/ˌdɪsəˈteɪʃ(ə)n/

dissertation

noun: dissertation; plural noun: dissertations

a long essay on a particular subject, especially one written for a university degree or diploma. synonyms: essay, thesis, treatise, paper, study early 17th century (in the sense ‘discussion, debate’): from Latin dissertatio(n- ), from dissertare ‘continue to discuss’, from disserere ‘examine, discuss’.

Contents

01

Introduction

02

Summary of Work

03

Amber Morris

04

Joe Hutchinson

05

Joseph Lewis

06

Linh Duong

07

Acknowledgements

6 —

Introduction

Introduction

This book is a compilation of dissertations written

by Graphic Design students whose course consists largely of portfolio work rather than written pieces. Naturally, they all freaked out to some extent. But they did it, and this is the collection that celebrates the creativity, the commitment and the willingness of these students.

The book features the dissertation work of four students, all of whom have picked varying subjects that still ultimately connect to graphic design.

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8 —

Amber Morris

This essay studies eBooks and traditional printed books in regard to which is healthier for the reader and which is most sustainable for the environment. It looks at various factors which contribute to the argument, including; reading enjoyment and practicality, use within education, books as an art form and the carbon footprint of reading. The conclusion discusses whether there is a solid answer to this question or whether the question is purely ambiguous and entirely open to personal judgement.

1. Kaye, 2006, p.14

Joe Hutchinson

A key part of designing a good flag is ensuring that the identity of the country is embodied by the flag.

Americans treat their flag as though it physically is America, and as a result it is one of the most loved flags in the world. This makes the design good. “Don’t allow a committee to design a flag. Instead, empower individuals to design flags, and use a committee to select among them.”1 This quote embodies the sentiment perfectly.

When a flag needs to be designed for a country, place or organisation, ultimately the people responsible for the decisions are those that the flag will represent. If the people love their flag, then the flag is fulfilling its purpose.

This is what good design is all about.

Summary of Work

Joseph Lewis

As a designer, understanding how our work can have an emotional effect on the people viewing it is vital, as this can aid the success of the work. How a person perceives and responds to the design in that given moment of time is a subconscious process, but I wants to have an understanding as to how it happens. I focus my research on understanding how the brain perceives visual information and how each individual can interpret things differently, how past experiences, culture and general perception can have an impact on what we see and what we feel when we look at things.

Linh Duong

Old-fashioned is new again. This dissertation studies the resurgence of interest with design styles and processes from the past among young graphic designers today. Using examples from designers and creative minds in both the past and the present, this piece will inform the reader of retro style, of how it has existed for many centuries and is not a new trend that our generation came up with. On the other hand, there are references to individual creatives as well as design firms and societies who focus on working with past trends so as to exemplify the appearance of retro in the modern day. Moreover, the dissertation discusses the different ways people view retro, more specifically between millennial artists and the older generation.

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12 —

When considering traditional printed books and digital eBooks; which is the healthiest choice for the reader and the most sustainable choice for the environment?

Amber Morris

Introduction

This essay explores various factors that contribute to determining the best choice between a digital eBook and a traditional printed book. The argument considers the term healthy regarding the reader and sustainable regarding the environment and each chapter will discuss various aspects that have an impact on the overall decision. The chapters see various periods throughout history being discussed, compared and contrasted for the benefit of each theme rather than portraying an accurate chronological timeline. Therefore, the intention of the research is to define whether or not a decision can be reached regarding the better choice for reading.

Chapter one looks at thoughts from renowned authors in relation to the enjoyment of reading and how children interact with digital reading. Various viewpoints are considered, spanning from those of 1967’s intellectual Marshall McLuhan, to present day children’s author Mac Barnett. Theories from digital pioneer Mike Matas are contrasted with more traditional views regarding the use of printed books and their place in today’s society.

Chapter two considers books as an art form and connections between The Arts and Crafts movement and the millennial book trade. Each of these periods in history is then discussed in relation to its impact on today’s book trade. Chip Kidd’s book cover designs are explored in relation to the beauty of traditional printed books and how this secures their place in today’s market. The views of Christi Cowan, journalist Paula Cocozza and Random House’s Madeline Mcintosh are then discussed in relation to the future of traditional books.

Chapter three explores the impact that technology has had on education throughout history and whether it has benefited or hindered our learning processes. Writing from Purdue University is then discussed regarding

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technology’s impact on the education system, leading this section into the current use of eBooks within education.

The thoughts of author Alison Flood and ecologist/author Michael Carpenter are then considered. Lastly, libraries are discussed in regard to whether or not the younger generation view them as desirable places. Michael Bierut’s L!BRARY scheme is examined and therefore the impact on the future of traditional, printed books.

Chapter four discusses the sustainability of reading.

Thoughts and findings from ecologist Michael Carpenter are revisited along with the carbon footprint of printed books and eBooks. Comparisons between the two forms of reading are made and this leads the section toward how an individual’s reading behaviour can impact the environment. The chapter finishes with views from Indie publisher Melville House’s Dennis Johnson and how he believes that the consumers choice of reading is sometimes a subconscious decision made by marketplace advertising and large retailers.

The conclusion explains whether a definitive answer can be reached regarding the better choice for the reader and the most sustainable choice for the environment between eBooks and traditional books. It will discuss the main opposing arguments and findings to determine whether the argument is answerable or whether it is ambiguous and purely down to an individual’s taste and behaviour.

1—

The eBook versus the traditional book

When considering traditional printed books and digital eBooks, if one was to try and decide which is the most enjoyable item to read, they may want to take into consideration the books physical qualities. The weight of the item, it’s aesthetic and portability are all contributory factors in determining this decision. One could also consider the ritualistic aspect and interactive values of reading, for example children’s books are often

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used as transportation to other worlds through the imagination that they inspire. This chapter also looks into the enjoyment of reading each form of book and how the choice can alter the way in which one reads.

1.1 –

The practicalities and enjoyment of reading

There will always be people who fight against new technologies and fear the unknown, as people feel safe with what they know and understand. Looking back to 1967, McLuhan and Fiore2 referred to The Dance of Death in medieval art and how it resembled peoples fear of print and the hugely innovative yet practically unknown technology that came along with it. One might suggest that these fears are re-living themselves in the current day, as traditional books are threatened by digital reading alternatives “electric technology shapes, works over, alters-massagesevery instant of our lives.”3 Although there will always be people who contest change, it is fair to suggest that there will also be just as many people who pioneer these changes. People who develop solutions and look to the future for more economic and effective alternatives to everything we use. When looking back to 2011, digital reading was considered a much fresher concept than it is today. Mike Matas4, a previous user interface designer for Apple presented his nextgeneration book by Al Gore for Push Pop Press.

Matas claimed this highly interactive iBook was to be the future of reading5 [fig.1]. The book which included infographics and animations, aimed to enable learning in an interactive and interesting manner for the reader.

In an age where life is evolving digitally; where we can answer text messages on our watches and have cameras inside our fridges for easier shopping. It is fair to suggest that Matas’ iBook perfectly portrayed the positives of technological advancements in 2011. However, upon reflection today, it is clear that this was not the future of

2,3. McLuhan and Fiore, 1967, p. 96

4,5. Matas, 2011

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fig.1: Matas, M. (2011) Al Gore - The Next Generation Digital Book

reading as traditional books are still here and arguably stronger than ever.

6,7. Cocozza, 2017

Traditional books have been described as making a comeback recently. Many argue that printed books make the enjoyable little habits and quirks of reading a reality which isn’t achievable through a screen. Paula Cocozza, award winning author and feature writer for The Guardian supports this by saying “You can’t turn down a corner”, “or flick the pages to see how far you have come and how far you have to go.”6 In today’s digital world, where everything is connected and constantly evolving, Cocozza argues that eBooks are looking out-of-date, tired in comparison to their traditional, printed alternatives.

She writes “you just can’t do a shelfie with an e-reader.”7 Referring to social media selfie trends but in relation to her bookshelf, she hints to daily evolving trends and the huge realm of social media where particular importance is played upon superficial aesthetics. Many authors and book fans believe we should stick with what works in relation to the traditional books which both look good and are fit for purpose. If something isn’t broken, why fix it?

In 2014, Maddie Crum writes about authors tendency to favour traditional books over modern digital alternatives.

Her article Authors weigh in on print versus E-Books for The Huffington Post, includes interviews with authors Sue Monk Kidd and Anthony Doerr. She claims they both enjoy the ritualistic aspect of reading a printed book. Kidd

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enjoys the stability of a book, the weight and substance making the story more authentic for her. Doerr, likens reading a book to taking a hike8. Like Doerr, many people enjoy the sense of progress when reading a physical book; feeling and seeing how far they have come with every turn of the page, consuming the story with each chapter passing. Thus enabling the reader to feel more involved in the writing, a quality which could be suggested as unachievable with digital, screen based reading. Can the same feeling be achieved by watching the percentage bar crawl along at the bottom of the screen? The points raised by Crum9 are interestingly challenged by a reader of the article, Josiah Jackson. The reader’s comment could be likened to the views of people who pioneer technological change and believe Crum’s point of view is stuck in time. Jackson suggests that technology is a natural development and words are no more meaningful printed on a page than they are when read through a screen, when he writes “This article should read “Authors struggling with the digital age”.”10 Many cannot deny the ease of an eBook in certain situations, Cocozza claims the two are able to sit side-byside in today’s market due to their individual strengths11.

Christi Cowan supports Cocozza with his Niche Gratification theory. Cowan’s thesis Printed books versus e-Book formats: a study using Niche Gratification Theory presents that books and eBooks have strong individual niche’s which enable them each to have a healthy market within the reading population12. Many people are optimistic for the future of both forms of reading due to their individual strengths being so diverse.

Cowan’s research found traditional books to be most effective for mental processing within education and eBooks to be most efficient for their ease and portability. The eBook was found to be most successful when following the format of a traditional book13 this could be due to familiarity and legibility for the reader.

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8,9,10. Crum, 2014

11,12. Cocozza, 2017, p.58,60

13. Cowan, 2013, p.55-58

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1.2 – Children’s imaginations and the effects of

digital reading 14. Matas, 2011

15. Barnett, 2014

16. Cocozza, 2017

In opposition to Matas’14 beliefs about technology aided learning and the interactive values of an iBook. Mac Barnett, New York Times award winning children’s author, believes in the magic of a physical printed book. It is said that he utilises his books to enable children’s imaginations and through the use of his storylines and illustrations, children can travel between different worlds when turning the pages15. One might argue that this concept is not achievable digitally and that illustrations often lose their magic when viewed through a screen. People - children and adults alike, often use the term getting lost in a book, it could be said that getting lost in a kindle doesn’t have quite the same ring to it. Paula Cocozza16 also believes that children’s books don’t have the same effect on a device as it is much more difficult to get into the storyline.

There is the temptation of games, internet and social media distracting attention which may stop the reader from becoming fully immersed.

2 — The future of the traditional book

17. Library Journal, 2011

When considering books as an art form, eBooks are often classed as secondary to their traditional printed ancestors. Book covers are often so well designed and exquisitely produced that they sell the book aesthetically, regardless of their content. “Without having books embedded in our physical environment, it would be so much harder to help readers connect with new books and authors.”17 Many book lovers enjoy the ritual of purchasing a physical, printed book. First perusing the bookshelves then flicking through the pages and admiring the ornately designed covers. Once the book is purchased, inhaling the new smell and cracking its spine open, then after it has been read from cover to cover, displaying it on their bookshelf at home. Some would argue that buying a book on a kindle doesn’t evoke any of these feelings or

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experiences, yet we still buy them. Is it purely for the ease, convenience and ability to carry multiple stories around in your handbag or are there other reasons why digital books have been so popular in the last ten years? This chapter aims to determine if this question can be answered.

2.1 – Loss or regeneration of an art form?

Earlier this millennium, books were being mass produced using thin paper stock and pages which turned yellow, this meant books were cheaper than ever to produce and purchase. It could be suggested that these factors deprived part of the experience of buying a traditional book. At this time, it was rarer to see high quality, printed hardback books than when printing first evolved and bespoke bookmaking was argued as on the way to extinction. Paula Cocozza18 suggests that these elements all contributed to the birth of the eBook.

Stating that people were hasty to swap to digital due to the traditional alternative losing its quality which many people appreciated and therefore thoroughly missed.

This thought could be likened to The Arts and Crafts movement from the 19th Century. When William Morris, a pioneer of the high quality and hand-crafted ran his emporium on the belief that people bought excellence “Have nothing in your houses that you do not know to be useful or believe to be beautiful”19. His items were produced to last, with more man power and longer production times than other items but people were willing to pay for these qualities. The industrial revolution affected his business as new items were becoming readily available in mass, quickly and cheaply through the birth of the machine. It became fashionable to buy more disposable items along with evolving trends instead of items which would last a lifetime. This revolution could be likened to the millennial book trade, where books were being cheaply mass produced. It could be suggested that William Morris was an early example of

18. Cocozza, 2017

19. Victoria and Albert Museum, 2018

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the fight against the development of technology with The Arts and Crafts movement having many similarities to today’s book trade and the fight against digital reading.

Today sees a resurgence of the traditional printed book, with artists, designers and publishers producing beautiful, high quality books and covers once again. These factors are all encouraging the buyer into wanting to own the physical item again, in harsh contrast to the temporary, digital alternatives. Random House’s Madeline Mcintosh is confident about the future of traditional books.

20. Library Journal, 2011

21. Kidd, 2011

“[...] as long as we stay true to our core contribution to the market-selecting great books and helping their authors to connect to as many readers as possible-then I truly believe publishers will be OK. We do, of course, have to adapt to readers’ changing preferences and habits, and at Random House we’re actively embracing the very positive opportunities that are opened up by digital publishing and distribution.”20 The quality of the book cover could be argued to be just as important as the book’s content. The job of the designer is to attract attention and entice the reader into purchasing the book. Award winning book cover designer Chip Kidd21, believes that his covers reflect the book’s storyline and embody the stories message. Kidd is known for creating out of the ordinary covers, which really make you think and draw in your attention; whoever said never judge a book by its cover, had probably never met Kidd as this seems to be his work and design ethic. One of his most famous covers for 1Q84 by Haruki Murakami has many similarities in its style and concept to the work of designer Stefan Sagmeister with the use of clever hidden messages. [fig.2] The cover and dust jacket each have their own design but when combined they create another look; a metaphor for the hidden meanings within the story. This cover was

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fig.2: Kidd, C. (2011) Haruki Murakami 1Q84

also published to eBook but Kidd22 states that it doesn’t have anywhere near the same effect on a kindle. The experience of removing the dust jacket and revealing the cover underneath is entirely lost to the digital reader.

22. Kidd, 2011

3 — The future of the traditional book within education

When comparing eBooks and printed books, the enjoyment and aesthetics of the reading experience could be described as just the very tip of the iceberg. There are many other factors to consider, such as the way we learn through each medium. Do eBooks help or hinder education? This chapter looks into possible factors that contribute to answering this question.

3.1 – The effects eBooks have on education

One could look back to a time before modern technology and ask what has changed? Technological advancements have undeniably developed certain things for the better; enabling wider spread access to education and the ability to share points of view and research right across the world. Pinkerton23 looks back to the medieval painting Liber Ethicorum des Henricus de Alemannia by Laurentius de Voltolina [fig.3]. The painting portrays a 14th Century Italian lecture theatre and at first glance, it may seem that not much has altered at all. Room layout and student characteristics could be likened to the modern day

23. Pinkerton, 2016

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fig.3: Voltolina, L. (14th Century) Liber Ethicorum des Henricus de Alemannia

24. Pinkerton, 2016

but this is where the similarities end. Technology is often described as having shaped, evolved and broadened the horizons of our education system. Pinkerton24 claims that many years ago, teaching was confined to the classroom and opinions restricted to those teaching. Today sees the ability for these theories to be shared across the world.

These new methods, research and ideas are all thanks to technology and the effect it has had upon our education system. When considering how technology has changed education, one could also consider how design has evolved since the introduction of computers.

