Heritage preservation and interdisciplinary approach through Fine Art and Science Education

Robert PotoÄ?nik Iztok Devetak

Heritage preservation and interdisciplinary approach through Fine Art and Science Education

Bratislava, 2020

Heritage preservation and interdisciplinary approach through Fine Art and Science Education

Written by: Reviewed by: Translated by: Published by: URL access: Designed by: Prepress by:

dr. Robert Potočnik, University of Ljubljana dr. Iztok Devetak, University of Ljubljana dr. Tonka Tacol Prof. Dr. Božena Šupšáková, PhD. Dora Debeljak Digit, s.r.o., Publishing House, Bratislavská 18, 900 21 Svätý Jur, Slovakia http://www.arteducation.sk Eva Sikošek Paško Justinčić

CIP Data created by the Slovak National Library.

On-line ISBN: 978-80-968441-5-9

All rights reserved. ©2020

Table of contents Foreword .............................................................................................................................5 Cultural heritage preservation education........................................................................... 7 Recommended content in the first educational period ....................................................................8 Recommended content in the second educational period ............................................................ 10 Recommended content in the third educational period ................................................................ 11

Interdisciplinary approach in Fine Art and Science Education in elementary school..... 13 Interdisciplinary approach: Fine Art Education and other school subjects.................................... 14 Interdisciplinary approach: Fine Art and Science Education........................................................... 17

Didactic activities at a conservation and restoration workshop..................................... 21 First workshop.................................................................................................................................. 22 Second workshop............................................................................................................................. 29 Third workshop................................................................................................................................ 37

Teaching and Learning modules........................................................................................ 51 Pigments and dyes............................................................................................................................. 51 Adhesives and binders...................................................................................................................... 67 Paper.................................................................................................................................................. 79

Study presentation ........................................................................................................... 89 Conclusion......................................................................................................................... 97 Bibliography....................................................................................................................... 99 Subject index................................................................................................................... 105

Foreword The scientific monograph presents the results of the study obtained through the Fine Art Materials and Heritage Preservation Education (Project Work with the Private and Public Sectors in a Local and Regional Environment - Creative Path to Knowledge 2017-2020, 2nd opening) project which involved Taja Klemen, Monika Malnarič, Ana Marija Rauch, Eva Sikošek, Teja Sulejmanovič and France Kavčič. Tanja Košir was also involved in drawing up the text. Our primary consideration was to examine the possibilities of addressing Fine Art and Science Education content in relation to cultural heritage and provide options of including an interdisciplinary approach to issues associated with cultural heritage preservation education in Fine Art and Science Education in elementary school.

Three didactic activities were carried out at a conservation and restoration workshop per period of education, in which various research methods were used to illustrate the possibility of addressing Fine Art and Science Education content and to provide student feedback. Experts from different disciplines were inquired about their opinions regarding the possibilities of including heritage preservation education content into the elementary school system and presented their views on the aforementioned issues. The scientific monograph includes three teaching and learning modules resulting from the activities whose purpose is to facilitate the application of the interdisciplinary approach to the issues associated with heritage preservation education in curricular and extracurricular activities.

Key words: heritage preservation education, fine art education, science education, interdisciplinary approach

5

6

Cultural heritage preservation education Teachers should raise awareness of students on the importance of conserving and protecting cultural heritage throughout the entire schooling period and include related content in the performance of fine arts tasks in addition to adapting the content discussed to the age of the students. By integrating such content, teachers guide students to formulate an attitude and develop the skills required to protect everything created by both humans and nature and to raise awareness on the importance of cultural heritage for general and cultural identities. By raising awareness of the students on creation methods and/or materials used in cultural heritage, teachers enforce a respectful and responsible attitude towards various types of man-made heritage, with an emphasis on visual art and architectural heritage, cultural landscape and selected artefacts of folk craft and art (Bogataj, 1993, PotoÄ?nik, 2018). By systematically raising awareness in students by means of various teaching methods, teaching aids, fine arts materials, fine arts expression and work methods, teachers promote a positive and responsible attitude of students towards cultural heritage in addition to developing their creativity and ability for critical evaluation and interpretation of cultural heritage, its conservation and protection.

Creative and diligent fine arts teachers guide elementary school students to recognise the specific features of cultural heritage and impart a critical attitude towards and responsibility for its conservation and protection. The fine art curriculum already focuses the attention of teachers thereto during the first educational period. According to the curriculum, teachers shall pay attention to the way students experience and express their emotions, how they relate to their peers, which kind of emotions they experience interacting with other students and how they handle various objects.

As early as during the first educational period, the teacher should meet the objectives and discuss the required content subject to the curriculum in addition to raising the awareness of students on cultural heritage, its conservation and protection on a basic level. Teachers shall pay special attention to guiding students towards observing various types of heritage in their own environments. They should also accustom their students to identify their state and to find simple solutions for their conservation and protection. During the second educational period, the teacher

7

should meet the objectives and discuss the required content subject to the curriculum in addition to raising the awareness of students on cultural heritage, its conservation and protection on a more complex level. Teachers shall also pay special attention to guiding students towards observing various types of heritage in both their local environments and a wider area. They shall provide students with more in-depth explanations of the differences between tangible and intangible and moveable and immoveable cultural heritage. They shall also ensure that students learn the difference between conservation and protection on one hand and conservation and restoration of cultural heritage on the other. During the third educational period, teachers shall raise awareness and ensure that students learn the basic differences between various conservation and restoration interventions on paintings and sculptures subject to the elements (materials) used in works of art. They shall also teach students on the differences between various materials and the original and unrepeatable nature of material (tangible) cultural heritage. In addition, they shall focus on promoting observation of heritage in both the local environment and the wider area in students, in particular by ensuring that students express their findings and views on the state of the cultural heritage and make proposals for its improvement (critical thinking).

Teachers should raise awareness in their students on the deterioration of local architectural and visual art heritage and other associated issues such as vandalism, neglect, theft, etc. thereof.

Recommended content in the first educational period In the first educational period, teachers provide information on cultural heritage, present the differences between natural and cultural heritage, natural and cultural landscape and immoveable and moveable heritage. They shall discuss the content in an appropriate manner based on the age of the students and shall apply work methods and types that promote exploration in students.

They can shed some light on the origins of man-made fine arts creation and present the first known fine arts materials, preparation and creation methods and various uses. In painting, they can present soil pigments, charcoal, burnt bones and

8

chalk as the first paint materials available to humans that they applied with their fingertips, with the help of lichen or moss, animal fur, by blowing paint through hollow bones, etc.

In sculpture, the teacher can present the materials used in the first known sculptures: soil (clay, argil), bones, ivory, stones, various metals that humans found nearby and intervened into by means of simple aids, by adding – modelling or by removing – carving.

In architecture, teachers can teach students about the first homes (caves) as the first original type of natural shelter, first buildings and construction materials: soil (clay), wood, stone, straw, baked clay (bricks) (Juvanec, 2006, PotoÄ?nik 2018).

During the first educational period, teachers should guide students to observe their local area and to find local examples of visual art heritage (e.g. in churches, chapels, squares, homes) and to describe differences between paintings and sculptures, between murals and paintings on canvas, between wooden painted sculptures and metal sculptures, etc. In particular, teachers should focus the attention of students to observing deteriorating architectural heritage and recognising the importance of a responsible attitude of both the owner and society as a whole towards it and finding simple solutions for the re-use of a particular architectural heritage unit, in addition to comparing traditional and contemporary materials used in paintings, sculptures, architecture and folk craft and the basic differences that both groups of materials allow for.

In order to promote a more sensible perception of the importance of conserving cultural heritage and to enhance a responsible and respectful attitude towards it, students can also create fine arts works from materials they create themselves, such as by becoming aware of paint as a set of pigments (small grains of various natural substances) and binder medium created from substances/materials they are familiar with (milk, eggs, wax) by creating their own simple paint. By introducing students to the origins of various materials and to various simple application methods, teachers raise awareness in their students on the various materials used in cultural heritage. By teaching them about their transience, students are taught about the importance of their conservation and protection.

During the first educational period, students should visit various institutions in charge of conserving and protecting cultural heritage and learn the basics of heritage concern through various didactic aids.

9

Recommended content in the second educational period During the second educational period, teachers can shed light on man-made fine arts creations and provide an in-depth insight into fine arts materials, preparation, creation methods and types of uses. In painting, they can make in-depth presentations of parts of a painting: the mat created from the painting medium (such as paper, wood, canvas) and basis composed of a filler (such as plaster or chalk) and binder medium (such as glue or oil) on which paint (a set of pigment and binder medium) is applied. Teachers can also present the development of painting media: painted walls on cliffs, wall surfaces, wood, paper, canvas and various contemporary materials.

Students can also be introduced to paint ingredients in early paintings: mixtures of pigments found in the local area (mineral dust, charcoal, burnt bones, limestone) and binder media (water, liquids from various plants, animal fat, protein and blood).

Students are taught to understand the development of painting from wall paintings in the pre-historic era, paintings in lime plaster (frescoes), paintings created with a mixture of pigments, wax and resin (encaustic paintings), to egg tempera, oil paint and canvas as a painting medium and various types of synthetic paint (such as acrylic paint).

In sculpture, students can be introduced to sculptures made from various materials: traditional (clay, plaster, stone, wood, metals) and contemporary materials.

Students are taught to distinguish between immoveable sculptures that form part of a building and moveable sculptures. Sculptures are: stone sculptures, wooden painted sculptures, wooden sculptures, stone painted sculptures, architectural sculptures (including advanced moulding), metal sculptures, ceramic sculptures, sculptures from other materials (Makuc Semion, Dolenc KambiÄ?, 2004, PotoÄ?nik 2018).

In architecture, the teacher can teach students to learn about the development of space in a house (homestead), in a rural and urban environment (Juvanec, 2006, PotoÄ?nik, 2018).

In the second educational period, teachers encourage students to make in-depth comparisons between traditional and contemporary painting, sculpture, architectural and folk craft materials, identify opportunities and basic differences both groups of materials allow for.

10

Students should visit institutions in charge of conserving and protecting cultural heritage and become familiar with the following professions: conservator-restorer, conservator-architect, conservator-landscape architect, etc.

By creating a fine arts work from traditional materials, they become familiar therewith and enhance the creation technology with a sense of responsibility towards visual art heritage, its conservation and protection.

Recommended content in the third educational period In the third educational period, teachers can shed light on conservation practices both locally and abroad (Dvořák, 1916, Jokilehto, 1999, Potočnik 2018). By applying contemporary fine art practices (performances, textual art, landscape art, installations, etc.), students can learn about conservation and protection of visual art, architectural heritage, cultural landscape and selected artefacts of folk art and craft.

In architecture, students are taught to distinguish between secular (rural, town/ city and market-town buildings) and sacred (churches, chapels, plague columns) and secular-sacred (monasteries, presbyteries) heritage; they can distinguish between various types of use: residential or non-residential, changes to the intended use of a facility, describe roofs, builders’ joinery, materials, details, etc. used in architectural heritage and compare them to contemporary architecture. Students can also become familiar with various cultural landscapes and their distinct architectural heritage, important differences and specific origin (such as the Bovec House, the Carinthian House, etc.). They use photographs to identify new buildings that match the identity of a specific cultural landscape and to describe its characteristics. Teachers can also encourage students to observe appropriate and inappropriate interventions onto architectural heritage and cultural heritage both locally and elsewhere (materials used in restoration procedures, stylistic configuration of details, increasing apertures, replacing builders’ joinery, colours of the façades, additions to facilities, size of facilities, impact of architecture on the environment subject to existing architecture or distinct cultural landscape, etc.). Illustrations of architectural heritage allow students to identify man-adapted measures and ratios (symmetry, rhythm, the Golden Ratio).

11

Photographs of the landscape can serve to compare new buildings that match the existing identity of the cultural landscape and establish inappropriate characteristics of new buildings (such as oversized dimensions, imbalanced aperture ratio, inappropriate façade paint, decorative memorials, materials, etc.).

They should also become familiar with the work of conservators-restorers and their interventions onto visual art heritage. They shall also be introduced to the types of architectural heritage conservation and protection procedures: restoration (maintenance, rehabilitation in compliance with the required conditions and subject to prior consent of the conservation service if the building is deemed cultural heritage or monument and has been entered into the Immoveable Heritage Registry).

In terms of fine arts tasks, they can plan changes to the existing local architecture: reconstructing existing single-family houses (“cubes”) into buildings that match the identity of the local cultural landscape or urban environment (Ivanič, 2012), renovating architectural heritage in compliance with contemporary needs, exploring changes to the landscape and architecture by utilising past resources and by documenting the current state. Students shall create a fine arts work according to the traditional technology of creating a painting on canvas: tightening the canvas on a wooden frame, preparing the canvas (creating a semi-oil or oil medium), paint (creating one’s own oil or other type of paint); a fine arts work according to the traditional technology of creating a wooden painting (creating a glue-clay medium) and an egg tempera.

During regular classes, elective subjects, on cultural and technical days, in a fine arts afternoon class, etc., students should visit institutions in charge of conserving and protecting cultural heritage. They shall also become familiar with secondary and tertiary study programmes for professions engaged in the conservation and protection of cultural heritage.

12

Interdisciplinary approach to Fine Art and Science Education content in elementary school An interdisciplinary or cross-curricular approach is a method of achieving new educational objectives of elementary school which stretch into the future of economic life. Students are introduced to the life of modern-day society which requires the following skills: a broad outlook on life, personal sophistication, independent and original problem-solving skills, teamwork of various experts in the occupational field, self-confidence and mental health and continuous self-study and training ability of the individual (Bergant, 1990). An interdisciplinary or cross-curricular approach as a concept refers to the interlacing of learning content of various school subjects (Ĺ temberger, 2007). Before lessons are planned, inquiries need to be made regarding the school subjects for which the interdisciplinary approach shall be applied, additional sources of information and ways to create a supportive learning environment (Purcell Cone, Werner, Cone, 2009). Optimum efficiency and quality of such an interdisciplinary approach requires thorough preparation. Ad hoc random interdisciplinary approaches do not lead to very high results. Proper conditions for an interdisciplinary approach need to be provided for in advance (flexible timetable and school-work organisation, appropriate facilities, if applicable, collaboration of the teaching staff, etc.). Relevant professional and didactic competencies of teachers are of key significance. If optimum conditions cannot be provided for, existing circumstances and work conditions shall be taken into consideration (Ĺ temberger, 2007). Proposed steps which can facilitate the planning, implementation and evaluation of an interdisciplinary approach are as follows: review of the curriculum, selection of the content and objectives to be addressed in an interdisciplinary manner, a study of the selected topic (provision of additional information appropriate for the age and developmental phase of the children involved), selection of an appropriate interdisciplinary model, drawing up of a lesson plan and making other required logistic arrangements (specification of work forms, provision of individualisation and differentiation, provision of active participation of all students, drawing up of materials, etc.) and, in the end, planning the evaluation (grading method) is subject to the objectives, processes and activities carried out by students (Purcell Cone, Werner and Cone, 2009). An interdisciplinary (cross-

13

curricular) approach must be pursued with the understanding of both advantages and disadvantages of such a teaching method. The interdisciplinary approach shall be planned on the following grounds: promoting comprehensive activities of students (who shall gain independent and active learning experiences) and taking into consideration their cognitive, emotional and physical functions, networked learning in addition to several types of intelligence which enhances their learning capacities.

