent international project on the history of ideas launched and social change, with a focus

by the United Nations Family of Organizations. on development and transition.

The ISS is a leading centre in this field.

Development ISSues is also available online on the ISS website at www.iss.nl Between 23 February and 5 July 2001, 1,592 people visited the ISS website

1

D

E V E L O P M E N T

ISSues From the Executive Board At the beginning of this year, just before I

Quantitatively, the structures providing

took up my second term as Rector of the

higher education and/or using the human

upgrading) knowledge centres in these

gence in perception and the need to con-

Institute, I spent some time in southern

resources it generates in developing coun-

countries.

textualize analysis of social phenomena.

Africa (Botswana, Namibia, South Africa

tries will be unable to meet rising and chan-

Institutional capacity development will

They have even developed capabilities in

and Tanzania), for a number of reasons.

ging demand. Qualitatively, there are deep

definitely expand. Meanwhile, there is a

handling these. They also have learned to

One was to visit projects and networks in

concerns over the impacts of large numbers

continuing demand for human resource

operate in a multidisciplinary or even trans-

which the ISS is involved, and representa-

of entrants and dwindling financial resour-

oriented international education, especially

disciplinary fashion. And although thinking

tives of institutes of higher education and

ces. There are problems with ensuring

at the level of specialized Masters degrees

about the nature and content of develop-

research, and other organizations with an

quality, relevance and access. The situation

and, generally, for PhD training.

ment in the various regions of the world is

interest in what international education

in Africa clearly shows these tendencies.

worldwide has on offer. My concern was to

• setting up (including maintenance and

positive reputation – in understanding diver-

an activity to be left largely to academic Institutes like the ISS have to prepare them-

institutions located in these regions, North-

find out more about how these actual or

Several responses are visible on the

selves for longer-term involvement in twin-

based centres like the ISS may be suited to

potential partners think that the need or

ground. For instance, in southern Africa, the

ning (or other network) arrangements in

provide the comparative setting and the

demand for the services of institutes such

number of campuses is expanding, per

order to help strengthen and build up

knowledge base for testing out new ideas

as the ISS is likely to evolve over the next

country and often even per university. There

knowledge gathering, knowledge proces-

by scholars from Southern institutions. My

15 years or so. I backed up these encoun-

is a steady growth in efforts to expand dis-

sing and knowledge disseminating institu-

trip through Africa showed that centres and

ters by going through a pile of documents

tance-learning facilities. Graduate schools

tions. They will continue to be useful if they

programmes focusing on development

on the demand for knowledge and know-

are emerging, and there are clear attempts

themselves are centres of excellence in par-

issues are indeed popping up - and rightly

how in developing countries, especially in

to coordinate this trend to some degree, in

ticular fields of study. At the same time, the

so - where they are needed most: in deve-

Africa. That proved to be an illuminating

order to avoid costly duplication. There are

effects of globalization clearly indicate that

loping countries. Still, places like the ISS

experience.

moves to create centres and/or networks of

such institutes must radically change in

can be of service - for a very long time to

excellence. But at the same time it is clear

many ways, including their modes of deli-

come - as facilitators/conduits for institutes

Over the coming decades, the level of acti-

that these efforts to improve the higher edu-

very. Distance learning will to a large degree

in developing countries in seeking much

vity in higher education will continue to rise

cation systems in many developing coun-

replace classical forms of delivering educa-

needed enhanced access to and interaction

globally, and particularly in developing

tries and regions are insufficient to meet

tion. Far more modularized programmes

with global knowledge centres (e.g. through

countries. International higher education is

aggregated and changing needs.

(with perhaps shorter, cumulative blocks)

exchange arrangements, visiting scholar-

will emerge, with students studying at more

ships, etc). After all, the dynamics of aca-

expected to grow, too. There is a great need for capacity creation, development

Development-oriented international educa-

than one institute. Parts of courses will be

demic and scientific progress will make

and maintenance, especially in Africa. For a

tion by institutes based in the North is

presented in the North, parts in the South,

knowledge acquisition a highly biased,

variety of reasons, the gap between rich

essentially involved in activities at two

parts through distance learning.

asymmetric activity – something develop-

and poor countries, in terms of access to

levels:

knowledge and the potential to generate it,

• human resource development (training of

ment-oriented international education will There will continue to be a rationale for spe-

is growing. This is likely to continue unless

individuals, often professionals, from

cialized institutes for development studies.

major programmes are put in place to

developing countries and countries in

Most certainly, development-oriented insti-

address these asymmetries.

transition);

tutes have gained experience - and even a

always want to curb.

Hans Opschoor, Rector of the ISS

New ISS-VU-WU Programme in Development Economics The Institute of Social Studies, Vrije

successful careers in international

reduction and the environment;

Preparations for launching the pro-

The tuition fee for the programme is

Universiteit Amsterdam and Wage-

organizations, government, NGOs or

employment, labour markets and

gramme are well underway and initial

10,000 euro and current living expen-

ningen University have recently en-

private businesses with interests in

social policies; farms, firms and liveli-

marketing efforts have generated

ses in the Netherlands are estimated

tered into an agreement to offer a

developing countries.

hood strategies; and institutions and

substantial interest. Interested

at approximately 950 euro a month.

development policies. The final com-

readers are encouraged to apply, and

The fee for the pre-entry courses is

Master of Science degree in Development Economics. The one-year pro-

A variety of teaching methods inclu-

ponent consists of a supervised the-

to inform other potential students

2,300 euro. Although students are

gramme is scheduled to commence

ding lectures, analysis of case stu-

sis. The thesis provides a stage for

about the new programme. Additional

expected to finance themselves, the

in January 2002 and will pool the

dies, computer-based workshops,

students to display their ability at

information about admission require-

course administrator can provide

resources of the three institutes.

tutorials and policy seminars will be

combining economic theory with

ments is provided below.

assistance in seeking fellowships.

The programme is intended for stu-

Application forms and further details

used to deliver a three-part program-

quantitative methods to analyse topi-

The initiative is motivated by a desire

me. The first component will consist

cal issues.

to meet the perceived demand for a

of core courses in microeconomics,

dents who have a Bachelors degree

may be obtained by visiting the

programme in Development Econo-

macroeconomics and econometrics

On completing the programme, stu-

in economics or a related discipline

appropriate pages of the ISS web site

mics that combines academic know-

and will be geared towards establis-

dents should have a strong grasp of

and are proficient in English (a TOEFL

at www.iss.nl/mscdevecon/,

ledge with the applied skills required

hing a firm theoretical foundation.

the microeconomic, macroeconomic

score of at least 550). Results from a

or by contacting Josh van Berkel at

to understand and analyse issues

This is followed by a specialization

and international aspects of econo-

recent Graduate Record Examination

mscdevecon@iss.nl

facing developing countries. This

component, in which students may

mic development, expertise at using

are also required. Students with insuf-

or Arjun Bedi at bedi@iss.nl

combined effort promises to deliver

choose three courses from a variety

modern tools for quantitative econo-

ficient preparation in economics may

an innovative programme that should

of options. The specializations on

mic policy analysis and research,

attend a set of pre-entry courses that

provide students with the necessary

offer include: international finance

and the ability to critically assess

have been designed to provide the

tools to become accomplished

and trade; macroeconomic policies

international and national develop-

required background.

economic analysts and to launch

and financial reforms; growth, poverty

ment policies.

2

D

E V E L O P M E N T

ISSues Opening PhD Programme 2001

Widening Global Gaps - Action or Inaction at the United Nations ‘Even if you do not know with precision where you are going, you can still move forward’.

With these words Professor Louis Emmerij established a common link between the setting up of the ISS PhD Programme and the uneasy history of the United Nations. Professor Emmerij, a former ISS Rector whose reminiscences of his time at the Institute can be found on page 6, was speaking at the opening of the 2001 PhD Programme at the ISS on 8 March.

Professor Louis Emmerij

Before Professor Emmerij took the floor, the

me had eventually been recognized in 1992.

a strong mandate, and many of the world con-

Who are the realists?