Thirty years ago, graphic design was predominantly hand produced. The Apple Mac was introduced into mainstream design studios in the nineties and from there things began to change very fast. The computer has enabled work to be completed faster and with much more ease. However, many would argue it has also limited creativity and is much more difficult to create something original than when things were done by hand. It is the designer’s choice to work solely on the computer and many designers still create things by hand, keeping in touch with their traditional roots. Designer Stephan Sagmeisters outcomes are often made possible due to the use of technology but the idea behind them and the initial craft is hand rendered which gives his work a unique quality. When thinking about the use of an eBook within education, the devices are sometimes viewed as a tool to support reading comprehension and literacy

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in the learning to read process. Alison Flood25 found reading comprehension to be worse from a screen than from print in her article for The Guardian, she looked at the 2013 study, Reading linear texts on paper versus computer screen: Effects on reading comprehension.

In this study, US Scholar Anne Mangen states that “students who read texts in print scored significantly better on the reading comprehension test than students who read the texts digitally”26. Doerr’s notion of reading a book being similar to taking a hike27, is echoed when Flood claims reading a traditional book gives one a much greater sense of progress than when reading from a screen28.

It is suggested that there is a greater capacity to recall details when reading from a printed book because of the ability to get lost in the language and storyline more easily.

Flood claims this to be true and states “readers using a Kindle were “significantly” worse than paperback readers at recalling when events occurred in a mystery story”29.

Author Michael Carpenter30, agrees with Flood, writing about his own experience of reading comprehension and claiming to achieve a better rate of retention personally when reading from a printed book.

These findings can be supported by Kozminsky and AsherSadon, from research conducted in 2013 using groups of 50 children at similar levels intellectually; the children used traditional books and eBooks for a variety of tests.

The findings claim, “performance of the printed book group improved significantly more than the E-book group on knowledge about concepts of print, understanding of the plot, and vocabulary knowledge.”31 However, these findings could be contested, as using children all at the same intellectual level could be seen as an unfair test.

Digital reading could potentially benefit other readers with additional educational needs. Flood, Kozminsky and Asher-Sadon’s theories could be opposed when considering various learning styles and also the interactive qualities of an eBook. Digital reading could be suggested to encourage explorative learning amongst some people

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25,28,29. Flood, 2014

26. Mangen, Walgermo and Bronnick, 2013 27. Crum, 2014

30. Carpenter, 2016

31. Kozminsky and AsherSadon, 2013

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and recollection might rank higher with some depending on an individual’s learning style or preference. It could be argued that an eBook has an advantage over a traditional book in its adaptability to each reader’s preference.

32,33. Reid, 2016, p.60

34,35,36. Watts and Nisbet, 1974, p.7, p.77

37. Barnett, 2014

Typeface, style and size can often be varied, essentially tailoring the reading experience to suit individual needs.

When considering barriers to learning, such as special educational needs or dyslexia, digital could be seen as the future of reading. Tracking can be increased or decreased to help a child struggling to make out words, and typefaces can be simplified for better legibility.

Two years after Flood’s article was published, Cayley Reid’s32 Masters research thesis referring to views from Brown and Larson, claims eBooks can help to support education and encourage literacy development, “eBooks are able to open more doors for meaning, making and comprehending for students.”33 This is a trail of thought which has existed for quite some time. 45 years ago, Watts and Nisbet34 discussed how typeface size and the tracking between letters can affect the way in which a child learns to read. In Legibility in Children’s Books A Review of Research, they claim that learning from small print squeezed together or from oversized and over spaced print can hinder the learning to read process, limiting the child’s learning and causing needless complications35. Illustrations are often considered imperative in learning to read, children can frequently start out dependent on them, then gradually learn to rely solely on the text. Watts and Nisbet36 wrote about research carried out by Vernon, Magne and Parkas, who claim illustrations have two purposes; information and motivation. Illustrations are seen as being much more effective than just a printed page of text. This notion is supported with a more modern theory from Barnett37 who describes his ability to enable readers to lose themselves in his storylines through the use of illustrations.

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fig.4: Bierut, M. (2000) L!BRARY [logo] New York Public School Library Scheme

3.2 – Making libraries desirable places for the

younger generation

A library which has many children’s books, and which can develop new interests as well as feed the pupils’ curiosity for stimulating and authoritative materials, is a rich resource indeed. Unfortunately, such libraries are scarce in much of the world.38 Libraries have not always been the resourceful, inviting spaces that they are today.

Byrd Pinkerton claims that in harsh contrast to today’s facilities, “Before 1500, the largest Oxford library had 400 books, and most Cambridge college libraries didn’t have more than 200.”39. Books were extremely valuable assets which couldn’t be removed from the library and these spaces were often unpleasant and damp. It wasn’t until the 1800’s that things began to improve.

Less than forty years after Staiger40 wrote about the lack of libraries rich in resources, in The teaching of reading.

These spaces which were once sparse and in desperate need, had been filled full of rich resources and then much more quickly forgotten about with the birth of digital alternatives and the internet. Graphic Designer Michael Bierut41, spoke about how he revamped many of the public-school libraries across New York in 2000 with design agency Pentagram. The brief was to make these libraries desirable places to visit and his logo and branding concept L!BRARY started a snowball effect across New York [fig.4].

The aim was to encourage younger generations to pick up traditional books again and the result included creative outcomes from the likes of Stefan Sagmeister and Christoph Niemann42. Random House’s Madeline Mcintosh speaks about the importance of libraries in building communities and keeping the traditional book alive. Agreeing with Bierut’s scheme, she believes libraries need to be inviting spaces which encourage the new generation to read traditional books. “the heart of what

38,40. Staiger, 1973, p. 67

39. Pinkerton, 2016

41,42. Beirut, 2017

26 —

43. Library Journal, 2011

44. Staigar, 1973, p.61

makes a library important is defined by physical books, in a physical space, connected to its community by face-to-face relationships and coming together in person over books.”43 When contemplating the positive impact that illustrations and interactive features can have on motivating children to learn, it is often considered crucial that the correct reading materials are used for the correct purpose. Staiger44 claimed that the correct material for the correct outcome should always be used when possible. This supports Reid’s more recent study which portrayed eBooks to be useful when used for reading comprehension.

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Sustainability of the eBook

When comparing traditional books and e-readers, a major factor to consider is the sustainability of each physical item. It could be assumed that printed books are much less environmentally friendly due to their permanent printed format and somewhat more disposable disposition compared with the non-physical aspect of a digital, downloadable story. This chapter aims to discuss whether the assumption is justified through the pros and cons of eBooks and traditional books, the longevity of each and their impact on our environment.

4.1 – Cost, lifespan and wastage values of eBooks and

traditional books

45. Carpenter, 2016

When considering sustainability, a book’s carbon footprint is imperative in understanding its effect on our planet. According to Michael Carpenter45, an e-reader’s total carbon footprint is roughly 168kg in its lifespan whereas a printed book is only 7.5kg (depending on the books size). From this study, it would seem that eBooks have a much larger negative impact. However, when the number of eBooks one reads on their e-reader in its lifetime is taken into account, these numbers could be

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equalled. Carpenter’s study suggests that you would need to read between twenty-two and twenty-three books on your digital device in order to lower the carbon footprint of the device to that of one single printed book46. However, if an individual was to read this amount of stories on their device then irresponsibly dispose of it, they are technically reversing any good they had done due to the lethal chemicals released into the atmosphere47.

Most large retailers offer a recycling programme for their e-readers which ensure the device is disposed of in a sustainable and environmentally friendly manner. This isn’t widely advertised and many would suggest that it should be a better advertised factor when retailers market the devices.

Considering Carpenter’s research, it seems that your environmental impact depends on your reading habits.

There are many factors to take into consideration, one being electricity consumption. Reading a traditional book at night requires some sort of light which uses electricity to run and most modern e-readers have a build in backlit screen which requires electricity to charge.

Therefore, the time of day one chooses to read could technically have an impact on their carbon footprint. The longevity of a device also adds to this debate; the longer a device is owned for will bring down its carbon footprint as the biggest impact of an e-reader, is its production.

Therefore, individuals should take into account their reading habits before deciding to go digital.

The production of eBooks has undoubtedly had a negative impact on the printing and traditional publishing industry. Over the years, publishers have had to adapt their production methods to minimise waste and enable printed books and eBooks to both exist in today’s market.

However, the more eBooks being sold, usually means the less printed books being sold and if publishers are over producing, then this often results in waste and

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46,47. Carpenter, 2016

28 —

48. Carpenter, 2016

49. Beirut, 2017

an even deeper negative impact on our environment.

If large quantities of books remain unsold, the retailers can usually return the volumes to the publishers which hugely increases the publishing carbon footprint.

Carpenter48 claims that 26% of landfills already get filled with publishing related paper and 11% of fresh water is consumed by the publishing and printing industry.

However, e-readers also use their fair share of resources to produce, Carpenter states that 33lbs of minerals and 79 gallons of water are used to produce just one digital e-reader.

It seems that the best way to target these negative impacts is to decide between eBooks or printed books and stick to the decision. If one was to purchase an e-reader on a whim, barely use it and continue to purchase traditional books, they would be creating a larger negative impact on the environment. Considering this theory, traditional books being reused can reduce their carbon footprint even further. When comparing this idea to public transport; people sharing a bus are all sharing the same carbon footprint, however if all those people were driving separately, the footprint would be multiplied by the amount of people. This simplistic strategy could be applied to the use of libraries with a book’s carbon footprint. Obviously, this basic notion doesn’t take into consideration emission free cars or the amount of people on the bus, but it very simply explains how a library works when it comes to books. Each book has the ability to be read by multiple people, multiple times, each time minimising that book’s impact on our environment.

This perception links in with Bierut’s49 rejuvenation of Public School Libraries in New York, where encouraging the younger generation to use library books instead of buying new reduces their carbon footprint.

The way in which retailers’ market books can make a big difference to which type of book the customer chooses to purchase. Large corporations don’t tend to advertise

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the environmental impacts of each type of reading and for someone who hasn’t looked into the sustainability of books; it might be assumed that eBooks are the most ethical option without taking into account their reading habits. Indie Publisher Melville House’s Josh Marwell talks about how big retailers tend to push the sales of eBooks over their traditional, printed alternatives as it is often a more profitable option for them50. He claims that huge online companies send book searches to the eBook version first so it is not always the consumers who don’t want to buy traditional books but the companies who don’t want to sell them. Marwell believes this is due to “a more cost-effective way of continuing to do what they’ve been doing since the rise of conglomerate publishing 50 years ago.”51 Choosing to maximise profits through the sale of eBooks cannot be blamed entirely on the large retailers but also on the publishers themselves. HarperCollins recently introduced a loan cap on eBooks meaning the stories license would expire after 26 circulations within libraries.

The cap allows the license to be used by one person at a time until all the licenses have been used52. This conflicts the notion behind sustainable library lending and its effect on the environment. HarperCollins’s Josh Marwell argues that this cap is about “selling in perpetuity and preserving a diverse marketplace for our books and authors that we think benefits all stakeholders involved”53.

He acknowledges that the cap will prove to be a test to libraries but that HarperCollins have tried to work out the best solution for all.54

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50,51,53,54. Library Journal, 2011

52. Hadro, 2011

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Conclusion

In conclusion, this essay finds and presents many factors which contribute to the question of which is the better choice between an eBook and a traditional book.

Both forms of reading have niche individual strengths which enable them to sit comfortably, side-by-side in today’s market. As evidence suggests, neither form of reading is superior to the other and this essay presents pros and cons for each. The findings show that the best option is often a personal choice, dependent upon ones reading behaviour and preference.

When discussing the enjoyment of reading, it is suggested that traditional books are a preferential choice due to their physical manner and appearance. Book lovers enjoy many aspects of the reading experience, from first perusing the shelves of a book shop through to displaying the book on their own bookshelf. This almost ritualistic practice involves the new book smell and the feel and weight of the tangible object. These factors overlap with the aesthetic of a traditional book. Book covers are often looked to as an art form and some suggest that this aspect of reading is completely lost to the digital reader. However, ultimately it is a personal choice and many would choose an e-reader over a printed book for their portability and flexible nature. Today’s generation is fast paced and onthe-go, e-readers can often fit in well with this lifestyle.

The way in which children learn to read is detrimental to the choice between e-readers and traditional books.

The findings in this essay suggest that a traditional book enables children’s imagination to flourish. Through turning the pages and appreciating the illustrations, individuals have the ability to get lost in the storylines much more easily than through reading from a screen. Other findings show that digital reading can help with literacy in some cases; when considering special educational needs or dyslexia, the ability to adapt the reading experience for

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the reader is a significant factor. Considering this, many studies show literacy and recollection as being secondary when reading digitally compared with traditional books.

This could be due to a number of things but distraction levels are often much higher when using a reading device; possibly because of the temptation of internet or social media apps in the background, thus never allowing the reader to become fully immersed in the story.

When an individual considers purchasing an eBook, the findings within this essay suggest that the reader’s behaviour should first be considered. The question of which form of reading is better for the environment relies entirely on the individual’s reading behaviour with the number of books read on the device deciding its overall carbon footprint. I believe this should be a wider advertised fact by the retailers who sell the e-readers. For example, I have always been a book lover and own bookshelves full of print; the scent from the spine of a brand-new book giving me great nostalgia of my childhood. However, when I started holidaying and travelling, I purchased an e-reader without a second thought. For me, it was a secondary choice to printed books but the ability to carry multiple titles in my hand luggage was revolutionary to my reading experience. Although I have no doubt read more than the suggested twenty-three titles on my e-reader, I continue to buy printed books too. However, if I had been more aware of the environmental implications, I may have adapted my reading habits to therefore reduce my own carbon footprint.

It would be interesting to carry out a sequel to this essay in the future; when the generation being born now who are growing up with digital reading and technology considered a norm, have children of their own. Currently, books are still a very popular form of reading and although there is always talk about them dying out due to digital alternatives, they remain strong in the marketplace.

My generation and all of those before me grew up with

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32 —

traditional books and are only as adults having the digital options. Therefore, it would be interesting to see in twenty or thirty years from now, if traditional books are still as popular as they are today. Will the younger generation keep them going or will they finally become extinct; only to be found in museums behind glass as antique artefacts like the first printed books are now?

As a graphic designer, I feel that it would be a great shame if we completely lost the traditional publishing industry and their printed books. I have a great passion for print and traditional books but also feel strongly about sustainability and the impact we are having on the environment. Therefore, I think there will always be scope to improve on the way in which we produce printed books.

Possibilities to discover new environmentally friendly inks and glues, use recycled paper and improve libraries to encourage recycled reading and lending. I have to embrace new technologies through my career choice but much like my work I enjoy mixing the old with the new.

Designing on the computer but also drawing by hand for a more unique outcome, therefore much like design technology, I believe there is and always will be room for both forms of reading, but the future of it is entirely in the hands of the newest generations.

Amber Morris

References

Barnett, M. (2014) Why a good book is a secret door.

Bierut, M. (2017) How to design a library that makes kids want to read.

Carpenter, M. (2016) Books vs ebooks: Protect the environment with this simple decision.

Cocozza, P. (2017) ‘How eBooks lost their shine: ‘Kindles now look clunky and unhip’’, The Guardian, 27th April

Cowan, C. (2013) Printed books versus e-Book formats: a study using Niche Gratification Theory. Unpublished MA thesis. The University of Alabama.

Crum, M. (2014) ‘Authors Weigh In On Print Versus E-Books’, The Huffington Post, 6th December.

CustomMade. (2015) ‘E-Readers Vs. Print Books’, CustomMade, 26th January.

Feather, J. (1988) A History of British Publishing.

London: Routledge.

Flood, A. (2014) ‘Readers absorb less on Kindles than on paper, study finds’, The Guardian, 19th August.

Fox, A. and Murrell, R. (1989) Green Design. A Guide to the Environmental Impact of Building Materials. London: Longman Group.

Fuller, P. (1980) Beyond the crisis in art. London: Writers and Readers Publishing Cooperative Society Ltd.