However, this approach shall be pursued with caution in order to ensure that such a work method does not result in overly simplified didactic solutions, unclear learning objectives, a sole focus on substantial connections, negligence of the properties of any individual school subject and issues associated with organisation and implementation (Sicherl-Kafol, 2007, Ĺ temberger, 2007).

Interdisciplinary approach: Fine Art Education and other school subjects The interdisciplinary approach usually involves previously acquired concepts which are placed into a new context which can, subsequently, also be expanding to an understanding of concepts themselves. In the interest of visual learning it shall be clear that fine art activities of all types play an essential role in the educational process (Hickmann, Kiss, 2010, Duh, Herzog, ZupanÄ?iÄ?, 2016). Since fine arts consist of several layers in their own right and fine art creation encompasses a wide variety of activities, an interdisciplinary approach can be used for Fine Art Education and almost any other school subject. As a rule, the comprehensive nature of aesthetic fields is highlighted. Nevertheless, the way Fine Art Education is connected to science school subjects is also of relevance. An interdisciplinary approach, however, requires different planning of lessons, a different course thereof and taking into consideration of specific features of all content. Therefore, it is challenging to generate a proper and organic interconnection between learning content (Karlavaris, Berce-Golob, 1991). An interdisciplinary approach that connects Fine Art Education with other school subjects cannot be of high quality if Fine Art Education is subordinated to another school subject, its objectives are not fully taken into account, if it is only used for the purpose of illustrating a specific topic or if the teacher requires only

14

one ‘correct’ definition of aesthetics. The same also applies to excessive focus on Fine Art Education, if work methods are pre-selected solely subject to the Fine Art Education aspect of the interdisciplinary approach and if this approach is overly concentrated on the attitude of students towards fine arts (Wenner, Berg, Mesler, 1970). An interdisciplinary approach can be pursued in Fine Art Education lessons in the following ways: (1) by creating connections between concepts based on a verbal interpretation: through teaching aids and explanations, the teacher refreshes the memory of students regarding relevant concepts found in other school subjects.

These concepts then serve as a starting point for learning and understanding a fine art concept. The interdisciplinary approach is pursued by students on a primarily verbal level; (2) by creating connections between concepts based on a verbal and fine art interpretation: a fine art problem includes concepts of other school subjects which are integrated by learning about the fine art concept at hand. Students express themselves through fine arts, not only through words. Concepts are thus included in the fine art task and are interpreted through a fine art lens. These interdisciplinary approach methods are: (1) A fine art motif serves as the starting point for designing the fine art problem: the fine art motif is drawn from content of another school subject. It should be noted that students shall not strive to imitate reality since that is contrary to the development of creativity. Copying a flower that was once addressed when learning science content from the textbook into the notebook thus cannot be presented as an interdisciplinary approach example; (2) The starting point for the design of a fine art problem is a fine art technique: the teacher shall plan the lesson by focusing on the technique used to design the fine art task. If the teacher can connect concepts associated with the fine art technique (such as wood, clay, etc.) to concepts learnt about during lessons of another school subject (for example, when learning about the environment), these shall be used for fine art creations and repeated in that manner, and (3) The starting point for the design of the fine art problem is a fine art concept: fine art concepts are learnt about or drawn from concepts addressed in other school subjects (based on Tacol, 2003, Tacol, Šupšáková, 2018).

15

Interdisciplinary approach: Fine Art Education and other school subjects As far as an interdisciplinary approach to Science Education is concerned, an important role is played by the development of systematic thinking capacities which combine both analytical decomposition of a problem into individual units and the possibility of creating a synthesis of various findings describing a phenomenon (Barton, Haslet, 2007). Interdisciplinary teaching of Science Education creates an appropriate environment for establishing a comprehensive meaning of the taught content. It is important to ensure that a variety of experiences is gained during lessons. These are multi-layered in their own right. The same applies to the interdisciplinary approach.

The approach to the problem which impacts the understanding of scientific concepts is key to this work method. Interdisciplinary objectives facilitate critical reflection, an analysis and synthesis of knowledge and use of findings whose effect can be graded and pursued in a longer period of time. An interdisciplinary (cross-curricular) approach can also be pursued as part of project tasks carried out by small groups of students. Thematic units with an extremely widespread substantial design can be specified as content. Knowledge shall be substantially connected in a way that no clear boundaries can be perceived between various disciplines (Urbančič, 2012). There are several types or levels of interdisciplinary teaching. The usual approach to curricular activities in an interdisciplinary way assumes the form of project tasks carried out by small groups of students. Usually, these constitute thematic units with a substantially very wide problem and the content shall thus be addressed from several perspectives.

This approach enables a better use of time and a more in-depth view of the wide scope of a school subject (Beane, 1997). Science Education can be connected to various school subjects and provides several types of content that can be addressed in an interdisciplinary manner. In its own right, it relates to a large number of personal and social issues (Caranfa, 2009). Younger students in the first period of education acquire knowledge in a concrete way. Therefore, great emphasis should be paid to experience-based learning (Pristovnik, 2007). Using an interdisciplinary approach for Science Education and other school subjects is meaningful in all periods of education since, generally speaking, students love personal interactions with nature which have proven motivational for their learning process and, as a result, lead to permanent and meaningful learning (Godnič, 2014).

16

Interdisciplinary approach: Fine Art and Science Education “The connection between science and the arts could be defined by using the following words: imagination, critical interpretation, aesthetics� (Kafetzopoulos, Spyrellis, Lymperopoulou-Karaliotas, 2006). Science can be understood from two standpoints. One refers to a practical standpoint which focuses on useful and practical knowledge. The other one refers to an intellectual standpoint. By understanding scientific content and discovering something new, a kind of intellectual gratification is achieved. Science is not an individual experience, but a combination of knowledge shared by a mere understanding of concepts stemming from the physical and social worlds. Science is engaged in the laws of nature that humans seek to comprehend.

Contrary to science, the arts are a concept supposedly understood by all, however a different explanation is provided by every single person. The arts are more difficult to define than the laws of nature. The arts impact your senses and stimulate your brain in various ways: visually, auditory, through smell and touch. Therefore, interactions with the arts are an individual experience (Tamir, 2009). Quite a large number of benefits have been demonstrated for the use of an interdisciplinary approach used for Science and Fine Art Education. Students are able to use their understanding of scientific concepts to create fine art creations. Through it, concepts can be presented and both Science and Fine Art Education approaches to lessons can be used. Experiencebased learning is also predominant in this interdisciplinary approach: students gain experiences related to a specific concept from two extremely diverse school subjects which facilitate the creation of a more comprehensive image thereof (Bopegedera, 2005). One of the objectives of curriculum planners is thus to bring Science Education lessons as close to as many students as possible and render them more student-friendly.

This objective is also more easily achieved by pursuing an interdisciplinary approach for science and arts (Kafetzopoulos, Spyrellis, Lymperopoulou-Karaliotas, 2006).

Integrating the arts into Science Education constitutes one of the ways of developing creative thinking in this school subject as well (Liu, Lin, 2014). This interdisciplinary approach also enriches Fine Art Education lessons. By connecting the two, students improve their understanding of fine art concepts, motifs and materials, such as colours, light, simple anatomies of animals, humans, plants and the environment they live in.

Without a basic understanding of the above and similar structures no productive

17

observation can take place. If students lack knowledge of, for example, materials used, they will have to rely on unreliable and sometimes also non-motivational trivial work modules (since they have no idea how to approach something) that they may have come across in the past but which had never been explained or soundly justified. The above robs students of fine art development (Wenham, 1998). In spite of advantages of using an interdisciplinary approach for science and fine arts, professionals continue to experience a barrier between science and fine arts. Even though the arts and science offer many interdisciplinary approach opportunities, this connection is frequently repudiated (Taylor, 2001). Separating the arts from science has transformed into a wound in our educational system, in which both Fine Art and Science Education suffer. In order to heal it, ways of upgrading existing good practices that bring together joint interests and objectives shall be proposed. Science and the arts can be connected through problem and research situations (Wenham, 1998).

When you decide to use an interdisciplinary approach for Science and Fine Art Education, it shall be carried out in a professionally correct manner from the standpoint of both school subjects. If a motif is regarded through the lens of science, it shall be viewed in an objective, universal and rational manner. If, on the other hand, the same motif is regarded only through the lens of fine arts, it shall be defined on a subjective, individual and even emotional level. If these two disciplines are compared on the example of a violet, it can be established that, as far as science is concerned, a violet is examined as a subject of research. The relationship between the pistil and stamens is analysed, its leaves are observed under a microscope. On the other hand, fine arts regard the same violet as a motif in a subjective way, everyone experiences, for example, its colours and smell in a different way, the general experience of the motif is expanded into a worldview of the life and world in which we live in (Karlavaris, Berce-Golob, 1991). The majority of images used in Science Education thus must comply with scientific criteria, i.e. they must be clear, contain reliable data, organised and transparent in aesthetic terms. These images shall not be confused with fine art works, even if they are created by a teacher or student. By failing to distinguish between an artistic and scientific image, we can create confusion in the understanding of phenomena and cause insecurity in the shaping of judgement criteria for various images (Karlavaris, Berce-Golob, 1991). A work of art is regarded as multi-layered, open and ambiguous. This is what separates an aesthetic work of fine arts from a scientific work. Fine art works consist of the following layers: motif or problem,

18

materials or technique, fine art language and culture, fine art ideas and message, fine art capacities of the artist, individual characteristics of the artist, design methodology, design time, style and direction, environment, national tradition, the social status and attitude towards social issues of the artist (Karlavaris, Berce-Golob, 1991). Using an interdisciplinary approach does not simplify any fine art and scientific theories but instead offers us a way to see them in a different way (Kandel, Mack, 2003). We need to also make sure that, as far as Science Education is concerned, nothing that could be referred to as pseudo-science is taught. Pseudo-science could be described as something that seems scientifically correct at first glance, also sounds scientifically correct subject to the terminology used, however, when an in-depth approach to its content is used, improper scientific justification is identified (Cutting, Kelly, 2015).

Listed below are a few examples of how can Science and Fine Art Education be connected to one another and which can be used in practical work: (1) Materials: an interdisciplinary approach is extremely meaningful since it allows children to gain a three-dimensional experience with the materials by touching them, observing their treatment or by participating therein (Clough, 1999). Fine Art and Science Education thus avail of similar activities when it comes to materials, not to mention that similar skills are deemed objectives of both school subjects (Karlavaris, Berce-Golob, 1991); (2) Animals, organisms, plants: significant sources for the child’s visual development and development of creative can be drawn by using these topics (Clough, 1999) and (3) Pigments, binders: an interdisciplinary approach can also provide a historic perspective on the subject. Chemistry and Fine Art Education have been connected in this field for a long time since no dyes can be created without using specific chemical procedures. The topic can be expanded to dyes themselves and a historical aspect can be included (Kafetzopoulos, Spyrellis, Lymperopoulou-Karaliotas, 2006). This topic can also be connected to informal circumstances in life which children like: it is easier for them to imagine how to create something also outside of school and, as such, lessons are seen as more useful (Gaquere-Parker, Does, Parker, 2016).

19

20

Didactic activities at a conservation and restoration workshop A Science Education activity was carried out at a conservation and restoration workshop for the first period of education: children made milk-based tempera and designed a motif through learning about specific features of professions in charge of cultural heritage preservation. For the first period of education, another Science Education activity was carried out: students made cellulose clay and created a sculpture form according to their perceptions and imagination subject to recognised special features of vermin in works of art (cultural heritage preservation content).

The third activity involved the creation of natural adhesives (learning about specific features of cultural heritage preservation materials) and dying of textiles with natural dyes, all connected to the issues associated with various materials used in cultural heritage preservation and, indirectly, the need for specialisation of experts for various materials (such as restorers-curators for wood, restorers-curators for textiles, etc.), in addition to the fine art teaching and learning concept (ZupanÄ?iÄ?, 2006), whereby students gave their own views of preservation of the environment (including heritage) and people working in modern-day textile industry through their own fine art work.

Workshops included interviews during which students provided feedback on the Fine Art and Science Education activity itself and their attitude towards cultural heritage preservation.

21

First workshop Students of the first period of education in elementary school (aged 6, 7 and 8) Indicative time 3 school hours dedicated to the addressed area: Grades: Grade 1, 2 and 3 Fine art field: painting Fine art task: designing a motif by including primary and secondary (Fine art activity and colours according to one’s perceptions and imagination fine art problem) Fine art technique: milk-based tempera Fine art motif: Look at the master that I am!

Teaching methods: explanation, demonstration, discussion Forms of work: individual Instructional materials: reproductions of works of art, photographs of various manuscripts with graphic motifs, works of art from the conservation and restoration workshop Fine art materials: watercolour paper, pigments, binder (milk), brushes, pallets, other materials Teaching aids: LCD projector, computer, programme presentation of photographs

22

Objectives/students:

SCIENCE ART EDUCATION OBJECTIVES: students are able to draw associations between properties of materials and their treatment methods and identify differences between the treatment of wood and paper; students are able to list tools that can be used for treating various materials and understand that various tools are required for this purpose; students learn that properties of materials can be changed subject to various phenomena (fading, burning, weathering, etc.); students learn that treated materials can change shape and that useful objects can be made from them.

FINE ART EDUCATION OBJECTIVES: students repeat concepts of primary colours and paintings; students learn new concepts: secondary colours, wood-, paper-, canvas-, parchment-based works of art; students develop a sense of responsible attitude towards medieval and Renaissance manuscript heritage preservation; students mix primary colours to create secondary colours and create a painting; students make milk-based tempera; students paint a motif subject to their perceptions and imagination; as part of the evaluation process, they provide feedback on their work with the material and experience with the content associated with cultural heritage preservation education (they answer structured questions).

Three school hours were specified for the implementation of the first workshop with students of the first period of education (aged 6, 7 and 8). The activity was focused on a painting depiction of the motif “Look at the master that I am� by using primary and secondary colours according to the perceptions and imagination of the students. After students arrived to the restoration workshop, they were greeted by one of the employees and explained to them what a curator-restorer even is, what they do, where the students have arrived and what a conservation and restoration workshop is.

