Chapter 1: Screening

Screening of the Existing Problem on the Threshold

This analysis stage guided us to shape the general frames of the broad urbanization topic. The correlation pattern that we formed pointed out the nodes of urbanization, which we define by several sub-titles as the following; industrialization, population growth, urban strategies, administration, social housing and squatters’ houses.

When we investigate upon the articles related to urbanization, they were written and published on behalf of significant mutual topics. While urbanization is a broad theme which is screened apparently in every issue, we realized that this topic needs to be scattered into its spectrums to have a better understanding. To do this filtering, we classified the articles about urbanization, which helped us discover the pattern of correlated subjects. These recurring contents share dynamics of ideological debates and dilemmas that need to be solved. Many factors such as industrialization, mechanization, rapid growth of the population, dependency on foreign countries, economic concerns and migration from the village to the city have caused such urbanization problems to grow.

industrialization population growth social housing squatters houses urban strategies administration

urbanism

The further examination of these filtered sub-topics shed light upon the prominent problems that were highly mentioned in the magazine. Here below, is our detailed examination of how Mimarlık addresses the existing situation of urbanization by screening objectively through these filtered articles.

urbanism filtered article contents sub-topics

chapter 1: screening industrialization

During the post-war development period industrialization has been an important factor for urban growth in city centers, not only in Turkey but in many other developing countries. In our country, the industry started with the establishment of the Republic and it has expanded gradually. This emerging technology is presented in Mimarlik through statistics and research studies in several articles. As shown in the statistics of Kemal Aru’s report article, industrialization apparently has changed the dynamics of city and rural population and brought new labor demands in the city centers. 3 Compared to the other metropolis cities, Istanbul has similarly increasing labor types such as retail, commerce, machine and manufacturing industries.

Additionally, the magazine reflects different conflicts that occur with the industrial growth, which are the domestic growth and dependency on foreign sources. Regarding the national development plan after the 60s, the conflict is presented in the article “Planning and Industrialization”. The Chamber addresses the importance of investments in local industrialization and the need to reduce foreign dependence in the country. The article generally criticizes the situation of Turkey about being dependent to foreign countries in industry. As elaborated, if the investment goods industry has not been sufficiently developed it cannot be said that that country is really industrialized. The authors call the foreign industrialization implemented in the nation as “This type of industrialization remains an industrialization on the surface.” 4

The authors illustrate this issue by saying that neglecting the industries producing investment goods in the underdeveloped countries leads to following a path diverted from national industrialization. They aim to underline the forthcoming problem, consumption of machines and foreign technology in foreign currency causes foreign borrowing of the country. Due to this fact, every development decision in the industry works as a mechanism that increases the foreign dependency. The chamber questions “Is it possible to prevent this vicious circle through the development plan?” 5 The national resources are endangered through their perspectives, if the developments cannot achieve an independent policy in industrialization within a certain period of time, development plans will constantly continue to transfer resources to foreign economies.

3 Kemal A. Aru, “Settlements and Population Labors”, Mimarlik, 1966, issue 37 4 the Chamber of Architects, “Planning and Industrialization”, Mimarlik, 1972, issue 109 5 the Chamber of Architects, “Planning and Industrialization”, Mimarlik, 1972, issue 109

city population rural population

ACTIVE POPULATION PERCENTAGES OF 5 METROPOLIS AND ISTANBUL *

Agriculture Forestry Fishery Mining Construction Industry Machine Industry Manufacturing Industry Transportation Retail Wholesale Commerce Banking Insurance

* Kemal A. Aru, “Yerlesmeler ve Faal Nufus Hareketleri” [Settlements and Population Labors ], Mimarlik, Issue 37, 1966

Administration

chapter 1: screening population growth

In parallel with industrialization, population flow has started towards major cities of Turkey. Following that, the growing population in the nation raised the demand for housing. As we examine through the related articles, in the long term development plans this issue was often considered, 6 however investment rates could not catch the growing population rate while the plans were scarcely implemented with success.

This issue is expanded with statistics and forecast assumptions in the report article prepared by the architect Altan Oke, he explains the existing situation as the following: “The desire to meet the numerical pressure of the housing need within the limited investment rates has resulted in the adoption of a large number of low-cost housing as solutions. Based on the first Five-Year Development Plan published in Public Housing Standards, it was seen that the principle of reducing the housing unit areas, which seemed the easiest form of cost control, was accepted. However, the structural characteristics of Turkish society particularly do not comply with these standards, which are found to be inaccurate and inadequate in various aspects.” 7

He presents the assumption of required annual housing amounts for the forthcoming years. Taking into account the average household size in Turkey were 5 people, average annual housing required was found as in below.