Hadro, J. (2011) ‘HarperCollins Puts 26 Loan Cap on Ebook Circulations’, Liblicense, 25th Feb.

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Jury, D. (2004) Letterpress, the allure of the handmade. Switzerland: RotoVision.

Kidd, C. (2012) Designing books is no laughing matter. OK it is.

Kozminsky, E. and Asher-Sadon, R. (2013) Media type influences preschooler’s literacy development: E-book versus printed book reading, Interdisciplinary Journal of E-Learning and Learning Objects.

Lanks, B. (2011) Chip Kidd Talks About Designing Haruki Murakami’s New Novel, “1Q84”.

Library Journal. (2011) ‘Our Ebook Future’, Library Journal, vol. 136.

Mangen, A., Walgermo, B, R. and Bronnick, K. (2013) ‘Reading linear texts on paper versus computer screen: Effects on reading comprehension’, The International Journal of Educational Research, 5th January.

Mcluhan, M. (1964) Understanding Media, the extensions of man. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd.

Mcluhan, M. and Fiore, Q. (1967) The Medium is the Massage. London: Penguin Books.

Pinkerton, B. (2016) Wax Tablets, Chicken Rustling And The Medieval Roots Of The Modern University.

Purdue University (date unknown) How has technology changed education?

Reid, C. (2016) EBooks and print Books can have different affects on literacy comprehension. Unpublished MA thesis. Ralph C. Wilson, Jr. School of Education.

Amber Morris

Staiger, C, R. (1973) The teaching of reading.

Paris: United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization.

Sustainability For All (date unknown) Carbon footprint, which is better? Ebooks or traditional books?

V&A Museum (2018) Arts and Crafts: An Introduction.

V&A Museum (2018) Introducing William Morris.

Watts, L. and Nisbet, J. (1974) Legibility in Children’s Books a Review of Research. Bucks: NFER Publishing Company Ltd.

Wilson, A. (1993) The Design of Books. California: Chronicle Books.

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What makes a good flag design: Good?

Joe Hutchinson

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Introduction

Flags are pieces of cloth with printed or stitched designs on them in a variety of colours and designs. They are used to represent regions, and. They are not only used as geographical identifiers, flags have many other uses e.g. They are often used to convey information from a distance. For example: Life guards on beaches fly red and yellow flags to show where it is safe to swim, away from strong tidal currents. Flags are identifiers that people have been somewhere and/or accomplished a difficult task. Arctic and Antarctic explorers plant flags when they reach the north and south poles. Athletes are draped in flags when they win major sporting events.

Mountain climbers proudly stand next to the summit next to their flag as a marker that they were there, and they were doing it representing their country. At motorsport races a number of flags are waved around the circuit to communicate to the driver as quickly as possible of events that may interfere with the race.

Flag design is very difficult as it needs to be simple, unique and well balanced. “Designing a great flag is very difficult, as you are trying to squeeze a whole nation into a small box.”1 If you are representing a country or city, the flag needs to be a symbol that the people of that place can unite and connect with. If the flag is one that conveys information or is political then the flag needs to be very clear and distinctive. Not all flags have the same requirements, although many flags used are flown atop high flag poles and will be seen from large distances away. Flags do not only represent places or convey information sometimes they are used to represent a political party, movement, governing body or group of people. Some examples of non-geographical flags are the flag of the Nazi party during the Second World War UN, LBGT community and the flag of ISIS.

1. Farrow, BBC, 2014

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1—

The Relationship between Politics and Flags

Politics and flags often go hand in hand. Without flags or banners people would have a difficult time communicating non-verbally. Communication is key to human survival, and it is what separates us from animals. It demonstrates how we have formed such complex societies. History is without a doubt messy and complicated, and flags have been there for the creation of new countries and the splitting apart of established regimes and constitutions. Flags are risen in celebration of political victories and have been used as propaganda tools by dictatorships.

1.1 – History of Flags and National Flags

2. Andrew Lawler, 2011

3. Connected Earth, n.d.

People have been communicating through symbols and physical objects for thousands of years. The earliest object that could be described as a flag that has been discovered is a metal flag found in the Shahdad region of Iran that dates back to 2400 BC. The flag depicts a scene prevalent in the art from this region during the period; a man and woman facing each other with many animals and plants behind, showing the bounty of the area. The flag was discovered on its own so one can only speculate over its use and importance. “The flag has no parallels and its use is unknown.”2 Before people spread all across the globe and when communication across long distances was difficult.

Early humans used anything at their disposal to try to convey messages. From fire and smoke signals to mirrors and leafy branches humans have been ingenious in communicating over vast distances3. Fire and smoke signals have been used for over a thousand years as they were first used in China 200 BC to communicate along the Great Wall of China4. This form of communication was used for simple messages. When information needed to be communicated quickly, for example “On the battlefield

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fig.1: Kookaburra, 2004, The Nazi Flag

flags and banners indicated when soldiers were to advance or retreat.”5 Banners used in war were designed to be easily recognisable, so soldiers would know what side others were on.

5. Johnson-Barker and Carpenter, 2015, p.15

1.2 – Flags of War

During World War II, Germany was under Nazi control. In 1935 the flag was changed to the Nazi Flag which Adolf Hitler designed himself [fig.1]. The flag was displayed across the country on official state buildings and on ships and planes. Hitler outlines the meaning of the design: “The red expressed the social thought underlying the movement. White the national thought. And the swastika signified the mission allotted to us – the struggle for the victory of Aryan mankind.”6 Nazi Germany and more specifically, Hitler later completely re wrote the interpretation of the symbol.

It was not originally a symbol of hated and segregation.

The symbol has been used for hundreds of years in temples and in decorative designs across Asia, and to this day still used in India, where it is sometimes drawn on the bonnet of new cars as a symbol for luck. It was adopted by Hitler and appointed new meanings. The swastika symbol has been tainted drastically in modern day western society. It is seen as a symbol of racism and hatred, and to wave a flag with a swastika on it is banned in many western countries, including Germany, which goes some way to show the remorse they feel for their countries’ past.

The Soviet Flag depicts a yellow hammer and sickle on a red background, which represented the Industrial and Agricultural workers in the Communist country. [fig.2]

6. (Marshall, 2017, p. 85-86)

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fig.2: CCCP, 2018, The Soviet Flag

7. The National World War 2 Museum, n.d

8. Rozhnov, 2005

9. (Hollander, 2009).

In WW2 the Soviet Union suffered military deaths between 8.8 and 10.7 million7, this was in some part due to how intense the leadership was. If soldiers did not follow orders or they retreated, they would be shot. They also had more soldiers to throw into battles in an attempt to overwhelm the Germans. At the battle of Stalingrad over 2 million Russian soldiers died.

Historians often credit the Soviet Union with defeating the Nazis8, but inside the Soviet Union, communism was killing hundreds of thousands of people, through poor leadership and neglect. Many people in the western world are not as aware of the atrocities that communist regimes like the Soviet Union, and elsewhere across the world have committed. This is in stark contrast to the Nazis; the nature of their crimes is tangible and sickening.

Therefore, in western society the swastika is seen with much more unease than the hammer and sickle. As Paul Hollander stated in a Washington post article: “There is far more physical evidence and information about the Nazi mass murders, and Nazi methods of extermination were highly premeditated and repugnant, whereas many victims of communist systems died because of lethal living conditions in their places of detention. Most of the victims of communism were not killed by advanced industrial techniques.”9 1.3 – Social Politics

During the American Civil war 1861-65 the north fought under flags which were early depictions of the stars and stripes that we all know today [fig.3]. The south fought under a number of different flags, chief among which was the confederate flag [fig.4]. The Northern states had outlawed slavery in 1805 and tried to bring

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fig.3: Jacobolus, 2013, US Flag 1863-1865

fig.4: Miles, 2014, Confederate Flag

freedom to the slave in the south. The south wanted to keep slaves as slavery was such an integral part of their economy. The Confederation of the Southern States lost the American Civil war, but to this day there still are people who fly the confederate flag.

The confederate flag was first used at a time where slavery was not seen as it is today by many people as immoral, evil and inhumane. For anyone who is unsure about how the Confederate flag is perceived in the modern day, in November 2015 a confederate flag rally was held outside Stone Mountain Park Police Station near Atlanta, Georgia. The rally was to “Keep the mountain “pure” to its Confederate roots and keeping a memorial to Martin Luther King Jr. off of it.”10 At the rally were a number of KKK members “offering salutes and wearing clothing featuring white supremacist slogans and KKK symbols”11. Joyner also goes on in his article to mention that some members of the KKK actually arranged the flag rally. This shows that the confederate flag is associated with an openly racist group and although you can’t then say all people who fly the flag are racist. It clearly

10. Suggs, 2015

11. Joyner, 2015

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has a strong negative connotation which unfortunately tarnishes the flag as a symbol for racial prejudices.

12. CNN, 2015, p.4

Several polls have been taken to obtain the American population’s view of the Confederate flag, and over the past 20 years the opinion has changed, although there still is a majority that see the confederate flag as ‘southern pride’ the percentage has reduced to 57% in 2015 down from 69% in 1992. The percentage of people who see the Confederate flag as a symbol of racism is up from 22% in 1992 to 33% in 201512. It is unclear why these numbers have changed, but it could be due to the increasing number of controversial killings of young black men at the hands of the police and the racial tensions across the country.

Maybe those who flew the confederate flag have been made more aware of how the flag is being interpreted by people outside of their community.

1.4 – Nationalism

13. Rood, n.d.

14. Marshal, 2017

The American flag [fig.5] has 50 stars, each star representing one of the 50 states, and currently the 50 stars are neatly arranged on the flag in an appealing way. There has been talk in the past few years about areas receding from the union like Texas, and others joining, for example Puerto Rico and Washington D.C. This cannot happen without “Congressional approval”13.

Congressional approval may not be the only problem for a state to join America. Americans love their flag, it is flown across the country, houses, government buildings and shopping malls. The flag is displayed at embassies and military bases all around the world. In its current state the American flag is “The most recognisable, loved, hated, respected, feared, and admired flag in the world.”14. It was also the first flag to have been placed on another celestial body: the moon.

The origins of the design of the flag are unknown but the symbolism, representing every current state and the

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fig.5: Dbenbenn, 2015, Current US Flag

original 13 colonies, gives a sense of all-inclusiveness and pride in the history of the country. The fact that in schools across the country children every morning salute and Pledge their Allegiance to the flag, means from a young age every American connects to the flag and sees it as an embodiment of their home. The American flag is a good flag, in every sense of the word. Referring back to the book Good Flag, Bad Flag. The flag follows all the rules aswell as creating an emotional connection to the people it represents. The flag is ever present in almost every major historical event; the rescue efforts by emergency services following the attack on the World Trade Centre in New York in 2001 and the Raising the Flag Over Iwo Jima in Japan in 1945.

The stakes are high for such an important flag. If a new state was added the flag would have to be changed. Brady Haran on the Hello Internet Podcast says: “I think a lot of people in the United States would be reasonably indifferent to the idea of Puerto Rico becoming a state until you told them it would involve changing the flag. I think the fact that it will involve changing the flag is the biggest barrier to the people of the US letting Puerto Rico in [to the United States].”15 If another country was to join America, then the flag would have to change as it would affect the number of stars on the flag. There have been flags proposed for 51 stars up to 55 stars by several people but none of them are official yet. One 51-star flag design features the stars arranged in a circle, which would definitely be very different to the current flag but would be a historic reference to one of the first flags of The United States of America from 1776, the Betsy Ross. The Betsy Ross was probably not actually

15. Haran, 2015

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designed or made by Betsy Ross herself, but the name has stuck and still is a popular flag for Americans.

16. Moore, 2017

17. Streufert, 2005

The story of Betsy’s life was one of hard work and determination. She was widowed three times. Betsy Ross is an American Icon and she also played a role in “standing up for liberty and justice”16. Liberty and justice are the American ideals and have been an integral part of the Pledge of Allegiance since the first pledge was written in 1892 “I pledge allegiance to my Flag and the Republic for which it stands one nation indivisible with liberty and justice for all.”17. No wonder why her flag is still popular to this day, as it is so intrinsically linked to America.

2 — The Effect of Geography on Flags

The Geographical location of a country makes a large different to the history and politics. The location of a country doesn’t necessarily affect what the flag of the country will look like, but in some cases, the design can help identify where the county is. There are two countries which have the outline of their border on the flag, Kosovo [fig.6] and Cyprus [fig.7].

2.1 –

Flags using Geographic Symbolism

Kosovo uses an outline of their country on their flag with 6 stars above, representing the six ethnic groups in the country. The Flag was adopted in 2008 when Kosovo declared its independence from Serbia. An international competition was held to appoint the new flag and the winner was the design we see today. It reflects the national pride and the use of the six stars for each ethnic group attempts to form a united country in the wake of the split from Serbia. On the other country’s flag, Cyprus the outline is accompanied by two olive branches. Olive trees are prevalent in Cyprus and is famous for the good quality oil that the olives produce. Olives are a key part of the Cypriot diet and cuisine. Having a symbol representing

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left fig.6: Cradel, 2014.

Flag of Kosovo right fig.7: Vzb83, 2017, Flag of Cyprus

the quality of the country’s cuisine is important to the Cypriot people as they take pride in their food.

Flags that represent countries often take inspiration from their geographical location on earth for the design of their flag. There are a number of flags that use star constellations present in their night sky. One of the most creative way of using constellations is in the Brazilian flag [fig.8]. The flag has 27 stars in 9 constellations, each star representing one of the Brazilian States and The Federal District. They chose constellations that contain the correct number of stars for their design. The state flag of Alaska [fig.9] depicts Ursa major and the north star, Polaris. Polaris is also known as the North star. The star is very important and been used for thousands of years by explorers on land, ships and planes to navigate at night. The star is always in the same position in the night sky, in the northern hemisphere.

New Zealand [fig.10] and Australia [fig.11] both have the southern cross on them. Both flags are extremely similar and there is often confusion between them. In 2015, it was announced that New Zealand would hold a national referendum for a redesign of the flag. There were 10,292 submissions which were shortlisted down to 40 by the Flag Consideration Panel. 20 out of the 40 featured the southern cross, and the finalist which went up against the existing flag also had the southern cross on it. When you look at the 40 shortlisted designs the most eye-catching design elements are those of the Koru, which is the shape of a fern which is native New Zealand unfurling.

The southern cross has for many years been a symbol of New Zealand, along with many other southern countries,

left fig.8: Anomie, 2011, Flag of Brazil right fig.9: Zscout370, 2015, Flag of Alaska

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left fig.10: Zscout370, 2015, Flag of New Zealand right fig.11: Anomie, 2011, Flag of Australia

because the European settlers had never before seen the constellation in the night sky in their home countries and it is so prominent.

2.2 – US State Flags

18. C.G.P. Grey, 2015.

It is not only countries that have flags, there are many counties and cities across the world that have flags.

In America there are flags for every state, and for many American cities, albeit not very good ones according to C.G.P Grey. “I look at a page like this and, this is just a train wreck of awful, awful design.”18 Grey is referring to a page of the US state flags. They are mostly quite similar, with a few exceptions. Most of the flags, 24 out of 50 are plainly a shade of blue field with a seal somewhere on the design. Not all of the flags which have blue use the same colour blue, all the state seals are of different complexity and colours. There is no consistency for these flags. There have been some attempts to redesign the state flags to improve the consistency, as these flags are often seen flown together at government buildings, but no action has yet been taken to change the flags.

