REFERENCE AND INFERENCE
Reference: Act in which a speaker/writer uses linguistic forms to enable a listener/reader to identify something (‘words don't refer, people do’)
Referring expressions - proper nouns ('Shakespeare', 'Hawaii') - definite noun phrases ('the author', 'the island') - indefinite noun phrases ('a man', 'a woman', 'a beautiful place') - pronouns ('he', 'she', 'them')
Inference As there is no direct relationship between entities and words, the listener's task is to infer correctly which entity the speaker intends to identify by using a particular referring expression.
Example - can use vague expressions ('the blue thing', 'that icky stuff', 'whatsisname') - can use expressions focusing on one feature ('Mister Aftershave is late today‘)
REFERENTIAL AND ATTREFERENTIAL AND USE ATTRIBUTIVE USERIBUTIVE USE Not all referring expressions have identifiable physical referents indefinite noun phrases can refer to • a physically present entity: 'There's a man waiting for you' • an unknown entity assumed to exist: 'He wants to marry a woman with lots of money' • an entity that does not exist: 'We'd like to sign a nine-foottall basketball player
NAMES AND REFERENTS Convention between all members of a cultural/language community: collaboration of the intention to identify and the recognition of intention Pragmatic connection between proper names and objects conventionally associated within a socio-culturally defined community
Examples 'the cheese sandwich' can refer to a person Where's the cheese sandwich sitting? He's over there by the window Conventional set of entities (e.g. things the writer produced) Joseph Le fanu takes up the whole bottom shelf We're going to see Shakespeare in London I hated Shakespeare at school
THE ROLE OF CO-TEXT The ability to identify intended referents does not just depend on the understanding of the referring expression, but is aided by the linguistic material, or co-text, accompanying it Brazil wins World Cup ('wins World Cup' limits the range of possible interpretations)
co-text: linguistic part of the environment in which a referring expression is used context: physical environment and (speech) conventions, e.g., a restaurant The heart-attack mustn't be moved (hospital) Your ten-thirty just cancelled (dentist) A couple of rooms have complained about the heat (hotel)