FROM ATOM TO ENTRÉE Classic recipes explained for the curious + hungry.
Na
Do you like to cook periodically? (Circle One)
Si
FROM ATOM TO ENTRÉE Classic recipes explained for the curious + hungry.
CONTENT Foundation 7
Big Bang Pancakes
11
Stacks
13
Omelette
15
Egg Structure
17
Potato Hash
Potatoes
21
Main Core
19
Dijon Steak
25
Beef Cuts
27
Macaroni + Cheese 29 Cheese
31
Chicken Pot Pie
Perfect Crust
33
35
Sucrose
Chocolate Ice Cream 39 Frozen Desserts
41
Classic Cookies
43
Chocolate
45
Banana Bread
Bananas
47
49
Conclusion 53
CONDUCTION Conduction is the direct transfer of energy from one solid body to another. For example, if even grabbing a hot pan your hands will burn. Why is that? This happens because of the vibrating molecules from one surface will strike the relatively still molecules on another surface.
Cooking Examples: Searing a steak Crisping the bottom of the pizza
CONVECTION Convection is the transfer of one solid body to another through the intermediary of a fluid. The faster the air travels over a given surface, the more energy it can transfer.
Cooking Examples: Steaming asparagus stalks Deep-frying onion rings
RADIATION Radiation is the transfer of energy through space with electromagnetic waves. This type of energy does not require any medium to transfer it. It is the type of heat that can be felt by holding your hands close to the fire.
Cooking Examples: Roasting Marshmallows Toasting garlic bread in a broiler
STARTING WITH THE BASICS TO BUILD THE
7
FOUNDATION Understanding the Base Have you ever wondered why hosts on cooking shows take measurements so seriously? The smallest change can make or break a dish. Being precise is the key to cooking. Since food is science, this means that you cannot mix a dollop of this, a pinch of that, a handful of flour and a few eggs, and expect to get the perfect cookies. Guessing the measurements will not result in the same quality as the recipe was intended for. For example, too much butter or not enough flour, will cause cookies to spread out thin and crisp. Adding too much baking powder to cakes, it will taste odd and sink in the middle. Each ingredient has a different molecular structure that can cause a reaction when paired with another ingredient. For these reasons, measuring the correct increments of each ingredient it vital. Heat and temperature are not the same thing. At it most basic, cooking is the transfer of energy from a heat source to your food. That energy causes physical changes in the shape of proteins, fats, and carbohydrates, as well as hastens the rate at which chemical reactions take place. Once a protein’s shape has been changed by adding energy to it, you cannot change it back by removing the energy. With cooking comes science, and with science there are explanations. A few major components of cooking include heat, temperature, density, specific heat capacity, conduction, convection, and radiation.
Abbreviations tsp- Teaspoon Tbl- Tablespoon C- Cup oz- Ounce lb- Pound
STARTING THE DAY OFF WITH A
BIG BANG
PANCAKES Making the Batter “Sour” Pancake batters have relatively little gluten formation, meaning that they aren’t all that great at trapping and holding bubbles. Once you mix a batter, your baking soda or baking powder immediately begins producing gas, and that gas tries to escape into the air. There are a few tricks to creating fluffy pancakes, adding vinegar into milk and allowing it to “sour,” then gently fold it into whipped egg whites and the batter and it will create the ultimate pancakes. Letting ingredients sit can also contribute to the texture of the pancakes. Cook the pancakes immediately after mixing, and you get a light, tall, fluffy interior. Let the batter sit for half an hour, and you get a dense, gummy interior with few bubbles. But there are still some bubbles in there. Where did those come from? Well, pretty much all baking powder is what is referred to as “double-acting.” Just as the name indicates, it produces gas in two distinct phases. The first occurs as soon as you mix it with water; the second occurs only when it is heated. This second rise in the skillet makes for extralight and fluffy pancakes.
The molecular structure of vinegar has oxygen, hydrogen, and carbon.
Microscopic view of white vinegar molecules.
BIG BANG
MATERIALS ¾ C Milk 2 Tbl White Vinegar 1 C All-Purpose Flour
Servings
12 people
2 Tbl White Sugar 1 tsp Baking Powder ½ tsp Baking Soda
Prep
10 mins. 11
½ tsp Fine Salt 2 Large Egg (Separated) 2 Tbl Melted Butter
Time
20 mins.
PROCEDURE 1
Combine milk with vinegar in a medium bowl and set aside for 5 minutes to “sour”. Then mix flour, sugar, baking powder, baking soda, and salt in a large mixing bowl. Whisk egg yolk and butter into “soured” milk.
2
In a medium clean bowl, whisk the egg whites until stiff peaks form. Then pour the whipped whites into the mixture and fold slowly until combined into one mixture.
3
Heat a large skillet over medium heat, and coat with cooking spray. Pour ¼ cupfuls of batter onto the skillet, and cook until bubbles appear on the surface. Flip with a spatula, and cook until sides are browned and edges are crisped.
PANCAKES Pancakes are thin, yet fluffy, round, and dense bread cakes—made by whipping the same ingredients as waffles (only with a less sugar and sometimes less egg), into a lump free batter that gets poured onto a med-high pan or griddle. They tend to be more dense and more moist than a waffle. Very sponge like, perfect for sopping up syrup or even chocolate! The outside, though lightly browned, remains soft and smooth like a sheet cake—not crunchy like a waffle. Crazy how the tiniest change in ingredients and cooking methods, make such different, yet
WAFFLES Waffles are very similar to pancakes in that they both use the same ingredients: flour, eggs, baking powder, sugar, and milk. However, waffles are crunchier than pancakes for a reason. They’re typically made with slightly more sugar than pancakes and they’re cooked using a two sided, dual-heated griddle that’s typically well greased. The extra sugar ever so slightly caramelizes the outer layer of the waffles, accounting for part of the crunch factor, and the well-greased griddle lightly fries the surface surface of the waffles (while the inside portion bakes).