2.3 – Neighbouring Countries

The Scandinavian countries of Sweden, Finland, Iceland, Norway, Denmark and the Faroe Islands all have very similarly designed flags. Sweden [fig.12], Finland [fig.13], Iceland [fig.14], Norway [fig.15], Denmark [fig.16] and the Faroe Islands [fig.17]. The flags are all based upon the Danish flag [fig.16], known as the Dannebrog, which is currently the oldest national flag in continual use. It has been used since the 13th century although it was not the country’s official flag until 1748. The flag uses the Nordic or Scandinavian cross, which is a symbol of Christianity. Many of the Scandinavian countries are Christian countries and so it is natural to have a Christian symbol on their flags. In Scandinavia all those countries had their own colours and flags for many centuries, but

Joe Hutchinson

— 49 left fig.12: Stradivarius, 2014, Flag of Sweden right fig.13: Koppehel, 2009, Flag of Finland

left fig.14: Dagur, A, 2017, Flag of Iceland right fig.15: Dbenbenn, 2016, Flag of Norway

left fig.16: Madden, 2018, Flag of Denmark right fig.17: Connell, J. 2015, Flag of The Faroe Islands

between 1821 and 1917, the Danish Dannebrog flag design spread across the countries as there were various unions involving Sweden, Denmark, Finland and Norway. These included royal marriages, wars between the Swedes and the Russians and as a result of the Napoleonic War. 2.4 – Changing Geography

Korea is a peninsular which has a turbulent past and an uncertain future. The country was split into North Korea and South Korea after World War II. During World War II Korea was a Japanese colony and was used as agricultural land to provide food for Japan. The Russians and Americans had agreed that after the War they would separate Korea along the 38th parallel into two zones until such time that the two could be stabilised and re-join one another. “Of course, that did not happen. With the onset of the cold war the divide between them hardened.”19.

The Russians installed a communist government in 1948 at the same time as a democratic government was elected in the South.

The Korean war (1950-1953) was a tug of war between the two countries over the border that separated them. To this day the two countries are technically still at war as “the 1953 Korean War ended in a truce, not a treaty.”20 Korea, as a united country before the colonisation from Japan, used the flag which now is the South Korean Flag [fig.18].

The symbolism behind the Flag is rather philosophical and is an important part of South Korean culture.

19. Lambert, 2018

20. Marshal, 2017

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left fig.18: Various, 2017, Flag of South Korea right fig.19: SKopp, 2011, Flag of North Korea

As Korea was liberated from Japan and the south became a democratic republic, the flag remained. As for North Korea, they adopted a new flag, using the same colours as the southern flag but with a new composition and different meanings. On the flag which used to represent the whole of the Korean Peninsula, the red and blue represent positive and negative cosmic forces and the white was the traditional colour of the Korean people.

These colours live on in the North Korean flag, although the meaning has changed.

21. Flag of The World, 2014

The origins of the North Korean flag [fig.19] are not definitive. The original flag of Korea was suggested but as the Soviet Union were the rulers of North Korea at the time, they decided to use the flag of the Soviet Union. Sometime later the Soviet Union designed and appointed the flag we see today. The North Korean flag was created in a time when their communist dictatorship was just taking shape.

So, the design and symbolism reflect the hopes for the new country. White is a traditional colour for Korean people and on the flag, it represented the “purity of the ideals of North Korea and national sovereignty.” Red symbolises the communist revolution and the blue stands for the “people’s desire for peace.”21 3—

Symbolism

Symbolism is ever-present in flag design. Colours are often used to symbolise certain historical or poignant events, for example on the South African Flag the colours black, green and yellow are an ode to Nelson Mandela’s political party and the blue, red and white represent the European colonists. On many flags, red is used to represent the blood of fallen soldiers in wars and battles through the countries’ history. Colours mean different things across the world, for example in America red signifies hardiness & valour, but in China red corresponds with fire, and symbolizes good fortune and joy.

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left fig.20: Pumbaa80, 2016, Flag of Nepal right fig.21: Myers, 2016, Construction of the Nepal Flag

3.1 –

Flag Shape and Construction

There are only a very small number of national flags that do not have standard flag proportions. Every flag apart from one is a rectangle wider than it is tall.

The most common flag proportion for national flags is 2:3, which 102 countries use, followed by 75 using 1:2 and 20 that use 3:5 22. There does not seem to be any strong reason as to the difference in flag ratios other than tradition or manufacture process. Flags of countries which used to be part of another’s empire often have the same flag proportions; “British flags have a 1:2 ratio, French flags are 2:3 and German flags are 3:5.”23 The only national flag that is not a rectangle is that of Nepal [fig.20]. The Nepalese flag is often incorrectly shown, it is two triangles atop one another is often given an extra white portion on the right-hand side to make it into one of the standard flag ratios. This is incorrect.

The flag’s shape is important as it represents the country’s two major religions; Hinduism and Buddhism.

In a video by Australian film maker Brady Haran for his YouTube channel Numberphile. Haran and mathematician Dr. James Grime dub the flag “The Most Mathematical Flag”. The construction of the design of the flag is precisely described in Article 5 of the Constitution of the Kingdom of Nepal. The way the construction is described is as mathematics used to be written and explained thousands of years ago, using simple geometric points and lines [fig.21]. The instructions for which do not require a measuring instrument:

22,23: Flag of The World, 2014

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“(A) Method of Making the Shape inside the Border (1) On the lower portion of a crimson cloth draw a line AB of the required length from left to right.

(2) From A draw a line AC perpendicular to AB making AC equal to AB plus one third AB. From AC mark off D making line AD equal to line AB. Join BD. 24. Nepalese Constitution, 1999, Schedule I, Article 5

(3) From BD mark off E making BE equal to AB.”24 3.2 – Using Symbolism in Flag Design

25,26. Kaye, 2006, p.3

27: Flag of The World, 2012

When designing a flag there are 5 basic principles that are outlined by the North American Vexillological Association and complied by Ted Kaye in his book Good Flag, Bad Flag. “Keep it simple; use meaningful symbolism; use 2-3 basic colours; no lettering or seals; be distinctive or be related.”25. A fantastic example of this last principle are the Scandinavian countries’ flags mentioned in the previous chapter. The simplicity principle state “The flag should be so simple that a child can draw it from memory…”26. There are a large number of flags which fall into this category. Many more flags however have little details which are important to the design of the flag, one of which is discussed in the next paragraph.

The South Korean flag [fig.18] is a wonderful flag. At its centre, there is a large blue and red yin and yang icon, derived from Chinese philosophy which explores the relationship between negative and positive forces in the natural world and how they are connected.

In the case of the South Korean Flag the red represents the positive cosmic forces and the blue, the opposite negative cosmic forces27. Surrounding the yin and yang are 4 trigrams, which each have many meanings including celestial bodies, the 4 seasons, the 4 cardinal directions, north, east, south and west, virtues, family

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left fig.22: IamExpat, n.d, First Dutch Flag right fig.23: Zscout370, 2010, EDIC Flag

left fig.24: Zscout370, 2010, Current Dutch Flag right fig.25: Anomie, 2011, Flag of France

roles and natural elements. These meanings have cultural significance to the people of South Korea and having these represented on their flag, embodies the spirit of the people in the flag.

3.3 – Colour theory and Cultural Differences

Colour is one of the main characteristics of flag design, in some cases it is the only distinguishing factor between a great number of flags. Many flags use the same or very similar layout. The horizontal and vertical tricolours originated from Europe in the 16th century.

The Prinsenvlag (“Prince’s flag”) of The Netherlands had orange, white and blue horizontal stripes and is credited to be the first ‘modern flag’ [fig.22]. The simplicity of its design and sharp contrast between the colours made it good at being recognisable at sea.

The colours were based on the livery (A special uniform worn by a servant, an official, or a member of a City Company) of William of Orange. The Dutch East India Company who were a very powerful Dutch trading company who protected The Netherlands’ trading in the Indian Ocean adopted the colours and design and then added their logo to the centre [fig.23]. The orange colour gradually changed from to red [fig.24].

Some believe that the change was due to the quality of the dye used on the flags. “The orange dye was particularly unstable and tended to turn red after a while”28. Others believe it was due to “the 1654 English-Dutch defence treaty, which prohibited any member of the House of Orange from becoming a Dutch head of state.”29. Either way, the orange colour has not disappeared from the

28. Bartram, G. et al, 2008, p.121

29. Holland.com, n.d.

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fig.26: SKopp, 2013, Flag of Malaysia

Dutch people’s conscience. Orange is still the colour that represents the Dutch people at sporting events around the world, from football to the Olympics.

30. Johnson-Barker and Carpenter, 2015, p. 15 31. Flag of The World, 2012

Flags which have three colours in equal proportions are known as tricolours. The term tricolour comes from the name of the French Flag, Tricolore [fig.25], meaning three colours in French. The red and blue are the colours of Paris and white the colour of the Royal House of Bourbon.

The colours also represent the “ideals of the 1780 French Revolution: liberty, equality and fraternity.”30 The colours red, white and blue are the most frequently used across the whole world31. Just red, white and blue appear on 30 national flags most notably those of America, United Kingdom, France, Russia, and Australia.

These three colours are the most used colours on national flag, red appears on 74% of national flags, second is white, only slightly lower with 71% and the third most common is blue at 50% of flags.

3.4 – Importance of Stars on Flags

32. Government of the Republic of Nauru, 2018

Many flags across the world incorporate stars and the number of points can indicate a number of different meanings. For example, the flag of Malaysia [fig.26] has 14 equal stripes, which symbolises the equal status between the states and a 14-pointed star representing the unity between the 13 states and the federal government.

Nauru [fig.27], a small island nation in the pacific has a 12-pointed star, which is a reflection of the island’s original 12 tribes dating back thousands of years and is an important identifying factor for the peoples of the island.

“When a child is born, he/she will inherit their tribe from their mother’s side. Clothing for each tribe is different which helps identify each individual.”32 This keeps the tradition of the country going, and even though they may

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left fig.27: SKopp, 2012, Flag of Nauru right: fig.28: xfi, 2014, Flag of Chicago City

not live exactly as their ancestors did, they are still the same people with the same values.

The city of Chicago has four 6 pointed stars on their flag [fig.29] and each one represents both a significant point in the history of the city or key parts of the culture of the city. The 6 points on each star represent other aspects of the city. The people of Chicago are extremely proud of their flag and it can be seen everywhere. A tattoo parlour in Chicago was receiving so many requests for the iconic flag, that the owner, Nick Colella decided to create a decorative poster33 breaking down the symbolism in the flag. The city has many bragging rights mentioned on the flag, from the nick name ‘Urbs in horto’ which is Latin for ‘City in a Garden’ was used by the initial settlers in Chicago, in the 1830s Chicago was “little more than a swampy outpost”34.

In an article in DNAinfo, Joe Ward states: “Colella said the reason for the flag’s popularity as a tattoo is twofold: It has a simple, “dominant” design and is a visible stand-in for the city. Tattoos depicting hometowns all are popular even when the place doesn’t have an iconic symbol.”35 3.5 – Religious symbolism on Flags

Stars on flags represent a huge number of different things, ranging from bragging rights, in the case of the City of Chicago, to a constellation seen in the night sky.

The meaning behind a star can also often be religious. The 5-pointed star, often known as the golden five-pointed star because of its uniform nature, is often used alongside a crescent. This was originally a symbol of the Ottoman Empire and then by popular extension, the Islamic world.

The crescent and star appear on many Islamic countries’ flags, e.g. Turkey [fig.29], Pakistan [fig.30] and Azerbaijan [fig.31]. Often the composition of the crescent and the star changes depending on the country, some countries rotate the icon or change the size, some even have different

33. Colella, 2016

34. Wilkin, 2017

35. Wars, 2016

56 — left fig.29: Benbennick, 2012, Flag of Turkey right fig.30: Zscout370, 2012, Flag of Pakistan left fig.31: SKopp, 2015, Flag of Azerbaijan right: fig.32: The Provisional Council of State Proclamation of the Flag of the State of Israel, 2010, Flag of Israel

number of stars on them to represent different parts of their histories or locations.

The star of David, which comprises two regular triangles laid over one another rotated at 180 degrees, is a symbol of Judaism and appears on the Flag of Israel [fig.32], a Jewish Country in the Middle East. During the second world war, the Nazis forced all Jewish people living in Germany to wear various forms of the star of David as way of identifying them, and then taking them away to concentration camps. This was later turned around as Jewish American soldiers wore the star as a symbol of defiance against Nazi antisemitism.

Discussion

A flag’s purpose is not only to represent the country, place or organisation but to unite the people it represents. Taking this into account, flags of war such as the Nazi flag were extremely successful. The Nazi flag ensured that the Nazi party had many loyal followers and a clear goal for the country, through strong and imposing symbolism and colours. In the book Good Flag, Bad Flag, the North American Vexillological Association discuss five basic principles for flag design which I mentioned in a previous paragraph.

A couple of the ‘rules’ could be tweaked, limiting the colours on a flag could prevent flags with more complex colours such as South Africa from existing, although it incorporates so much symbolism in the flag. Similarly, simplicity is an important role of course, but the idea that a child should draw it from memory is a grey area. If all flag designers abided by this rule flags like Wales [fig.33], Albania [fig.34], Hong Kong [fig.35] and Nepal [fig.20]

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fig.33: Jakobs, 2018, Flag of Wales

would not exist. They have simple concepts at the heart of the designs but the execution of them is complex. Of course, there will always be exceptions to rules like these.

A key part of designing a good flag is ensuring that the identity of the country is embodied by the flag. Americans treat their flag as though it physically is America, and as a result it is one of the most loved flags in the world.

This makes the design good. “Don’t allow a committee to design a flag. Instead, empower individuals to design flags, and use a committee to select among them.”36 This quote embodies the sentiment perfectly. When a flag needs to be designed for a country, place or organisation, ultimately the people responsible for the decisions are those that the flag will represent. If the people love their flag, then the flag is fulfilling its purpose. This is what good design is all about.

36. Kaye, 2006, p.14

Conclusion

In conclusion, there are many factors that go into the design of a good flag. Through this dissertation, I have developed a deeper understanding of flag design, and the factors at play. First of all, the design needs to be well balanced and organised. The use of a correct colour palette including complementary and contrasting.

Finally, relevant symbolism is critical, through the use of unique design elements or colours that are appropriate to the country, place or organisation. This ensures a strong connection with the people the flag represents. left fig.34: Dbenbenn et. al, 2017, Fag of Albania right fig.35: Ho, 2011, Flag of Hong Kong

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Joe Hutchinson

References

Bartram, G. et al. (2008). Complete flags of the world. London: Dorling Kindersley

BBC (2014). How are national flags designed?

BBC (2018). Who were the Vikings?

Cabinet Office and Office of the Secretary of State for Wales (2018). Devolution settlement: Wales.

Connected Earth (n.d). Line of sight communications.

Cooper, J. (1995). An illustrated encyclopaedia of traditional symbols. Thames and Hudson Ltd.

Chicago Public Library (2018). Chicago Facts.

CNN (2015). ORC Poll 6, Confederate Flag.

Flags of The World. (2018). History of the South Korean Flag.

Flags of The World (2012). Statistics on flag colors.

Flags of The World (2011). Colors of Flags.

Flags of The World (2013). Flag Sizes (Comparative).

Flags of The World (2013). Ratios of Flags.

Flags of The World (2018). Democratic People’s Republic of Korea

Formula One World Championship Limited (2018). Flags.

Government of the Republic of Nauru (2018). Tribes of Nauru.

Haran, B (2015). H.I. #16: The Worst Topic for a Podcast.

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Hollander, P (2009). Remembering communism.

Holland.com. (n.d). The Dutch flag.

Johnson-Barker, B. and Carpenter, C. (2015). The complete guide to flags of the world. East Petersburg: IMM Lifestyle Books.

Johnson, B (n.d). The Red Dragon of Wales.

Johnson, B (n.d). The English Invasion of Wales.

Joyner, C. (2015) Klan presence obvious at Confederate flag rally.

Kaye, T. (2006) Good Flag, Bad Flag. Trenton, NJ: North American Vexillological Association.

Lambert, T. (2018) A Brief History of Korea.

Lawler, A. (2011). The World in Between.

Marshall, T. (2017) Worth Dying For: The Power and Politics of Flags. London: Elliot and Thompson.

Mashable (2014).: From smoke signals to smartphones The evolution of communication.

Moore, M (2017). Betsy Ross: An American Icon.

Nepal - Constitution National Flag

New Zealand Herald (2015). Forty flags, and only one with a Union Jack - so which one is best?