Chair of the PhD Committee, Professor Ashwani

Professor Emmerij continued with this theme of

ferences in the 1970s and 1980s made further

A lively discussion followed Professor Emmerij’s

Saith, said a few words of introduction. He wel-

‘going ahead even if you do not know exactly

commitments towards closing the gaps. In the

address, with most contributors questioning his

comed the seven new PhD candidates present

where you are going’ in reviewing the UN’s

early 1980s, however, there was what Professor

optimism, particularly the idea of a global

and remarked how fitting it was, on International

response to widening global gaps. Using figures

Emmerij calls a ‘paradigm shift’, which jettiso-

government. In response, the former Rector

Women’s Day, that all of them were women. The

and selected excerpts from his official address,

ned full employment and economic growth in

once again employed the judo trick, accusing

two other new candidates, both men, were un-

he made an impassioned, optimistic and provo-

favour of lowering inflation and deficits. The UN

the critics themselves of being utopian. To those

able to attend the opening in person. Professor

cative plea for an equivalent of the state at glo-

took a back seat to the stabilization and adjust-

who suggested that the role of government was

Saith also said how delighted he was that Louis

bal level as a countervailing power to the private

ment policies of the Bretton Woods Institutions.

to provide the enabling conditions for a private

Emmerij was to give the main address, not only

sector in the current globalizing power. He

It was UNICEF that sparked off the response

sector which - like Nike - was self-regulating, he

because it was one way of making sure that

began his argument with a barrage of facts to

with its 1987 report ‘Adjustment with a human

said that no one allowed a completely free hand

people would come to the opening, but also

show how global gaps, particularly in income

face’, which tried to place basic needs such as

would regulate themselves voluntarily. We need

because it was during his time as Rector that

distribution, continue to widen. Excluding what

nutrition, health and education back at the top

a set of international laws to make sure they do

of the agenda. This was followed in the 1990s

it. He suggested to an old adversary, who pro-

by the Human Development Reports, the UNC-

posed that inequalities were the consequence

TAD Trade and Development Reports and the

of time lags in the process of liberalization and

UNRISD reports, including the seminal ‘States

that it would all balance out in the end, that he

in Disarray’ from 1995.

should take a look at China and the countries of

the PhD programme had been set up.

Professor Saith gave a brief outline of the ISS

The top 1% of the world population

PhD Programme, describing how - after a long struggle - it had been recognized as equivalent

now has a full percentage point

to a Dutch PhD in 1992. He said that there had been a gradual shift in the gender balance in

East Asia. These were exactly the countries that more income

favour of women, and urged the Institute to be more sensitive to the difficulties facing particu-

than the bottom 50%.

larly female candidates from developing countries. The programme, he said, could be more

These reports underlined the weaknesses of

did not blindly follow the liberalization trend.

national and international policies. They showed

They adopted balanced policies with a clear

that the industrial countries, while preaching

role for government and they were a success.

liberalization to the rest of the world, have been

To those who doubted that a global government

very slow in liberalizing their own economies.

could ever be achieved because of US/G7

flexible and the ISS could be more active in a

he called ‘the China syndrome’, the population

They denounced the slow rate of debt relief and

opposition, he said that we have to start

practical sense, helping to speed up visa appli-

living on less than a dollar a day - the World

declining levels of aid and foreign direct invest-

somewhere. The proposed Economic Security

cations, particularly for children.

Bank definition of poverty - has risen every-

ment to the poorest countries. The Least

Council was a first step. One day the rest would

where, the growth in GDP per capita of develo-

Developed Countries in particular are increa-

follow. The world, he said, is makeable and

The judo trick

ping countries as a whole is 0.6% compared to

singly marginalized. They have opened up their

breakable. The world can be changed. It is

Professor Emmerij started by saying that he

2% in the industrial countries, and income in-

economies but the gap has widened. This is a

being changed every day. Yes, he conceded

was not going to deliver his scheduled address,

equality is rising in two-thirds of countries.

failure of the international system.

finally, he was being a little unrealistic, but soon

entitled ‘Widening Global Gaps? Action or

China itself is the major exception to this trend,

Inaction at the United Nations’. Anyone who

with 8% per capita GDP growth in the 1980s

Professor Emmerij concluded by saying that the

stayed to the bitter end would receive a printed

and 1990s. To illustrate how much inequality

UN - and the World Bank, too, though a little

copy which they could take home and read at

gaps are increasing Professor Emmerij quoted

more tentatively - is moving slowly towards a

The full text of Professor Emmerij’s address

their leisure. He went on to give his account of

the World Bank’s Branko Milanovic, who has

new paradigm. The reports are more than just

‘Widening Global Gaps? Action or Inaction and

how the PhD Programme got started. He recal-

shown that between 1988 and 1993, the bot-

fine words, impotent in the face of political

the United Nations’ can be obtained from the

led his realization as Rector that since - as was

tom 50% of the world population went down

action by the G7 and the private sector. Ideas

ISS at promotions@iss.nl

the case at the time - the government did not

from 9.6 to 8.5% of world income, while the top

matter and nothing changes faster and more

recognize the ISS Masters degrees, he was free

1% went from 9.3 to 9.5%. In other words, the

suddenly than current orthodoxy. The UN has

to award whatever degrees he wanted, inclu-

top 1% now has a full percentage point more

been more on target in terms of longer-term

ding PhDs. This he called the ‘judo trick’, tur-

than the bottom 50%.

changes in environment, gender, human rights

ning the whole thing around. He said that he

he would be overtaken by the hordes and left at the roadside.

and conflict prevention than many critics be-

and the ISS staff who did the ‘dirty work’ in get-

Where has the UN been in all this?

lieve. Another example, he said, of moving for-

ting the programme off the ground did not know

As a global system, the United Nations is excel-

ward even if you do not know with precision

if it would be a success or not, but that they

lently placed to tackle the problem of growing

where you are going.

went ahead and did it anyway. And, as

global disparities. With human rights and pover-

Professor Saith had already said, the program-

ty reduction enshrined in the UN Charter, it has

3

D

E V E L O P M E N T

ISSues © René hehemann

Japan: High Economic Growth and Environmental Problems Hiroyuki Nakanishi Japan achieved high economic growth between 1955 and 1973. It was especially rapid in the 1960s, when the rate of average economic real growth was 11.1%, far higher than that of any other advanced countries at the time. Although South Korea, China and other Asian countries have also experienced high growth since the 1970s, Japan was the first country in the region achieve it. But that success has not brought only positive changes.

High economic growth has changed

Minamata - a coastal town in the pre-

backing of the Japanese association

1967. Eventually, in the face of these

the central government also instiga-

our lifestyle and brought rapid impro-

fecture of Kumamoto, in the north-

of chemical industries. The central

two outbreaks, the welfare ministry

ted legislation relating to environmen-

vements in our quality of life. Almost

west of Kyusyu, one of Japan’s four

government, too, did not accept the

announced officially that Minamata

tal problems.

every household, even in the rural

major islands - ran a report on a di-

hypothesis of the university resear-

disease was caused by the methyl

areas, has at least one car and a

sease that paralysed victim’s extre-

chers until 1968, twelve years after

mercury contained in the plant efflu-

Although about thirty years have

range of electric appliances. But

mities and was eventually fatal. At

the disease had first been reported.

ents. Several days after the state-

passed since that time, and the

growth has also had less favourable

first the company, the Chisso Corpo-

Meanwhile, fishermen who had been

ment, the president of the Chisso

scope of environmental problems

effects. Large-scale migration from

ration, denied allegations that there

exposed to the risks of the disease

Corporation visited the victim’s fami-

has expanded enormously, the pro-

rural to urban areas has caused

was any connection between efflu-

began to protest against the compa-

lies to apologize. Nevertheless, a

blem remains of how to achieve eco-

serious housing problems and traffic

ents from their plant and the disease.

ny. At first the protest movement was

group of 29 households affected by

nomic growth without causing indus-

congestion. In this article I would like

After a three-year investigation, how-

small and sometimes radical. Much

the disease decided to sue the com-

trial pollution. As the structure of

to look at another of the less positive

ever, researchers at Kumamoto

effort was made to inform the public

pany for damages. The case was

Japanese industry has changed,

effects of economic growth - environ-

University medical faculty established

of the true cause of the disease.

heard at Kumamoto district court in

many factories have moved to

mental pollution.

that what is now known throughout

There were repeated negotiations

1969. In September 1971 the courts

foreign countries. As a result, indus-

the world as Minamata Disease was

between victims and the company

considering the cases in Niigata ruled

trial pollution has decreased in

During the 1960s and early 1970s -

caused by methyl mercury attacking

on compensation, but it was difficult

in favour of the victims. In October

Japan. But we are now facing envi-

the period of highest growth - there

the central nervous system. Methyl

to reach a consensus.