CREPES Crepes’ prime ingredients are identical to pancakes and waffles except for one thing—baking powder. Without baking powder, there is no rising agent, accounting for the thinness of a crepe. They also tend to be made with the less sugar, resulting in less of a sweet taste and of more of a subtle egg flavor. That’s one of the greatest things about crepes! Since they’re not abundantly sweet, they can, and often are, served sweet or savory.
BIG BANG
THE SAME INGREDIENTS, YET DIFFERENT
STACKS
13
Pancakes, Waffles, + Crepes Three breakfast desserts, with similar recipes, yet yield three very different results. So what’s the actual difference between the three? Are the batters really are interchangeable? Why is one crunchy, one soft, and one sheet thin? All very different products, with very subtle differences. The answer is all about precise measurments and kitchen tools. A dash of a simple ingredient can completely change the course of a pancake and turn it into a crepe. We walk you through the exact different between these three delicious breakfast delights.
Eggs
Milk
These are common ingredients found in pancakes, waffles, and crepes. But what makes these three delicious foods taste so different? It is all about proportions!
Sugar
Flour
OMELETTE The Magic of Salt Salt affects eggs by weakening the magnetic attraction that yolk proteins have for one another. Egg yolks are made up of millions of tiny balloons filled with water, protein, and fat. These balloons are too small to see with the naked eye, but they are large enough to prevent light from passing through them. Salt breaks these spheres up into even tinier pieces, allowing light to pass through, so the salted eggs turn translucent. What does this mean for the way they cook? Salt can have quite a drastic effect on how eggs cook. When eggs cook and coagulate, the proteins in the yolks pull tighter and tighter together as they get hotter. When they get too tight, they begin to squeeze liquid out from the curds. Adding salt to the eggs well before cooking can prevent the proteins from bonding too tightly by reducing their attraction to one another, resulting in a tenderer curd and lower likelihood of unattractive weeping. Adding salt immediately before cooking helps, but if you want the full effect, the salt must have time to dissolve and become evenly distributed through the mixture. light and fluffy pancakes.
The molecular structure of an egg is a made from of oxygen, nitrogen, carbons, hydrogen, and amidogen
Microscopic view of salt.
BIG BANG
MATERIALS 5 Whole Large Eggs 2 Tbl Kosher Salt 2 Tbl Black Pepper
Servings
2 people
1 oz Chopped Chives 1 oz Tarragon 1 oz Parsley
Prep
10 mins.
2 Tbl Unsalted Butter 4 oz Diced Ham Steak 3 oz Grated Cheddar
Time
15 mins.
15
PROCEDURE 1
Combine eggs, salt, pepper, and herbs in a medium bowl and whisk until homogeneous and frothy, about 1 minute. Allow to rest at room temperature for 10 to 15 minutes. The salt reaction will result the eggs darkening significantly.
2
Meanwhile, melt 1 tablespoon butter in a skillet over medium heat. Add ham and cook, until it has begun to brown on the edges. Then re-whisk eggs until foamy, and add to the skillet. Using a spatula, push the edges in toward the center as they set and tilting the pan to spread the uncooked egg underneath.
3
Sprinkle ham and cheese over half of omelette, remove from heat, cover, and let omelette sit until it reaches the desired consistency, about 1 minute. Then using a spatula, loosen the edges of the omelette from skillet. Carefully fold omelette in half and enjoy!
BEFORE In raw eggs, there are several chains of proteins that are composed of numerous amino acids and thousands of water molecules. The proteins are in a very compact form and are held together by weak bonds. Eggs are in a loose, liquid state because of the negative charges found in the proteins that lead to repulsion.
When an egg is raw, the protein molecules are active but separate.
AFTER Adding heat forces the eggs to become solid, and this is only possible through a complex system of reorganization of molecules all brought on by heat. Applying heat to eggs causes the proteins in eggs to interact with the water molecules. As more and more heat is added, the collision of molecules increases very rapidly. This in turn leads to the weak bonds within the protein globs to break, the proteins unfold, and new bonds to form among proteins, in turn making a complex web of proteins.
When heat is added, the protein complex will unfold, or denature, allowing changes to take place in the egg.
What about the smell? The molecule structure to the left represents Hydrogen sulfide. This molecule is formed by the reaction of sulfur-containing proteins in the albumen, is the compound that gives cooked eggs their characteristic smell. When eggs are cooked for a long time it can react with iron in the yolk, forming iron sulfide, and giving a green hue to the yolk.
BIG BANG
ANALYZING THE COMPLEXITY OF AN
EGG STRUCTURE
A hidden complexity
17
For such a simple staple of the kitchen, the chemistry of eggs is surprisingly complex. Eggs are one of the most versatile kitchen ingredients; there are numerous ways of cooking them on their own, and they can also be used to help create a range of other foods. Here we take a brief look at their composition, and also at some chemistry tips that can help with cooking them! Eggs are made up of four main parts: the shell, yolk, egg whites, and air pocket. About 66% of the egg is made up of the yolk, holding the most nutrients and calories.