84,000 if the population of 1950 remains constant 138,000 if the population of 1950 increases by 1% per year 226,000 if the population of 1950 increases by 2% per year 368,000 if the population of 1950 increases by 3% per year 8

He concludes with the comment that if the population growth rate in our country could be reduced to the level in Japan in 1950, it would be possible to solve the housing problem not only in the cities but also in the villages until 2000 by the capacity of the city housing construction we have reached during the year 1971.

6 Altan Oke, “Population Planning Effects on Housing Requirements in Turkey”, Mimarlik, 1970, issue 82 7 Altan Oke, “Population Planning Effects on Housing Requirements in Turkey”, Mimarlik, 1970, issue 82 8 the Chamber of Architects Istanbul Branch, “Urban Renewal of Istanbul Report”, Mimarlik, 1964, issue 8

“Population Planning Effects on Housing Requirements in Turkey”, issue 82

chapter 1: screening national urban strategies

In this sub title, we present some articles consisting of urban planning strategies that have the aim of projecting the existing failures, wasteful investments and researches upon the planning regulations.

For instance, in the report “Urban Renewal of Istanbul” the chamber’s Istanbul Branch draws attention to the distorted city plan and points out the miserable situation that needs urgent help. The branch states that taking on the biggest burden in industrialization, Istanbul has been exposed to the biggest population domination. Since there were not enough plans to regulate the development of the city in a short time, the arrival of the city spread extraordinarily and the area covered by the city has grown six times. 9 The branch continues to shed light upon the insufficient implements; “Planning activities have not been undertaken since 1935 from the Directorate of Zoning, which was established by the order of Ataturk. During the time elapsed, 116 million liras were spent for planning, and 3 different plans and approximately 1,200 various scales were discovered. However, all these studies which provide the basis for the desired result were not achieved due to insufficient data. While the city needs a sufficient plan, there is chaos in the variety of implementations.”

They also address the authorities and executives in their report. They claim that the development of the city was not monitored and the adaptation of the plans was not ensured. On the other hand, as mentioned, it was a legal obligation to take necessary financial, administrative and technical preparations to execute the plans. The plans have not become anything to do with the possibilities and needs of the city, but they have become devastated by being abandoned to the city’s destiny.

Another article delivered by the Istanbul branch is strongly related to this scope as well. In issue 12, a negative example of urban strategies is presented to expose the wasteful investments. By criticizing upon the unplanned construction of an underpass in Istanbul, the branch is calling for the attention of the citizens in order to inform them of this insufficient municipality service;

“The Chamber of Architects presents the unplanned, unorganized urban executions of Istanbul Municipality for the information of; _ The citizens who pay the price of this arbitrary behavior from their modest budget _governmental authorities, who claim that their country’s future is dependent on planned

development

_Writers and intellectuals who knew of the planned actions is essential for economic and social development” 10

The article reflects the truth that consequently neither the citizen’s troubles about the city have diminished, nor the millions spent have been beneficial enough to the city and the country. The chamber addresses the governors of the Municipality and claims that they distract the citizens by ignoring the real needs and interests of the people with their actions and publications, due to their lack of adequate plans and programs to comfort the public.

9 the Chamber of Architects Istanbul Branch, “Urban Renewal of Istanbul Report”, Mimarlik, 1964, issue 8 10 the Chamber of Architects Istanbul Branch, “Unplanned Investments in the Planned Development Period: Underpasses”, Mimarlik, 1964, issue 12

Istanbul City Master Plan

Karakoy underpass project, Istanbul, “Unplanned Investments in the Planned Development Period: Underpasses”, issue 12

chapter 1: screening unorganized administration

The fact that the rules and laws do not comply with the correct city planning strategies is a frequently criticized issue in Mimarlik. The management mechanisms and mostly municipalities that do not work effectively on the urban development issue have also initiated a deterioration that is difficult to prevent while the encountered problems are rising.