23

After the introductory part of the workshop, pantomime was used to teach students about various types of arts and crafts and professions. Each student shared what they wanted to be when they grew up. A discussion was also held on the arts and crafts they already know or have come across. After that, graphic materials and fine works of art at the conservation and restoration workshop were used to discuss various specific features of materials: sculptures and altars, manuscripts, etc. Students were show a manuscript depicting a master trying to say: Look at the master that I am!

Peter Lombard: Interpretations of letters of St. Paul, Ljubljana, National and University Library of Slovenia, Ms 3 (photograph by: http://www.scrnilominzlatom.mladinska. com/).

After that, didactic materials (a colour wheel and demonstration of the fine art technique, colour mixing) were used to teach students about primary colours and how their mixing creates secondary colours. During the mixing demonstration, students were encouraged to identify colours obtained when primary colours are mixed. For example: mixing yellow and blue creates green, red and blue creates violet, etc.

24

The colour wheel according to J. Itten (photograph by: Wikipedia).

The tempera for their fine art work was created by the students themselves according to the milk-based tempera creation procedure (Hudoklin, 1955). 1 decilitre of milk was mixed with 1 egg. This was the binder for making tempera. The pigment of the desired was selected and spooned onto the palette. The brush was dipped into the binder and mixed with the pigment. Attention was drawn to the quantity of added pigment and binder and the important rule that brushes need to be washed after every change of colours. After that, students independently mixed colours and created shades. The created dyes were used for their fine art task. The motif encouraged students to reflect on professions. They depicted themselves as hairdressers, ice hockey players, police officers, etc., in addition to reflecting on the environments in which specific professions work, which objects they are surrounded by and what kind of materials these are from. During their work, students were encouraged to be as independent as possible, some of them received assistance during the mixing processes and questions were answered.

25

Students while creating their fine art works.

Colour mixing - milk-based tempera.

After students completed their works, these were displayed on the table and discussed. It was reviewed which professions had been depicted, in which environments they work, which objects they are surrounded by and what kind of materials these are from. Special attention was paid to a presentation of the colours and creation methods thereof.

26

Fine art works of students of the first period of education.

27

After that, students were taught in detail about the tasks and duties of curators and restorers. They received a guided tour of the workshop and observed a few works of art whose restoration was in progress at the time. They learnt why works of art needed to be restored (the most frequent types of damage curators-restorers come across, how restoration is approached, etc.).

Students while learning about the specific features of a conservation and restoration workshop.

In the end, the story “Ider the Spider at the restoration workshop” was read in order to bring the students even closer to the findings of that day. Using the story and their paintings, tasks of curators-restorers were repeated, the importance of their tasks discussed and, in relation to cultural heritage, it was established why works of art need to be taken care of and conserved.

Students while listening to the “Ider the Spider at the restoration workshop” story.

28

Second workshop Students of the second period of education in elementary school (aged 9, 10 and 11) Indicative time 4 school hours dedicated to the addressed area: Grades: 4, 5 and 6 Fine art field: sculpting Fine art task: creating a sculpture from a wire and cellulose pulp subject (Fine art activity and to one’s perceptions and imagination fine art problem) Fine art technique: wrapping, assembling, bending, folding, shaping Fine art motif: Extraordinary beings (under a magnifying glass) Teaching methods: explanation, demonstration, discussion Forms of work: individual Instructional reproductions of works of art, works of art from the materials: conservation and restoration workshop (a sculpture attacked by wood vermin), photographs of wood vermin, other materials (lime, starch) Fine art materials: cellulose pulp, cellulose adhesive, wire, plies Teaching aids: printed graphic material

29

Objectives/students:

SCIENCE ART EDUCATION OBJECTIVES: students are able to explain how properties of substances (such as adhesives) are associated with their use (Grade 4); students learn that a magnifying glass and microscope can be used to see things that cannot be seen with the naked eye (Grade 6); students learn about some vermin in wood (fungus and insects - longhorn beetle) and are able to classify them (invertebrates, insects; Grade 4); students learn that treated materials can change shape and that useful objects can be made from them; students are able to explain the importance of decomposers (in the circulation of substances in nature and explain how decomposers contributed to the creation of fertile soil); students create a material (starch adhesive, cellulose pulp).

FINE ART EDUCATION OBJECTIVES When observing works of fine art at the conservation and restoration workshop, students are taught about fine art concepts associated with shaping and designing in a threedimensional space; students repeat the concept of a free-standing sculpture; students learn about new concepts: sculpture surface (materials); students make a sculpture from cellulose pulp and wire; as part of the evaluation process, they provide feedback on their work with the material and experience with the content associated with cultural heritage preservation education.

Four school hours were foreseen for the implementation of the second workshop with students of the second period of education. The workshop was focused on presenting wood vermin and combining the presentation with cultural heritage preservation education and the role of curators-restorers in preventing the decay of works of art. This was followed by a sculpting task. In order to incite interest and actively involve students from the beginning, puzzles were prepared. Some of

30

them contained some wood vermin species. Students worked in three groups. When all groups assembled their photographs, they were discussed and named.

Students during the introductory part of the workshop (assembling an image of an insect).

This activity was followed by a wood vermin quiz. Students were divided into two groups. After each question they were given 15 seconds of time to decide on the answer and write it on a board (or piece of paper). After each question, answers were reviewed and discussed. As such, students were able to repeat several Science Education contents during the quiz which are discussed in Science Education lessons.

The workshop included also experts from the conservation and restoration workshop who presented vermin associated issues and measures for fighting them.

On concrete wooden works of art, students were able to see the damage caused by some insects.

31

Students while observing vermin in a wooden sculpture.

After the Science Education part, students were provided with fine art concept content. Cellulose pulp obtained from waste paper packaging was presented. Students reflected what needed to be added to make it more compact. They discovered that an adhesive was needed. During the practical part, students were given a quick presentation on the types of adhesives known. Natural and synthetic adhesives. They were shown how lime looks like and how it is extracted.

This was followed by making starch adhesive. In groups, students prepared starch adhesive that was subsequently added to the pulp. Since the solution had to be left to stand for 20 minutes, that time was spent discussing sculpting and sculptures.

Students were guided towards observing a sculpture at the workshop. The colour of the statue, material, surface, why it has been hollowed out in the back and similar matters were discussed.

32

Students while preparing starch adhesive.

After our discussion, students mixed the cellulose pulp with the prepared starch adhesive. They were given instructions and their fine art task was presented. In addition to cellulose pulp, wire was also provided as a material. Working with the wire was demonstrated. Then, students were guided towards observing photographs of beings under a magnifying glass. The purpose of this activity was to encourage a reflection on the form, size, surface of the observed and, indirectly, on their own sculpting solutions. Students were guided towards the fine art motif: extraordinary beings (under a magnifying glass). This was followed by a fine art expression. Students were guided, encouraged and assisted in solving fine art problems.

33

A female student forming the wire construction of the statue.

A female student applying cellulose pulp to the wire construction of the wire.

After work was completed, all creations were displayed and discussed. During the discussion, students presented the task. Special attention was paid to the stability of the statue, an illustration of the specific features of an extraordinary being and to the surface of the statue achieved through cellulose pulp and the fine art technique.

Students presented their beings as vermin feeding on various materials (wood, metal, synthetic materials, etc.) and thus made sense of the recognised special features of cultural heritage conservation and materials in fine arts.

34

Fine art works of students of the second period of education.

35

Fine art works of students of the second period of education.

36

Third workshop Students of the third period of education in elementary school (aged 12, 13 and 14) Indicative time 4 school hours dedicated to the addressed area: Grades: 7, 8 and 9 Subject area (Science Education part): organic oxygenates Fine art field: several fields (painting, sculpting) Fine art task: designing an assemblage according to the principles of (Fine art activity and contemporary fine art practices (by using the made starch fine art problem) adhesive and textiles dyed with natural dyes) Fine art technique: assemblage Fine art motif: “The textile I wear?� (attitude towards contemporary production of clothing) Fine art materials: cardboard, textile-associated waste materials, waste textiles, small painted cloths and the natural adhesive made during the Science Education part Student activity dying textile cloths with dyes made from natural materials (Science Education (red cabbage, onion and red pepper dyes) and making an part): adhesive from natural materials (milk and starch) Teaching methods: explanation, demonstration, discussion, work with materials Forms of work: frontal and group Instructional laboratory aids, chemicals, natural materials (corn starch, materials and aids milk, red cabbage, red pepper, onion), printed graphic for the Science material to assist with the explanation Education activity:

37

Objectives/ students:

Science Education part: - students distinguish between pure substances and blends, - students learn about solutions as examples of blends and distinguish between solvents and solutes, - students learn about the basic properties and function of protein in organisms.

Fine Art Education part: - students repeat concepts: painting, sculpture, relief; - students learn new concepts: fine art variable: size, assemblage, conceptual art; - students develop motor skills and a sense of working with various materials and aids to express themselves in a threedimensional space; - students learn about works of fine art of various designs which form part of local and international cultural heritage; - students make an assemblage; - students present their attitude towards cultural heritage preservation in relation to textiles, the re-use of clothing and contemporary textile industry.

Four school hours were foreseen for the implementation of the second workshop with students of the third period of education. As far as the Science Education part was concerned, the implementation of the workshop was focused on presenting ways of natural dying of textiles, possibilities of gluing dyed textiles with various made adhesives to the provided foundations and creating an assemblage (threedimensional collage) by using the made Science and Fine Art Education material. The Science Education part was carried out at the beginning. Some theory regarding dyes and pigments was presented: how and why do we see colours, how can you distinguish between shades, lightness and saturation of hue, what are dyes and what are pigments, also optical illusions which can be wrongly perceived by the brain.

Then, students were divided into three groups, each of them started with the same task. Students already had at their disposal all the required items for dying two various types of textiles: the first one was a natural material (flax) and the second one contained mostly viscose. Initially, both textiles were treated with mordants by submerging them into a prepared water tine chloride solution and heating the mixture on a hot plate. When the textile was removed from the solution after a while, it was

38

ready to be dyed with natural dyes. Three substances were prepared as natural dyes: red cabbage juice, turmeric dye and ground red pepper. Dyes were prepared in three beakers, into which the mordant-treated cloths were submerged (textile treatment salts prior dying CuSO4 · 5 H2O, SnCl2 · 2 H2O). In the end, it was observed that dyes were more efficiently fixed to the flax textile than to the viscose cloth. The most intense colouring level was achieved with turmeric and the least intense with the red cabbage juice since the level of intensity of the colouring is also subject to the concentration of the dye.

To bring some variety to the lesson, the action of red cabbage juice as an indicator was also demonstrated at the end. Red cabbage juice changes its colour subject to an acid or alkaline environment it finds itself in: when vinegar was added, the solution turned red, when sodium bicarbonate was added, which creates an alkaline solution, the solution turned blue.

Dyed textile cloths.

39

The second part of the Science Education part of the workshop followed immediately after the cloth dying process. All ingredients and the required chemical equipment were also prepared. The students remained in the same three groups.

Only, this time round, each group made their own adhesive which differed from the adhesives made by other groups. At the beginning, students needed to learn theoretical bases on binders and plastics. There was a discussion on what adhesives are, how they function, how lime used at the conservation and restoration workshop is applied. Students then set out to work. The first group of three had to make an adhesive from corn starch, the second group from milk, sodium bicarbonate and vinegar and the third from milk and jelly. Before adhesives were made, students observed created examples of glued textile cloths where it was found that each type of adhesive (out of all made) adheres the beautiful textile to a cardboard foundation well. Students were also able to make effective adhesives that were used to adhere textile cloths to the cardboard foundation as part of the Fine Art Education of the workshop.

Making an adhesive from corn starch.

Then the students were given an in-depth tour of the entire conservation and restoration workshop. The workshop staff presented the work of a curator-restorer and special features of statue restoration. Special attention was paid to adhesives in conservation-restoration practice and issues associated with various materials. They also presented the need for experts specialised in specific materials.

40

Students while learning about the specific features of conservation and restoration work.

This was followed by the Fine Art Education part of the workshop. At the beginning, students were asked what they consider fashion as cultural heritage.

The students replied national costumes. By using graphic materials, students were presented with various facts: that there are diverse types of national costumes subject to various Slovenian regions and that, in the past, the national costume worn was a reflection of the social status of the wearer. They also learnt that each village used its own distinct national costumes (in terms of colours and type of weaving), that national costumes were regarded festive cloths worn only for special occasions and that they differed from actual everyday clothing worn in the past.

National costumes of the Bela Krajina region in Slovenia (photograph by: https:// majaarchitect.wordpress.com/nosa-in-obicaji/).

41

It was then mentioned that there are experts who take care of textiles, such as national costumes, tapestries and other works containing textiles (puppets, sculptures) who are called textile curators-restorers. Graphic materials were used to explain that these experts verify the quality of fibre, clear it of various layers of dirt, reinforce it and combine decayed threads, replace one part of the textile on a statue or other object and similar.

Conservation and restoration of 16th century Aubusson carpets, Brussels (photograph by: Wikipedia).

This was followed by an explanation that, in the past, clothes were dyed with naturally produced dyes, similarly to the way the textiles had been dyed in the first part of the workshop. Students were asked about the dyes they believe are used for clothes today. Some pieces of fluorescent synthetic clothing were displayed. There was a discussion about where these colours could be found and how do students believe textiles are dyed. Then, graphic materials were used to ask students if synthetic dyeing was harmful for nature and people. Graphic examples of waste discharges of the textile industry into the environment were enclosed and students learnt that about 8000 synthetic chemicals used for dyeing textiles are harmful for people, marine life and our environment as a whole.

42

Consequences of the discharge of synthetic dyes from the textile industry into the river, Zhejiang, China, 2014 (photograph by: Wikipedia).

43

This was followed by a discussion on how to take care of the environment we live in. Students expressed concern for animals in habitats where waste is discharged from the textile industry. Then students were asked about other issues faced by contemporary textile industry. Students tried to guess and discussed issues associated with the textile industry. Various problematic factors were identified, including: cheap labour, child labour, infringements of human rights in the work environment. These are only but a few consequences of globalisation.

Students were asked to repeat the definitions of concepts they already know: a statue (a free-standing three-dimensional structure that can be assembled, adhered, modelled, etc. by a sculptor) and a painting (an artistic depiction of a motif applied to a surface by using various aids). Then the concept of assemblage was derived from the existing definitions.

Pablo Picasso, Minotaure, 1933, assemblage

NejÄ? Slapar, 2014, assemblage photograph

(photograph by: Wikipedia).

by: https://www.gorenjski-muzej.si).