54%
12%
2%
32%
Ovalbumin
Conalbumin
Ovomucin
Others
Cooking an egg is simple, but the anatomy breakdown of the egg is much more complex. Above is the breakdown of an egg white. Although the egg white is not the main part of the egg, it takes about 33% of the space. About 90% of the egg white is water; the rest of its mass is mostly protein. Ovalbumin’s purpose is thought to be nutrition for the developing chick; Ovomucin helps thicken the egg white; and conalbumin binds iron & guards against infection.
POTATO HASH Par-cooking Potatoes By par-cooking chunks of potatoes, you help create a thick layer of gelatinized starch around their exterior that, upon frying, subsequently dehydrates and browns. It’s this dehydrated layer of gelatinized starch that provides the crisp texture of the potato. The issue is that by par-boiling the potatoes, you also end up softening them to the point that they fall apart when you try to fry them. There are a couple of solutions to this problem. The first is to par-cook them in the microwave, this method will par-cook the potatoes without jostling them, which helps keeps the chunks whole. Another solution is to add some vinegar to the cooking water, about a tablespoon per quart. This vinegar slows the breakdown of pectin, the inter-cellular glue that holds potatoes together. Pectin begins to break down at around 183 °F, but this process is also greatly affected by the relative pH of the cooking medium. The lower the pH (more acidic), the less it breaks down. Conversely, the higher the pH (more alkaline), the faster it breaks down. Adding vinegar to the water, you can boil potatoes and gelatinize starch without letting them turn soft, making them easy to fry afterwards.
The molecular structure of a potato is a complex carbohydrate; it is composed of Oxygen, Hydrogen, Nitrogen, and Hydroxide.
Microscopic view of potato molecules.
BIG BANG
MATERIALS ½ lb Russet Potatoes 2 Tbl Vegetable Oil 1 Large Shallot
Servings
2 people
½ lb Baby Bok Choy 1 Large Sliced Serrano 1 tsp Hot Sauce
Prep
15 mins.
1 tsp Kosher Salt 1 tsp Black Pepper
Time
15 mins.
19
PROCEDURE 1
Place potatoes in as thin a layer as possible on a microwave-safe plate. Cover with paper towel and microwave on high power until heated through but still slightly undercooked, about 2 1/2 minutes.
2
Heat 2 tablespoons oil in a 10-inch cast iron or non-stick skillet over high heat until lightly smoking. Add potatoes and cook, stirring and tossing occasionally, until well browned on about half of all surfaces, about 4 minutes. Reduce heat if smoking heavily.
3
Add shallot and bok choy. Continue to cook, tossing and stirring occasionally, until vegetables are all well browned and charred in spots, about 4 minutes. Add sliced chili and hot sauce. Cook, stirring constantly for 30 seconds. Season to taste with salt and pepper.
STARCHY Starchy potatoes are low in moisture and high in starch, and they are especially good for baking, mashing, frying, and roasting, but they are not very good for boiling because they can disintegrate if boiled too long. When they are cooked their texture is dry and floury. Most common is the Russet Burbank from Idaho.
- Mashed Potatoes - French Fries - Baked Potato
WAXY These are good, all-purpose spuds because they have moderate moisture and starch. When boiled they get soft around the edges but hold their shape, making them especially good for potato salads and casseroles. An example is the red-skinned potatoes.
- Soups + Stews - Boiling - Roasting - Potato Salad - Casseroles
ALL-PURPOSE These potatoes have a medium starch content that fall somewhere in between the starchy and waxy potatoes. They’re a true multi-purpose potato, and therefore can be used for just about any cooking application. A classic example is the Yukon Gold.
- French Fries - Boiling - Roasting - Grilling - Baking
BIG BANG
UNDERSTANDING THE CLASSES OF
POTATOES
Choosing the Right Kind The world loves its potatoes, and you probably do, too. They’re the perfect side dish, whether you’re roasting them, boiling them, turning them into fries or something more exotic, like latkes. Every meal of the day can include potatoes, from morning hash browns to late-night, post-pub fish ‘n’ chips. You may be surprised to find out, however, that they’re not all interchangeable in how you use them. The wrong kind of potato can take a dish from stellar to sad in an instant.
Raw Once the potato is cooked, the cell walls rupture (break open) resulting in a loss of rigid structure and a softer texture. The starch grains inside swell up and spread out and many escape from the cell.
Cooked
21
SERVING UP A TASY
MAIN CORE
DIJON STEAK The Maillard Reaction The reason meat changes texture, color and taste when it cooks is that proteins in the muscle tissue denature, or change shape. Two main proteins that make up muscle tissue, including myosin, which plays an important role in muscle contraction, and actin, which is also involved in muscle contraction as well as cell division and other functions. Myosin starts to denature around 120 to 130 °F, Actin denatures around 150 °F. On the outside, though, the perfect steak is browned. Browning occurs because of the Maillard reaction, a chemical reaction in which sugars and amino acids in the meat react and create new, flavorful compounds. To get a Maillard reaction, the surface temperature of the steak needs to be around 350 °F. Some advocate salting steak and letting it sit to pull moisture off the surface hastens this Maillard reaction. Most likely, the small amount of liquid pulled out of the steak won’t make a huge difference in cooking time. Letting salt sit for a time on the meat might allow the seasoning to penetrate the outer layers, therefore, creating a more flavorful experience overall. Balancing high heat on the outside with low heat on the inside is a skill on the grill.