Numberphile (2012). The Most Mathematical Flag

Rohac, D (2013). Why is Communist Iconography Still Cool?

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Roos, D (n.d). How do new states become part of the U.S.?

Rozhnov , K. (2005) Who won World War II?

Snyder, T. (2011) Hitler vs. Stalin: Who Was Worse? Streufert, D (2005). The Original Pledge of Allegiance.

Suggs, E. (2015) Pro-Confederate Flag rally underway at Stone Mountain.

Tharoor, I. (2015) VE Day 70th anniversary: We should never forget - the Soviets won World War II in Europe.

The Circle of Ancient Iranian Studies (2007). Iran’s Most Ancient Standard Goes on Display in National Museum.

The National World War 2 Museum. New Orleans (n.d) Research Starters: Worldwide Deaths in World War II.

The Norwegian Directorate of Integration and Diversity (IMDi) (2018). The Norwegian History, Some important facts in the Norwegian History.

Ward, J. (2016). Have A Chicago Flag Tattoo? One Parlour Is Asking You To ‘Know Your Flag’.

Welsh Government (2012). Wales and Argentina.

Wilkin, K (2017). Chicago: the city in a garden.

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Colour and emotion: Visual theories that allow us to see the way we do.

Joseph Lewis

Introduction

As a designer understanding how our work can have an emotional effect on the people viewing it is vital, as this can aid the success of the work. How a person perceives and responds to the design in that given moment of time is a subconscious process, but I want to have an understanding as to how this process happens. I am going to focus my research on understanding how the brain perceives visual information and how each individual can interpret things differently, how past experiences, culture and general perception can have an impact on what we see and what we feel when we look at things.

In my writing am going to be focusing on how we see and perceive, how we emotionally respond to what we see and then how understanding these factors can lead to a more successful design; focusing on propaganda and how this can cause an emotional response in people. I want to understand the subconscious process of perception better and have a better insight into how to make art and design outcomes more thoughtful and ultimately more successful, and how propaganda has such a mass impact.

In chapter one I will look at how we see. In this chapter I will research into psychological theories of perception and how our brain process’ information to allow us to see and respond to the stimuli in the way that we do. Focusing my research on proven theories of perception and how these impacts our thought and the way that we see art and design. I will also look at how we see colour and how our brains process the information to allow us to see these colours the way that we do. I will also be researching into how colour can evoke an emotional response from us as we look at it, and how designers can use colour to improve the impact of their work.

In chapter two I will look at how visual imagery evokes emotion and how different ways of thinking impact on the

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fig.1: Bruner and Minturn, 1955, Figure ‘13’

perception of a visual piece. I will research art therapy as I think understanding how this practice works will give me a more informed idea of how visual imagery and creation can give us an emotional response and offer a way for us to connect to imagery. I will also research ways of thinking, and theories of how we see and how we can think when looking at things.

In chapter three I will look at how propaganda is designed, I feel that this is relevant as its whole purpose is to evoke an emotion, persuade you do do/believe in something or to change/enhance your perception of a person or idea.

Propaganda is using all of the things discussed earlier to its advantage and I will be researching and showing examples of this.

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How do we see?

1.1 — Perception

In the field of perception there are several theories that show us how our brain processes visual data and creates a cognitive and emotional response. This chapter will give an understanding in some of the theories that are proposed that allow us to perceive the way that we do.

Perceptual Set

1. Gombrich, 1983

2. Allport, 1955

“Perception of the present, memory of the past, and expectation of the future.”1 Perceptual set puts forward the idea that perception is an active process involving an interpretation of what is being viewed. Allport2 defined this as “A perceptual bias, or predisposition or readiness to perceive particular features of a stimulus”. This theory is shown in the Bruner and Minturn Figure 13 [fig.1].

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fig.2: Bagels and Alampy, 1961, Rat-Man

The concept of perceptual set is that we have preconceived ideas of everything that we are going to perceive. This can affect by the mindset, mood, emotion etc. of the viewer. It states that expectations, motivations and culture have the biggest effects recorded.

A study by Bagels and Alampy in 1961 used the image shown of Rat-Man [fig.2]. This study was set out to prove the effect that expectation has on perception. In the study people were shown images of animals and humans prior to being shown the above image to try and determine whether expectation had an effect on perception. First the subjects were shown images of animals prior to being shown rat-man, in this case they perceived the image as a rat. But, when they were shown images of people prior, they perceived the rat-man image as a man. This shows that expectation has a heavy influence on what we perceive.

Perceptual set also studies how motivating factors can change our perception. Factors like bodily needs (food, water, psychological), emotional needs, values, reward and punishment. For example, a hungry person would view a distorted red circle to be an apple or tomato etc.

“Perception can also be influenced by an individual’s expectations, motives and interests. The term perceptual set refers to the tendency to perceive objects or situations from a particular frame or reference.”3 This way of perceiving is useful to us, it allows us to make quick judgements on scenarios, objects etc. and also, to help us make decisions based on our past experiences with similar conditions. Also, when we are wrong about what we perceived we build new perceptual sets so that next time we encounter a similar situation we can perceive it better or correctly. But with this theory it identifies that it can lead us to perceive incorrectly when we are

3. Hockney, 2008

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unaware of our error or inability to perceive correctly.

Our minds can show us what we want to see, and this can lead to wrong or misjudged perception which could go unnoticed.

This way of perceiving is known as ‘top down processing’, it generalizes what we see, corresponding to what we have seen before. It starts with a general view and then gets more specific. The general perception is what we expect to see and if we are if we are happy with this then that’s what it is taken for, we accept our perception as the reality.

Emotions play a huge role in our visual perception at any given time. If a person is angry, they will often see objects, people, expressions etc. as aggressive or negative.

If they are happy then research shows that they perceive situations more positively.

This sums up the general idea behind perceptual set.

Our brains will show us what we already know without the need to actually physically perceive it. The reality can be very different to what our mind perceives. This is a very powerful concept to understand for designers, it allows the capacity to create motion, fluidity, flow and give the still image some expression. Our past perception experience can alter our current perception of reality.

Behavioural and Geographical Environment

4. Koffka, 1935 5. Sughito, 2016

“We can be attracted or repelled from things in our environment, but that these forces of attraction or repulsion only occur in the behavioural environment, not the geographical one.” 4 5 How we interpret all of the characteristics of the environment will dictate the perception that we have of it. What we see is what is there but how we interpret it is down to experiences, and principles learned through

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our lives. The presence of one’s ego or massive swings in one’s moods, health etc. can change the behavioural environment dramatically. If the creator of the work is in a negative or positive behavioural environment, then this could have the corresponding effects to the geographical environment or vice versa. All aspects of our makeup have an effect on our creative process, whether it be mental, motivational or social factors. The output of creativity is fuelled by the stimulus that effects the internal. Visual creatives can capitalize on this theory, understanding the environment to which the visual will be placed is paramount to the success or the impact of the design.

Affect Theory Affects over time are what form our personalities, our views, our action and reactions. In design affect is a huge factor in the success or failure of a piece. Design can have an extremely diverse range of effects on people, with each response being slightly different, or individual.

“Our ideas and experiences tend to be common but not deep, or deep but not common. We have neglected the gift of comprehending things through our senses.

Concept is divorced from percept, and thought moves among abstractions.”6 When something like affect is considered in a creative format it becomes difficult to pick a singular answer, as each response is individual. This is where affect theory helps create a better understanding and consideration for a person’s views. With this considered it poses the question is subjectivity or individual perception simply the final answer to a collection of one’s objective views, a sum of all the parts.

All the parts having clear explanations of as to why someone likes or dislikes. The ability to look at someone’s reaction and de-construct it is a key role for the creative

6. Amstrong, 1991

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fig.3: CyberPhysics, 2018, Electromagnetic Spectrum

as it can give a deeper understanding of how humans have emotional reactions to visual stimulus.

7. O’Sullivan,2001

“After de-constructive reading, the art object remains.

Life goes on. Art, whether we will or not continues providing effects. Affects are immanent to matter. They are certainly immanent to experience.”7 Affects make up everything around us, art and design is made up of affects. The creatives response to his medium is a reaction to their affects over time. This is then deconstructed by the viewer. Art historians decode art of the past and find links as to how the world at the time caused a certain style, painting, design etc. but the creator was simply reacting to the stimuli (affects) around them.

8. Arnheim, 2004

“To derive such generalities from a work of art is laborious, but not different in principle from trying to describe the nature of the other complex things, such as the physical or mental makeup of living creatures. Art is the product of organisms and therefore probably neither more nor less complex than the organisms themselves.”8 The art is the affects frozen in time. If affects are taken for what they are; a moment, an event, then the art or design is simply a reaction or response. Essentially emotion is what triggers the creating, making, reaction, action etc. emotion is the underpinning factor of affect.

The effects of the world around us have an impact on the work produced and the opinion of the viewer at that present time. Emotion is the feeling at the present, this is relevant for viewer and creator. If emotions are personal experiences, then affects are the forces that perceive, produce and from such experiences.

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Joseph Lewis

1.2 –

Colour

The colours that can be seen by the human eye are all part of a huge range of vibration energies, this is known as the electromagnetic spectrum. The electromagnetic spectrum is much larger than what we can see extending to radio waves and gamma waves. The portion that we can see is visible light. A misconception is that we see colour with our eyes, we actually see colour with our brains. Our eyes simply channel the waves of light into our brains visual centre; occipital lobes. Each wave of energy that comes into our eyes has an energy value, this value corresponds to a colour. This is the colour that our brain will then process and therefore, the colour that will be seen.

Colour is one of the key elements to any visual piece.

Whether that be in art, nature, design etc. colour is responsible for aesthetic and psychological properties to us. It not only pleases or displeases us visually, it also allows people to feel something when they look at it.

Colour evokes moods; expresses feelings and even affects your physical sense of well-being.9

9. (Cherry and Gams, MD, 2018).

There is no definitive way of proving that each and every person is seeing the exact same colour at any given time.

The brain will take information from what it is seeing and try and extractive relevant data, this will them provide the viewer with an image (perception).

No one will ever be sure that his neighbour sees a particular colour exactly the same way himself does.

We can only compare colour relations.10 Colour relations work in a similar way to how we see them. We compare what we see from a range of predetermined colours on a chart, spectrum etc. These then will be assigned and therefore will the agreed colour of said object.

10. Roy and Bomford,2000

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fig.4: KU College, 2018, Grey Squares

11. Bloomer, 1990

There is a slight variation in the way that colour appears to the human eye when we look at it in different contexts, colours that are side by side will appear slightly different due to hues, this is known as simultaneous contrast.

Greys will appear slightly pink, blue on red will appear slightly green etc. “Colours appearance always tends toward the complimentary hue of the colour surrounding it. One colour can be made to look like two, or two or more can be made to look like one.”11 This leads to a phenomenon called optical mixture. This is when the edges of shapes are lost and become difficult to see clearly. This can lead to the visual losing its shape and become a blur/blend of colour rather than defined individual shapes. John Ruskin said:

12. Ruskin, 1932 13. Arnheim, 2004

“Every hue throughout your work is altered by every touch that you add in another place; so what warm a minute ago, become cold when you put a hotter colour in another place, and what was in harmony when you left it, becomes discordant as you set other colours beside it.” 12 13 This gives a good idea of the complexities of colour and the fine line that designers have to walk on to find balance and harmony in a piece of work. An over exposure to a colour for too long can also have a great effect. If an artist was to sit in front of a red canvas for hours on end with no breaks, that red would lose its brightness, along with this other colours would take on a red hue and therefore change the colours perceived.

When colour is described it is said to be either warm or cold. This is not only a description of what we see but a description of our reaction when we view the piece. It is

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fig.5: Art Studio Chalkboard, 2013, Colour Mixture

the same as our interactions with humans, you can have a warm interaction with someone; friendly, kind, caring.

Or on the other end it can be a cold encounter where you feel at unease and uncomfortable. Designers use this all the time in their work to provoke the desired emotions that they want from their work, whether this is intentional or subconscious.

Van Gogh used to apply these principles to his work, most notably the painting of his bedroom in Arles [fig.7]. This piece of art is very special due to us knowing the exact intention of the colour as Van Gogh wrote to his brother Theo and friend Gauguin describing the use of the colour and the feeling that he hoped to provoke. The letter was written to Gauguin in October 1888 and reads: “…my bedroom with its furniture of whitewood which you know. Well, it amused me enormously to do that interior with nothing in it, with a simplicity a la Sevrat: with flat paint but coarsely put on, the neat pigment, the walls pale violet… I wanted to express an absolute calm with these very different tones, you see, where there is no white expect in the mirror with its black frame.” 14 In a further letter to his brother Theo, he wrote: “…colour alone must carry it off… it should be suggestive of rest and sleep in general. In other words, the sight of the picture should rest the head, or rather the imagination… the walls are pale violet and the floor red… the doors are green, that is all… it is colours with flat tints…”14 This gives an insight into the thought that get into the paintings and what the artist intends for us to see, and how much of an influence colour has on our perception.

Colour can provoke certain emotions, this is an area that has been observed for many of years. Any combination

14 . Gombrich, 1983

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fig.6: MettreEnVeller, 2011, Cool and Warm Colours

15. Arnheim, 2004

of shapes, lines and colour has the ability to provoke and influence our emotions. Dr. Ernest Schachtel (1903-1975) implied that the way we perceive colour and experience is significantly similar to that of affect and emotional response. In these cases, we are passive receivers of the reality and the stimuli presented to us. He stated that “an emotion is not the product of the actively organizing mind. It merely presupposes a kind of openness, which for example a depressed person might not have”.15 With this in mind it suggests that colours role is essentially to produce an emotional response and experience and shape withholds the form to which colour complies.

Schatachel went on to say further

16. (Armstrong, 1991)

“The expressive qualities (primarily of colour, but also shape) that spontaneously affect the passively receiving mind, whereas the Teutonic structure of pattern (characteristic of shape, but also found in colour) engages the actively organizing mind…. Through time and across cultures people have ascribed various meanings to colours. Colour invests ritual and custom with symbolic meaning, represents the identity of cosmological forces and promotes desirable feelings and mind/body states. It is tempting to look for universal colour symbolism because of certain constants in human experience i.e. Blue sky, green grass, orange/red fire. But these experiences do not mean the same in every culture.”16 The way that each individual reacts, experiences or views colour is an individual experience. Like with affect theory, each colour will mean something different to each person.

This is where colour becomes a hard area to objectify.

Culture plays one of the biggest roles in the subjectivity of colour. For example, in the UK white represents purity and innocence, traditionally the chosen colour for wedding dresses. In china and other again contras white symbolizes

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fig.7: Gogh, 1888, The Bedroom

death and spirits. This displays the vast diversity of colour meanings around the world; The emotional responses and the visual experience to colour will be vastly different.

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Visually Evoking Emotion

2.1 –

Art Therapy

Art therapy is a unique to the person partaking in it and it is an individual experience.

“What happens in art therapy? … What happens is always different, always unique to the individual and often quite inspiring (even mysterious), but it is hardly ever without some change for the better in the psychological state of the patient.”17

17. Connell, 1998

Art therapy has grown in popularity with psychologists and counsellors to help aid with patient’s recovery from a wide scope of mental illness.

“Art therapists believe that the artistic process brings to surface feelings and emotions in the same way that free association does, incorporating benefits of both talk therapy and dream analysis, but accomplishing more than either one does alone.”18 19 Understanding how visual perception can affect the mental health of a person is vital to the counsellor or psychologist in their role of helping the patient. It can also be important to an artist or deigns creating a visual piece.

18. Case & Dalley, 1992 19. Ganim, 1999

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fig.8: Trauma Informed Practice, 2016, Trauma Informed Practice

The theories of seeing have allowed and created a deeper understanding of people’s views, beliefs and perception of their world, and give a in depth knowledge of how-to asses and help them. The better research and understanding of colour has given a better insight into the understanding of emotional responses and how each individual colour can trigger a different response is an area that has helped move the understanding forward.