Assemblage is a three-dimensional version of a collage. A collage is composed of flat materials, such as paper, cardboard, newspaper clippings and thinner surfaces of wood, plastics, tin or textiles, whereas an assemblage consists of items with an explicit spatial and, in many cases, also narrative and symbolic value. It was explained to the

44

students that assemblages usually portray the industrial era, its mass production and accumulation of waste. Fine art variables were presented: size (a fine art variable used to establish a hierarchy in a work of fine art), installation (a set-up or placement of objects, created for a specific exhibition area) and conceptual art (referred to as an art of ideas, proposals, opinions; its idea and concept are just as relevant for works of art as these themselves, without necessarily focusing on aesthetics or a skilful making of a work of art which can appear in public areas, on the street, in the media, and not only in art galleries and museums).

Christo & Jeanne-Claude, The German Reichstag, covered in textile, Berlin, 1995 (photograph by: Wikipedia).

Through the photograph of a building covered in textile, students were guided towards the size of the facility compared to other parts of the photograph. Students also got to see the photograph of the “Dressed House” by Matej Andraž Vogrinčič and focused their attention on the size of the facility compared to the size of the photograph.

45

Matej Andraž Vogrinčič, “Dressed House”, Ljubljana, 1993 (photograph by: http://www. matejandrazvogrincic.com/exhibitions)

Students were asked about their opinions on contemporary artists dressing buildings. Students excitedly observed the photographs. In the meantime, they learnt that contemporary fine arts include content that may seem senseless but usually convey a specific message or idea. Students were asked what the authors of these installations in space wanted to convey. They answered that they considered it senseless to dress a building to prevent it from being cold, that the author only dressed the building since they felt like it and that perhaps the building needed a new facade or something similar. It was explained that the message of the work of art could be sought by ourselves (that there was not one single correct answer) and that our interpretations of such actions are usually at our own discretion. It was highlighted that inquiries regarding their importance needs to be made as well as to establish a connection between the work and our own lives (such as, what about the clothes I wear, the textiles used for constructing houses, how that impacts the environment, how the ‘clothes’ of our house interact with the environment and similar).

46

It was explained to the students that they were going to create an assemblage out of the dyes and adhesive they had prepared. They were guided towards re-observing the photographs associated with issues of the textile industry and the quality of clothing they had brought with them (how are these produced, of what quality are they and similar). Then the fine art motif “The textile I wear?� was introduced. Students were guided towards illustrating their own MESSAGE about how they feel about the contemporary textile industry (clothes, items, their origin, quality, consumption, etc.).

Students were also advised to take into account SIZE (the fine art variable used to establish hierarchy in a work of fine art, as such, what they consider more important, should be larger than other parts of their work). Instructions for the task were then repeated: students should create an assemblage from various objects and textiles that they had dyed and adhered with the adhesive they had made and waste materials.

Through their fine art expression, students conveyed how they feel about textiles in the past and, most of all, about textiles today, and shall take into account the SIZE of their illustration (important things should be large). Students were guided towards preparing their materials and aids (in pairs or separately) and towards solving the fine art task.

47

Students during the creation of their fine art tasks.

After their creation process was completed, their works were collected and displayed. We jointly established evaluation criteria, whether the assemblage had been created from various objects and textiles they had dyed and adhered with the adhesive they had created themselves, whether their work contains a message about textile, issues associated with contemporary textile industry and how the students had used and/or expressed the fine art variable size.

48

49

Fine art works of students of the third period of education.

50

Teaching and Learning modules At the conservation and restoration workshop, a selection of fine art works was made and substantive guidelines for addressing them in Science and Fine Art Education terms (subject to the curricula). Their works of art served as the basic starting points for addressing three modules with students of three periods of education (pigments and dyes, adhesives and binders and paper).

PIGMENTS AND DYES - Modules for addressing the Fine Art and Science Education context of issues associated with cultural heritage preservation education in elementary school

Giovanni Battista Salvi, Virgin Mary, 1640-

Natural powdered ultramarine pigment

1650, National Gallery, London, Mary’s blue

(photograph by: Wikipedia).

robe is painted in ultramarine (photograph by: Wikipedia).

51

Abstract The detection of colours provides a completely unique view of the world. People are beings which distinguish between three distinct colours, subject to which seven distinct hues are sensed. These hues can evoke various feelings. Why do humans see colours, what are colours, can be explained through physical, chemical and biological findings, however, the concept of colours as associated with feelings also touches upon fine arts and psychology. This module shall serve to establish or create a dye, for which knowledge of physics and chemistry comes in handy, which shall be followed by the use of the created dye, where knowledge of fine arts and psychology comes to prominence.

Through the concept of dyes, students are encouraged to independently examine both natural and social science content simultaneously. During the workshop, students develop foundations of safe laboratory work, an experimental-research approach, acquire new fine art skills (painting on various materials) and develop an attitude towards cultural heritage.

Cultural heritage preservation education In the past, the development of dyes went hand in hand with the development of art. The first use of natural dyes can be observed in the French cave Lascaux containing various ground bones, ochre (ground soil), charcoal and ground rocks, used by prehistoric people for cave paintings, although, most likely to a greater extent for painting their bodies during spiritual rituals. During that time in history, colours varying on the colour palette from brown, red to yellow tones can be identified.

Prehistoric times were followed by Antiquity which facilitated the use of various dyes later also used by other artists throughout history. This is confirmed by the fact that only a few paintings have been preserved. For surfaces, the Ancient Greeks used ceramics, terracotta boards, leather, linen, sometimes also wood. Frescoes became a popular painting technique starting in the seventh century (Encyclopedia of fine arts, 2019). Fresco derives from the Italian word “al fresco” meaning “fresh”. Frescoes are a type of mural painting using natural dyes (such as from natural crystals and lime wash as a pigment) and pigments on freshly applied plaster. The process is started by applying rough plaster to the wall, composed of quicklime and silica sand. This step is followed by the application of fine plaster which shall be moistened during

52

the dyeing process. For this reason, dyes are applied extremely quickly to ensure premium quality of the work. The plaster is also not applied to the entire wall at the same time but in parts. As such, both the fresco and its foundation are created stepby-step. Frescoes are problematic in a way that they do not allow for any subsequent corrections, therefore painters must be masters of their work and paint with extreme precision (Jenko, 2014). One of the most famous frescoes in Slovenia is the elongated fresco depicting the interwoven nature of life and death entitled “Danse Macabre” ( Jenko, 2014).

Johannes de Castua, Danse Macabre (Dance of Death), 1490, fresco, Holy Trinity Church, Hrastovlje, Slovenia (photo by: Ivo Frbezar).

In the Middle Ages, two important paint technologies from Asia were developed.

Between the late eighth century and ninth century, traders brought with them an improved version of vermilion (before, red dye was made from Roman red lead, lead oxide Pb3O4), also known as “Chinese Red”. In the twelfth century, another dye was introduced: ultramarine blue derived from the gemstone lapis lazuli. The introduction of oil-based paints around 1500 also played an important role. Oil-based paints were

53

created by mixing powdered pigment and flax oil into a thick paste. Turpentine was used for thinning purposes. This technique allowed for the application of paint in several layers and corrections if required ( Jenko, 2014).

Difference between dyes and pigments Colouration of all chemical compounds is subject to their composition.

Molecules of coloured substances thus contain several double and triple bonds at a small distance from one another. However, it needs to be understood that not all coloured substances can be used as colouring matter. Colouring matter may colour other objects and is classified into dyes and pigments. Dyes are soluble, are securely fixed to the foundation through adsorption, a chemical reaction or diffusion and cannot be subsequently rinsed off. Pigments are non-soluble powders distributed in the paint formulation. For this reason, binders are added to pigment paints (Hudoklin,1955).

Graphic presentation of the conceptual network of colouring matter.

Dyes are water-soluble substances fixed to the foundation through adsorption, a chemical reaction or diffusion. Subject to their origin, there are two types of dyes: natural and synthetic. Natural dyes are colouring matter produced by cells of living organisms. Natural dyes vary considerably in terms of their chemical composition.

They are divided into various derivatives of pyrimidine, pyran, quinone, isoprene and pyrrole. Their primary role is to maintain key biological processes in cells (such as

54

maintaining the photosynthesis process through the chlorophyll dye). Synthetic dyes are produced artificially. There are more than a half million synthetic dyes, therefore development has been focusing predominantly on improving existing dyes instead of synthesising completely new ones (Hudoklin,1955).

Prior to the discovery and introduction of first synthetic dyes in the 19th century, all works of art and functional goods were painted only with natural dyes and natural source-based inorganic pigments. Dyes were very expensive and played an important role in commodity and monetary trading. Natural dyes are colouring matter produced by cells of organisms. Nowadays, natural dyes have been replaced by much cheaper, more accessible and durable synthetic dyes. Since increasingly negative effects on the organism have been indicated (mutagenicity, teratogenicity), more environmentally aware people have returned to natural dyes (Hudoklin,1955).

Pigments are solid compounds which reflect only some wavelengths of visible light. For this reason, each pigment is subject to a specific reflection of a specific wavelength of light also of a specific colour. This is a result of a selective absorption of light. Pigments as compounds absorb specific wavelengths of light and reflect other wavelengths. Reflected colours merge and compose a colour seen by our eyes.

Lighter pigments reflect the majority of incident light (irrespective of its colour) and absorb only a small amount. Darker pigments absorb the majority of incident light and reflect only a small amount. A pigment becomes useful for art only when you are able to fix it to the desired foundation. An appropriate binder needs to be used to ensure durability of a pigment on a specific foundation. Pigments can be natural (of an organic or inorganic nature) or synthetic (chemically synthesised). Pigments vary in colour, completely different compounds may create a similar hue (Hudoklin, 1955).

Organic pigments consist of carbon compounds. Prior to synthetic production, most of them were of animal or plant origin. Examples of synthetic organic pigments are: alizarin, azo pigments (subject to the colour gamut, these vary from yellow to orange and red hues), phthalocyanines (ranging from blue to green hues) and quinacridone (photosynthesis-decomposable pigments of red and violet hues). Inorganic pigments can be of natural origin or derived artificially. They are less common than organic pigments. Inorganic pigments of natural origin are derived from soil and have been used since prehistoric times. They include chalk, barite, ochre, terra di siena, Persian

55

red, Pompeii black, umber, etc.. Artificially derived inorganic pigments, so-called mineral pigments, are metal compounds (such as oxides, chromate, sulphides). These are synthetically derived and can be found under the following trade names: Cadmium Yellow, Orange or Red, Cobalt Blue and Titanium White. Nowadays, inorganic pigments are cheaper than organic (Hudoklin,1955).

The importance of primers (Matijević, Zelić, 2016): Blue: Dark blue (indigo) was extremely popular and widespread in history.

The Mayan culture attests to the use of blue, Egyptians were also known for their “Egyptian Blue”, derived by boiling grey-green leaves and stalks of more than thirty related plants, including healing indigo bushes. Blue pigment can also be derived from azurite powder, lapiz powder, duck excrements and a specific type of clay.

Red: Red pigment is regarded as one of the oldest pigments used in Egypt, Ancient Greece and East. Red pigments date back to the beginning of human civilisation. Cave art contains red ochre. In Antiquity, artificially derived reddish lead and vermilion (natural mineral cinnabar and mercury (II) sulphide) were used for red. The artificially derived vermilion was renowned as the most famous red pigment until 1907 when the production of Cadmium Red commenced. Deep red, crimson, is also made from the body of the female insect Kermes vermilio. The pigment made from this insect continues to be used as a food colourant since it constitutes one of the few red pigments sufficiently safe to be used in the food industry. Red is also derived from rattan resin which is used as a varnish dye in particular. Another, even more known plant whose root contains red pigments, is Ruia tinctorum. Its pigments are called alizrain.

Green: Green pigment is derived from several types of grass. In the past, leather was dyed by curling up fresh grass into a ball and pressing it directly thereon. Green hues vary in line with the type and water content of the grass. In addition, battered leaves of chlorophyll-containing plants release green dye. Green dye can also be obtained from algae powder. In any case, green dye sourced from chlorophyll is less durable.

Yellow: In Ancient Rome, yellow or green pigments were derived from juice produced from parsley, plants and various berries. Pigment derived from dried buckthorn berries was particularly popular in the 18th century. A green-yellow dye

56

was also derived from cow urine. Cows were fed exclusively with honeydew leaves.

Urine was vaporised and the remaining sediment manually formed into small balls that were processed into pigment. This kind of pigment was available in England until 1921. A light yellow pigment is derived also from resin of various types of a tree called Garcinia. Resin is collected by cutting furrows into the bark, the juice is released, is dried into dark brown lumps which are powdered and treated with a solvent for deriving pigment from resin. In addition to the options listed above, yellow is derived also from sorrel and sumac roots and yellow clay.

Brown: Brown which is the most natural dye and also the most frequently obtained hue through mixing various dyes has been used in various ways throughout history. In the past, it used to be derived from the central bark of oak, Quercus tinctoria. Brown derived in that way became popular in the 18th and 19th century.

Cuttlefish ink was key for dark brown. Brown is also derived from charcoal powder which is a low-quality class charcoal. It is frequently mixed with water and honey, the latter supposedly preserves softness of the dye. As a result, the dye is easier to mix and is more securely fixed to the surface. Another source of brown are shells hiding walnuts. Cooked shells are used to create a concentrated tincture-like dye.

Light brown is derived from pecan nut shells.

Black: Black pigments were mostly derived from burnt wood carbon, however, more recently, black dye has been derived predominantly by burning coal or tar. Black is also derived from slow ashing of bones. That process creates a different hue.

White: White is derived from clay, plaster and bones or horns that release a slightly white-yellowish hue.

All pigments need a binder for application purposes. Throughout history, artists have used various pigments and extremely varied binders. Combining binder and pigment allowed for the creation of the following: tempera, oil-based paints and acrylics (Punda, 2001): Tempera: referred to also as “egg-based tempera” is a durable, fast-drying paint consisting of coloured pigments, mixed in a water-soluble binding medium. Most mediums consist of a glutinous (protein) material, for example egg white. Nowadays, various adhesives are used as binders in tempera paints. After drying is completed, the tempera has a matte finish effect. Originally, tempera (“egg-based tempera”) derives from the word temperare which means “create the proper ratio”. Tempera paints

57

are known for their durability, there are works of art dating back to the first century which were painted using tempera. That painting method was traditional until 1500 when oil-based paints became massively popular. Created tempera paints are applied by artists on various surfaces that had been previously coated with so-called gesso or gypsum. The white gypsum makes sure that the selected dye truly manifests itself.

Italian artists used gypsum or gesso as a filler. Gypsum is created by baking sadra.