In the fixed section of the magazine called “Events and Reflections”, the chamber published a report concerning the city of Mersin and expressed their criticism and suggestions upon the planning administratives of this city. They also highlighted that this city’s urban planning issue is not a specific problem, but can be seen in different scales in all the other Turkish cities. However, as commented, these problems occur more prominently in cities, which are in a rapid urbanization process. Moreover, the authors mock the discipline of the administrators by not executing the zoning plans; “While the cities are surrounded by slums, the zoning plans arranged will remain as layouts adorning the walls, zoning plans will undergo numerous changes due to the numerous changes in laws and benefits of some people.” 11

The criticism for the Mersin administrators actually applies to the overall opinion of how the administrators are perceived. Here are some critics upon the situation mentioned in the report; -The population of Mersin is increasing and consequently city needs a better and qualified planning - The municipality and administratives in planning are not working in the way that takes care of the problems in the city and in contrary they put individual benefits in front of the city’s benefits. -Number of qualified working people decreased in the last years and people with not enough knowledge about urban issues and in general urban strategies became the decision holders. -Political interests have become very important in municipalism.

These comments actually portray an uneducated and undisciplined group of stakeholders that take advantage of their positions and put individual benefits during any action. Therefore, the administrators are addressed in blame for the unimplemented or poorly made city interventions.

In another article concerning the lack of organization of the authorities, a seminar organized by the chamber about Istanbul city planning is mentioned in the news section. The main criticism was negative effectiveness of political issues about city planning. The chamber mentioned some problems such as; “1_Most organizations are working on the same topic because of the lack of communication. There are some problems about authority and responsibility. 2_Local administrative unions should be established. 3_During the study of planning, it is important to understand human factors and social structure. 4_It is crucial to use the investments in a logical way. In this aspect, it is essential to understand and follow the metropolitan city planning aspects and programs. 5_According to the ministry of development and housing, it is obvious that the Grand Istanbul Project is managed without consulting the scientific and professional associations. 6_This city planning refers to some speculative doubts rather than to serve public welfare. This plan should be discussed in front of the scientific and professional associations and the public.” 12

11 the Chamber of Architects, “Events and Reflections”, Mimarlik, 1971, issue 97 12 the Chamber of Architects, “Conference of Istanbul City Planning”, Mimarlik, 1968, issue 55

the administrators refuse to perform their potential of initiating the professional solutions caricature by the artist Tan Oral

chapter 1: screening social housing

The social housing subject is a vital fragment of urbanism while all the efforts and proposed solutions circulate around the human factor. The protagonist of an idealized urban city is the nuclear family in the society with a low economical budget. Thus, the living habitat of the families are crucial for the socio-economic and psychological dynamics in the community. In mimarlık this subject is carried out with different types of articles such as innovative news, competitions, project reviews, theoretical rhetorics. In this section we examine how the magazine reflects the ideal expectations of a social housing and how it informs about the ongoing projects.

In the special issue 82 dedicated for the topic social housing, a research is presented concerning the standards of social housing and the minimum comfort level prototype of an average family system. The article claims the reason that creates the slum problem is that the population flocking to the cities with the urbanization movement can not afford to acquire housing. According to the article the two possible solutions can ease this crisis; either to increase the income level 13 to the level that can benefit from the existing housing market; or creating a housing market according to the current income level. While the ideal solution would be the first option it still can not cover the rate of slum housing, therefore the social housing system should update the standards to answer the affordability problem. The article also draws attention to the 4th dimension usually neglected for a family living; that is the time. As explained, the concept of family depends on 3 factors; growth, flexibility and mobility. These factors apply both for the quantity such as the number of members, and quality such as the financial capability. With response to these points made, the ideal standards of a social housing unit is elaborated; “Since the different needs of each individual family cannot be taken into account, especially in a social housing project, each house owner should be given maximum freedom in the housing system. The host should be able to transform his house into the way he wants, from relocating the walls to building additional spaces, and to obtain a unique shelter that can only meet his own wishes.”. 14

To give an example of the project reviews, a social housing settlement in Ankara is presented in a well detailed manner starting from the geographical context to the apartment typology plans, regulations and maintenance of the blocks. 15 The chief architect Sevki Vanli and many other contributing professionals carry out this urban project with acknowledging the necessity of a qualified housing prototype and to overcome the disturbing built environment of irregular slums. Through this prototype project the concept of “OR-AN” (middle anatolia corporate housing) system is initiated. As explained in description of this initiative enterprise, the objectives are; -adding population balance in the city planning, -responding to affordable housing -standardizing the new construction methods -offering comfortable lifestyles to the people with low income, therefore providing a homogeneous distribution of socio-economic levels in the society. To inform the sector professionals theoretical explanations and the powerful references are also included for better understanding of the designing of the prototype. Project drawings are shown with detailed explanations.