1972, the first damages were awar-

ronmental problems on a global

were four major cases of environ-

mercury was one of the substances

ded to victims in Kumamoto prefec-

scale.

mental pollution, all of which are well-

discharged by the plant into Mina-

Second outbreak

ture. Around this same time two

known to the people of Japan today.

mata Bay. Anyone eating fish caught

Then, in 1965, there was a second

other judgements on major environ-

Professor Hiroyuki Nakanishi is

Here I would like to focus on one of

in the bay was at risk of contracting

outbreak of the Minamata disease in

mental incidents were also issued in

visiting the ISS from Tsuru University,

them - the serious consequences of

the disease.

another area, in the prefecture of

favour of the claimants. Following

Japan. He can be contacted at

Niigata. This, too, was caused by

these rulings, new regional govern-

nakanishi@iss.nl or

The chemical company continued to

effluents from a plant owned by the

ments in Tokyo, Osaka and else-

nakanishi@tsuru.ac.jp

deny the connection between the

Chisso Corporation. The victims took

where introduced policies to prevent

effluents and the disease, with the

the company to the district court in

damage caused by pollution. Then

water pollution caused by a large chemical company.

In 1956, a local newspaper in

Religion and Human Rights in Nigeria Gerrie ter Haar The discussion on religion and human rights in Nigeria is at present entirely dominated by the controversy sparked off by the decision of some states to introduce new shari’a laws. Although new legislation has so far been introduced in only a few northern states, others have taken steps to follow in due

tiple rape, was sentenced to 180 strokes of the

More than ever, the issue of shari’a cannot be

cane. The sentence was postponed and car-

seen as a purely religious issue, as it is closely

ried out after delivery of the baby.

linked with political interests and the distribution of power, notably between the north and

In general, there is a widespread fear among

south of the country. Put crudely, the Christian

opponents of shari’a law that it is the poor and

south considers itself under the yoke of the

least powerful who will suffer its consequen-

Muslim north, where the real power is wielded.

ces. Yet, its introduction has met with wide

This image has been informed by a history of

The first state was Zamfara, where a new sha-

several cases of flogging for offences such as

popular support which some, not without rea-

jihads from the north, notably since the time of

ri’a Penal Code came into force in January

alcohol consumption and sexual offences have

son, have ascribed to the conditions prevailing

the great Muslim reformer Usman dan Fodio

2000. As a result, corporal punishments have

also been reported. In case of the latter,

in the north. Zamfara, for example, is one of

(1754-1817). Dan Fodio’s jihad was not exclu-

been carried out which violate both constitu-

women and girls are most vulnerable to harsh

the poorest and most underdeveloped states

sively directed against non-Muslims, but pri-

tional obligations and universal standards of

punishments, as it is often difficult for them to

of the Nigerian Federation, where morality has

marily aimed at reforming a lax Islam by intro-

human rights. There is one reported case of

prove their innocence. A seventeen-year old

generally been undermined by greedy leaders.

ducing shari’a law. The issue of shari’a, there-

amputation as punishment for theft, while

girl, who became pregnant allegedly after mul-

course.

4

fore, has a long history in Nigeria. It is impor-

>

D

E V E L O P M E N T

ISSues

Alumni News

Alumni News

Alumni News is a new regular feature in Development ISSues, in which we aim to present profiles on ISS alumni, or other interesting

ISS Alumnus Imprisoned Chua Tian Chang (Tian Chua), an ISS alumnus from Malaysia, has been detained under the infamous Internal Security Act (ISA).

He has been in detention since 10 April 2001.

articles by or relating to alumni. If you are an ISS alumnus/alumna The ISA allows the government to detain a person without trial for any length

and would like to contribute to Alumni News in some way, please

of time. Tian Chua is one of a group of ten people currently detained under the

contact the editors at the address shown on the back page.

ISA. They are deemed to be a threat to the nation’s security, although no evidence has been provided to support the allegations.

A significant segment of the Malaysian public knows that the real reason for their arrest is political.

Profile

Given the economic downturn and declining support for Prime Minister Mahatir, the government is

We start in this issue with a profile of

afraid that people may be mobilized against it.

Chinese student Dong Weizhen, who joined the ISS Women and Development

Some of the ten who have been detained are known as political activists. Most are leaders or

Programme in 1994. She is currently stu-

members of the National Justice Party, currently led by Dr Wan Azizah Ismail, wife of former

dying at the University of Toronto.

Deputy Prime Minister, Anwar Ibrahim. The latter is now serving a 15-year jail term on what are obviously trumped-up charges. Anwar was perceived as a threat to Prime Minister Mahatir’s aut-

Name: Most of my ISS friends call me by my

horitarian rule.

surname, Dong. At home, I am called Kitten –

Suggestions for change: If I could think of

Mao in Chinese.

anything to make the Institute even better,

Tian Chua is Vice President of the National Justice Party, which he has helped develop into a poli-

Study year: I joined the beautiful W&D in 1994.

I would like MA students to have some free

tical force. He was an MA student in Employment and Labour Studies at the ISS, from where he

My super thesis supervisors Thanh-Dam and

choice in selecting their courses. It would

graduated 1995. His sentence is a blow to democracy. We urge you to call for his immediate and

Rachel guided me in winning the best research

also be good to give students slightly longer

unconditional release from imprisonment. You can do so by sending an e-mail to the Prime-

paper prize, which made me the happiest parti-

recesses.

Minister’s Office at ppm@smpke.jpm.my or by sending a letter to the Malaysian embassy in your

cipant in our batch.

Social environment: I would like to encourage

country.

Work experience: After the ISS, I worked in

new ISS students, and Chinese students in

two Dutch government sponsored projects in

particular, to make more friends with people

China. Then, I joined the University of Toronto

from other cultures, and to try to speak out and

In Memoriam Evelyn Zinanga

for further study.

not shy away from any debate. Silence is not

Alumna ISS Women and Development Programme

The effects of my time at the ISS: I am truly

golden in the academic world.

amazed how I changed from being passive

Current interests: I am particularly interested

We, the staff, participants and alumni of the Women and Development

and reserved to being critical and expressive

in issues concerning China’s socioeconomic

Programme were deeply saddened to hear of the death of our dear

after my ISS training. When I tutor undergradu-

development. My strength is in policy analysis

colleague Evelyn Zinanga. Evelyn is remembered by all of us for her

ate students in large classes, and when I pre-

and my passion is for teaching and research.

courage, commitment and professionalism. Most important of all, her

sent my papers at international conferences,

Would you like to know which Chinese writer

humour, warmth and modesty had helped bind friends and colleagues together and

I feel grateful to the Institute.

influenced my life the most? I can tell you with-

I also thank Holland for teaching me how to

out a second thought: Mao Zedong.

deal with cultural shocks.

make the learning process in her presence a mutually rewarding one. We hope that her spirit will continue to guide all of us in our work.

Dr Thanh-Dam Truong

I really enjoyed the ISS’s multiculturalism,

Dong Weizhen can be contacted at

the warmth of the staff and the eye-opening

wdong@chass.utoronto.ca or

lectures.

weizhen.dong@utoronto.ca

To keep our alumni address database up to date we would ask you to inform us if you change your email address. Please send any changes to: DevISSues@iss.nl

Religion and Human Rights in Nigeria Religion and Human Rights in Nigeria tant to observe that its introduction is not new in itself; what is

and amputation. Although the application of shari’a is very preci-

stipulate the same. This rules out any corporal punishment as

new is the way in which it is currently applied, or may soon be

sely defined and principles of fairness have been put in place to

provided for in some of the new shari’a laws.

applied, in a number of states. Shari’a has long been included in

prevent abuse and arbitrariness, theory and practice do not

Nigerian legislation, just as customary law has, and was delibera-

necessarily go hand in hand, as they have often not done in

The controversy over the role of shari’a in the political system

tely continued under British colonial rule, which had an interest in

Nigeria (or anywhere else for that matter). Christian minorities in

poses a challenge to the young civilian government. For

perpetuating traditional Muslim governance in the north. Until

the north are particularly worried about the situation, in spite of

President Obasanjo the shari’a debate is not new. During his pre-

1960 Islamic criminal law and procedure were widely applied in

verbal assurances that shari’a will not apply to them if they do not

vious incumbency from 1976 to 1979 there was an equally fierce

the Native Courts of northern Nigeria. At independence a new

wish. In general, it is difficult to escape the imposition of social

controversy when the Constitution was drafted. Eventually, the

Penal Code was introduced, limiting application of shari’a for

norms by a majority (for example, the segregation of sexes), while

1979 Constitution provided for a shari’a court and a customary

Muslims to matters pertaining to personal law, such as marriage

individuals may ultimately be forced to accept shari’a law in order

court of appeal. Then, as now, religion and politics went hand in

and divorce, etc. Present proposals to extend shari’a rules and

to avoid the impression of discriminatory legal practices in one

hand in Nigeria.