Calcium sulphate CaSO4 is generated at a temperature between 130 and 180 degrees Celsius. Calcium sulphate absorbs water and transforms into calcium dihydrate CaSO4 ¡ 2 H2O. This leads to binding and solidification of the gypsum. On the market, this kind of gypsum is known as alabaster. In the 15th century, painters mixed gypsum with water at a 1:4 to 1:10 ratio.

Oil-based paints: these consist of suspended colour pigment in an oil medium.

They are diluted with a mixture of flax oil, turpentine or varnish. They rose to prominence after 1500. After drying is completed, oil-based paints are shinier than tempera paints. The advantage of oil-based paints lies in their slow drying process which allows for additional corrections, thicker applications of pain and less breaking of paint at a later point in line with a greater spreadability of the paint. Usually, oilbased paints are used for painting on canvas, cardboard or paperboard. Oil-based paints can be made from simple pigments through an ion-exchange chemical reaction.

Examples of this are lead chromate, cadmium sulphide, barium sulphate and Prussian blue (iron (III) hexacyanoferrate(II)) pigments. These pigments are then bound with various binders. When various oils are added, the final product, an oil-based paint, is created.

Acrylics: these are a group of artificially derived dyes that need to be mixed with water before application. They dry quickly. After drying, they become waterresistant. Acrylics can be applied in several applications. These paints became popular after 1950.

Indian ink: these are pigments primarily deriving from charcoal or animal adhesives. If Indian ink is applied to a drawing foundation by being continuously diluted with water, that technique is called ink lavee. That technique creates lines and surfaces of various levels of lightness and darkness. Indian ink can be applied to a dry or wet (water-covered) foundation.

Gouache: this word derives from French and Italian (gouache is a French corruption of the original Italian word guazzo which means water paint); gouache is of

58

a similar consistency than tempera: it consists of a pigment and binder; it differs from tempera paints only in the type of binder - tempera paints use egg yolks and whites, whereas gouache paints use the remaining parts of the egg. Gouache is thus, similarly to tempera and water-colour, a water-paint painting technique.

Learning objectives Science Education (Grade 7) BLENDS AND PURE SUBSTANCES Concepts: Blend, Pure Substance, Element, Compound - Students are able to differentiate between pure substances and blends - Students learn that pure substances are chemical elements and compounds - Students learn that chemical elements consist of one type of atoms and that chemical compounds consist of several chemical elements SOLUTIONS: Concepts: Solution, solvent, solute, solubility - Students learn about solutions as types of blends and are able to distinguish between a solvent and solute - Students learn about the substance solubility and solution dilution level concepts WAVE: Concept: Light - Students learn that light is a wave and establish similarities with waves on the water surface.

- Students learn that waves transmit information and that the speed of information transmission of a light signal is much faster than the speed of a sound signal

59

Fine Art Education (Grade 4, 5 and 6) DESIGNING ON A SURFACE Concepts: Warm and cold colours, colour wheel, colour contrast, complementary contrast - When designing on a surface, students use foundations of various sizes, colours, shapes and qualities - Students develop a sense of relationships between various colours (colour contrasts) - Students gain experience in various paint mixing methods

DESIGNING IN A THREE-DIMENSIONAL SPACE (SCULPTING, ARCHITECTURE) Concepts: Paint, sculpture paint and texture - Students gain experience in including paints in sculpting - Student learn about important works of fine art of various designs which form part of local and international cultural heritage.

60

Proposed activities for students 1 MAKING GESSO (PAINT FOUNDATION) You are going to need: - 6 g low-fat cottage cheese - 1 g Ca(OH)2 - 7 g ZnO - 7 g TiO2 - 7 mL of distilled water - a 100 mL beaker and a 250 mL beaker - a paintbrush Method: 1 Put 6 g of low-fat cottage cheese into the 100 mL beaker.

2 Weigh 1 g Ca(OH)2.

3 In the 100 mL beaker, mix 7 g ZnO with 7 g TiO2.

4 Mix all solid substances prepared in Steps 1, 2 and 3 and add a sufficient quantity of distilled water (about 7 mL) to create a thick paste.

5 Strain the mixture through the low-fat cottage cheese. Keep the strained mixture in a covered 250 mL beaker in the fridge. Because the mixture gels, heat the obtained gesso before every application.

6 Apply the gesso in several layers. Do not apply the next layer without waiting a few hours.

61

2 MAKING THE VERDIGRIS PIGMENT You are going to need: - any number of copper plates - a sufficient quantity of spirit vinegar to fully cover all copper tiles - abrasive paper of finer quality (180) - any container - a scraper Method: 1 Scrape the surface of copper plates to remove the oxide coating and obtain a surface of pure copper; scrape until the surface turns into shiny red-brown copper.

2 Pour spirit vinegar into any container. The vinegar should be a solution with a high concentration of dissolved acetic acid.

3 Submerge the copper plates into the vinegar and cover the container.

4 Wait for 2 weeks for a sufficient quantity of copper acetate (verdigris) to appear on the surface of the copper plates.

5 Remove the copper plates from the solution and scrape the created copper acetate (blue) from the surface with the scraper.

6 Conserve the scraped pigment into prepared containers. When you want to use it, mix it with a few drops of water.

Copper plates in vinegar.

62

3 MAKING RED CAROTENOID DYE FROM GROUND RED PEPPER Carotenoid dyes can be extracted from ground red pepper.

You are going to need: - a 100 mL beaker - 40 mL water - 10 g ground red pepper - hotplate/ceramic plate stand + ceramic plate + Bunsen burner - aluminium foil - boiling stones Method: 1 Pour 40 mL water into a 100 mL beaker and add 10 g ground red pepper. Cover with aluminium foil and add a boiling stone.

2 Put the beaker on the hotplate and boil the blend. Boil at a moderate temperature for 5 to 10 minutes.

3 Turn off the hotplate and carefully remove the beaker from it.

Red pepper dye.

63

4 MAKE YOUR OWN TEMPERA In this activity, students make their own egg-based tempera paints and examine them.

The activity requires at least two days for making the dye. All paints are composed of two parts: the pigment (the substance which provides the colour) and binder (the substance that fixes the pigment to the desired foundation). One of the oldest binders is egg yolk (an emulsion of fat and protein) which is still used in some places today.

You are going to need: - a glue-chalk foundation or Bologna chalk (ital. gesso; primer composed of chalk, gypsum and glue; made in Step 1) - water - egg yolks - desired pigments (VERDIGRIS) - newspaper - paper - a piece of cotton or flax clothing, stretched over a frame - a pestle and a mortar - a dropper - a palette - a toothpick - paper towels - a paintbrush Process: 1 Prepare the verdigris pigment (to be prepared by the teacher in advance) - Submerge copper plates which had been thoroughly scraped with fine scraping paper into hot spirit vinegar and leave them in the vinegar for about two weeks.

- After two weeks, remove the copper plates from spirit vinegar. During this time, a redox reaction had taken place and the copper plates are now covered in copper (II) acetate. Copper (II) acetate is the desired deep blue-green-coloured pigment.

64

- Scrape the pigment off the copper plates with the scraper. Mix the pigment with the pestle in the mortar with minimum water (about 5 drops of water, depending on the quantity of the pigment) and remove any lumps.

- You can use the pigment in liquid form or wait for the water to evaporate and you can store it in powder form.

2 Preparation - Cover your work surface with the newspaper. Prepare several surfaces on which to apply the paint - appropriate are various types of paper, the cotton textile, stretched over a wooden frame and wood. Apply the white paint (gesso) over one half of each selected surface and leave to dry overnight. Some of the area on the surface, painted with gesso, is intended to test pigmented paints.

- You are going to need a teaspoon of each pigment. Finely ground each pigment with the pestle in the mortar. Transfer the ground pigment into a well-enclosed jar.

3 Making of the egg-based tempera (repeat the following steps for each pigment) - Put one teaspoon of the desired pigment into a clean mortar. Add a few drops of water and start mixing them with the pestle. Gradually add drops of water until you create a thick paste. Mix with the pestle until you create a uniformly smooth homogeneous pigment blend without any adhering substances.

- Break the eggshell and separate the egg yolk and white. Put the egg yolk on a paper towel and separate the remaining white. Then use a toothpick to penetrate the yolk sac and put the content of the yolk into a small container.

- Put one half of a teaspoon of the pigment water solution on the palette. Submerge the tip of a clean toothbrush into egg yolk and put on a similar amount of yolk than the previously added quantity of the pigment water solution. Then mix the pigment and yolk with the toothbrush. If the mixture is not spreadable, add a few drops of water.

4 Testing the paint - Use the paintbrush. Apply the paint on the surface, covered in gesso. The paint can also be tested in other ways: apply it in several layers, mix it with another paint, dilute with water, etc.

- After paint is applied, observe it every ten minutes and find out how long it takes for the paint to dry.

65

Proposed activities for facilitators Before the activity: prepare all the required materials and review the required literature to become familiar with the content. Then review all the discussion questions that serve as support points.

During the activity: guide the students through discussion questions. Facilitate an unimpeded activity.

Questions: - Why is the world around us “coloured�?

- Why do we see colours, who/what has caused that we see the world in colours?

Do you know anyone who only sees black and white?

- Which colours do you know? Would you be able to list all colours of the rainbow (even when they are in the right sequence)? What is a rainbow?

- What is a hue? (Sub-question: what is the colour gamut and what is it used for?) How can you specify the luminance of an object (sub-question: many of you know Word/ Powerpoint, how did you edit images in them? What happened if you increased the luminance or darkness?) What is saturation of a colour (sub-question: how can you establish what saturation means from the word itself? Analogously - saturation usually means fullness (for example someone who is full after eating), the same applies to colours, saturated colours are full, bright).

- How do we distinguish between colouring matter?

- How would you try to create your paint from natural ingredients in the role of a Renaissance artist? What would you use?

New concepts: PIGMENTS: Pigments are solid compounds, non-soluble powders that can be fixed to a surface through a binder. Pigments possess distinct hues as they reflect only specific wavelengths of visible light. Pigments as compounds which absorb specific wavelengths of light and reflect other wavelengths.

DYE - soluble substance, fixed to the foundation through adsorption/chemical reaction/diffusion

66

ADHESIVES (GLUES) AND BINDERS - Modules for addressing the Fine Art and Science Education context of issues associated with cultural heritage preservation education in elementary school

Bone and skin glue.

Demonstration of the gilding process.

67

Abstract Adhesives are macromolecular substances whose surface and internal forces and an appropriate pressure fix two surfaces together. Historical discoveries have demonstrated that the oldest civilisations were familiar with them. Raw materials could be used as the first binders: clay, wax, resin, etc. Later on, people learned how to use adhesives from blood, eggs, fish, milk, skin and bones. Adhesives made from synthetic resins started to be used in 1929. Nowadays, their production is extremely developed and adapted to special requirements of users. Their main properties are resistance to water, humidity, elevated temperature and ageing (Čermak, 2001).

Cultural heritage preservation education By using natural materials for adhesives, you minimise pollution of the environment.

The content of volatile organic compounds is low or non-existent, materials are recyclable, available in large quantities and cheap in their basic form. Their binding abilities were known by ancient civilisations, such as the ancient Egyptian, Greeks and Babylonians who successfully used natural materials for making furniture-adhesion adhesives. These adhesives were made from blood, bone, skin, vegetable, egg and milk proteins. Proteins are the basic ingredient of these adhesives. Several centuries ago, people discovered the adhesive properties of casein in cottage cheese following coagulation of milk. In combination with a simple alkaline substance, such as lime, casein became an important adhesive for furniture and a binder for colour pigments of paintings. The advantage of casein lies in its water-resistance which has remained its most important feature to this day. In addition to casein, other adhesives of animal origin were used in the past in the wood adhesive bonding industry, in the adhesive tape industry, in paper production, bookbinding and as a binder for match heads.

Until WWII, large quantities of ‘natural adhesives’ were present on the market before being supplanted by new synthetic adhesives. At present, natural adhesive-making materials have been becoming popular again. Why? Environmentally controversial components which form part of some synthetic adhesives (formaldehyde), rising oil prices and reduced quantities of their basic raw material, petroleum products.

However, synthetic adhesives continue to dominate the market due to their quality, resistance to temperature changes, durability and low price (Ugovšek, Šernek, 2010).

68

Using natural material-based adhesives in the practice of curators and restorers.

Animal glue is derived from bones, skin and tendons. Shops sell thin reddish translucent plates which must be immersed in lukewarm water for 24 hours for them to soften, swell and become jelly-like. This jelly-like substance is heated (put the container with glue into a pot with hot water since glue must not be brought into contact with heat). Make sure that water does not boil since that could rob it of its adhesive strength. Cook the mixture for several hours and mix continuously. Glue shall be stored in a dry area since humidity creates mould. There is bone glue which contains protein-like substances, fat, humidity and various impurities and minerals. If they want to derive glue from bones, protein-like substances must be released. How? By crumbling bones and drying them in a drying room. Fat is extracted in degreasing boilers by using various solvents. Degreasing substances are cleaned. Cleaned bones are then cooked to ensure dissolution of protein-like substances. The obtained glue solution is evaporated in vacuum containers. After that, the glue substance is poured into shallow concrete basins where glue solidifies to a sufficient extent that it can be cut with a wire or knife into small plates, put on meshes and dried in drying rooms. To facilitate sales, glue is produced in the form of fine grains. Bone glue is used for adhesive bonding of wood, paper, paperboard, it is also added to dyes for thickening purposes thus ensuring a better fixation on the foundation (Dremel, Grudnik, Herlah, 2007).

Skin glue is made by putting raw materials into milk of lime for softening purposes.

The softened substance is rinsed with water and a weak solution of sulphuric acid which also has a bleaching effect. This is followed by cooking and the following steps resemble the production of bone glue. The lighter the colour, the higher quality the glue and better than bone glue. Glue is prepared by using two containers or kettles to ensure that glue does not overheat. Put the glue into cold water in the inner container. As soon as it swells to a sufficient extent (after 24 hours), put it into the external container, filled with water, and heat until the glue completely dissolves.

These binders are used for gliding of statues and other materials. Firstly, prepare the surface (clean and apply diluted skin glue). This is followed by priming or pore sealing and the preparation of a smooth surface. Excessively primer areas are corrected with carving chisels and grinding. This is followed by poliment-gliding and application of golden leaves (Dremel, Grudnik, Herlah, 2007).

69

Numerous synthetic glues are used in various industries. Their development promoted the development of petrochemical industry and synthetic material production. A synthetic glue was used for the first time in the shoe industry in 1910.

In the second half of the 20th century, these glues also replaced all natural-sourced traditional adhesives in the timber industry. Synthetic glues are most frequently systematised subject to the derivation method of the basic resin which provides the glue with its basic features (ÄŒermak, 2001).