The molecular structure of Creatine, a high content found in steak, is a combination of azanide, nitrogen, nitrogen monohydride, hydroxide, and oxygen.
Microscopic view of raw beef molecules.
MAIN CORE
MATERIALS Âź C Dijon Mustard 2 Tbl Champagne Vinegar 1 Tbl Chopped Rosemary
Servings
2 people
1 tsp Black Pepper 1 lb Trimmed Steak
Prep
4 hrs.
Time
30 mins.
25
PROCEDURE
1
In a small bowl, mix together mustard, champagne vinegar, rosemary, and black pepper. Meanwhile, place steak in a zipper-lock bag and pour marinade on top, make sure the steak is well coated. Refrigerate for 4 hours.
2
When all charcoal is lit and covered with gray ash, pour out and spread coals evenly over half of coal grate. Set half the burners of a gas grill to high heat. Set cooking grate in place, cover grill, and allow to preheat for 5 minutes.
3
Remove steak from bag, scraping off excess marinade. Grill steak over high heat until desired meat color has been reached, meat has developed a nice exterior char. If marinade threatens to burn, transfer steak to cooler side of grill to finish cooking. Let steak rest 5 minutes before serving.
BEEF CUTS Beef is divided into large sections called primal cuts, which you can see in our beef cuts chart. These primal beef cuts, or “primals,” are then broken down further into subprimals, or “food-service cuts.” These are then sliced and chopped into individual steaks, roasts, and other retail cuts. A side of beef is literally one side of the beef carcass that is split through the backbone. Each side is then halved between the 12th and 13th ribs. These sections are called the forequarter (front of the cow) and the hindquarter (back of the cow).The most tender cuts of beef, like the rib and tenderloin, are the ones farthest from the horn and hoof. The toughest areas of the animal are the shoulder and leg muscles because they are worked the most.
SIRLOINS Tender Flavorful *Choose label with “Top Sirloin”for the more tender cuts
ROUND Lean + Tough Good for Slow Cooking
SHORT LOINS Most Tender
RIB
CHUCK
Fatty
Rich meat
Flavorful
Flavorful
Tender
Good for Ground Beef
PLATE
BRISKET
Good for Slow Cooking
Tough
Tough + Flavorful
Tough
Fatty
FLANK
SHANK Dry Tough
MAIN CORE
A GUIDE TO USING THE RIGHT
BEEF CUT Choosing the Right Cut At some point, anyone who cooks beef is curious about where the major cuts come from on the cow. But all that meat can be confusing, especially when you walk into the grocery store or a butcher shop and see it all together. Finding the cut that suits your needs can be tougher than a well-done top round. This handy guide will show you the location of major beef cuts, like chuck, rib, loin, and brisket. You’ll also discover which cuts are considered the best and the most reliable ways to cook each one.
27
Open Flame
Slow Roast
Beef is a very versatile meat, but part of the reason it can be enjoy in many ways is the approach of cooking. Depending on how you choose to cook the beef can contribute to the texture and tenderness of the meat. Above are common ways to cook beef.
Pan Fry
Oven
MACARONI + CHEESE The Complexity of Cheese The science of macaroni and cheese is found within the complex structure of cheese. The longer a cheese is aged, the more moisture it loses, and the harder it becomes. Milk fat in solid cheese is dispersed in the form of microscopic globules kept suspended in a tight matrix of protein micelles. Under around 90 °F, this fat is solid. Because of this, and because of their suspension, these tiny globules don’t come into contact with each other to form larger globules: cheeses stay creamy or crumbly, instead of greasy. Protein micelles are spherical bundles of milk proteins. These proteins come together headfirst in bundles of thousands, protecting their hydrophobic heads and exposing their hydrophilic tails to their watery surroundings. These micelles link together into long chains, forming a matrix that gives the cheese its structure. Salt and other flavorings make up the rest of the cheese. Salt can have a profound effect on the texture—saltier cheeses have had more moisture drawn out of the curd before being pressed, so they tend to be drier and firmer. Other flavorful compounds present in cheese are mostly intentional by-products of bacteria and aging.
The molecular structure of cheese is a combination of oxygen, hydrocarbo, osmium dioxide, nitrogen, and dioxygen.
Microscopic view of milk molecules turning into cheese.
MAIN CORE
MATERIALS 1 lb Elbow Macaroni 1 oz Kosher Salt 12 oz Evaporated Milk
Servings
5 people
2 Large Eggs 1 tsp Hot Sauce 1 tsp Ground Mustard
Prep
5 hrs.
1 lb Extra-Sharp Cheddar 8 oz American cheese 1 tsp Cornstarch
Time
15 mins.
1 stick Unsalted butter
PROCEDURE
29
1
Place the macaroni in a large saucepan and cover it with salted water by 2 inches. Bring to a boil over high heat, stirring occasionally to keep the pasta from sticking. Cover the pan, remove from the heat, and let stand until the pasta is barely al dente.
2
Meanwhile, whisk together the evaporated milk, eggs, hot sauce, and mustard in a bowl until homogeneous. Toss the cheeses with the cornstarch until thoroughly combined.
3
When the pasta is cooked, drain it and return it to the sau- cepan. Place over low heat, add the butter, and stir until melted. Add the milk mixture and cheese mixture and cook, stirring constantly, until the cheese is completely melted and the mixture is hot and creamy. Season to taste with salt and more hot sauce.