regulations to include criminal offences signify a return to the pre-

and the same state. At the same time, Christians argue that sha-

independence situation.

ri’a is against the 1999 Constitution. This is not true, but what is

Gerrie ter Haar is Professor of Religion, Human Rights and Social

unconstitutional is subjecting any person to ‘torture or to inhuman

Change at the ISS. She can be contacted at terhaar@iss.nl

A main objection to the new legislation concerns its strict applica-

or degrading treatment’. Nigeria has also committed itself to

tion, which includes harsh corporal punishments such as flogging

observance of several international human rights treaties which

5

D

E V E L O P M E N T

ISSues The ISS 1976 – 1986

From One Orthodoxy to Another Louis Emmerij When I joined the ISS in September 1976 it was still located in Noordeinde Palace, but by then Crown Princess Beatrix had already claimed the palace back for when she would succeed to the throne. So within a year we moved to the Wittebrug, once the best hotel in The Hague, but now fallen on hard times and gone bust. Moving an Institute and answering questions from journalists about costs and benefits was not exactly the most pleasant of tasks, but the move proved beneficial ISS Theatre 1978

for everybody, including the new Queen!

The ISS was not exactly in the best of

programme. Actually, we made some

shape in the mid-1970s. The effects

progress, but it remained in my view,

of the student revolts at the end of

one of my less successful endeavours.

the 1960s could still be felt, with stu-

the programme on the world map.

tancy firm, the ISS probably ranks Finally, because of the ISSAS and

number one in its field. I hope that the

Fourthly, we set up a PhD and an

other new financial sources, we

alliance with the University of Utrecht

MPhil programme, turning the ISS

made the ISS a little less dependent

will further this upward trend, but I cannot guarantee it.

dents and teachers still parading with

Secondly, we succeeded in attrac-

into a real and comprehensive gradu-

on its one single source of finance

red and black flags in the Palace

ting some first-class people, such as

ate institute. Until then, the Institute

until then, the Minister for

grounds. The Institute’s decision-

Valpy FitzGerald, Charles Cooper,

had only issued MA degrees, plus of

Development Cooperation. When I

Obviously, the ISS must continue to

making structure was in a pathetic

Jan Breman, Aswani Saith and

course the shorter postgraduate

arrived the Minister provided 95% of

offer outstanding teaching program-

state, with layers on layers of bodies

Raymond Apthorpe. The last person I

diplomas. I am particularly proud of

our funding. When I left, this had fal-

mes, but it must also have a research

len to below 70%.

programme that investigates the

that spent their time talking rather than making effective decisions.

‘next problems’. Let me give just one

While many well-intentioned staff

I understand that, under strong

example. As an interdisciplinary insti-

members did the same in smoke-

pressure from the government, the

tute it is uniquely placed to look into

filled rooms, instead of writing their

Institute has now entered into an

issues of regional and global gover-

doctoral dissertations.

alliance with the University of Utrecht.

nance. The globalizing world econo-

These pressures already existed

my is private-sector driven. There is

Fortunately for me, by the time I

during my time. I tried to steer clear

nothing wrong with that except that

arrived the staff had realized that this

of them and battled in favour of an

there is no countervailing power at

could not go on indefinitely and had

‘International University of the

that level. Identifying ways and

prepared themselves for a counter-

Netherlands’, combining all the exis-

means to start building a system of

offensive by electing an Executive

ting Institutes of International

global (and regional) governance

Committee that was ready to start

Education in the country. When I was

could and should be an Institute-wide

moving forward fast. And move fast

President of FION (a rather loose

research adventure.

we did. The decision-making struc-

association of those institutes) I visi-

ture was left basically unchanged,

Lustrum 1982, from right to left: Ettie Baas, Shelley Zaman (currently Bangladeshi ambassador to Spain), Andras Krahl

but the Executive Committee, under

ted all 17 or so of them and was duly

When I arrived at the Institute in

impressed. What a wonderful, imagi-

1976 we were at the end of an

my chairmanship, refused to be

recruited (at the end of 1985) was a

the success this programme has

native, creative (theoretical and prac-

orthodoxy that emphasized the role

delayed by the extensive discussions

young man by the name of Nico

enjoyed since then, given the feeble

tical) university they would have

of the State, redistribution from

in the other bodies. In the end, every-

Schrijver, who has since had a bril-

ground we were on when it started. It

made. But if it is already difficult to

growth, basic needs, etc. When I left

one agreed that what we did was in

liant career in international law. These

proves that even when you do not

get one institute organized, with 17

at the end of 1985, we were already

all their interests. We thus entered a

new people, together with the out-

know with any precision where you

you would need to be a magician!

well into another orthodoxy that was

new stage of ‘efficient democracy’.

standing people already at the Insti-

are going, you can still decide how to

Obviously, I was not in that league –

in reality a return to policy measures

tute, made for an impressive team.

move forward.

and this has been my one regret to

based on the neoclassical economics

this day. Had I stayed in the country

of yesteryear. We went from one

So what did we do? Well, for one

We have Margaret Thatcher to thank,

thing, we set up a comprehensive

of course, for us having been able to

Fifthly, we set up the ISS Advisory

and at the ISS, I would have conti-

extreme to the other. We are now

research programme. That proved

attract so many excellent academics

Service (ISSAS). This was one of the

nued that battle and who knows….

moving toward a more realistic, albeit

very difficult because of the nature of

from Great Britain in those days!

first academic consultancy agencies

academics. Teaching was something

less spectacular, middle ground

to be set up in the Netherlands. They

The ISS continues to be one of the

whose contours are becoming visi-

that had to be done, but research was

Thirdly, on my arrival in 1976 I found

have since flourished everywhere.

leading centres of excellence in the

ble. The ISS could help - in its

supposed to be a purely individual

an incipient women and development

The ISSAS served several purposes.

field of development studies in

teaching, research and advisory acti-

pursuit to be undertaken at the dis-

programme. We substantially streng-

It brought money into the ISS kitty,

Europe and indeed in the world. And

vities - to fill in the details. I wish it

cretion and pace of the staff member

thened the programme and were

it was a way for the staff to make

now that the IDS at the University of

godspeed for the next 50 years.

concerned. We tried to change that

able to recruit Maria Mies to head it.

(a little) extra money, and it gave them

Sussex has, thanks to the counter-

just a little by appointing a research

She has also had quite a career, both

experience in the field that was useful

productive policies of successive

Louis Emmerij can be contacted at

coordinator responsible for elabora-

during her time at the ISS and subse-

both for their teaching and research

Conservative governments, become

emmerij@netzero.net

ting and implementing the research

quently. Maria succeeded in placing

activities.

to all intents and purposes a consul-

5 0 Ye a r s o f t h e I S S t o b e c o n t i n u e d i n t h e n e x t D e v e l o p m e n t I S S u e s 6

D

E V E L O P M E N T

ISSues

The Collapse of Rural Women’s Groups Helen Hambly Odame resources such as arable land or information.

This can represent a situation in which women

The problem for women’s groups and the

are not necessarily able to or going to use their

at the local level and not their role in the collapse of local organizations.

extent to which they could survive involved

agency. The discretionary and bounded

The collapse of women’s groups is indicative of what organizational socio-

maximizing the practical role of men in groups

powers of women farmers during the process

while minimizing their political role. Our findings

of implementing development projects raise

suggest that not only is it unrealistic to expect

important issues for institutional analysis

‘women only groups’ to exist, but women’s

because women farmers may actively seek

groups can hardly be considered homogene-

‘space’ for themselves in development activi-

ous in their interests or their membership.

ties which otherwise do not seem to benefit

Group activities are organized and structured

them.

Development projects tend to emphasize their efforts to build institutions

logists have referred to as de-institutionalization. Women’s groups that once had defined structures, governance and activities cease to exist as an organization. What does the collapse of women’s groups mean, and why should we be concerned with the process of de-institutionalization?

by gender relations.