20. Rhinehart & Engelhorn, 1982

“Most of the focus in art therapy is on the creation of an image or a representation of reality. Ostensibly missing from the discussion are the therapeutic benefits of nonrepresentational visual art. Preimage elements of art, such as line, form, and colour, can be used by clients themselves in their own healing.”20 The research completed looking into the visual theories that allow us to perceive the world in the way that we do have given an insight into the way to which we subconsciously perceive the world. Understanding this has allowed me the insight into art therapy and how it functions practically. Applying these theories to real world experiences to create links and cross references for a further understanding. Emotional response and how we react to visual imagery are a psychological response.

In a world where verbal communication dominates it is very rare that the communication is through visual, no words need to be exchanged.

21. Connell, 1998

“To be able to communicate through silent empathy is a rare experience.”21

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fig.9: Belanger, 2015, Art Therapy

The creative process can for some have a very therapeutic value, allowing them to release any inner tension or realize that these inner emotions are present. The strive to create something perfect isn’t the goal of this therapy as this method could prove very detrimental to someone’s health, adding to their anxiety further. This strive for perfection has caused a lot of artists to have mental breakdowns. The purpose of art therapy is to realize and get emotions out through different artistic mediums.

Like discussed before, art therapy has similarities to the visual perception theories discussed and how it works as a practical healing method. One that has a similarity is Affect theory. Affect theory is the collection of experiences that make us perceive the way that we do, in Art therapy.

“Patients find memories arising as they begin to make pictures - sometimes happy, often poignant, always significant. No art work, however seemingly understated, minimal, bland or simple can be dismissed because it may appear naive, but the patient will recognize where the image comes from.”22 This recognition of where the image is coming from is the awareness of affect. The understanding of what might be causing the person to feel that way as opposed to with affect theory the thing that is causing the person to perceive in that way.

22. Connell, 1998

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fig10.1: Lehar, 2016

There is now a greater importance placed on our emotions and how our inner feelings are voiced and protected.

The awareness that visual imagery can have such a great impact on the person viewing it or the person creating it is something that needs to be taken into great consideration on both sides. The psychological impacts on the way we perceive and the emotional responses to this.

2.2 – Gestalt

23. Fagan and Shepard, 1986

“Gestalt psychology originated as a theory of perception that included the inter-relationships between the form of the object and the process of the perceiver…

Gestalt thinking emphasized ‘leaps’ of insight, closer, figure ground characteristics, fluidity of perceptual process and the perceiver as an active participant in his perceptions rather than a passive recipient of the qualities of form.”23 The whole is more than the sum of its parts. This is the vague outline of Gestalt theory. It is the study and acknowledgement that humans tend to subconsciously piece shapes, ideas and concepts together to form a more unified whole. It implies that our minds give us representations of what the actual reality is. What we think we see might not be what the creator intended us to see as our minds may not correspond completely

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fig10.2: Lehar, 2016

to what is in actual reality. Essentially, we construct our own reality, views, sight etc. in our own heads. Gestalt therapy acknowledges this concept and takes it further.

The Gestaltist way of thinking seeks to help us identify parts that we have hidden away or are blocking ourselves from seeing.

“Most of us by the time that we are considered adult and mature, have forgotten how to be ourselves. We remember just enough of what being ourselves feels like and we are afraid of it. Gestaltists offer a way to get through this wall of fear - we seek ways to recognise what we have hidden away.”24 With psychological theories there has always been a grey area with the accuracy and measurability of the theories as it is hard to measure and produce solid analytic due to the nature of the brain. As everyone is individual it means that we cannot expect the same results or reliable data. But, with gestalt theory this isn’t the case.

It was vigorously tested and taken to the laboratory and produced incredible results. From these tests and results the main characteristics of the theory were formed.

Gestalt theory sates that we must approach humans in a holistic mind set and view point. We cannot focus on the mind in a singular fashion; as this would be ignoring the

24. Rhyne, 2001

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amazing complexities and would be reducing the power that the brain has.

The world has a dynamic reality and we must appreciate and acknowledge this fact. In a dynamic reality there are active components. These active components are humans and nature, both are active in reality. Humans are all uniquely active, therefore the perception of one’s reality going to be different to the perception of another.

Humans have their own vision, thoughts, ideas and experiences. How one’s brain processes and receives the elements of this dynamic reality is individual. This concept must be taken into account when looking into Gestalt theory.

The Gestalt theory seeks to take the above concepts and find a simplified solution and to answer how we perceive as individuals. Perception as a concept is holistic. It’s the end result of our brain collecting all relevant data and allowing us to understand what we are seeing, hearing, smelling, etc.

25. Salazar, 2017

The application of Gestalt theory in psychological areas is one that had profound effects. “Productive thinking consists of carrying out creative reorganizations of the elements of the problems in order to solve them.

Reproductive thinking is limited to applying the previous knowledge in a mechanical way.”25 If someone was to approach perceiving in a reproductive thinking way, then they would fail to see the meaning and miss the concept; as they would start attaching their past ideas and experiences to it. Productive thinking however would allow the person(s) to see it for what it is, in that moment. This could lead to a more positive opinion or perception of the reality, being more open minded to the concepts and ideas presented. Gestalt theorists insist that we must think productively.

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The understanding that each of us has our own truth, this then leads into the idea that as humans we have no limit to creative potential. The key is the understanding and the ability to be present in our reality, ready to perceive it for what it is and not what we think it could be. Our creativity or expressions can be good indicators to the psychological state that the given person is in.

Art materials can be a way of allowing a people to express themselves; expression is something that they could have been denied. This is known as gestalt art experience.

“Bring realizations together into the pattern of my own gestalt, who’s every part is related to the total configuration that is me - past, present, future…. Every line you draw is uniquely yours; the ones I draw are individually mine, each of us is involved in our own personal happening. When you engage in an art activity, you are experiencing yourself; what you produce comes not from a depersonalized it but from a very personal you.”26 Gestalt theorists think that we should learn by discovery, learning is part of the dynamic reality and is a constant process. Thus, why we should not rely on the old thought and ideas to interfere with the current creative potential, the expression is in the moment. The lines and shapes produced are a graphic representation or record of what we perceive, whether this be a thought, feeling or thing.

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Propaganda

3.1 –

Propaganda

The idea of propaganda is to psychologically manipulate the masses, to persuade people into thinking a certain way (often seen politically), also for deception or intimidation. It can also be a way of people spreading a message of good, a true message that can help bring togetherness to a somewhat divided group.

26. Rhyne, 2001

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fig11: Flagg, 1917, I Want You for the US Army

Gustave Le Bon (1841-1931) had well known and respected characteristics of the masses, he thought of them to be De-individualized, irrational, easily influenced, prone to violent action and all together of regressive nature.

27. Adrono, 1991

“If the individuals in the group are combined into unity, there must surely be something to unite them, and this bond might be precisely the thing that is characterized of a group.”27 For the designers and artists making the propaganda this all had to be considered, the influence of the work and how they wanted their message to be perceived was vital as it would dictate the success or failure of their work.

Propaganda is not just about making the art visually appealing, it has to have certain elements discussed earlier in this paper to make for a successful campaign.

The most famous example of this is the poster shown above [fig.11].

28. Timmers, 1999

“Throughout history people have used art to influence the beliefs and behaviours of others… art has been used to educate us, to mould our opinions.”28 When we look at propaganda and the impact that it has had in global conflict it is clear to see that from a design point of view the Nazis had the most considered design.

When looking at the campaign and the movement as a

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brand the style is well considered. The consistency of colour and simple geometric forms is most notable. Hitler had a clear vision as to how he wanted his movement to be perceived, he identified that there are many parts that need to be considered to make up a whole visual. Like discussed earlier with the Gestalt approach; the whole is more than the sum of its parts. Hitler would take the time to arrange geometric formations, symbols and other components, piecing together all of these parts to make the whole a better image. “But the most brilliant propagandist technique will yield no success unless one fundamental principle is borne in mind constantly and with unflagging attention. It must confine itself to a few points and repeat them over and over. Here, as so often in this world, persistence is the first and most important requirement for success.�29

29. Hitler, Goodreads.com, 2006

One of the biggest success from the designers was the implementation of colour. When people think Nazi, they think of the strong influences of red and black. The reaction to colour from humans is subconscious and we are not aware of the impact that it can have on us.

Colour has powerful psychological effects and can stimulate feelings and emotions. Dr. Joseph Goebbels, the Reichsminister of Propaganda for the Nazi was very aware of the effects of colour and how people can associate colour with movements, memories etc.

It has been observed, for example, that Goebbels could play on the will and emotions of the masses as though he were playing a musical instrument. In Nazi propaganda, hues in the red spectrum, for example, tended to predominate visual media designed to appeal to and stir patriotic feelings whilst darker shades, such as black and grey, tended to prevail in propaganda designed to activate anti-Semitic emotions. His methods are noted for their incredible effectiveness.30

30. Broudy, 2009

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4 —

Discussion

The visual theories that I have outlines in this dissertation that allow us to see the way that we do, have shown that perception is a process. There are certain key elements that work together to give us a whole visual perception. The Gestalt approach of acknowledging that the whole is more than the sum of its parts implies that humans perceive holistically at first and that it takes time invested and the ability to step back and analyse the object to get a deeper understanding or a different perception. The active process of perception that is put forward in the perceptual set theory supports the argument of the Gestalts.

Humans have a perceptual bias to the stimuli, we have pre-conceived ideas of what we are about to perceive.

We quickly make judgement on the whole object, perceiving something that may not actually be present, with expectation of the stimuli dominating our perception.

My research also shows that past experiences have a profound effect on perception. Affect theory tells us that experiences of the past inform our perception of the present. The stimuli can trigger emotional responses in people. Emotion is a limiting factor of our present perception of the stimuli. Along with the visual perception theories, colour plays a huge role in our emotional responses to stimuli. Dr Satchel drew parallels between colour and affect, stating that we have emotional responses to both. With colours response having symbolic meaning, culturally or personally.

In my research it is evident that emotion is a dominating factor of perception. How we perceive can be hugely affected by our emotional and mental state at the time.

Mental state can give us an openness to perceive or a very closed off perception. I found this evident when researching propaganda. The role of propaganda is to

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left fig.12: Stauber, 1936, Germany Lives right fig.13: 1937, Give Me 4 Years Time

psychologically manipulate people and to change their way of thinking. Capitalizing on a present mental state.

An openness to new ideas or a closed off perception that can be equally manipulated. When propaganda is designed, it is thought out in this way. It gives people something to emotionally connect to and join with.

Carefully chosen colour and a collection of design elements that can get people thinking and connecting with is what is required for a successful campaign.

My research has shown me that emotion is at the forefront of everything that we perceive. But with emotion comes a lot of grey areas with the theories that are discussed.

As emotion is a personal thing with everyone being different then it is impossible to know for certain that everyone is perceiving in the same manner. The theories discussed all work towards the idea of perception being a process, but with emotion involved does this make perception spontaneous and too personal to simplify down to a scientific theory. With psychological theories there will always be grey areas and especially with something such as perception.

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Conclusion

In my paper I have learned that perception is a process, one that humans subconsciously go through.

We are unaware in the present moment of what our brains are doing, as it just happens. Perception happens instantly due to many of the theories that I discussed earlier, and this is affected by our present emotions. I have concluded that there are stages of perception and that it can be methodical, but the overriding factor of emotion is what dominated and eventually leads us to our final perception.

The ability to be aware of our emotions will allow us to have a more open perception of the world around us and allow us to make better and more informed perceptions.

Being a designer, it has taught me that there are several key elements to making a good design. We have to consider the viewer of the work as well as ourselves.

It has shown me that colour and shape can have a profound effect on someone’s emotional response to a piece and that these elements need careful consideration.

I have also learned that we cannot control what someone will think of our work. A mental state of the viewer could close them off to perceive our work in the way that we want, and this is just part of being human.

Overall, I have learned that perception is individual and personal. Each person will go through their own personal process of perception which will be informed by their past experiences, cultural beliefs and personal state of mind.

With emotion leading this process.

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References

Allport, F. H. (1955). Theories of perception and the concept of structure: A review and critical analysis with an introduction to a dynamic-structural theory of behavior. Hoboken, NJ, US: John Wiley & Sons Inc.

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Theoretical Humanities, 6(3), p.126.

Arnheim, R. (1986). New essays on the psychology of art. University of California.

Adrono, T. (1991). The Culture Industry: Selected Essays On Mass Culture. Routledge, p.135.

Armstrong, T. (1991). Colour perception. Diss, Norfolk, Eng.: Tarquin Publications, p.0.

Arnheim, R. (2004). Art and visual perception.

Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, pp.2, 362.

Berger, J. (2008). Ways of Seeing. Penguin Classics.

Broudy, D. (2009). The Propaganda of Patriotism and Colour. Communications Journal, 1(1).

Bloomer, C. (1990). Principles of Visual Perception.

TAB Books Inc, p.94.

Cherry, K. and Gams, MD, S. (2018). Color Psychology: Does It Affect How You Feel?.

Fagan, J. and Shepherd, I. (1986). Gestalt therapy now. New York, N.Y., [etc.]: Harper & Row.

Fonagy, P. (2010). Affect Regulation. Other Press Professional.

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Franklin, B. (1994). Packaging politics. London: Arnold.

Goebbels, J. (2018). Top Joseph Goebbels Quotes That Reflect His Thought Process.

Gombrich, E. (1983). The Image and the Eye: Further Studies in the Psychology of Pictorial Representation. Phaidon Press, p.47.

Gwinner, K., Knox, M. and Hacking, S. (2009). The place for a contemporary artist with a mental illness. Journal of Public Mental Health, 8(4), pp.29-37.

Hoffmann, H. (1996). The triumph of propaganda.

Providence: Berghahn Books.

Impact Of Psychology In Art. (2015). International Journal Of Engineering Sciences & Management Research, 2(2).

Jankowski, M. (2018). Who Is Feeling Red, Yellow and Blue? Rothko and Color Perception. Bachelor Art History.

University of Amsterdam.

Jones, A. (2012). Seeing differently. Hoboken: Taylor & Francis.

Kaplan, F. (2001). Areas of Inquiry for Art Therapy Research. Art Therapy, 18(3), pp.142-147.

Kin Man, N. (2014). Affect Regulation and Treatment for Depression and Anxiety through Art: Theoretical Ground and Clinical Issues. Austin Publishing Group, 4(1).

Koffka, K. (1935). Principles Of Gestalt Psychology.

Gestalttheory.net.

Lima, M. (1995). From aesthetics to psychology. American anthropological association, 26(4).

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Masters, H. (2018). Art Therapy and Art History Theories, an Inquiry. Digital Commons at Loyola Marymount.

Munari, B. and Creagh, P. (2008). Design as art.

London: Penguin.

Malchiodi, C. (2012). Handbook of art therapy.

New York: Guilford Press.

Malchiodi, C. (2010). The art therapy sourcebook.

New York: McGraw-Hill.

Michaud, E. and Lloyd, J. (2004). The cult of art in Nazi Germany. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press.

O’Sullivan, S. (2001). The Aesthetics Of Affect: Thinking art beyond representation. Angelaki, 6(3), p.126.

Rhyne, J. (2001). The Gestalt Approach To Experience Art And Art Therapy. American Journal Of Art Therapy, p.109.

Roy, A. and Bomford, D. (2000). A closer look: Colour. Yale University Press, p.330.

Ruskin, J. (1932). The Elements of Drawing.

London: J.M. Dent & Sons.

Salazar, A. (2017). Gestalt Theory: What is it, characteristics, its laws and main applications. Gestalt Theory.

Sughito, E. (2016). Objective and subjective environments: gestalt principles of psychology.

Timmers, M. (1999). The power of the poster. V & A Publications, p.7.

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Thomson, M. (1997). On art and therapy. London: Free Association Books.

Thompson, G. (2016). Complex Subjectivity Revealed through Art and Human Science. Human Science Perspectives, 1(1).

Von Ehrenfels, C. (1937). On Gestalt-qualities.