CREAMY High-moisture cheeses, like Brie, Cheddar, Swiss, Gouda, American and Blue cheese, flow more easily than dry hard cheeses. In moist cheese, the proteins are loosely packed with lots of water interspersed between them, so they readily liquefy. When an aged cheese like Cheddar melts, these little pieces of casein flow without tangling, and the cheese melts smoothly. Cheeses that are rennet-set with high moisture and fat are the best cheeses for melting as they melt evenly and consistently.
STRETCHY Milk contains proteins consisting of coiled-up chains of molecules. When you make cheese, these proteins are separated out during the curdling of the milk, to make curds. In the manufacture of mozzarella, the curds are then put into hot, salty water. This uncoils the proteins and turns them into long strands, which are then repeatedly compressed and stretched. This forces the strands to line up, creating the famous stringy consistency. Stretchy cheeses include mozzarella, curds, provolone, and oaxaca.
NON-MELTERS There’s one type of cheese that no amount of tweaking will melt: Acid-set cheeses, like fresh goat cheese, feta cheese, quick farmers cheese, paneer, queso fresco, and ricotta, just can’t do it. That’s because acid, unlike rennet, actually dissolves the calcium glue that holds the casein proteins together in micelles. When an acid curd is heated, the first thing to be shaken loose is not the proteins, but water. Continue to heat an acid-set cheese, and its proteins will get closer and closer together and increasingly more water will be cooked off, but without that calcium holding everything together, you’re not going to get any melting action.
MAIN CORE
THE FORM VARIETY OF
CHEESE From Gooey to Stretchy To start off, you need to know which cheese is best for melting – and which cheese isn’t. Since low-fat and low-moisture cheeses (think Romano and Parmesan) burn easily, these are not your ideal melting cheeses. Yes, they will melt into strands that are suitable to sit on top of pasta, but they will not turn into a creamy melted cheese sauce. Cheeses with more moisture and lower melting points make for mouthwatering, creamy cheese sauces. Cheddar is one of the most popular choices, but Swiss and Gruyère are also terrific options.
31
Schematic of the basic stages of cheese making, however the process can vary depending on the type of cheese being made.
CHICKEN POT PIE The Science of Gelatin Under the crisp crust of chicken pot pie lies a savory stew of chicken, broth, and vegetables. How does this mixture thicken and keep its rich taste? The secret is gelatin. The science of gelatin is the key to creating the rich filling for chicken pot pie, that’s all thanks to collagen, a component of connective tissue (commonly found on fish and animal bones). When the collagen is heated in liquid under proper conditions it becomes converted into gelatin. Once it’s hydrated, or “bloomed,” in a cold water-based liquid (to deter lumps) and heated, the possibilities are nearly endless. Use a high concentration of gelatin and you’ll get a firm and stiff texture, reduce that amount and you can simply use it to enhance the viscosity of the filling. Gelatin also helps keep the chicken exceptionally moist and tender.
The molecular structure of chicken is a combination of hydroxide, hydrogen, nitrogenamidogen, oxygen.
Microscopic view of gelatin molecules.
MAIN CORE
MATERIALS 9 oz All-Purpose Flour 1 oz Sugar 1 tbl Baking Powder
Servings
5 people
1 ½ tsp Kosher Salt 8 oz Unsalted Butter 8 oz Cultured Buttermilk
Prep
5 hrs.
2 qt Chicken Stock 4 ½ lbs Chicken 1 large Carrots, Celery, + Onion 1 sprig Parsley & Rosemary ½ oz Gelatin
Time
15 mins.
½ cup Dry White Wine
PROCEDURE 1
Combine chicken stock, chicken, onion, carrots, celery, garlic, thyme, parsley, and rosemary in a 5-quart stainless steel pot or saucier. Cover and place over medium-high heat until stock is about 150°F. Then cook until thickest part of chicken at 135°F for an hour. Remove chicken, set aside on a rimmed platter, and cover loosely. Strain stock into a large bowl and set stock aside to cool.
2
Combine gelatin and ¼ cup cooled stock in a small bowl and whisk until smooth. In a saucier, stir in diced onion, carrots, and celery and continue cooking and stirring until vegetables are slightly softened. Add white wine and 1 quart of stock. Once it begins to bubble, remove from heat. Stir in frozen peas, prepared gelatin, salt, thyme, pepper, and Worcestershire sauce. Then stir in shredded chicken.
3
Preheat oven to 400° F. In a medium bowl, whisk together flour, sugar, baking powder, and salt. Add butter and toss to break up the pieces. Stir in buttermilk with a flexible spatula, then drop the thick dough in 1-tablespoon portions over prepared filling. Bake until biscuits are golden brown, about 45 minutes to 1 hour. Cool at least 30 minutes before serving .
33
SHORTENING Pros: Very easy to work with, produces crusts that are extremely tender and crisp. Cons: It has no flavor at all other than grease. It’s also soft over a wide range of temperatures, greatly increasing your chance of overworking your dough and turning it crumbly instead of flaky.
BUTTER Pros: Excellent flavor, forms distinct, large flaky layers. Cons: Difficult to work with. Butter melts at a relatively low temperature (below body temperature) and has a very narrow workable range. It’s also got a relatively high water content (about 15 to 17 percent), which can cause excess gluten to form and turn your crust leathery if you aren’t careful.