De-institutionalization The study of the rise and fall of women’s

male minority membership. Government regis-

Women aare not passive actors

De-institutionalization occurs when a develop-

groups in the context of a major development

tration of women’s groups requires an entirely

Women farmers are not passive or powerless

ment project sets out to strengthen local insti-

project in western Kenya provided an opportu-

female executive committee made up of the

social actors. They can, for instance, involve

tutions. This was partly evident in the study

nity to analyse a fairly dramatic rate of women’s

Chair (often referred to as the Chairlady),

men in women’s groups to obtain access to

due to the collapse of women’s groups that

group collapse (67%) over a twelve-year period

Treasurer and Secretary. This registration pro-

information or resources that would otherwise

were an ‘entry point’ for the project and its out-

(1988/89-1995). It was also found that 70% of

cess also validates a minority male member-

reach to individual farmers. A group’s collapse

the 104 farmers involved in the study were

ship in women’s groups: the regulations allow

led to the closure of the group’s collective agri-

involved in more than one women’s group.

20% of the members to be men. In the study

Rural people diversify their group membership

there was only a single case of a group not

in order to meet the different needs that they

having men as group members. Some groups

experience as individuals (e.g. as widows) or as

had a male membership of up to 42% (the

a collective (e.g. as a family). In western Kenya,

median was 27%). These figures were higher

farmers have many opportunities to form or

than the government’s 20% limit on male

join women’s groups.

membership of women’s groups. If the mixed membership of women’s groups is viewed

Also, individually and as a social group, women take action to protect themselves

cultural and forestry activities. Other tangible and intangible benefits such as labour, capital, arable land and moral support were often lost.

Yet, de-institutionalization is not necessarily totally negative, and therefore it is important to acknowledge that there were positive out-

in situations over which they have little or no control.

comes of development projects where the collapse of women’s groups is concerned. In this

Women’s groups’ activities are key indicators

from a gender perspective, the number of men

of the involvement of women in national and

is only one of the concerns within the overall

local development. In 1996 in Kenya, there

analysis. Other social relations, including age,

be difficult to obtain. Individually, women may

point made here is that farmers found ways of

were an estimated 23,614 women’s groups

marital status and socioeconomic standing,

exit group activities when systemic problems

acting that circumvented the restrictions facing

with a membership of over one million. This

were also significant considerations in defining

associated with male ‘shadow leaders’ or

them. Farmers’ agency, therefore, contributes

included both women and men. A neglected

the role of men in women’s groups.

misused group resources are no longer tolera-

to creating and re-creating a shared purpose

ble. Also, individually and as a social group,

and meaning of institutions.

aspect of women’s groups is that men may

study, de-institutionalization was driven to some extent by farmers’ acts of agency. The

and do comprise a minority of their member-

Men in women’s groups were found however

women take action to protect themselves in

ship and according to our findings, their ‘sha-

to assume four types of roles in relation to

situations over which they have little or no con-

Helen Hambly Odame is currently a Research

dow’ leadership. The role of men in women’s

accessing the group resources. Two roles were

trol. Women farmers circumvent the restrictive

Officer at the International Service for National

self-help groups is a relatively recent area of

constructive. First, men were state/develop-

aspects of a project and oppose domination of

Agricultural Research in The Hague. This paper

gender studies. Its omission from theory and

ment project ‘go-betweens’ or liaisons for the

their own knowledge and identities. They may

is based on fieldwork by the author while she

the lack of empirical data downplay the impor-

group. At different stages of project implemen-

tolerate what appear to be disempowering

was with the Faculty of Environmental Studies,

tant power relations within development struc-

tation and following withdrawal of development

gender relations within the women’s groups

York University, Canada. She can be contacted

tures that determine the distribution of resour-

assistance, men engaged in external relations.

(i.e. the influence of male ‘shadow leaders’).

at h.hambly@cgiar.org

ces and benefits.

Male members of the groups could also be ‘co-workers’ who joined the groups and parti-

Ingredients for collapse

cipated in collective activities or contributed

Contrary to common belief, the lack of financial

necessary resources to the group, like water

resources and technical inputs were not critical

resources or land. Two other roles were clearly

reasons for group collapse. The key ingredients

destructive. Some men were ‘opportunists’,

were governance-related, including greed, mis-

benefiting more from the group than they con-

used or stolen resources and a poor relation-

tributed. An example of this was pledging

ship with the development project. Imbalances

women’s groups to political campaigns without

within the membership in terms of turnout at

their full knowledge. Men also emerged as ‘agi-

meetings and shared activity, as well as leader-

tators’ in women’s groups as they pressed for

ship of the groups, were identified. The qualita-

‘shadow leadership’ of the group’s administra-

tive method of the study revealed overlapping

tive and political affairs.

factors contributing to collapse such as the

The gender roles of men in women’s groups

misuse of group-held resources cited in rela-

were political and/or practical in nature. The

tion to poor communication with the project

political role of men was a power-based role

and interference by ‘outsiders’ (chiefs, local

often involving control over resources, challen-

politicians, etc.).

ging women’s leadership and communication.

On the other hand, the practical roles of men in

Previous research on women’s groups tends to

women’s groups were exhibited when men

underestimate the roles and influence of the

acted as co-workers or facilitators of access to

Dies Natalis The 49th ISS Dies Natalis address will be given by Professor Nico Schrijver at the Institute on 11 October at 16.00.

For more information contact promotions@iss.nl or see the ISS website at www.iss.nl

7

D

E V E L O P M E N T

ISSues

International Education and Immigration While international education in the Netherlands is growing, it increasingly experiences the constraints of current Dutch immigration policy, which make it difficult for students to bring family members to the Netherlands for a visit. This is the experience of institutes such as the Institute of Social Studies. Jan Nederveen Pieterse looks at a problem which is making life difficult for both students and staff.

The ISS is supposed to be at the

Foreign students, particularly at PhD

policy. Apparently, difficult and uncle-

tionally bad reputation for its difficult

appropriately, it is a matter of policy

forefront of the internationalization of

level, are generally expected to be

ar visa application procedures are

visa procedures.

coherence. The Netherlands cannot

Dutch higher education and to serve

mid-career professionals. Obviously

part of this policy. The policy, so it is

as a kind of visiting card for Dutch

this means that many will have family

argued, is not up for discussion, so

A specific problem of growing con-

encouraging international education

international hospitality. This involves

obligations. In recent years it has

wide and deeply entrenched is the

cern is that some PhD candidates

and placing obstacles in the way of

English language education, interna-

become increasingly difficult for stu-

Dutch preoccupation with curbing

are also mothers with young children,

international visitors. International

tional staff and international students,

dents and staff to invite their families

immigration.

who in effect have to manage com-

students, staff and scholars happen

including a growing body of PhD stu-

to the Netherlands for a visit. Visa

plicated intercontinental care arran-

to be real people; they do not merely

dents. Since the ISS is a graduate

applications take longer and longer

Interventions, then, are only possible

gements. The stereotype of extended

exist as isolated individuals. For inter-

school in development studies -

(up to nine months) and often come

on a case-by-case basis. What this

families in the South with ample free

national education to actually work

Europe’s oldest and largest develop-

with unclear or unreliable information

means effectively is tedious commu-

time to spare does not necessarily

and not only to flourish on paper,

ment studies institute - the great

from consular officers at the

nication or correspondence with con-

apply. Many candidates are profes-

immigration policies should be

majority of students and many staff

Embassies. In effect, they involve

sular offices, the Ministry of Justice,

sionals who lead complex urban

appropriate to the effort to support

are from the South. Over the years

such uncertainty and unpredictability

the Aliens Police, even Members of

lives. Perhaps the assumption is that

and expand international education.

the internationalization of higher edu-

that realistic planning becomes virtu-

Parliament. Occasionally, but not

international education is merely for

This would probably entail designing

cation has proceeded apace, advan-

ally impossible. This places a huge

predictably, this improves matters for

young, unattached males? This

a new visa category allowing a fast

ced degrees and facilities offered to

emotional burden on students and

some, but not for others. This situ-

would clash with the growing sensiti-

track for visits by immediate family

foreign students are expanding, and

staff for which there is virtually no

ation means obstacles being placed

vity to gender which is also part of

members of those staying in the

internationalization rhetoric is in over-

recourse, except the rules of an

in the way of international students

the philosophy of Dutch international

Netherlands on study visas or

drive. Yet, in the experience of the

obtuse bureaucratic system.

and visiting scholars, deteriorating

development policy.

employed in higher eduation.