Psychological Review, 44(6), pp.521-524.

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Zeki, S. (2003). Inner vision: an exploration of art and the brain. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

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Old-fashioned is new again

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Introduction

The year is 2018 and civilisation has never been so diverse and advanced, as is graphic design, which develops hand-in-hand with mankind; as civilisation progresses into another year, the world surrounding it changes drastically. Intertwining with a great amount of constant social change and the demanding, diverse definitions of beauty, technology has allowed graphic design to exist as a culturally distinctive feature to each and every generation. Graphic design has a reliable presence within our society and it is a profession that is rapidly increasing in popularity, although sometimes we forget that it exists for it has also become transparent to a large body of the public.

“The demand for sophisticated media design has led to mass production, and the computer has acted as an equaliser, erasing the difference between text, images, sounds and films.”1 Tactile graphic design was alive before the invention of advanced computer technology and the Macintosh. Such was a time that each design element was created by hand with careful calculations and revised actions in order to produce an outcome as close to the creator’s intention as possible. Utilising methods and processes like letterpress, screen-printing, hand-painting, etc., creatives of the past generated works using techniques that nowadays, we would consider old. However, those processes have not vanished thanks to a growing number of designers and artists who still recognise the beauty and potential within older techniques and styles. They refer to these historical techniques with the term retro.

In the first few decades of the 21st century, there has been a noticeable surge of interest from millennial graphic designers for retro design alongside the fast-progressing technology and the ever-changing taste of the public.

1. Olding-Smee and Ford, 2002

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fig.1: Johnston, 1916, Proportions of Standard Bullseye Design

This phenomenon generates an excitement but it is also a dilemma; some designers are against it while some celebrate it. This dissertation aims to study retro as a style in more depth and consider its reasoning more thoughtfully. Using examples from designers and creative minds in both the past and the present, I hope to inform the reader of this dynamic trend that has in fact been evident within graphic design for many centuries.

In the first chapter, I mention briefly the history of typography as well as discuss artists and trends in the past that rejected their own modern time, thus further illustrating the existence of retro style. Within this chapter, I intend to highlight the point of argument that our generation is not the first to have thought of introducing past styles into modern work.

In the second chapter, I turn the focus of the dissertation more specifically to contemporary retro in graphic design as well as other platforms. Artists in the 21st century tend to navigate towards retro design in their work or in their lifestyles, I hope to acknowledge this observation and study it in more detail.

With reference to individual creatives as well as design firms and societies who focus on working with trends from the past, I aim to exemplify the appearance of retro in the modern day in contrast to the first chapter. The designers discussed come from different countries, including the United Kingdom and Vietnam; this is to illustrate that retro is popular internationally.

In the final chapter, I discuss in more detail the positives and negatives regarding retro style. I will also talk about

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fig.2: Pentagram, 2018, John Lewis & Partners New Brand Identity

the reasoning behind the rising popularity of retro with contrasting arguments found in my research. Through this, I hope that the reader becomes more aware of the style, where it can originate from, and how it appears in different aspects of our lives.

1 —

Retro and Typography

1.1 –

Brief History of Typography

As graphic design changes, typography transforms with it, because typography is one of the principal elements that make up a successful piece of visual communication.

The history of it exceeds the history of graphic design and goes back to the beginning of human intelligence.

Since Johannes Gutenberg invented movable type in the 15th century, typography has been steadily developing in terms of both material and style.

History has witnessed many significant changes regarding human taste. Similar to fine art with movements like the Pre-Raphaelites and Impressionists, typography has also progressed through numerous eras and movements, all of which are indispensable when talking about the history of design. Many graphic design works produced in the past, despite the changes in preferences throughout the years, are still used on a daily basis nowadays; a famous example of this case is the work of Edward Johnston for the London Underground system, including its entire typeface and the iconic roundel symbol [fig.1].

Typefaces produced in the past are still favoured and very often utilised by modern day designers. Futura was created by Paul Renner in 1927 and it is still popular now

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fig.3: Monotype, 2015, Gill Sans Nova Standard & Condensed

due to its timelessness, making it as relevant now as it was nearly 100 years ago. In 1957, Edouard Hoffmann and Max Miedinger designed Helvetica; this typeface continues to be loved by designers after its time of creation. Undoubtedly, past designers and typographers play a strongly influential part in today’s design. Their masterpieces are reminders that keep us from forgetting them and the hard work they have contributed. Gill Sans, Georgia, Garamond, Univers, Futura, and many well-crafted typefaces of past centuries are often used, borrowed, imitated, plagiarised, based upon, taken apart and so on [fig.2 & fig.3].

Similar to typefaces, the design works that past designers have produced are still circulating and internationally influencing today’s designers. The old designs are studied and considered. By studying the past, one learns how the preceding designers had created successfully, and from that, one would be able to apply their knowledge of history to their own practice in the modern time.

2. Rollins, 1995

“A study of the past does not mean that one must try to print like John Day or Christopher Plantin or Bodoni, but it does mean that if one is trying to do good printing he must have a head full of memories of how good printers in the past have printed.”2 1.2 — Artists in the Past Who Have Also Rebelled

Against Their Time

By making use of the old elements and bringing them back into the spotlight, historic graphic design work is appreciated in the guise of retro design.

Retro is derived from retrospect, meaning a review of past time. In its purest form, retro is a style with conscious efforts to be similar to trends, lifestyles or tastes of the past. Retro in graphic design can give modern work a certain sense of history.

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fig.4: Morris, 1894, the Wood Beyond the World

However, retro design is neither new nor a fresh trend.

It is ancient in itself but it is also timeless, it has existed and been utilised since the beginning of graphic design, as suggested by Breathnach and Dermody3. Graphic designers find inspiration everywhere and every-when, even in a different time perspective. With each generation of graphic designers, there is certain to be a group of inspired individuals who follow a trend influenced by historical styles. Twenty-first century designers are not the first creative minds to have reminisced about the time before their own.

Artists in the 19th and 20th century had also looked back in time for inspirations. William Morris (1834-1896) studied the past “to find perfect craftsmanship”4. Morris is heavily associated with the Arts and Crafts Movement as a textile designer and a typographer, but in his own time period, he was widely known for his poetry which was heavily influenced by John Ruskin. Morris agreed with Ruskin’s philosophy that the creation of art should be affordable and handmade, and he rejected the industrialism of the then modern day Victorian era while agreeing strongly with the Romanticists5. [fig.4] Instead of working with the most advanced technology of that time for his textile printing, Morris chose to study and implement old techniques as well as working with mainly raw materials and natural dyes6. Rejecting the trends of his own time and being adamant on learning a technique before applying it, the late designer appears to be one of the earliest known examples of artists who had rejected the new, choosing the old-fashioned instead.

3. Breathnach and Dermody, 2010

4. McClean, 1995

5. Thompson, 1955

6. Parry, 1983

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left fig.5: MullerBrockmann, 1955, Zurich Town Hall Poster right fig.6: Maclean, 1967, The Yardbirds, The Doors

7. Olding-Smee and Ford, 2002

8,9. Breathnach and Dermody, 2010

10. Cousins, 2017

In the mid 20th century, Swiss style [fig.5] was fashionable internationally; it was the dominating art style with a structured look, sans-serif typefaces and a certain anonymity across different brands and establishments7.

With the evident favouritism among modern graphic designers when it comes to clean typefaces like Akzidenz Grotesk or Helvetica, Swiss style is as popular now as it was many years ago. However, there were artists of the time who rebelled against the “norms of mainstream society” and preferred vibrant colours and distorted typography instead8. The style as such, psychedelia [fig.6], portrays the need to go against the mainstream, it demonstrates a recurring theme among young people despite time periods.

2 —

Retro is International

2.1 –

Contemporary Artists and Societies with Retro-driven Focuses

Nowadays, the label retro most often brings to one’s mind the styles taken from the 1970s to 2000s9 [fig.7]. Occasionally, this trend has been referred to more specifically as “modern retro”10. Retro materialises in multiple aspects of the graphic design industry: it can be seen in today’s editorial design, packaging, promotional, identity as well as type design [fig.8]. It also appears within other art forms like film-making, surface pattern, fashion design or sign painting. All around the world, there are numerous artists and creative firms who dedicate their practice to analogue aesthetics and techniques. Ashby Design, or Neal Ashby, of Washington D.C. was drawn to the cover art of Revolver, a classic 1966 Beatles’ album

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left fig.7: Butcher Billy, 2016, Black Mirror right fig.8: The Creative Pack, 2017, Butcher’s Bone Broth Vintage

left fig.9: Voorman, 1966, Revolver right fig.10: Ashby, 2006, Thievery Corporation’s Versions Album Cover

[fig.9], and went on to use this inspiration and collaborate with illustrator Matthew Curry to design a cover for the band Thievery Corporation11 [fig.10]. Ashby’s design has clear similarities to his reference point with features such as the colour scheme containing high black and white contrast, and a stemming motion from the central pieces of the designs.

Mucca Design of New York is another example of contemporary designers taking great interest in keeping alive old-fashioned characteristics. Their works contain multiple elements of past aesthetics like hand-drawn illustrations with earthy, muted colour schemes that reminisce the palettes of the 1920s Art Deco12 [fig.11].

11. Eaton, 2009

12. mucca.com, 2014

fig.11: Mucca Design, 2014, Book Covers for Rizzoli

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fig.12: Process for a Scene in Loving Vincent, 2017

13. Welchman, as interviewed by CBS News, 2017 14. CBS News, 2017

Directors Dorota Kobiela and Hugh Welchman of Loving Vincent (2017) were adamant on creating the said feature-length film using a purely hand-painted process because “computers could never replicate this kind of authenticity”13 [fig.12]. Over 100 painters worked tirelessly for six years, studying and painting in the style of Vincent van Gogh to create a beautiful homage to the late artist14.

Sign painting is another art form that is generating a resurgence of interest from designers and retro enthusiasts alike. A UK community dedicated to popularising “a renewed interest in craftsmanship and the aesthetics of our built environment” has also been advocating this handmade beauty since 2010; they call themselves The Pre-Vinylite Society (The PVS). They place their main focus on sign painting and the artists behind such works, and they also actively encourage everyone to be more aware of their surroundings and more appreciative towards their neighbourhood signage.15

15,16. The PVS, 2010

fig.13: Luke, 2016, Sign Painting for Scopa Wine Bar

Founded by a couple of sign enthusiasts, they derived their name from the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood from the 19th century. They resonate with their predecessors’ idea of going against “the academic conventions of their day”, but they are forward thinking; instead of completely neglecting the existence of modern technology, they value new art that shows understanding and respect regarding the past’s processes and techniques.16 [fig.13]

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left fig.14: Giberson, n.d. right fig.15: Giberson, n.d.

Alan Giberson takes part in the faithful and constant application of sign painting [fig.14]. He contributes a large amount of time to painting signs in the traditional way, and his signs are becoming a signature characteristic of the streets of Cleveland, Ohio. “In a world dominated by messages delivered in digital, Giberson’s signs offer a reminder of the human pulse behind the walls of the places those signs cover”17. Giberson’s work is classical, yet utterly modern. He confesses that no matter how detailed a piece of work is, he would like to keep it simple.

Combining both a vintage sensibility and simplicity, he has made a name for himself among businesses in Cleveland, some of which let him paint on their walls [fig.15]. He likes doing those, he says, for the ones that are painted on the outside walls of buildings are those who can “stand the test of time.”18

17,18. Delamotte, 2018

After some time, those signs that are painted on the building exteriors start to disappear, slowly, but not entirely. The visible remnants of those signs are given an ambiguous yet intriguing and quite appropriate name: Ghost Signs. A UK-based non-profit organisation with the same name was founded in 2006 when sign painter Sam Roberts spotted his first ghost sign in Stoke Newington, London [fig.16]. Today, the organisation has over 4,000 followers on Facebook and the terminology grows in popularity. Roberts organises walking tours for supporters of dated typography to help them explore the city and

fig.16: Roberts, 2006, The First Ghost Sign

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observe the faded signs at first hand. He also gives talks regarding the subject to place the signs under a modern spotlight so that the busy Londoners would be aware of them and give them the attention they deserve instead of neglecting them on their repetitive daily commutes.

19. LMPS, 2018

Sam Roberts is an associate of fellow enthusiasts London Mural Preservation Society (LMPS). This association focuses on commemorating murals all around London with a manifesto to “protect, preserve and celebrate” the murals. They collect and build an archive of information for everyone to access; they help restore ruined murals; and they host events to raise awareness about the murals within their own communities as well as to a wider audience19. Such passion from admirers of historical art styles is an important factor in keeping alive the authentic and human charm of the past in this predominantly technology-driven era. Without the initial love and admiration, there would not be the aforementioned motivated actions that follow.

2.2 – Vietnamese Creatives’ Responses to Retro

Even though the appropriation of historical styles is a common theme internationally, the admiration for past trends is particularly popular among young Vietnamese artists and designers in the past few years.

The Vietnamese design scene has witnessed many major changes in terms of consumers’ preferences and there has been an increase in demands for retro design within the young-adult audience.

Besides catering to the consumers’ needs with retro projects, the creative minds are actively advocating the appreciation of Vietnam’s fascinating history of art and culture, which they are passionately proud of.

Being a developing country that was under many different influences because of the wars, Vietnam has seen and

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left fig.17: n.d., Example of a Hang Trong Traditional Painting right fig.18: 2018, A Design in Nguyen Xuan Lam’s Hoodie Collection

absorbed into itself a multicultural attitude, from the Chinese heritage to the American modernisation. Still, with the pride and love of the people, folk art styles are still purely Vietnamese; they remain practised and handed down from generations to generations [fig.17]. That is, until the invasion of technology, when such traditions became less favourable among Vietnamese citizens, especially young people.

Realising the traditions are losing their connection within the juvenile group, numerous millennial artists in Vietnam are taking actions to preserve and once again familiarise the general public with the past art style and techniques.

Inspired by the energy of folk paintings, young artists aspire to keep the past alive so that the people of Vietnam would not neglect their roots. With technology’s help, artists recreate traditional paintings and embody them in more conventional items, both to better suit today’s consumer needs and to exhibit the paintings in a more contemporary way.

Nguyen Xuan Lam is a millennial artist who is dedicated to the promotion of old painting styles. Rather than learning to make the folk art the traditional way, he utilises modern technology to recreate the looks and patterns of the old paintings and eventually applies them onto designs of stationery, tote bags and pieces of clothing [fig.20].

However, this is not a suggestion that Lam does not care for the old-fashioned way of painting because he very much does. He started a project called Folk Painting The Remake and began producing alternative versions of old paintings using advanced graphic techniques.

But prior to this, he was just a young creative who was wholly captivated by the traditional paintings displayed in

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fig.19: Huy, 2016, Photograph of an old Vietnamese Shop Sign

20. Thu, 2018

the Viet Nam Museum of Fine Arts, the paintings that he used to see at his grandparents’ house, the paintings that brought him to reminisce about his childhood long ago.20 In addition to the rekindling of love for traditional painting techniques, Vietnamese millennials are showing enthusiasm when it comes to finding and sharing remaining old shop signs and banners from the 70s and 80s. Rather similarly to Ghost Signs in other countries, The Lost Type Vietnam is a non-profit collaborative project started as a Facebook page in 2015. It is now a community with over 10,000 type-lovers and anyone can participate by taking pictures of old signs and forwarding them to the project [fig.19].

As of September 2016, the members had contributed images of as many as 332 signs from all over Vietnam.

21. The Lost Type, 2016

The founders of the community believe that once we have looked past the initial impression with the signs’ appearances, we can learn more about them and their histories. We can then feel the memories attached to a person or a piece of land throughout centuries via the signs situated at certain places.21 This organisation focuses on the learning of the Vietnamese type development through history, and it also helps young people on social media be more mindful of the lingering elements of the past. Projects initiated by young people for the benefit of other young people such as The Lost Type are one of the many instruments that bring retro style to a bigger audience and help it get the appreciation it deserves.