Learning objectives: Chemistry, Grade 9 Theme: Organic compounds of oxygen Students: - are familiar with condensation polymers of organic compounds of oxygen (polyesters), their properties, uses and their impact on the environment; - are able to define fats as fatty-acid and glycerol esters, are familiar with their basic properties and sources; - are able to recognise carbohydrates subject to their structure as polyfunctional compounds and learn about their importance for our lives and economies; - are able to define polysaccharides as natural polymers.

Theme: Organic compounds of nitrogen, students: - learn about protein as a type of amino-acid-consisting natural polymers, bound by a peptide bond; - are familiar with the basic properties and function of protein in organisms.

Fine Art Education, Grade 7, 8 and 9 Theme: Designing in a three-dimensional space (sculpting, architecture) Students: - develop their expression abilities associated with designing space and nurture their individual fine art expression; - learn about fine art concepts associated with designing space when faced with fine art works of other students and examples from nature and the environment.

70

Proposed activities for students Science Education A laboratory activity appropriate for elementary school Grades 7, 8 and 9 is prepared. Students make adhesives from natural materials found in our everyday lives: an adhesive from milk of animal origin and an adhesive from corn starch. A white adhesive containing polyvinyl acetate (PVA or PVAc) can also be made. When heated with starch and acetic acid, polymer molecules are bound into a grid structure. This is called cross-linking of a linear polymer that the adhesives consist of into a densely interconnected grid structure of the product. The product has elastic properties and can be moulded as desired.

GROUP 1: Preparing an adhesive from corn starch 1 Pour 180 mL water into a skillet and heat moderately.

2 Add 30 g of corn starch and 2 teaspoons of vinegar. Mix continuously.

3 Mix until the mixture thickens. Remove any corn starch residue.

4 Leave the mixture to stand until it cools down to a room temperature. Use the adhesive within 24 hours.

GROUP 2: Making an adhesive from milk, sodium bicarbonate and vinegar 1 Heat 240 mL of milk (of animal origin, recommended skimmed) in a skillet at a moderate temperature.

2 Add 15 mL of vinegar and continuously mix.

3 At a low heat, continuously mix for about 3 minutes until you notice cottage cheese lumps.

4 Strain the mixture through a sieve to separate the cottage cheese from the remaining liquid. Dispose of the liquid.

5 Add a 10% sodium bicarbonate dilution to the cottage cheese (dilute 5 g sodium bicarbonate in 50 mL water).

6 At a moderate heat, mix the mixture in the skillet for about 2 minutes until bubbles appear.

7 Let the mixture stand until it cools down to a room temperature.

8 Apply the adhesive with a paintbrush and use it within 24 hours.

71

GROUP 3: Making an adhesive from milk and jelly 1. Pour 30 mL of water into a glass. Add 2 packets (14 g) of powdered jelly (with no added sugar) and let it stand for about 1 hour.

2 At a moderate heat, cook 45 mL of skimmed milk (of animal origin) in a skillet and pour into the glass containing jelly.

3 Mix thoroughly in the glass to fully dissolve the jelly.

4 Use the adhesive within 24 hours. It can be used on glass, metal, ceramics and china. When it dries, it becomes water-resistant, but it is not temperature-resistant.

This laboratory is appropriate for independent work in groups according to preprepared instructions. The second part of the laboratory activity includes testing of the created adhesives by gluing various materials and their water-resistance.

This is done by using a table and materials that students seek to glue to one another and enter the results in the table below: GLUE OF VARIOUS PAPER GROUPS Group 1 Group 2 Group 3

WOOD

PLASTIC

CERAMICS GLASS

Key: 0 it does not stick together 1 it loosely sticks together but quickly breaks down 2 it sticks together, but breaks down when little force is applied 3 it sticks well together, but breaks down when a lot of force is applied 4 it sticks very well together and cannot be removed Water resistance Students stick together two wooden flat splinters. They wait long enough for the adhesive to dry properly. They submerged the glued wooden splinters into water and check if they continue to remain stuck together when in touch with water.

72

Adhesives of plant origin (corn starch) and animal origin (milk) made according to the instructions above.

Fine art activity Presentation of the “Textile in the past and present� fine art motif Students are guided towards illustrating their message: how do students view today’s textile production (clothing, objects, origin, quality, consumption). The motif includes also the fine art variable size. Students make an assemblage from various waste textile objects but using previously made adhesives from natural materials. The teacher tells students in advance to bring waste textile from home. Students can work individually or in a group. After finishing their work, they present their work and reflect on textile industry-related issues.

Proposed activities for facilitators Students are guided towards the Science Education activity. They are divided into 3 groups of 3 or 4. They receive prepared instructions for making the adhesives and are provide with the required materials on trays. It is explained that, in the past, ancient civilisations used natural source-adhesives which can be of plant or animal origin. As an example of natural plant origin, students use corn starch, and, as an

73

example of natural animal origin, students use milk. The instructions are reviewed.

Then students continue with their individual laboratory activity. After completing their work, they pour the adhesives into separate jars and cover them with a lid. While waiting for the adhesives to dry, the origin thereof is discussed.

Adhesive from corn starch.

Adhesive from corn starch.

Students are asked to explain what adhesives are in their own words. They are asked which adhesives they use and if they have already made any at home. They are also asked which items were stuck together therewith.

Students are told that adhesives are macromolecular substances whose surface and internal forces (adhesion and cohesion) and an appropriate pressure fix two surfaces together. Historical discoveries have demonstrated that the oldest civilisations were familiar with them. Raw materials could be used as the first binders: clay, wax, resin, etc.

Later on, people learned how to use adhesives from blood, eggs, fish, milk, skin and bones.

Synthetic (initially) phenolic-resin-adhesives were launched in 1929. Nowadays, their production has developed considerably and adapted to specific requirements of users (they are humidity-, water-, high temperature- and ageing-resistant) (ÄŒermak, 2001).

Students are told that adhesives are divided into natural (plant or animal based) and synthetic adhesives. They are asked which natural plant materials can be used for making adhesives.

74

Two examples of plant-based material sources for adhesives are presented. These presentations focus on the properties that students already know. Ongoing questions are posed. Printed pictures of a cellulose molecule model are used as aids. Cellulose is presented: cellulose is the basic building material of all cellular walls in plants. It is also found in algae, bacteria and animals. Since hydrogen bonds between cellulose molecules are hard to be broken down, cellulose is not soluble in the majority of known solvents. As a result, cellulose in its own right cannot be used as an adhesive and is processed into many derivatives used in adhesive mixtures. Cellulose can be modified through esterification and etherification. These two processes are used to produce derivatives which can be more or less used in adhesive mixtures: cellulose nitrate, cellulose acetate, cellulose acetate butyrate, methyl cellulose, ethyl cellulose, carboxy methyl cellulose and hydroxy ethyl cellulose. The latter is used for gluing billboards, paperboard, plywood and wallpaper (UgovĹĄek, Ĺ ernek, 2010).

A cellulose molecule model as a visual aid of structures for students.

75

Students are asked what they already know about starch. They are guided through ongoing questions. Printed pictures of a starch molecule model are used as aids. Particular attention is paid to its properties that students are already familiar with: starch is found in seeds, fruit, tubers, piths of plants, corn, wheat and potatoes.

Similarly to cellulose, starch as a separate material cannot be used for making adhesives and requires modifications. The easiest modification methods are the heating method and treatment with alkali, acids and oxidation. The most frequently added substances to starch-based adhesives are borax (sodium tetraborate), plasticisers (urea, nitrogen nitrate, salicylic acid and formaldehyde), water-resistance additives (formaldehyde), viscosity stabilisers (NaOH), fillers and other additives (UgovĹĄek, Ĺ ernek, 2010).

HO CH2 ...

HO

O HO CH2

HO

O

O HO

HO CH2

HO

O

O HO

HO

O

A model of an amylase molecule as a visual aid for students (amylase is a linear component of a starch molecule).

HO

...

CH2 O

HO HO CH2 ...

HO

HO

O

HO

O CH2

O

O HO

HO

HO CH2

O

O HO

HO

O

...

A model of an amylopectin molecule as a visual aid for students (amylase is a linear component of a starch molecule).

76

A presentation on animal-based adhesives (of bone and skin glue and casein or milkbased adhesives) is made. Bone glue is shown to students in its physical form. This glue is a sticky substance created through thoroughly cooking animal-based protein (glutein). Traditional carpenters continue to use the once universal-used animal glue or casein-based glue. Animal glue is derived from bones, skin and tendons. Shops sell thin reddish translucent plates which must be immersed in lukewarm water for 24 hours for them to soften, swell and become jelly-like. This jelly-like substance is heated (put the container with glue into a pot with hot water since glue must not be brought into contact with heat). Make sure that water does not boil since that could rob it of its adhesive strength. Cook the mixture for several hours and mix continuously. To facilitate sales, glue is produced in the form of fine grains. Bone glue is used for adhesive bonding of wood, paper, paperboard, it is also added to dyes for thickening purposes thus ensuring a better fixation on the foundation (Dremel, Grudnik, Herlah, 2007).

Rabbit (bone) glue in a plastic container, intended for sale as a material for conservationrestoration of works of art.

Students are guided towards the use of adhesives and binders in restoring parts of statues and altars in churches. A picture of separate steps of the process is displayed.

77

Display of separate gliding steps for parts of an altar at the Kavčič Restoration Company in Šentjošt above Horjul in Slovenia.

Students are told that they have to start by preparing the surface (cleaning and applying diluted skin glue). This is followed by priming or pore sealing and the preparation of a smooth surface. Excessive primer-containing areas are corrected with carving chisels and grinding. This is followed by poliment-gliding and application of golden leaves. Students learn about the past function of casein (milk)-based adhesives.

Adhesive properties of casein in cottage cheese after milk curdling are focused on. In combination with a simple alkaline substance, such as lime, casein became an important adhesive for furniture, a binder for colour pigments and glue for Renaissance painting canvases. The advantage of casein lies in its water-resistance which has remained its most important feature to this day (Ugovšek, Šernek, 2011). As soon as the adhesives are cold enough, their testing begins. Students are asked to create their own tables and keys subject to which they are going to record their results and observations.

Students test water resistance and the adhesive strength of various objects.

78

PAPER - Module for addressing the Fine Art and Science Education context of issues associated with cultural heritage preservation education in elementary school

Kurt Schwitters, Last Birds and

Hand-made paper (photograph by: Wikipedia).

Flowers, 1946, collage, paper (photograph by: Wikipedia).

Abstract Paper is an indispensable material in our everyday lives in various areas, education, industry, economy, agriculture, etc. Students become familiar with a short history of paper (papyrus, parchment), its production and manufacturing process. It is sought to present to the students that hand-made paper is nowadays an extremely renowned final product or material that can be reshaped further. This is learnt through manual creation of their own paper picture. Paper can be produced through recycling.

Wastepaper shall be cleaned or its ink removed, however, recycling conserves forests.

If you ensure that paper circulates or is recycled to the highest possible extent, you

79

get closer to preserving the planet for future generations. Paper is a very popular material in paintings, one of the most frequently used in addition to canvas and wood.

In graphics, it is the main imprint medium (Hudoklin, 1955).

In light with cultural heritage preservation education, students are made familiar with experts, curators in charge of objects whose medium is paper (archives, paintings, drawings, statues, etc.). Students need to understand that paper is not a cheap product, accessible to everyone which can be taken for granted. They need to be taught how to use paper wisely. Didactic recommendations of the Fine Art Education curriculum also include recommendations to teachers to focus on protecting the environment, environmental protection issues, chemical safety, etc. Particular attention shall be paid to proper and responsible handling of fine art materials and tools by students.

Cultural heritage preservation education Students learn that hand-making of paper has also been included in intangible cultural heritage. Paper hand-making forms part of art and craft know-how. It has a long tradition in Slovenia and has been preserved to this day. Paper hand-making is subject to knowledge of properties of materials, production methods and equipment uses from the past. Papermaking dates back to the Reformation period, 1579, in Slovenia. This is when a paper mill on the right bank of the Ljubljanica River started operating. Later on, similar mills operated in Vipava, on the left bank of the Krka River in Žužemberk, close to the town of Radeče, Ajdovščina, etc. Archives preservation should also be mentioned. Archives constitute that part of documentary materials of a permanent importance for history, other sciences and culture. They are a cultural monument.

Experts on cultural heritage preservation education The Institute for the Protection of Cultural Heritage of Slovenia is in charge of conserving and protecting immovable cultural heritage in Slovenia. The Institute employs about 200 experts in various fields (architects, archaeologists, art historians, historians, ethnologists, structural technicians, restorers - sculptors, restorers painters, etc.) who take care of various types of heritage. In addition to saving concrete cultural heritage, documenting, examining and publishing the performed studies and

80

interventions shall be of importance. This allows us to develop expertise, spread knowledge in the ranks of specialised and general public and to preserve recorded findings to be available to subsequent experts experiencing similar issues (PotoÄ?nik, 2018).

Learning objectives Science Education (Grade 4), students: - prove that paper waste can be used as raw materials, - make useful objects from various paper materials by using various methods of merging materials, - use the basic treatment methods for paper materials, - are able to justify the importance of separate collection of waste, - review the suitability of the final product.

Fine Art Education, students: - develop a sense of distributing shapes on a surface, - students learn about important works of fine art of various designs which form part of local and international cultural heritage, - as part of the evaluation process, they provide feedback on their work with the material and experience with the content associated with cultural heritage preservation education, - create a fine art work from paper (collage, a spatial structure, etc.)

Science Education concepts: - recycling - raw materials, etc.

81

Fine Art Education concepts: - recycling - uneven distribution of shapes - high/low dense threading of lines - symmetry/asymmetry, etc.

Proposed activities for students Science Education activity: introductory motivation and activity: origami (make a selected origami product in front of the students). During the creation process, they are encouraged to observe carefully.

Questions: - What was created?

- What did we need for it?

- Which fine art technique was used or what was used to reshape paper (folding, refolding)?

- In what other ways can paper also be reshaped? (Crushing, tearing, cutting, punching, gluing, coupling, snap-fitting, etc.)

Paper quiz: The paper quiz is used to establish existing knowledge of students.

Students are divided into 2 (or 4 groups for larger classes) groups. Each group consults each other and, after the required time has passed, gives its answer. Statements associated with paper are read to the students. Their answers are written on a small board. Answers are discussed promptly.

82

1 The first writing foundation similar to paper was called _________________ (papyrus).

Later on, parchment was made. Parchment was made from: - silk - plants - animal skin Explanation: Parchment was made from skin of antelopes, donkeys, sheep, goats, calves, etc. Skin was then submerged into lime wash, hair was removed and the skin air-dried (Horvat, 2014).