ISS, the study and working condi-

have it both ways: welcoming and

working conditions for international

tions for students and staff have

When this is raised as a concern, the

staff, and extra burdens for ISS sup-

We could consider this kind of cons-

Jan Nederveen Pieterse is Associate

been deteriorating due to increasing-

common response is that there is a

port staff who have to act as interme-

traint as one of the contradictions of

Professor of Sociology at the Institute

ly restrictive Dutch immigration poli-

consensus in Dutch Parliament in

diaries. In some countries the

globalization (knowledge and capital

of Social Studies. He can be contac-

cies.

favour of a restrictive immigration

Netherlands is acquiring an excep-

travel a lot easier than people). More

ted at nederveen@iss.nl

New Economy Facing the Non-Economy Modern technology seems to be making the richer countries even richer, If developing countries have better access to

while developing countries fall further behind. A recent initiative, known as

email and Internet services, they will be in a

i-Face, aims to put a stop to all that by helping the poorer countries to gain

better position to reduce poverty themselves.

access to information and communications technologies.

i-Face is a not-for-profit organization which believes that, if developing countries have better access

adopted a school in Zimbabwe. Children from the school can now chat and exchange mails with

to email and Internet services, they will be in a better position to reduce poverty themselves. There is

their counterparts in the Netherlands and around the world.

no need for costly roads, bridges or other large-scale infrastructural projects. With the proper training, these countries can join the ICT revolution and take a great step forwards.

Is this a unique concept?

The idea of using ICT to help developing countries is of course not unique, and such leading figures

How does i-Face work?

as Nelson Mandela and Kofi Annan have pointed to the need for the poorer countries to take full

i-Face acts as an intermediary, raising funds and ensuring that they are used effectively. The funds

advantage of the new technologies. According to i-Face, the logo-sponsorship concept itself is

come from sponsor companies who place the i-Face logo on their websites and pay i-Face an

completely new. It offers a simple opportunity for companies to show that they embrace the princip-

agreed amount of money every time certain actions are performed on their sites. Visitors to the sites

les of socially responsible business practice and provides much needed funds to ensure that deve-

can also make a direct donation. Because i-Face has no overheads, 100% of the funds raised goes

loping countries do not get left behind in the communications revolution.

to the recipients.

For more information on i-Face, see the website on www.i-face.nl The first project to be supported by i-Face is the Global Teenager Project being run by the International Institute for Communication and Development. This is a global network of secondary schools through which teenagers from throughout the world can hold chat sessions and exchange emails. To be able to join the network, a school has to be adopted. This entails a one-off initial contribution followed by annual contributions. Together with the aid organization Worldvision, i-Face has

8

or contact Peter van de Fliert at voorzitter@i-face.nl

D

E V E L O P M E N T

ISSues PhD Thesis Resource Conflict and Collective Action:

The Sardar Sarovar Project in India In January, Ranjit Dwivedi successfully defended his PhD thesis at the ISS. The thesis, entitled ‘Resource Conflict and Collective Action: The Sardar Sarovar Project’ was only the second in the history of the Institute to earn a distinction. Below is a summary.

Since the mid 1980s, dam projects throughout

claims, how actors mobilize power and know-

its benefits seemed earmarked primarily for the

The theoretical significance of the findings lies

Asia, Africa and Latin America have generated

ledge to sustain them and what bearings these

well-off in society. This reflects a distributive

in their contribution to understanding the

passionate debates and struggles. No longer

conflicts have on the future of projects like SSP.

bias inherent in the prevalent development

modernization crisis. Causal and political rela-

model, and forms the structural basis of collec-

tionships between the different elements of the

are they modernity symbols, signifying the human triumph over nature. In fact with con-

The thesis holds that the Narmada project’s

tive action. The latter brings into full play issues

crisis are explored in an empirical setting. The

flicts dramatically intensifying, investments in

political economy mirrors that of mainstream

of rights and entitlements, risks and opportuni-

exploration of movement politics in the

them have shown a downward trend. Of

(state-led) development. It underscores, how-

ties, losses and gains to question the public

Narmada and its contribution to the strengthe-

course, in historical terms, dams have had a

ever, the need to focus on actor interactions,

purpose of the project in the light of its high

ning of the public sphere is equally significant.

social costs, environmental risks, exaggerated

This study shows how the struggle transforms

economic benefits and blatant disregard for

from a local setting to develop into a multi-

vulnerable stakeholders. The Narmada move-

class, multi-level broad citizens’ coalition. The

ment generates public awareness and support

thesis outlines three priority areas for political

over these issues by closely scrutinizing facts

deliberations and policy interventions. The first

and figures related to the project. It constructs

is the settlement of the ‘political status’ of

a script of counter-claims on the project, span-

stakes, particularly of those adversely affected

ning from hydrology to seismic studies, that

people in large development projects. This calls

reads as a powerful ‘anti-dam narrative’ linking

for appropriate legal, institutional and policy

the movement with networks at the national

frameworks. The second aspect concerns

and global levels. It also links SSP to a paradig-

democratization and transparency of decision-

matic crisis in development where models of

making. This, the research admits, is a more

resource management devised by project

difficult area than the first, but nonetheless,

“Struggle pillar” in the Narmada Valley

chequered past, often causing local, regional

conflictive and communicative, to explain the

and international conflicts. The recent confron-

complexities and dynamics in the project envi-

tations, however, allude to new political and

ronment. It thus frames the project as an action

theoretical meanings. Political, because popular

field in which state and civil society actors act

protest, social movements and other forms of

in defence of interests, meanings and values.

collective action have proliferated in local and

The research framework roughly follows the

global space. Theoretical, because these new

distinct phases of the project cycle. In each of

political formations challenge not just specific

these phases significant actions influencing the

projects but the models of development action

course of events and the life of the project are

they exemplify.

introduced. Actions and perceptions of governments, multilateral institutions, evaluators and

This study focuses on the crisis around the

arbitrators, affected people and their organiza-

Sardar Sarovar (Narmada) project (SSP) in

tions, NGOs, their support groups and net-

Gujarat and aims to develop a comprehensive

works are analysed for their impact on the pro-

sociology of development action that goes be-

ject environment. This framework allows for an

yond positivist methods and evaluative frames.

analysis of different positions and claims; it also

It does not aim to judge the worth or impact of

captures actions and practices pertaining to the

sponsors and mandarins periodically turn out

equally important. A third priority area concerns

SSP, but is concerned with how crisis emerges

organization of dissent and creation of alterna-

to be non-sustainable and socially unjust. The

the accommodation and thus legitimization of

as a social outcome of development action,

tive discourses of social transformation.

movement narrative creates awareness of the

alternative models and means of development

whereby the project cannot proceed through

“The Sardar Sarovar Dam” under construction

centralized, top-down nature of the models.

in governing discourses on resource manage-

socially acceptable means. It seeks to show

The study’s main findings support the argument

Their outcomes often further impoverish the

ment. Considering the high stakes in resource

how project authorities confront a legitimization

that resource conflicts are inevitable outcomes

already poor and vulnerable sections of society

management, this is perhaps the most critical

crisis as their established conceptions and

of large interventions like SSP. While the project

and permanently alter ecological systems.

key to crisis resolution in development.

modes of resource development face stiff

threatens to affect or erode the resource base

What is also revealed in the movement’s poli-

opposition in the public sphere. Of central

of a large population, the alternative resources

tics is the articulation of alternative visions and

Ranjit Dwivedi can be contacted at

import are how conflicting truth claims emerge

and livelihoods that it offers as compensation

meanings of development based on principles

dwivedi@iss.nl

over distribution of resources and risks, how

and mitigation are ill timed, ill planned, and fall

of equity and sustainability.

interests and experiences of actors fuel these

far short of acceptable standards. Meanwhile

9

D

E V E L O P M E N T

ISSues continued from page 1

Local Government Transformation in South Africa

Two additional pieces of legislation added to

formance, management, resource mobilization

import-substituting industrialization’. Since

ced and unmotivated. Secondly, the system

the creation of developmental local government

and organizational change aspects of a munici-

1994 cities such as Durban and Cape Town

makes them responsible for basic service deli-

– the Municipal Structures Act and the

pality’s daily functioning. It will have an enor-

have been the fastest growing cities in South

very and development. Thirdly, national fiscal

Municipal Systems Act. The Municipal Struc-

mous impact on local economic development

Africa, and the economic growth rates of their

policy is reducing financial resources available

tures Act defined three categories of municipa-

in South Africa over the next five years through

provinces, KwaZulu-Natal and Western Cape,

to fulfil these obligations. Fourthly, globalization

lity. Category A municipalities have exclusive

the requirement it places on all local govern-

the highest. Krugell and Naudé 3 (2000) argue

is pressuring municipalities to create interna-

municipal executive and legislative authority in

ments to complete an Integrated Development

that these trends and the implied abandonment

tionally competitive locations for businesses

their own area. Category B municipalities share

Plan (IDP) within one year of the 5 December

of regional and industrial development by the

and households. If municipalities can success-

executive and legislative authority in their area

elections.