13 Aliye P. Celik, “Research upon the Transition from the Slums to the Social Housing”, Mimarlik, 1970, issue 82 14 Aliye P. Celik, “Research upon the Transition from the Slums to the Social Housing”, Mimarlik, 1970, issue 82 15 Sevki Vanli, “Corporate Housing Settlement in Ankara”, Mimarlik, 1970, issue 82

Or-An Mass Housing project by chief architect Sevki Vanli and others, issue 82

chapter 1: screening squatters’ houses

The slum issue, which has become a striking problem during 1965, has been the last link of the urbanization incident that has been developing for a long time. But despite all the warnings, as the chamber claims, even the smallest caution could not be taken across the government. 16 Found in a reference article, slums are briefly described as follows: “To put it simply, slums are the shelters of large masses that do not comply with agriculture and population changes, spread in our industrialized, non-organized cities, work in low-income jobs.” According to Prof. Kiray, the reason that the slum workforce is not identified well, is not because of the low income nor not because of the reluctance and incompetence of those who come to the city. In fact, industry, organization, specialization, in short, modernization is slow. 17

There are several examples that screen the vast settlements of squatters. The magazine portrays the zones of squatter settlements in city centres while informing the audience with rhetorics, critical statements and warnings to underline the unhealthy situation that is growing sharply. For instance speaking of the squatter settlements in Ankara, the architect and urban planner Senyapili mentions that the rapid increase in the slums prevents the city from developing according to the zoning plan and the use of the urban land according to the aims set by the plan. As given, the capacity of the old Ankara to absorb the immigrant population was sufficient until 1945-46, and in these years the construction of slums began. In Senyapili’s words, “The neglected precautions and practices taken over the years in the slums caused this problem to become a severe headache today in our big cities and of course in Ankara.” Despite the fact that these critics have always been neglected, Senyapili then expresses possible precautions and describes how to handle this problem professionally in the urban planning of Ankara. 18

In another article, the news is reported concerning the problem of slums’ uncomfortable standards. According to the magazine, upon UIA’s attempt, French Social Housing committee was invited for the purpose of visiting and reviewing in one of the slum settlements in Istanbul. They were also hosted in seminars and had meetings with students debating on this subject at ITU Faculty of Architecture. Commenting upon the invitation, the chief editor Bulent Ozer states “In the planned development phase, in which we are in charge of seeking and establishing the optimum balance between our needs and possibilities, it is believed that it would be appropriate to engage in an exchange of ideas with a country closest to us in terms of structure.” 19 In conclusion of this visit, the delegate suggests that a similar solution can be successful here by referring to an applied system implemented for extremely poor people by the French Government in Algeria after the II World War. In this system, official institutions can directly provide materials instead of cash aid. They can provide a place. They can establish the infrastructure. Thus, both for slums, help those who build their own homes, and core-housing problems can be solved in a very harmonious way at the lowest level.

----- As seen in this chapter, Mimarlik plays a significant role for portraying the emergent situation that needs urgent attention of the government authorities and urban development professionals. The articles with screened datas convey that the emerging population growth and migration towards city centres call for solutions that need to be implemented. Meantime, the magazine, in other words professionals of the chamber of architects in Turkey, warn through the articles that the country is on the edge of an inevitable chaos in urbanization. Through Mimarlik, they express their worries about remaining on the threshold and they forecast that if the addressed target groups do not carry out the urban development plans successfully, the growing problem of rapid urbanization will raise many deteriorations in the socio-cultural and economical realms.

16 the Chamber of Architects, “Chamber of architects announced their views on Slums”, 1965, issue 26 17 Onder Senyapili, “Ankara 70’ / Slums”, Mimarlik, 1970, issue 77 18 Onder Senyapili, “Ankara 70’ / Slums”, Mimarlik, 1970, issue 77 19 Bulent Ozer, “French Social Housing Committee Visit and Their Conclusions”, Mimarlik, 1965, issue 17

Ankara Slum Settlement Sites “Ankara’70”, issue 77

French Committee and the Chamber of Architects are in Celikttepe slums settlement,

Slums on Mountain Altindag, photography: Fahri Yetman “Ankara’70”, issue 77

UIA delegate Prof. Georges Héaume, inside of a squatter house “French Social Housing Committee Visit and Their Conclusions”, issue 17