2 Which nation is said to have invented papermaking?

- the Chinese - the Americans - the Italians Explanation: a Chinese minister is said to have invented papermaking. Paper was made from mulberry bark, bamboo fibres, old cloths. Water was added. Sheets were created by using a bamboo stick frame which contained a textile-like material (Horvat, 2014). Before using paper, messages had been written on rocks, clay, wood, metal, papyrus, parchment, cloths, bark or ‘paper’ made from rice stem piths.

3 In the past, the main raw materials for papermaking were: - newspaper - textile waste Explanation: textile waste - ground flax cloths, to be exact.

4 Which paper material is the most solid?

- paperboard - paper - cardboard Explanation: paperboard is composed of several equal layers and is thicker and more solid than carboard and paper. Paperboard is used for hard covers of books and notebooks, office folders, puzzles, various boxes, bag and luggage bases, solid folders.

83

Simple experiment A bridge is composed of two pieces of wood. The selected paper material is placed on them.

Question: - Which paper material is going to withstand the biggest weight?

Students are advised to organise the materials in a row.

Fine art activity Making fine art material: a paper that can be used to design a fine art work Method: Tear wastepaper to as small pieces as possible. Throw them into a small tub with water. Prepare a thick mass. When there is enough material, tear the paper in the small tub to loosen the fibres. Dilute the mass to a semi-liquid state. Let the paper pulp stand for a few days until it completely dissolves. Make sure not to wait for too long. Before continuing, you can add some starch which has a fibre gluing effect.

Scoop the mass with a glass and pour on a cloth with a high absorption capacity.

Add another cloth and pour the paper pulp on it. Repeat for as long as there are any cloths left.

Apply slight pressure to the water. Put everything into a press (book-binding press, herbarium press or two sufficiently large plates) and squeeze. Pay attention also to the water. A large amount of water is drained during the pressing process.

As such, it is highly recommended to put the press into a large container, or, if you are doing this at home, in a bath. When you disassemble the press, collect the cloths containing paper. Carefully separate the paper from the cloth and put it on a smooth and flat foundation (glass, melamine plate, linoleum, etc.). In a few hours, the paper is dry.

Guidelines: This activity may also include several fine art concepts listed in the Fine Art Education curriculum. The teacher shall decide which fine art concepts to address through this fine art activity. Examples of curriculum concepts: uneven distribution of

84

shapes, high/low dense threading of lines, symmetry/asymmetry. Dried paper can be used for fine art tasks, such as collages, spatial design, sculpting, etc.

Sculptures by students aged 9.

Collage by a student aged 8.

Thinner paper may also be made in a similar way. Paper can also be bleached or coloured. Thinner paper can be obtained by shortening the fibres (with a blender).

The mass (paper pulp) poured on the cloth shall be thinner and the cloth slightly damp. Paper pulp is distributed more evenly on a damp cloth. Distribute the paper pulp slightly with your hand. Paper can also be ironed out by an iron.

85

Questions: - What needs to be added to colour the paper?

- What needs to be done to obtain smooth paper?

- What needs to be done to obtain thin paper?

- How can the paper drying process be accelerated?

A paper recycling method (photograph by: Wikipedia).

86

Proposed activities for facilitators How to carry out the Fine Art activity: the Fine Art Education teacher shall guide students towards creating their own fine art solution which includes meaningful fine art concepts presented prior to the activity, they shall provide clear instructions on the selected fine art activity, review the task prior to the activity and, in the final part of the lesson, create evaluation criteria with the students. The material shall be presented through the lens of cultural heritage preservation education.

Definition of concepts.

Where does paper as a term originate? Paper owes its designation to ‘papyrus’: sheets resembling today’s paper made by the Ancient Egyptians from papyrus plant stalks with a simple method. Initially, the stalk was cut into thin and narrow strips.

Then the strips were placed on top of each other on a flat rock surface. The second layer was placed perpendicularly to the first layer. The entire structure was covered by a rock plate and weighted down. Under pressure, the strips were strongly pressed together and thinned. The plant contains a natural binder which glued and combined all strips. When the pressed sheet was dry, it was ground until it became smooth, thin and flat.

The first type of paper as it is known today was invented in China. It was made from the husk of a tree of the mulberry family. Cotton fibre-based paper was invented in the 8th century (Hudoklin, 1955). Binders of office and other types of smooth and light papers are either natural glue or starch and are filled with chalk, kaolin (China clay), zinc white, etc. Coloured papers are made by adding a dye to the paper mass.

The paper quality is subject to the purity of cellulose and length of cellulose fibres.

Raw materials for premium papers are flax, hemp and cotton fibres (Punda, 2001).

Papermaking processes vary considerably. All require paper pulp (a thick mixture of cellulose fibres, water and papermaking chemicals) which is most easily made from old newspapers.

87

88

Study presentation Research problem and questions Organisations, such as UNESCO, ICCROM, etc., use their programs to raise awareness among youth on the importance of cultural heritage preservation and protection. Understanding specific features of fine art materials used also for conserving and restoring fine art heritage requires prior understanding of Fine Art and Science Education concepts (subject to the appropriate age category of students, curriculum of Fine Art Education and various science subjects in elementary school both in lower and higher grades). For research purposes, it was sought to understand how complex concepts can be explained by using Fine Art and Science Education concepts (curricula) and through experiences (observing works of art, learning about various materials these consist of, learning about various fine art techniques – how they are made, understanding chemical processes used for preserving and restoring works of art, carrying out experiments, designing fine art works, etc.) aimed at raising awareness on cultural heritage preservation education and developing a responsible attitude towards its preservation. Understanding criteria: what a student of a specific age category is able to understand or what knowledge of Fine Art and Science Education content they already have are subject to current curricula of both Fine Art Education and other science subjects both in lower and higher elementary school grades. The study includes also views of various experts (various curators) on the possibilities of including cultural preservation education in the teaching and learning process in elementary school. Various research methods (analysing materials on selected works of fine art, analysing literature on issues associated with conservation and restoration interventions, interviewing expert curators-restorers, interviewing students and carrying out didactic activities) were used to examine possibilities of a cross-curricular approach to Fine Art and Science Education content and of including issues associated in cultural heritage preservation education in the existing elementary school education system. For this reason, the following research questions were posed: - What is the attitude of students of the first, second and third period of education towards learning about specific features of works of art through discuss-

89

ing Science and Fine Art Education problems and raising awareness on cultural preservation education?

- What is the attitude of curators - restorers and other heritage preservation experts towards including cultural heritage preservation education in both curricular and extra-curricular activities and what kind of solutions are proposed?

Method A qualitative research approach based on interviews carried out with students after the fine art activity was applied. In addition, interviews with various experts curators were carried out. This type of research focuses primarily on the diversity within the research range among representatives of the population sample instead of the frequency of individual similar elements between them (Mesec, 1998). A quantitative processing of such data cannot be carried out since they lack numerical values. Variable value data are attributional and have been presented in a descriptive manner (Mesec, 1997).

Sample The sample are students of the first, second and third period of education of a elementary school in central Slovenia and purposefully selected curators - experts of various types of expertise. A non-random sample was used (CenciÄ?, 2009), since the research involved students who wished to participate therein and whose parents had consented thereto in writing and experts. The study involved 36 students, out of which 15 students of the first, 10 students of the second and 11 students of the third period of education or educational period, aged 7 to 14. Interviews involved 7 experts in various conservation areas: two curators-restorers with a relevant undergraduate degree, two curators-restorers- technicians, one curator-art historian, one curatorarchitect and one curator-landscape architect.

Measuring instrument and data sources The main source of data were semi-structured interviews carried out with the involved students of the first, second and third period of education after fine art activities through pre-prepared questions:

90

- Did you know that there are experts (curators) who take care of statues, paintings, altars, manuscripts?

- Where did you hear about them?

- Why do you think we take care of objects (statues, paintings, altars, manuscripts, etc.)?

- What do you think would happen to these objects (paintings, statues, manuscripts, etc.) if we wouldn’t take care of them?

- How did you like making your own fine art material and illustrating a motif?

- What have your learnt new today?

The main source of information on the study part involving experts - curators are also answers to pre-prepared questions posed in interviews.

Experts were asked the following: - How do you see/regard elementary school teachers (lower grades, Fine Art Education teachers and others) with regards to including cultural heritage preservation education content?

- Which areas of cultural heritage preservation education content should definitely be included in curricula, in particular in Fine Art Education?

- Which concepts of various fields of cultural heritage education should be reasonably included in curricula, in particular of Fine Art and Science Education?

- What should students understand about these fields: architectural, cultural landscape, sculpting, drawing, painting and graphic and other visual art (such as films, etc.) heritage preservation education?

- To what extent (level of complexity) should they understand a specific concept (term, definition)?

- Which are the most obvious cases or issues that you have identified in your work (such as vandalism, theft, incorrect restoration, the failure to take into account the identity of a specific landscape, etc.) that you feel students should be taught about in order to promote a positive and responsible attitude towards cultural heritage preservation?

91

- Have you come across any good practices that heritage experts use for various didactic activities (in Slovenia and abroad)?

- Would you be willing to collaborate with schools in order to develop didactic approaches to promoting a more positive and responsible attitude towards cultural heritage preservation?

Data collection and processing In 2019, contact was established with an elementary school in central Slovenia.

Its management was given a presentation of the study and its various activities. After each teaching and learning activity, interviews were carried out. Expert interviews were carried out by contacting various members of the Institute for the Protection of Cultural Heritage of Slovenia and carrying out interviews in their offices. Interviews with students and experts-curators were analysed through a qualitative approach to data analysis by specifying codes and categories (Mesec, 1998).

Results Results are presented by theme subject to the research questions.

Attitude of students of the first, second and third period of education or educational period towards learning about specific features of works of art through discussing Science and Fine Art Education problems and raising awareness on cultural preservation education We wanted to know if students had already heard of curators-restorers, experts in charge of taking care of preserving statues, paintings, altars, manuscripts and other cultural heritage objects prior to their visit of the conservation and restoration studio.

It was found that 53% students included in the study had heard of them before. Answers varied between various periods of education. In the first period of education, 40% of students had heard of these experts before, whereas the majority of students of the third period of education, 73% to be exact, had heard of them prior to the visit. The students who replied that they had already heard of these experts were asked where.

One part (37%) responded that at home. The second most frequent answer was at school or kindergarten (26% to be exact). The remaining students had heard of them online, on TV, radio or at the company itself that they had known before.

92

Subsequently, they were asked about their opinion regarding the reasons behind the preservation of cultural heritage objects. Some answers were rather similar. It was foreseen that students of the third period of education would give more complex and justified answers than students of the first period of education. The majority of students of all three periods of education (58% to be exact) answered that objects were preserved to ensure that they are not destroyed, decayed, in order to maintain them and similar. The majority of students of the first period of education answered that objects were preserved to make sure they are not ugly, remain beautiful and similar. Three students of the first period of education answered that objects were preserved because they are expensive and we wouldn’t need to spend too much money on new ones. A slightly lower number of students directly mentioned an association with cultural heritage preservation, namely 20% students of the second and 55% students of the third educational period. They mentioned the preservation of objects that someone had created so that they do not pass into oblivion (to remember what used to be done in the past). Only two students of the first period of education answered the question that they didn’t know. We wanted to know what happens to objects if they are not taken care of. The most frequent answer was that the objects would break down, collapse or that wood vermin would create holes in them. This answer was given by 66% students. A much larger number of students of the second and third periods of education also mentioned cultural heritage as a concept, namely that the preservation of objects also constitutes the preservation of cultural heritage. Only one student of the first period of education also mentioned cultural heritage preservation.

Attitude of curators - restorers and other heritage preservation experts towards including cultural heritage preservation education in both curricular and extra-curricular activities and what kind of solutions are proposed Most experts replied that they did not observe any implementation of preservation of cultural heritage content at school and that they felt that cultural heritage was too infrequently included in the teaching and learning process. According to experts, a sense of initiative of the teacher and their attitude towards cultural heritage preservation are essential. Experts agreed that teachers most likely include cultural heritage content in extra-curricular activities, after-school classes and at

93

cultural events at schools. In addition, students learn about various cultural heritage aspects by visiting museums and art galleries.

Experts feel that students should learn about cultural heritage preservation examples in general and learn about them in an experiential way. They feel that it would not be feasible to focus solely on one field but that it would be better to learn about cultural heritage preservation in general. Two experts also highlighted the importance of learning about local cultural heritage as they believe that students are more familiar with global than local cultural heritage. According to most experts, students should be taught about cultural heritage examples in an experiential way and supported by theory. In their opinion, the theoretic part of learning about cultural heritage should include concepts at a complexity level in line with the age of the students, should be connected to their own know-how and not be too challenging to comprehend.

According to all experts, concepts correlated with our surroundings/environment should be selected (e.g. each Slovenian region uses a distinct material, Upper Carniola uses wood, the Littoral rocks, etc.), therefore they would recommend a regional approach to discussing cultural heritage. All experts also agreed that students needn’t become familiar with a specific concept in detail or learn about it through complex definitions. Cultural heritage preservation needs to be experienced and seen. Experts feel that there is a need to present students why something is worth preserving and how to make an expert intervention which ensures that objects are not destroyed or that they are made in a high-quality manner.

Experts also understand that parents set an example for their children, therefore their attitude towards cultural heritage is relevant. Parents should also form part of cultural heritage preservation education which may involve cultural heritage experts through lectures for parents aimed at learning about, evaluating and raising awareness on cultural heritage-associated topics. Experts drew attention to the fact that cases of vandalism, theft and inappropriate restoration interventions occur in light of insufficient and inappropriate knowledge of cultural heritage objects or property.

Therefore, students should learn about cases of good and of bad interventions.

One of the experts expressed concern over the lack of knowledge among students on the work of curators-restorers. Students do not know what these experts do and why their work is important. For these reasons, Fine Art Education and crosscurricular approaches should include conservation-restoration concepts and learning about materials and techniques used. According to experts, students should be set an

94

example of a respectful and positive attitude towards cultural heritage in all fields and helped to understand why heritage is of high quality and why it needs to be preserved.

Experts believe that students should develop a positive attitude towards cultural heritage by including raising awareness on cultural heritage preservation education in schools for which there are already guidelines in place (Roca, 1972). At the same time, experts pointed out various examples of good practices both in Slovenia and abroad. They mentioned several museums and art galleries which frequently organise cultural heritage preservation education workshops for children. They have also observed examples of good cases at cultural events and special projects at schools.

One of the experts also highlighted the importance of promoting the development of craftsmanship as part of preserving traditional arts and crafts which also form part of our cultural heritage in elementary, secondary and higher education schools which has proven a good practice in Scandinavia (Kokko, Räisänen, 2019).

All experts answered that they would be willing to collaborate with schools and that many are already engaged therein: they visit schools and kindergartens where they present their work, workshops are carried out at conservation and restoration studios, they participate in various projects and other events.