South African government suggest that region-

fully manage these conflicting demands the

al inequalities in the country will widen.

debate on the need and functions of provinces

with a category C municipality. Category C municipalities have executive and legislative

Unfolding patterns of regional and local

authority in an area that includes more than one

economic development in South Africa

Conclusion

creations of the negotiated settlement in South

type of municipality.

Since 1994, two phases in an evolving spatial

Serious regional and local inequalities exist in

Africa before 1994, are artificial constructs with

In South Africa the only category A municipali-

economic development approach can be dis-

South Africa as a result of its history. Regional

little economic rationale. Their allocation func-

ties are the six metropolitan areas or mega-

tinguished. The first, from the inception of the

and industrial policies were essentially abando-

tion – their main economic justification – may

cities. These six metropolitan areas have 6.6

new government in 1994 to the demarcation of

ned after 1994 in favour of trade-oriented

be more efficiently performed by the 47 district

million voters, compared to 11.7 million in the

municipalities (local governments) in 1999/

macroeconomic policies to facilitate the globali-

municipalities in South Africa. The latter may be

231 local municipalities. The importance of

2000, can be characterized by a macroecono-

zation of the country’s economy. This has wide-

in a better position, following the work of the

these metropolitan areas to South Africa’s futu-

mic/free-trade approach and is dominated by

ned the development gap between regions and

Demarcation Board, to balance the advantages

re regional development is further implied by

the philosophy of the Growth, Employment and

localities.

of fiscal decentralization and of economies of

the fact that a category A municipality such as

Redistribution (GEAR) strategy. The demarca-

Johannesburg has an annual budget almost in

tion of new municipalities in 1999/2000 can be

The transformation of the local government

South Africa depends on the performance of

excess of that of Gauteng Province, in which it

seen as a second phase. It is argued below that

system in South Africa has been planned and

this new system of local government.

is located, and the executive mayor of

this phase will require a more interventionist

managed with great care since 1994 to over-

Johannesburg has more discretion over expen-

approach to overcome the historical patterns of

come the legacy of the past and to enable local

Wim Naudé is Professor and Director of

diture than the premier of the province!

regional development. This in turn will only be

governments to become internationally compe-

Research in the Faculty of Economic &

There are 231 category B and 47 category

possible if a more expansionist fiscal policy is

titive. The current generation of municipal

Management Sciences, Potchefstroom

C municipalities. Most municipalities in South

adopted by the national government. The cur-

councillors, mayors and administrations are the

University, South Africa. He is also an elected

Africa are therefore in category B, meaning that

rent GEAR strategy places much emphasis on

first to ‘test drive’ this system. If human and

ANC Councillor in the Southern District

they have to share executive and legislative

fiscal austerity.

financial resource constraints can be managed

Municipality of South Africa’s North West

adequately, local government can become the

Province. He can be contacted at EBNWAN@puknet.puk.ac.za

powers within their jurisdictional area with

in South Africa may resurface. The provinces,

scale. The future of regional development in

another municipality. These are the 47 category

The GEAR macroeconomic strategy is charac-

primary institutional vehicle for economic deve-

C municipalities, or ‘district’ municipalities.

terized by outward-oriented trade policy and an

lopment in South Africa, particularly in allevia-

Before 2000 these types of municipalities were

apparent abandonment of industrial policy

ting absolute poverty and ensuring the provi-

1 This is an abridged version of a paper presented at an ISS

known as transitional district councils (TDCs)

(which was in the past synonymous with the

sion of basic services to all.

seminar, 2 February 2001.

and were primarily responsible for the provision

regional policy of apartheid that largely failed).

of bulk basic services to residents in rural areas

According to Rogerson2 (1998:189) ‘The impli-

This will be difficult since the tensions that

that had no local government structure under

cit spatial bias contained in GEAR is towards

municipalities will have to manage are often

apartheid.

an increasing significance of investment at

contradictory in nature, as has been outlined in

development in South Africa’, Paper presented at the

coastal locations and, correspondingly, of redu-

this article. Firstly, municipalities will have to

International Regional Science Association Symposium on

The Municipal Systems Act was passed in

cing the advantaged position enjoyed by the

overcome historical legacies, including admini-

‘Challenges for Integrated Regional Development’, 24

November 2000 and covers the planning, per-

Gauteng area under the former regimes of

strations that are often ill-equipped, inexperien-

January, Port Elizabeth Technikon, South Africa.

9-29 July

space economy’, Regional Studies, 32 (2): 187-198.

3 Krugell, W & Naudé, W.A. (2000). ‘Too much cumulative causation? A view on the prospects for regional industrial

Agenda

International Conference Agenda 2001

2 Rogerson, C.M. (1998) ‘Restructuring the post-apartheid

2001/2

18-19 October

Design of an IBS Eco-Village for 300 families of the disabled in Poipet, Cambodia

Improving Women’s Rights and Responsible Parenthood in Uzbekistan • Location: Tashkent

E-seminar: http://segate.sunet.se/archives/et-w2.html

(Uzbekistan) • Information: kuzibaeva@mail.ru

14-15 September

Symposium on Regulatory Expropriations in International Law

2002

Location: NYU Center for Environmental and Land Use Law

07-13 July

and the NYU Environmental Law Journal

Workers’ Direct and Representative Participation in New Organisational Forms

Information: www.nuy.edu/pages/elc/regexprop or vicki.been@nyu.edu

Location: Brisbane (Australia) • International Sociological Association World Congress / Research Committee 10 • Information: www.ecom.unimelb.edu.au/mgtwww/home.html

27-28 September The Sustainable Information Society: Values and Everyday Life Location: Kouvola (Finland)• Information: http://kouvola.fi/SIS-Kouvola or hilkka.salonen@helsinki.fi

We would be pleased to receive timely information on inter national conferences

10

D

E V E L O P M E N T

ISSues

Staff News Visiting scholars The ISS has two visiting scholars this year, Hiroyuki Nakanishi and Roger Tangri. Here, they introduce themselves in a short profile.

Name: Hiroyuki Nakanishi (Hiro)

Name: Roger Tangri

Professional background: Professor at Tsuru University, Japan,

Professional background: I have been studying Africa’s

since 1994. My majors are Politics and Economics of Local and

political economy since the mid-1960s. I have lived and

Provincial Government, and Public Finance.

worked in Malawi, Sierra Leone, Zambia, Egypt, Ghana,

Purpose of visit to ISS: I came on 23 March as a guest researcher

Lesotho, and Uganda - altogether for 27 years.

and will stay till 23 August. I have three purposes for visiting the

I have written two books, and am currently working on

Institute. Firstly I want to study the educational system and methods

elite corruption in Uganda.

of the ISS; secondly I intend to conduct research into the welfare

Hobbies: I am sports mad. I was briefly a trainee sports

state of the Netherlands; and thirdly I want to experience a different

journalist with the BBC and also did football commenta-

culture from that of Japan.

ries for the MBC. I play lots of golf when out-side The

Astrological sign: Rat, according to traditional Japanese sign, originating in China.

Netherlands, and won several small competitions in Ghana

Hobbies: Skiing, swimming, mountain climbing and playing Go.

and Uganda.

Favorite food: Sushi (in Japan), but here I find potato with butter very delicious.

Favourite food: I love Indian and Lebanese food although, when in Africa, I long for black German

Positive character traits: enthusiastic about everything.

bread with liverwurst and a glass of cold milk.

Negative character traits: sometimes imprudent.

Important things in life:

enjoying everything I do.

Welcome new staff Wieke Blaauw, Deputy Secretary, Executive Office (per 1 May 2001). Email: blaauw@iss.nl

Dr Dan Smit, Associate Professor of Urban Management and Governance, Staff Group Human Resources and Local Development (per 1 September 2001). Email: smit@iss.nl

Charlotte Jonas, Assistant Student Office/ Registration and Admission (per 1 August 2001) Staff leaving

Email: jonas@iss.nl

Linda van de Pol, Library Assistant (per 1 July 2001) Niek de Jong, Lecturer in Development Economics, Staff Group Economics of Sustainable Congratulations

Development (per 15 April 2001). Email: dejong@iss.nl

Dr Irene van Staveren has been appointed member of the International Dr George Tsogas, Senior Lecturer in Human Resource Management, Staff Group Human

Association For Feminist Economics (IAFFE) for the 2002-2004 period.