LARD Pros: The best for working with—it has a wide workable temperature range and is not nearly as soft as shortening within that range. Creates very tender, flaky crusts. Cons: Unless you slaughter your own pigs and render your own leaf lard, it’s extremely hard to find good lard. The stuff sold in supermarkets has a very piggy aroma, which makes for very
MAIN CORE
TESTING DIFFERENT METHODS TO GET THE
PERFECT CRUST There is always a compromise There’s still a number of questions that come up in regards to pie crust. Which fat makes the best crusts is prime stomping grounds for eternal debate between bakers, and it comes down to a battle between texture and flavor. There are a different fats most people use, but they all come with pros and cons. We will compare the top three most common fats to analysis which will give us the best result.
Every great pie crust is well dependent on the fat being used, but before we choose we need to define our variables:
35
Shortening
Butter
Lard
Shortening is a type of solid fat that is commonly made from vegetable oils, such as soybean and cottonseed oil used to make crumbly pastry and other food products.
Butter is a dairy product with high butterfat content made by churning fresh or fermented cream or milk. The churning separates the butterfat from the buttermilk.
Lard is fat from a pig, it is a semi-soft white fat derived from fatty parts of the pig, with a high saturated fatty acid content and no trans fat.
ENJOYING A SPOONFUL OF
SUCROSE
CHOCOLATE ICE CREAM The Sweet Custard of Happiness When making ice cream, the higher fat content in the milk allows for a better texture in your finished dessert. Most milk in a grocery store is homogenized, which means that the fat molecules are already distributed evenly with the other liquids. Fats and water don’t naturally mix together smoothly, they normally want to separate. Homogenized milk has already taken care of the problem, and the fat molecules are already safely suspended in clusters among the other liquids. When you mix the ice cream base together, the fat clusters start to break apart. As you mix, you also introduce air, and the recently disturbed fat clusters keep the air pockets in place. When the air pockets are more stable, you get a smoother ice cream. Next, the liquid ice cream goes into an ice cream machine. During churning, air is incorporated, which increases the overall volume of the ice cream.
The molecular structure of sucrose is a combination of hydroxide, oxygen, and Holmium
Microscopic view of milk molecules.
SUCROSE
MATERIALS 3 C Whole Milk 6 Tbl Cocoa Nibs ½ C Sugar
Servings
6 people
¼ C Cocoa Powder 6 large Egg Yolks 8 oz Dark Chocolate
Prep
8 hrs.
1 ½ tsp Kosher Salt Time
1 hr.
PROCEDURE 1
In a heavy-bottomed saucepan, bring milk to a simmer over mediumhigh heat, stirring frequently. Stir in cocoa nibs, cover, and let steep for 2 hours. Meanwhile, in a clean heavy-bottomed saucepan, whisk together sugar and cocoa powder until no large lumps of cocoa remain. Then whisk in egg yolks until thoroughly combined.
2
Strain milk into yolk mixture, pressing on cocoa nibs to squeeze out all possible dairy, then whisk dairy to combine. Set pan over medium heat and cook, whisking frequently,until custard reaches 170° F on an instant thermometer.
39
3
Add chocolate and stir until thoroughly melted. Strain into a container or bowl, add salt, and chill in refrigerator or ice bath until base cools to 40° F. Churn in ice cream maker according to manufacturer’s instructions, then serve right away as soft serve or transfer to an airtight container to harden in freezer for 3 to 4 hours.
ICE CREAM All ice cream has to have at least 10% or more milk fat to be labeled ice cream. This treat is also churned as its frozen to give it a light texture.
10 - 20% Fat Content
SOFT SERVE Soft serve typically has less milk fat than ice cream and more air incorporated into it to achieve its fluffy texture.
3 - 10% Fat Content
GELATO Since gelato uses less cream and more milk, it has a lower fat content than ice cream. It’s churned at a slower pace to give it a dense and creamy texture.
3 - 8% Fat Content
FROZEN YOGURT The process of making frozen yogurt is similar to ice cream, except for the yogurt cultures added to the ingredients.
0.5 - 3% Fat Content
SUCROSE
DID YOU KNOW THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN
FROZEN DESSERTS It all starts with the cream The main reason why ice cream tastes so devilishly delicious is its high fat content. Ice cream must be at least 10% fat — unless it’s labelled as low-fat, non-fat, or light — and this fat must come from milk. Fat adds richness, increases flavors overall, and improves the density and smoothness of the ice cream. Did you ever notice there are many choices in frozen desserts? We’re not even talking about the flavors! There is ice cream, soft serve, gelato, and frozen yogurt. All of the desserts are no doubt delicious, but what’s the difference? They are all made with the same ingredients! To help you pick out which frozen treat we’ve broken down the processes behind each.
41
Ice Cream
Soft Serve
Gelato
Frozen Yogurt
CLASSIC COOKIES The Maillard Reaction As the cookie dough starts to heat up, the butter inside it melts. The ball of dough loses its structural integrity and spreads out. The diameter of the cookie is set by how long the cookie expands. At about 212 °F, the water in the dough turns into steam. The cookie starts to rise as the vapors push through the dough. Eventually, the baking soda starts to break down into carbon dioxide gas, which raises the cookie farther. All these gases leave little holes in the maturing cookie, which makes it light and flaky. Just as the cookie is almost finished baking, two chemical reactions fill it with hundreds of flavors and infuse it with its characteristic brown hue. Starting with caramelizing: as sugars in the dough break down, they transform from clear, odorless crystals into a brown, fragrant liquid that’s overflowing with aromas and flavor. The second process, called the Maillard reaction, packs the cookie with even richer tastes. The reaction involves not only the sugars in the dough but the proteins from the egg and flour as well. So it churns out toasty, nutty and even savory flavors. The Maillard reaction also helps to darken the cookie’s surface.