95

96

Conclusion The scientific monograph was designed by primarily keeping in mind the possibility of a cross-curricular approach to addressing Fine Art and Science Education content in relation to cultural heritage and provide possibilities of including issues associated with cultural heritage in the existing education system. Three didactic activities were carried out per period of education, in which various research methods were used to illustrate the possibility of addressing Fine Art and Science Education content. The study carried out among students showed that more than a half of students had already heard of issues associated with cultural heritage preservation education, out of which the majority in the third period of education which is understandable. However, we were surprised by the fact that the majority of students had heard of these issues at home or through the media and not at school. Results of our study indicate that cultural heritage preservation education is too infrequently included in the lessons of various school subjects, in particular in Fine Art Education or cross-curricular approaches. In the study, curators with varied types of expertise or cultural heritage experts highlight that students should be brought closer to cultural heritage preservation education in relation to their local environments, objects they are familiar with and as such are worthy of respect and a reflection of an appropriate (professional) preservation.

They feel that students could be very easily shown (in situ, through the media, etc.) examples of good and bad practices and thus spread awareness on appropriate care, experts, and, indirectly, on concepts associated with cultural heritage preservation education (in a non-intrusive manner). Experts also believe that various professional fields and school subjects in all levels of education should pursue an interdisciplinary approach to draw up meaningful connections, facilitate concrete learning of content associated with cultural heritage preservation education. This scientific monograph thus includes three teaching and learning modules providing an insight into the wide range of opportunities for using issues associated with cultural heritage preservation education both at elementary and secondary schools. These issues shall be also included into existing study programmes intended to develop national identity and cultural awareness. The materials obtained as part of the research will thus facilitate the development of guidelines for a meaningful integration of these issues in curricula of specific higher education subjects.

97

98

Bibliography Barton, J. in Haslett, T. (2007). Analysis, Synthesis, Systems Thinking and the Scientific Method: Rediscovering the Importance of Open Systems. Systems Research and Behavioral Science, 24, 2, 143–155.

Beane, J. A. (1997). Curriculum Integration: designing the core of democratic education. New York: Teachers College Press, Columbia University.

Bergant, M. (1990). Integrirani pouk v nižjih razredih osnovne šole. V: M. Kolenko, D. Sivec (Eds.), Integrirani pouk in drugi primeri inovacij pouka na začetku šolanja, str.

6-12. Ljubljana: ZRSŠŠ Bogataj, J. (1993). Ljudska umetnost in obrti v Sloveniji. Ljubljana: Domus Bopegedera, A. M. R. P. (2005) The Art and Science of Light: An Interdisciplinary Teaching and Learning Experience. Journal of Chemical Education, 82, 1, 55.

Caranfa, A. (2009). Art and Science: The Aesthetic Education of the Emotions and Reason. Journal of Art & Design Education, 20, 22, 151-160.

Cencič, M. (2009). Kako poteka pedagoško raziskovanje: Primer kvantitativne empirične neeksperimentalne raziskave. Ljubljana: Zavod RS za šolstvo.

Clough, P. (1999) Sculptural materials in the classroom. Australia: Thames and Hudson.

Cutting, R., Kelly, O. (2015). Creative Teaching in Primary Science. London: Sage Čermak, M. (2001). Lepila in materiali za površinsko obdelavo in zaščito lesa, Lesarska založba. Available at: http://www.cpi.si/files/cpi/userfiles/ucbeniki/ lepilainmaterializapovrsinskoobdelavo.pdf [24.4.2019]

99

Dremel, M., Grudnik, Z., Herlah, T. (2007). Raziskovalna naloga: Naravna lepila.

Velenje. Available at: http://mladiraziskovalci.scv.si/ogled?id=507 [21.4.2019] Duh, M., Herzog, J., Zupančič, T. (2016). Likovna edukacija in okolijska trajnost.

Maribor: Univerzitetna založba Univerze Dvořák, M. (1916). Katechismus der Denkmalpflege. Wien: J. Bard, 1916, Brünn: R.M. Rohrer.

Encyclopedia of fine arts, 2019. Prehistoric Colour Palette. Available at: http://www. visual-arts-cork.com/artist-paints/prehistoric-colour-palette.htm [20.6.2019] Gaquere-Parker A. C., Does A., Parker C. D. (2016). Chemistry and Art in a Bag: An Easy-To-Implement Outreach Activity Making and Painting with a Copper-Based Pigment, Journal of Chemical Education, 93, 1, 152-153.

Godnič, E. (2014). Matematika se sprehaja – matematika v okolju. Matematika v šoli, 20, 3-4, 28 – 38.

Hickman, R. & Kiss, L. (2010). Cross-Curricular Gallery Learning: A Phenomenological Case Study. International Journal of Art & Design Education, 29, 1, 27-36.

Horvat, J. (2014). Ročno izdelovanje papirja v vrtcu. Ljubljana, diplomsko delo.

Available at: http://pefprints.pef.uni-lj.si/2136/1/UL_PEF_-_Jasminka_Horvat.pdf [22.4.2019] Hudoklin, R. (1955). Tehnologija materialov, ki se uporabljajo v slikarstvu. Njihova priprava, obdelava in uporaba. I. del. Ljubljana: Vzajemnost.

Ivanič, M. (2012=. Svet je prenasičen: oživljanje in posodabljanje obstoječe arhitekture je današnja nujnost. Ljubljana: Mladina, 17/18, 68-72.

100

Jenko, M. (2014). Ples smrti, ki mu nihče ne more ubežati. Delo. Available at: https:// www.delo.si/kultura/vizualna-umetnost/ples-smrti-ki-mu-nihce-ne-more-ubezati. html [20.6.2019] Jokilehto, J. (1999). History of Arhitectual Conservation. Oxford: Butterworth.

Juvanec, B. (2006). Kultura bivalnega okolja: arhitektura, uvod, teorija. Ljubljana: Pedagoška fakulteta.

Kafetzopoulos, C., Spyrellis, N., Lymperopoulou-Karaliotas, A. (2006). The Chemistry of Art and Art of Chemistry. Journal of Chemical Education, 83, 10, 1085-1088.

Karlavaris, B., Berce-Golob, H. (1991). Likovna vzgoja. Priročnik za učitelje razrednega pouka. Ljubljana: DZS Kokko, S., Räisänen, R. (2019). Craft education in sustaining and developing craft traditions. Techne serien - Forskning i Slöjdpedagogik och Slöjdvetenskap, 26, 1, 2743.

Liu, S. C., Lin, H. S. (2014). Primary teachers’ beliefs about scientific creativity in the classroom context, International Journal of Science Education, 36, 10, 1551-1567.

Makuc Semion, M., Dolenc Kambič, N. (2004). Kiparska dediščina. Vračanje izbirnih podob: restavratorski posegi, in D. Prešeren, (ed.), Ljubljana: Zavod za varstvo kulturne dediščine Slovenije.

Kandel, E. R., Mack, S. (2003). A Parallel Between Radical Reductionism in Science and in Art. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1001, 1, 272-94.

Matijević, J. Zelić, J. (2016). Tajne o bojama. Priručnik za pripravu boja iz 15. stoljeća.

Zagreb: Hrvatski restauratorski zavod.

Mesec, B. (1997). Metodologija raziskovanja v socialnem delu I. Ljubljana: Visoka šola za socialno delo.

101

Mesec, B. (1998). Uvod v kvalitativno raziskovanje v socialnem delu. Ljubljana: Visoka šola za socialno delo.

Potočnik, R. (2018). Heritage preservation Education in Primary School Fine Art Activities. Bratislava: Digit.

Pristovnik, T. (2007). Predznanje in stališča iz vsebin in obdelave podatkov ob koncu prvega vzgojno-izobraževalnega obdobja. V Krek., J., Hodnik Čadež, T., Vogrinc, J., Sicherl-Kafol, B., Devjak, T., in Štemberger, V. (Eds.). Učitelj v vlogi raziskovalca: akcijsko raziskovanje na področjih medpredmetnega povezovanja vzgojne zasnove v javni šoli. Ljubljana: Pedagoška fakulteta.

Punda, Ž. (2001). Slikarska tehnologija za slikare i restauratore. Split: Škola likovnih umjetnosti.

Purcell Cone, T., Werner, P. Cone, S.L. (2009). Interdisciplinary elementary physical education; connecting, sharing, partnering. US: Human kinetics Sicherl-Kafol, B. (2007). Procesni in vsebinski vidiki medpredmetnega povezovanja. V Krek, J., Hodnik Čadež, T., Vogrinc, J., Sicherl-Kafol, B., Devjak, T. in Štemberger, V. (Eds.), Učitelj v vlogi raziskovalca: akcijsko raziskovanje na področjih medpredmetnega povezovanja in vzgojne zasnove v javni šoli. Ljubljana: Pedagoška fakulteta. Štemberger, V. (2007). Načrtovanje in izvajanje medpredmetnih povezav. V Krek, J. Hodnik Čadež, T., Vogrinc, J., Sicherl Kafol B., Devjak T., in Štemberger, V. (Eds.), Učitelj v vlogi raziskovalca: akcijsko raziskovanje na področjih medpredmetnega povezovanja in vzgojne zasnove v javni šoli. Ljubljana: Pedagoška fakulteta.

Tacol, T. (2003). Likovno izražanje. Didaktična izhodišča za problemski pouk likovne vzgoje v devetletni osnovni šoli. Ljubljana: Debora Tacol, T., Šupšáková, B. (2018). Likovni razvoj in simbol v vizualni komunikaciji otroka.

Ljubljana: Debora

102

Taylor, R. (2001). From Science to Art and Back again. Science magazine. Available at: https://www.sciencemag.org/careers/2001/04/science-art-and-back-again [29.11.2019] Tamir, A. (2009). Interaction Between Art & Science. The Canadian Journal of Chemical Engineering, 78, 271-272.

Ugovšek, A., Šernek, M. (2010). Naravni materiali za izdelavo sodobnih lepil za les: rastline in njihovi produkti. Les, 10-16. Available at: http://www.dlib.si/stream/ URN:NBN:SI:DOC-VUNHLWLU/081b65f7-b3a5-4b46-abc6-1796356b70ed/PDF [27.4.2019] Urbančič, M. (2012). Medpredmetna povezava vsebin in razumevanje pri predmetu naravoslovje. Doktorska disertacija. Ljubljana: Pedagoška fakulteta Wenham, M. (1998). Art and Science in Education: The Common Ground. Journal of Art & Design Education, 17, 1, 61-70.

Wenner, G. C., Berg D. A., Mesler C. (1970). Interdisciplinary arts. Music Educators Journal, 57, 1, 3.

Zupančič, T. (2006). Metoda likovnopedagoškega koncepta. Ljubljana: Zavod Republike Slovenije za šolstvo.

103

104

Subject index

A Acrylic 10, 57, 58 Adhesives 21, 30, 32, 38, 40, 51, 57, 58, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78 Approach 5, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 52, 89, 90, 92, 94, 97 Assemblage 37, 38, 44, 45, 47, 48, 73 B Binders 19, 40, 51, 54, 57, 58, 64, 67, 68, 69, 74, 77, 87 C Cellulose pulp 29, 30, 32, 33, 34 Colouring matter 54, 55, 66 Conservation 5, 7, 8, 9, 11, 12, 21, 22, 23, 24, 28, 29, 30, 31, 34, 40, 41, 42, 51, 77, 89, 90, 94 Conservation and restoration studio 92, 95 Corn starch 37, 40, 71, 73, 74 Cross-curricular approach 13, 89, 94, 97 Cultural heritage 21, 23, 28, 30, 34, 38, 41, 51, 52, 60, 67, 68, 79, 80, 81, 87, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 97 Curriculum 7, 8, 13, 17, 80, 84, 89 D Didactic activities 5, 21, 89, 92, 97 Dyes 19, 21, 25, 37, 38, 39, 42, 43, 47, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 57, 58, 63, 69, 77 E Egg-based tempera 57, 64, 65 Experts 5, 13, 21, 31, 40, 42, 80, 81, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 97

105

F Fine art activity 22, 29, 37, 73, 84, 87, 90 Fine art concept 15, 17, 30, 32, 70, 84, 87 Fine Art Education 5, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 23, 30, 38, 40, 41, 51, 60, 70, 80, 81, 82, 84, 87, 89, 90, 91, 92, 94, 97 G Gliding 69, 78 Glue 10, 12, 64, 67, 69, 70, 72, 77, 78, 87 Gouache 58, 59 Gypsum 58, 64 H Heritage preservation education 5, 7, 23, 30, 51, 52, 67, 68, 79, 80, 81, 87, 89, 90, 91, 93, 94, 95, 97 I Indian ink 58 Interdisciplinary approach 5, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 97 Interview 21, 89, 90, 91, 92 L Learning objectives 14, 59, 70, 81 M Milk 9, 22, 25, 37, 40, 68, 69, 71, 72, 73, 74, 78 Milk-based tempera 21, 22, 23, 25, 26 O Oil-based paint 53, 57, 58

106

P Paper 10, 22, 23, 31, 32, 44, 51, 62, 64, 65, 68, 69, 72, 75, 77, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87 Period of education 5, 16, 21, 22, 23, 27, 29, 30, 35, 36, 37, 38, 50, 89, 90, 92, 93, 97 Pigments 8, 9, 10, 19, 22, 38, 51, 52, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 64, 66, 68, 78 Planning 13, 14 R Research 5, 18, 52, 89, 90, 97 Research questions 89, 92 S Science Education 5, 13, 16, 17, 18, 19, 31, 32, 37, 38, 40, 51, 59, 67, 71, 79, 81, 89, 91, 97 Science Education activity 21, 37, 73, 82 Science Education concept 81, 89 Starch 29, 30, 32, 33, 37, 40, 71, 73, 74, 76, 84, 87 Statue 32, 34, 40, 42, 44, 69, 77, 80, 91, 92 T Teaching and Learning modules 5, 51, 97 Textile 21, 37, 38, 39, 40, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 65, 73, 83 W Wire 29, 30, 33, 34, 69 Wood vermin 29, 30, 31, 93 Workshop (educational) 21, 22, 23, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 37, 38, 40, 41, 42, 52, 95

107

Heritage preservation and interdisciplinary approach through Fine Art and Science Education

Written by: Reviewed by: Translated by: Published by: URL access: Designed by: Prepress by:

dr. Robert Potočnik dr. Iztok Devetak dr. Tonka Tacol Prof. Dr. Božena Šupšáková, PhD. Dora Debeljak Digit, s.r.o., Publishing House, Bratislavská 18, 900 21 Svätý Jur, Slovakia http://www.arteducation.sk Eva Sikošek Paško Justinčić

Issue first, 2020 Number of pages: 110 CIP Data created by the Slovak National Library.

On-line ISBN: 978-80-968441-5-9

108

109

110