Resources and Local Development (per 1July 2001). Email: Tsogas@iss.nl

In Memoriam

Institute of Social Studies

Hermien Weijland

Meeting New Demands

On 2 July news reached the ISS that Dr. H.J. (Hermien) Weijland had sadly passed away the previous day at the age of 68. Although Hermien had been seriously ill for some time, the news still came as a shock. Hermien was a well-respected lecturer at

MA in DEVELOPMENT STUDIES

PhD in DEVELOPMENT STUDIES

starts again in September 2001 with majors in: Agricultural and Rural Development • Economics of Development • Human Resources and Employment • Local and Regional Development • Politics of Alternative Development Strategies • Population and Development • Public Policy and Administration • Women, Gender, Development

in the key areas: Economics of Sustainable Development • States, Societies, World Development • Human Resources and Local Development • Rural Development, Environment and Population Studies

the ISS from 1967 till 1977. She joined as an assistant to Professor Hans Linnemann, but was quickly promoted to full-time lecturer. She taught in the Economic Planning programme and helped shape it.

She also had a long-standing association with the Vrije Universiteit in Amsterdam, where she started as a librarian in 1962 and later became a lecturer in the Development and Agrarian Economics Department.

She was promoted to senior lecturer in 1989 and took

POSTGRADUATE DIPLOMA in DEVELOPMENT STUDIES January-March 2002 (10 weeks): Effective Social Policies for Human Development • Human Rights • International Law and Sustainable Development • Universalising Social Security • Managing Rural Resources and Resource Conflicts April-June 2002 (10 weeks): Modelling and Accounting for Sustainable Development • Governance, Democratization and Public Policy • Globalization and Development • Children and Development May-June 2002 (6 weeks): Policy Analysis Skills for Transition Economies.

early retirement in 1994. Although Hermien continued her academic work for some time after her retirement, she gradually spent more of her time managing a

LL.M. in INTERNATIONAL LAW AND ORGANIZATION A joint programme of the Institute of Social Studies, The Hague, and the Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam starting September 2001 with courses in: International Economic law • International Law and the Maintenance of Peace • International Trade and Investment Law • International Human Rights Law • Law of Regional Economic Integration • International Environmental Law • Advanced Issues in International Law • Skills Training

MSc. in DEVELOPMENT ECONOMICS A joint programme of the Institute of Social Studies, The Hague, the Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam and Wageningen University starting in January 2002.

Courses include: Development Thought and Strategies • Microeconomics of Development • Economic Analysis of Institutions and Markets • Macroeconomic Policy Analysis • International Trade and Finance • Econometrics and Multivariate Analysis • Research Methods, Surveys and Data Collection

home for the elderly. She did this with the same enthusiasm and human spirit that we knew when she was still at the ISS.

Hermien’s enthusiasm as a teacher and thoroughness as a researcher is something all of her students and colleagues will no doubt remember vividly.

For more information contact: The Academic Registrar Institute of Social Studies P.O. Box 29776 2502 LT The Hague The Netherlands

Tel 31 70 4260460 Fax 31 70 4260799 E-mail: student.office@iss.nl

Visit our website at www.iss.nl

D

E V E L O P M E N T

ISSues Working Papers

ISS Working Papers can be purchased or ordered from: The Bookshop

ISS WORKING PAPERS

P.O. Box 29776

GENERAL SERIES • ISSN 0921-0210

2502 LT The Hague

331

Des Gasper Interdisciplinarity: Building Bridges and Nurturing a Complex Ecology of Ideas (February 2001)

The Netherlands

332

Saskia E. Wieringa The Birth of the New Order State in Indonesia: Sexual Politics and Nationalism (February 2001)

Telefax: 31 70 4260799

333

Max Spoor and Oane Visser, The State of Agrarian Reform in the Former Soviet Union (February 2001)

334

Bamidele Olowu African Decentralization Policies and Practices from the 1980s and Beyond (March 2001)

335

Frits Wils and Bert Helmsing Enabling Communities and Markets: Meanings, Relationships and Options in Settlement

Publications

For a complete list of Working Papers see the ISS website.

Improvement (April 2001)

336

Cristóbal Kay Asia’s and Latin America’s Development in Comparative Perspective: Landlords, Peasants and

Industrialization (May 2001) 337

Jan Nederveen Pieterse Globalization Kitch and Conflict: Technologies of Work, War and Policies (May 2001)

Book Review The Values of Economics - An Aristotelian Perspective In 2000, Irene van Staveren, Lecturer in Labour Market Economics at the

incommensurable values. Van Staveren shows

rich and broad range of theoretical and empirical

ISS, won the European Association for Evolutionary Political Economy’s

how conventional economics has a very limited

materials, including from economic and social

Gunnar Myrdal Prize, for her PhD thesis Caring for Economics –

understanding of reason and a relative neglect

theory, focus group discussions, biography,

of the emotions and empathy, the emotional

autobiographies, and other literature. Similarly

An Aristotelian Perspective. A revised version has now been published,

experience and maturation, required for and

the title, The Values of Economics, refers not

entitled The Values of Economics - An Aristotelian Perspective (London:

normal to human life. Without those capacities,

only to critique of the narrowness of conven-

reason is incomplete and often brings social and

tional disciplinary economics, but also to explo-

personal malaise.

ration of the range of values important in actual

Routledge, 2001), in the series ‘Economics as Social Theory’.

economic life and in balancing it (and thereby This is an important, very stimulating and

looking for alternatives. In her formulation,

Readers should not be misled by the subtitle:

sustaining it) in life as a whole. The book is con-

readable book. For those concerned about the

actors require a series of what she calls moral

the Aristotelian perspective refers not to an

structive as well as critical. It is warmly recom-

impacts on society of an ever-expanding but

capabilities: to be able to interact with others,

emphasis on Greek philosophy but to a respect

mended.

one-sided economic and market rationality,

and to form purposes and then care about,

for balancing between different spheres of life,

van Staveren offers a rich but usable framework

commit to and act on them, and to deliberate

each with their different values, skills and mind-

of analysis for seeing what is wrong and

about tensions and balancing between different

sets. Van Staveren makes her arguments with a

Des Gasper

Development ISSues is published three times a year by: Institute of Social Studies

The journal Development and Change is published five times a year by Blackwell Publishers (Oxford, UK) on behalf of the Institute of Social Studies.

For more information, see the ISS web site, or email us at d&c@iss.nl. Available online at http://www.blackwellpublishers.co.uk/online

PO Box 29776 2502 LT The Hague The Netherlands Tel: + 31 (0)70 4260 443 or 4260 525 Fax: + 31 (0)70 4260 799 ISS website: www.iss.nl Email: DevISSues@iss.nl Editors: René Bekius, Andy Brown Editorial assistant: Karen Shaw Editorial Board: Karin Arts, Erhard Berner, Max Spoor, Peter de Valk, Daniel C. Oshi and Sakura Yamasaki (Scholas) Photos: Unless otherwise stated, all photographs are by courtesy of Jager & Krijger Design and Production: Seinen & v. Leeuwen Circulation 9,000 Material from Development ISSues may be reproduced or adapted without permission, provided it is not distributed for profit and is attributed to the original author(s), Development ISSues and the Institute of Social Studies. Unless otherwise stated, all photographs are by courtesy Jager & Krijger.

ISSN: 1566-4821 The views expressed are those of the individual authors and do not necessarily reflect those of the Institute.

12

t n e m p o l e v e e g D n a h C d n a

Volume 32 June 2001

Number 3

Avoiding Disaster: Diversification and Risk PETER D. LITTLE, KEVIN SMITH Management among East African Herders BARBARA A. CELLARIUS, D. LAYNE COPPOCK AND CHRISTOPHER BARRETT LINDA MAYOUX

Tackling the Down Side : Social Capital, Women’s Empowerment and Micro-Finance in Cameroon

STEVEN M. HELFAND The Distribution of Subsidized Agricultural Credit in Brazil: Do Interest Groups Matter?

C. W. M. NAASTEPAD The Macro-economic Effects of Directed Credit Policies: A Real-Financial CGE Evaluation for India LISE RAKNER

The Pluralist Paradox: The Decline of Economic Interest Groups in Zambia in the 1990s

SATURNINO M. BORRAS JR

State–Society Relations in Land Reform Implementation in the Philippines

SHAWN VAN AUSDAL Development and Discourse among the Maya of Southern Belize