The molecular structure of Baking powder is a combination of sodium ion, oxygen, hydroxide, and carbon
Microscopic view of chocolate molecules.
SUCROSE
MATERIALS 1 C Butter 1 C White Sugar 1 C Brown Sugar
Servings
12 people
2 whole Eggs 2 tsp Vanilla Extract 3 C All-Purpose Flour
Prep
10 mins.
1 tsp Baking Soda 2 tsp Hot Water ½ tsp Fine Salt
Time
20 mins.
2 C Chocolate Chips 1 C Walnut
PROCEDURE 1
Preheat oven to 350° F. Set aside chopped chocolate, and sift flour on top and toss together. Combine butter, white sugar, brown sugar, vanilla, salt, baking soda, baking powder, and nutmeg in a bowl. Mix on low to moisten, then to medium and until fluffy. While mixing, add egg and continue beating until smooth. Reduce speed to low, add flour and chocolate all at once, and mix to form a stiff dough.
2
Cream together the butter, white sugar, and brown sugar until smooth. Beat in the eggs one at a time, then stir in the vanilla. Dissolve baking soda in hot water. Add to batter along with salt. Stir in flour, chocolate chips, and nuts. Lastly, drop large spoonfuls onto greased pans and place in oven.
43
3
Bake for about 10 minutes in the preheated oven, or until edges are nicely browned. Let cookies cool, then enjoy!
DARK Dark chocolate has the highest amount of cocoa solids, which remains after cocoa butter is extracted from cacao beans. The solids contain theobromine, toxic to dogs, and phenethylamine linked to a feel-good effect.
Theobromine is the primary alkaloid found in cocoa. Dark chocolate has 200 milligrams per 3 grains of dark chocolate.
MILK Confectioners add vanillin to many milk chocolates to enhance their flavor. American brands of chocolate often contain butyric acid, which adds a sour note to the chocolate’s taste.
Vanillin is commonly added to milk chocolates to enhance their flavors.
WHITE White chocolate does not contain any cocoa solids, only cocoa butter, sugar, and milk. Cocoa butter is composed of a number of fats, mainly stearic acid and palmitic acid.
Cocoa butter is composed of a number of fats, mainly stearic acid and palamitic acid.
SUCROSE
THE SWEET AND DELICIOUS VARIETY OF
CHOCOLATE It all starts from a cacoa bean From the moment the cacao pods are picked to the time you place that first delicious square of chocolate on your tongue, chemistry is playing a part. It influences the taste, color, texture and aroma of chocolate. And, once ingested, those chemicals continue to work their magic as they subtly influence your brain and body. However all chocolates are not the same. There is a variety of nutritional information between dark, milk, and white chocolate.
The anatomy of a cacoa bean: Nib Nibs are small, nut-like parts of the bean that are grounded to make chocolate.
Husk The husk is a fibrous shell that protects the cocoa nib; it is removed before making the chocolate.
45
Radicle The radicle is the dense, stem-like piece would have become the tap root of the new cacao tree if the bean had been left to grow.
BANANA BREAD Just a dollop of Sour Cream Baking soda produces carbon dioxide, which helps raise or “leaven” baked products. Baking soda works best in conjunction with an acidic ingredient. In the case of banana bread, this may be buttermilk, brown sugar, molasses or the bananas themselves. Recipes generally include just enough baking soda to balance the acidity in the batter. For instance ¼ teaspoon baking soda is balanced with ½ cup buttermilk, applesauce or mashed just-ripe banana (note that bananas become less acidic as they ripen). This produces sufficient carbon dioxide to raise one cup of flour. Despite the typical banana bread recipes, this scientific adjustment diverts some of the fat and egg content toward sour cream. While butter is relatively low in lactose, the milk and sugar are responsible for the delicious Maillard browning of dairy products, sour cream is comparatively high. As a result, that shift boosts both flavor and browning in the crust, but without sacrificing the protein needed for structure (or the fat needed to keep the cake moist). The kicker is that sour cream’s acidity prevents that delicious browning from happening too fast; even after almost an hour in the oven, the crust is even all around and golden. Sour cream also keeps the cake moist and makes it lasts longer.
The molecular structure of a Banana is a combination of Oxygen, Hydrogen, and Nitrogen.
Microscopic view of banana molecules.
SUCROSE
MATERIALS 3 ¼ C White Sugar 1 tsp Ground Cinnamon ¾ Cup Softened Butter
Servings
20 people
3 Whole Organic Eggs 6 Mashed Ripe Bananas 16 oz Sour Cream
Prep
15 mins.
2 tsp Vanilla Extract ½ tsp Fine Salt 3 tsp Baking Soda
Time
1 hr.
4 ½ C All-Purpose Flour 1 C Walnuts (optional)
PROCEDURE 1
2
Preheat oven to 300° F. Grease four loaf pans. In a small bowl, stir together ¼ cup white sugar and 1 teaspoon cinnamon. Dust pans lightly with cinnamon and sugar mixture. In a large bowl, cream butter, add 3 cups of sugar. Mix in eggs, mashed bananas, sour cream, vanilla and cinnamon. Mix in salt, baking soda and flour. Divide into pans.