With the rapid-sharing nature of social media, young people begin to catch on to this movement and with an increase in viewers, it becomes a trend – old-fashioned typography becomes fashionable again.

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fig.20: Nguyen, 2016, Examples of Classique Saigon Typeface

Besides building an archive of old typography pieces, there are other young designers in Vietnam who are determined to construct works that can interlace old and new, harmonise past and present to achieve the perfect balance. Manh Nguyen is a renowned self-taught type designer and graphic designer in the young Vietnamese creative community. Inspired by The Lost Type project, Nguyen utilised his knowledge on typography and generated Classique Saigon [fig.20] and L’Hanoienne [fig.21], two sans-serif typefaces with characteristics taken from the dated hand-drawn street signs. The typefaces are heavily influenced by “retro hand-drawn style but it also contains uniquely aesthetic modern design.”22 By means of producing these classic fonts, Nguyen united artistic practices of the last century with the present time’s technological advantages in order to assemble a modern and adaptable product with the characteristics of trends belonging to the past. Additionally, he is attempting to lengthen the existence and vitality of the former handdrawn typography by converting these typefaces into a digital format, which will forever be stored in our intangible archive that is the Internet.

22. Nguyen, 2016

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fig.22: Nam, 2017, A Vietnamese Cafe Menu Design

Despite the possibility that one day, this project Nguyen produced will in turn become an old, dated idea, this style of typography is triumphantly one of the most favoured design elements right now in the thriving graphic design field in Vietnam. There is a significant amount of books being published in the past two years that have a cover with hand-painted illustrations, a dusty over-layer and the title set in one of these retro fonts. Coffee shops and restaurants are branding themselves using old style typography and earthy colour schemes [fig.22]. Designers quite often employ Nguyen’s retro typefaces to generate promotional and informative pieces across various subjects, not exclusively old-fashioned themes.

3 —

Retro is Controversial

3.1 –

On the Existence of Retro

Learning about the past is certainly a form of appreciation of its style. Today’s designers are using characteristics of past design and incorporating these into their contemporary work. While some would say with certainty that retro is purely a trend and is anything but sentimental23, the evident practicality and application of retro prove that it contains more deeply rooted meanings than we would anticipate. There are various reasons behind the existence of retro and why it is currently gaining popularity.

The present is made from fast-evolving technology, constantly improving software programmes and most of all the popular social media lifestyle [fig.23]. This leads to changes in society that we are not yet equipped to face, mentally or emotionally, and as a coping mechanism to

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fig.23: 2018, Worldwide Active Users on Social Media

such changes, we favour retro as a comforting reminder of the past that we are more accustomed to. In this instance, retro represents society’s fear of the ‘currentness’, of the machinery23. Modern technology, however, is not always an alarming thing that separates past and present but to some, it is the means which connect the two. Thanks to the advancement of the computing industry, designers are able to produce any style of work they could possibly think of. “Contemporary graphic designers are in a more powerful position culturally than they have ever been, and have the broadest range of processes at their disposal”24.

With the development of technology, people are provided with easy access to everything; any works of the past are now conveniently available to browse on the Internet.

Retro in this case is a statement of modern times instead; it might be seen as “an affirmation of the new technologies” that are capable of re-enacting and producing historical styles25. Recreating past styles with today’s technology is time-saving and efficient, but in many cases, this act is meaningful and also portrays a great sense of admiration and appreciation of the past by graphic designers. We admire them for the work they have contributed to art and design and we are aware that without them, graphic design would not be as diverse as it is today.

Additionally, we want to also travel back to a happier time of our lives, to be in denial of the present. “Nostalgia, or homesickness, is famously not about the past but about felt absences or ‘lack’ in the present”26. The present will never have what the past had; things being left behind like childhood, carefreeness, innocence, etc. will become just a fond memory of the time we all enjoyed yet is gone.

Retro transfigures contemporary designs into an escape from the now, using sentimental emotions from the audience, or a graphic designer and his clients.

23. Guffey, 2006

24. Olding-Smee and Ford, 2002

25. Breathnach and Dermody, 2010

26. Samuel, 994

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fig.24: 2016, Oxfam Swansea Vinyl Selection

27. Jens, 2005

“We are not necessarily trying to reconstruct the past but to create an alternative present”27. With it being physically impossible to get away from the present, we resort to creating an alternate universe by surrounding ourselves with retro design. Every little thing is a gateway to elsewhere than here: an old vinyl record [fig.24], an oldfashioned second-hand piece of clothing from a charity shop, a renowned company re-using their first logo for their latest re-branding and so on.

Retro style is seen to bring to a design piece a sense of authenticity, which is consequential of the fact that, for millennial designers, characteristics used in retro design are inspired by those from a time period when designers often made work manually and there was far less or no digital production. Inspirations for retro style originate from a distant era when each product label in the market was written by hand and each stamp was inked and pressed individually [fig.25]; upon looking at these labels, the buyer would get a sense of personality of the worker who had produced them. The handmade aesthetic associated with retro style is what makes it so familiar, endearing and attractive to designers and consumers alike.

The appreciation for the past and curiosity about the techniques of historical art movements are further reasons why this young generation of designers are working and experimenting with retro style. When one has understood the rules, he can also break them and the possibilities of design expand significantly – this powerful connection between theory and practice is a living proof for the practicality of history and why we should embrace it.

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fig.25: 19th century, Beauty Products and Bathroom Label Design

Besides one’s interest in the aesthetics of retro style and the feeling of authenticity that it brings, millennials’ attraction towards retro is established from their uncertainty in the early years of adulthood. Young consumers have a tendency to choose retro brands because they help the consumer in their search for identity, they reflect continuity and discontinuity, they assist with the search for belongingness and they are also used as fashion statements that reflect young consumers’ points of view towards the modern days’ social situation. “Adamson and Lyxell (1996) found that questions about the future, the meaning of life in general, death, and finally questions about one’s own identity are the most crucial questions in late adolescence”28.

28. Hemetsberger et. al, 2011

By understanding more about the various subjects of the world, young people know more about themselves.

They become conscious and anxious, all of which leads to their need to find an identity of their own in order to manifest a statement that they are individuals with their own tastes and opinions. The self-discoveries encourage young people to be more aware. They constantly seek ways to differentiate themselves from the norm, thus they navigate towards retro brands and second (or third) hand old-fashioned things.

3.2 – Contrasting Opinions Regarding Retro

While some people discuss retro style as nostalgic and inspirational, there are others who think that the application of retro into graphic design is a true verification of the serious lack of real creativity within our generation 29. Like any other art trend, retro style receives disapproval from critics as they deem it to be a divergence from the “problem solving nature of good design”30. Retro is considered as somewhat a cheat, an easy way out that a designer could take when faced with a design problem; said designer would use a solution to a problem of the past to solve one of his own in the present.

29,30. Breathnach and Dermody, 2010

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31. McLean, 2995

32. Chantry as interviewed by Brower, 2016

Jan Tschichold31 thought that following past typographers’ work is an inflexible action that is not creative or forwardthinking. Experienced graphic designers such as Art Chantry believe that copying and recycling is all designers are capable of doing since World War Two, and that nothing we come up with is original anymore32. Similar to music and fashion, graphic design also witnesses resurrection of previous tastes and preferences. Arguably, every design idea has already been executed so is anything we do actually new?

The disagreement regarding retro design originates in the difference in backgrounds of generations; each one of them recollects the past based on their own perspective, their needs and their experiences. More than half a century ago, when politics and the war were the topics of conversation on every corner of the earth, the main focus of design would have been significantly different [fig.26]. Nowadays, young people are more caught up in the development of technology, the need to claim an identity for themselves and the fight for the rights of the causes they believe in, to fight in their contemporary war.

fig.26: WW2 period, Don’t Take More Than You Can Eat

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Each generation of graphic designers has a definition of retro design depending on a number of factors that are tailored to their particular era. An older generation may not find empathy for young people’s definition of retro, but this is simply because they associate themselves with different ideas of nostalgia. Any adult would have lived through a period of time when they were growing up, when their memory worked like an absorbent material, collecting items and images. However, a young adult in 2018 would regard the later half of the 20th century as retro; whilst the generation born in the earlier half of the 20th century only thinks the same about things happened in the 19th century. “One remembers best what is colored by emotion”33, thus it is understandable how each of us may have a different perception of retro. Therefore, there is no particular time period in which one can correctly place retro style; it always happened before the present but it will always be present in the now.

Retro has certainly grown to be one of the trendiest styles among graphic designers internationally. Its existence is a declaration from millennial designers, saying that they care about the past and they are willing to keep it alive. On the other hand, young people do welcome retro design with complex emotions. For some of the younger consumers, retro is a distant ideology, yet they absorb retro products in the market because of curiosity. Retro design helps get millennials interested in old brands while those who had memories of art in the late 20th century look at retro design like an old friend, endearingly and nostalgically34. However, compared to the middle-aged and older audience, young adults are certainly more openminded about the coexistence of modern technology and earlier styles than their predecessors.

Even so, the appearance of retro design in today’s world is reassuring to the older group of consumers as they are transferred to a past they were accustomed to, when laptops and smart phones weren’t the norm and people

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33. Boym, 2001

34. Duckworth, 2016

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fig.27: 2016, Co-op Rebrand

still needed to talk and socialise in person. By going back to simpler days, retro design pleases the older generation of consumers. “In a society that is taught to be critical of advertising and its messages, craftsmanship and authentic experience prove positive points of difference�35. The simplicity and genuineness of retro pacify the discontent people may have towards the progression of modern technology.

The existence of retro itself acts as a form of visual rebellion of those who share the same points of view with the past instead of the present time.

Conclusion

35,36. Harris, 2016

37. Alexandra, 2016

In spite of any possible downsides or negative points of view towards retro design, it is undeniably a great tactical trend that fuses the past and the present together in an effective way, which also conforms to the varying standards and expectations of consumers.

Established brands like Kodak, Co-op and NatWest all have chosen to revisit and adjust their earlier identities to use as their latest re-branding, and the strategy works36 [fig.27 & fig.28]. The brands are attracting different age groups all the while elegantly returning to their own foundations and focusing on the initial missions they had set themselves37.

There is no logical ground on which one can say that the retro design trend will vanish in the foreseeable future.

The styles, upon which retro is based, were thought to have disappeared, yet they re-appeared to the joy of many designers. We will continue to see the revitalisation of design trends of the past as we move into the future.

Popular design trends like motion graphics, custom typography and illustration styles may fade away in the next ten years but they are highly likely to make a reentrance in ten more years! By that time, such techniques we classify as evolutionary might in turn be called retro.

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fig.28: 2016, Kodak 1971 Logo, Kodak 2006 logo, Kodak 2016 Logo

Retro style will always be resurfacing, especially thanks to human intelligence and the technology resulted from it. Instead of opposing such a phenomenon, embracing it will benefit the designer and his clients in many ways one would not have thought of, and it will transcend the design work to an era one would not have remembered.

Retro is a device that we can always rely on despite changes in taste and society.

In order to progress, we should remember to stay faithful to the origins of graphic design; one must learn the basis of type-setting before he can start designing ambitious posters. The fascination and the study of retro design is a dependable means that will guide students of graphic design back to their roots, where they are provided with knowledge and equipped with experiences for ventures of their own.

Retro is not just a trend or an easy opinion, it is meaningful and beneficial for graphic designers specifically, and mankind in general to progress and grow; it helps us celebrate the design of the past whilst suggesting ways that it may be integrated by future generations.

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References

Book Sources

Boym, S. (2001). The Future of Nostalgia. New York: Basic Books.

Breathnach, T. and Dermody, B. (2010). New retro: Classic Graphics, Today’s Design. London: Thames & Hudson.

Butler, S. (1912). Notebooks. London: A. C. Fifield.

Gill, E. (1931). An Essay on Typography. 1st ed.

Guffey, E. (2006). Retro: The Culture of Revival.

London: Reaktion.

Jong, C., Tholenaar, J. and Purvis, A. (2009).

Type: A Visual History of Typefaces and Graphic Styles.

Köln, Germany: Taschen.

Odling-Smee, A. and Ford, H. (2002). The New Handmade Graphics: Beyond Digital Design. Brighton: Rotovision

Parry, Linda (1983). William Morris Textiles.

London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson.

Rollins, C. (1995), in McLean, R. (eds) Typographers on Type. W. W. Norton & Company.

Samuel, R. (1994). Theatres of Memory. London: Verso.

Thompson, E.P. (1955). William Morris: Romantic to Revolutionary. London: Lawrence & Wishart.

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Tschichold, J. (1995). McLean, R. (eds) Typographers on Type. W. W. Norton & Company.

Woodham, Jonathan M. (2004). A Dictionary of Modern Design. Oxford: Oxford University Press

Internet Article Sources

Brower, S. (2016). Unapologetic + Uncensored Graphic Designer Art Chantry Has Some Thoughts on the State of Visual Culture Today. Eye on Design.

Cbsnews.com. (2017). “Loving Vincent” Van Gogh: How the world’s first hand-painted film was made.

Ellis-Petersen, H. (2017). Record sales: vinyl hits 25-year high. The Guardian.

Harris, M. (2016). Why logos are going retro.

Digital Arts.

Kelly, J. (2016). Vintage clothes sold by the kilo.

BBC News.

Leurs, L. (2017). The history of printing | The evolution of print from Gutenberg to now. Prepressure.

Nguyen, N. (2017). Trien Lam “Sai Gon 3 Met Vuong”. rgb.vn.

Nikki Delamotte (2018). Alan Giberson is reviving the art of sign painting in Cleveland. cleveland.com.

Somaiya, R. (2007). Warning: graphic material.

Telegraph.com.

Thu, M. (2018). Folk art becomes top fashion. vietnamnews.vn.

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Internet Profiles and Work

Ashby Design (2018). Ashbydesign.com.

Eaton, N. (2009). Apple - Pro - Profiles - Neal Ashby & Matthew Curry. Ashbydesign.com.

Mucca Design (2018). Mucca.com.

Nguyen, M. (2017). Classique Saigon Typeface.

Behance.net.

Nguyen, M. (2017). L’Hanoinne Typeface.

Behance.net.

Journal Sources

Adamson, L. and Lyxell, B. (1996). Self-concept and Questions of Life: Identity Development During Late Adolescence. Journal of Adolescence, 19(6), pp.569-582.

Breathnach, T. and Dermody, B. (2013). The Appeal of the Past: Retro Type and Typography. InPrint, 2(1), pp.30-48.

Brown, S., Kozinets, R. and Sherry, J. (2003).

Teaching Old Brands New Tricks: Retro Branding and the Revival of Brand Meaning. Journal of Marketing.

Cattaneo, E. and Guerini, C. (2012). Assessing the revival potential of brands from the past: How relevant is nostalgia in retro branding strategies?. Journal of Brand Management, 19(8), pp.680-687.

Cousins, C. (2017). Design Trend: The Modern Retro Touch. Ceros Originals.

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Dogerlioglu-Demir, K., Tansuhaj, P., Cote, J. and Akpinar, E. (2017). Value integration effects on evaluations of retro brands. Journal of Business Research, 77.

Hemetsberger, A., Kittinger-Rosanelli, C. and Mueller, B. (2011). “Grandma’S Fridge Is Cool” - The Meaning of Retro Brands For Young Consumers.

Advances in Consumer Research, 38, pp.242-248.

Jens, H. (2005). ‘Sixties Dress Only! The Consumption of the Past in a Retro Scene’ in Palmer, A., and H. Clark (eds) Old Clothes, New Looks: Second Hand Fashion. Oxford

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Acknowledgements

Acknowledgements

Thank you to our lecturers and tutors, who have helped make these dissertations happen: Donna Williams, Phil Thomas and Dr Scott L. Smith. Thank you Gav, Harry and Glenn for your always helpful guidances.

Most sincerely, thank you to the students, classmates and friends who have agreed for me to use their work in the book, it was a great time getting to know you. In no particular order, Amber, Calum, Marc, Joe and Joe, Shaz and Ryan, thank you for making this final year memorable.

Linh Duong, Editor.

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books, flags, colours and retro