3
Bake for 1 hour until loaf is browned. Then allow for the bread to cool for 20 minutes, slice and enjoy.
47
RIPENING Ripeners are scientific specialists in the banana supply chain. Their facilities feature high-tech rooms that control ventilation, humidity, temperature, and ethylene gas, a natural ripening chemical.
1
Ripening Process Begins
Day
2
DAY
To start the ripening process, ethylene gas is pumped into the room. The gas circulates throughout the room overnight. A banana’s natural ethylene can ripen other produce and even spoil some sensitive to the gas.
Big Stores + Distributors
Day
3
Ethylene gas is flushed out of the room, which is then ventilated with fresh air and kept at 60 to 62 degrees. The fruit is still green, but has been triggered to ripen.
4
The fruit is still green but begins to “break” and transition in color. A specialist closely monitors the fruit, waiting for a faint yellow hue to be visible throughout.
Day
5
The fruit is ready to ship to retailers. Bananas ideally ship to stores around stage three. While in transit, the fruit continues to ripen.
6
At this stage, the banana is a bright yellow color meaning the fruit is ready for final consumption.
Day
Final Days for Consumption
Best to use for Banana Bread
Green bananas are tested for temperature and color before being placed in a consistently ventilated room that’s kept at 70 to 90 percent relative humidity. Bananas begin to ripen at 60 to 70 degrees.
Day
7
Day
During the seventh day of the ripening process, the fruit began develops brown spots. At this time, the fruit is considered the sweetest and most ripe. However, most consumers see it as spoiled and it is often thrown away.
SUCROSE
THE PERFECT TIME TO USE
BANANAS The Time Process of Ripening From tropical plantations to grocery aisles, getting a banana to market is a complex process—and a race against the clock. Time is a key factor in the taste and texture of bananas. Ripening a banana is considered to be a chemical change. A number of changes take place during the ripening phase. The color of the fruit changes, as does its texture. The fruit becomes soft with the breakdown of its constituents. The sugar content of the fruit changes, and the fruit becomes sweeter and softer.
What are bananas made of? 5% Protein 12% Fiber
25% Starch
27% Fructose
49
25% Glucose 3% Fat
ELEMENTS Abadi, Helen. 2013. Books Stacked Gonzalez, Joseph. 2010. Banana Bread Gregoriou, Gregoria. 2017. Omelette Karimian, Donna. 2018. Series of Ingredients Karlsson , Karolina. 2008. Fluffy Kazda, Ryan. 2009. Three Cheese Knight, Chris. 2012. Ice Cream Leipd, Austin. 2017. Series of Ice Cream Lark, Brooke. 2016. Dinner Time Lark, Brooke. 2007. Goodnight Leung, Jason. 2017. Medium, Please! Nero, Pepe. 2016. Wine Photography Newman, Weston. 2017. Series of Chocolate Pallian, Jennifer. 2017. Series of Cheese Pallian, Jennifer. 2017. Chewy Thompson, Sherrine. 2013. The Special
RESEARCH Ackman, Joan. 2014. The Chemistry of Chocolate Achitoff-Gray, Niki. 2016. The Science of Melting Cheese Cabriline, Robert. 2015. What is in a Banana? Canine, Craig. 2005. Building A Better Banana Christon, Stephen. 2012. Waxy Vs. Starchy Potatoes Fine Cooking. 2012. The Science of Eggs Frinckbish, Allie. 2018. The Magic of Sour Cream Lizet, Carol. 2017. The Anatomy of a Cacoa Pod López-Alt, Kenji. 2015. The Food Lab Mosbaugh, Erin. 2015. A Beginner’s Guide to Beef Cuts McClements, David. 2005. Food Emulsions: Principles, Practices, and Techniques National Geographic. 2017. The Science Behind the World’s Most Popular Fruit Swartz, Isabella. 2017. The Science Behind: Ice Cream Tablot, Byron. 2014. Waffles Vs. Pancakes Vs. Crepes Vieira, Ernest. 1996. Elementary Food Science
HOORAY! WE HAVE FINALLY REACHED OUR
CONCLUSION A Note from the Author Being a foodie myself, I enjoy the rich flavors carefully considered and crafted by restaurant chefs. This got me thinking, what is their process in creating such amazing combinations. You always hear that cooking is an art, however it really boils down to being a science. After diving into my research, the science became more and more apparent. Between understanding the pH levels of foods and the effects of ingredients, time, and temperature, chemistry is at the core of cooking. Cooking is about precision and understanding the effects and techniques of ingredients. With this knowledge chefs carefully experiment and craft flavorful dishes that are served to customers to enjoy without a thought. Not only is there a creative artist in the kitchen, but an innovative food scientist testing out the new dishes.
STRUCTURE Typefaces: DIN 2014 AdornS Serif Designed by: Donna Kariman Energy Source: Dirty Chai Coffee
53
Na
Did you learn about the science of cooking? (Circle One)
Si
“The one book you must have, no matter what you’re planning to cook or where your skill level falls.” - New York Times Book Review Ever wondered how to pan-fry a steak with a charred crust and an interior that’s perfectly medium-rare from edge to edge when you cut into it? How to make homemade mac ‘n’ cheese that is as satisfyingly gooey and velvety-smooth as the blue box stuff, but far tastier? In From Atom to Entrée focuses on the science behind beloved American dishes, delving into the interactions between heat, energy, and molecules that create great food. This book explains how conventional methods don’t work that well, and home cooks can achieve far better results using new―but simple―techniques.