Vol.1 ● No.3 ● 2012
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1
About Us: Scientific Research Journal of India(SRJI) is the official organ of Dr.L.Sharma Medical Care and Educational Development Society. It was founded by Dr. Krishna N. Sharma. It is funded by the Dr. L. Sharma Medical Care and Educational Development Society. It is a Multidisciplinary, Peer Reviewed, Open Access Journal of science. The intended audiences of this journal are the professionals and students. The scope of journal is broad to cover the recent inventions/discoveries in structural and functional principles of scientific research. The Journal publishes selected original research articles, reviews, short communication and book reviews in the fields of Botany, Zoology, Medical Sciences, Agricultural Sciences, Environmental Sciences, Natural Sciences, Anthropology and any other branch of related sciences. Frequency: The issues will be regularly published quarterly. Special Issue: Special issue based on specific themes may be published at the suggestion of the executive committee of Dr. L. Sharma Medical Care and Educational Development Society and the members of editorial of SRJI. Disclaimer: • • •
Information provided on the site is meant to complement and not replace any advice or information from a health professional. We do not make claims relating to the benefit or performance of a specific medical treatment, commercial product or service. All the papers published are claimed to be original by the authors. The editors, publisher, and reviewers will not be responsible for plagiarism.
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Index
Editorial
Dr. Popiha Bordoloi
5
Perception of students for laptop ergonomics and its use in the learning centre of Sheffield Hallam University, U.K.
Mayank Pushkar, Shobhit Sagar
7
Effectiveness of Educational Sessions on Reducing Diabetes in Women with PCOS— A Pilot Study
B. Sharmila, B. Arun
Efficacy of McKenzie Approach combined with Sustained Traction in improving the Quality of life following low Back Ache – A Case Report
A.Sridhar, S.Vimala
Diagnosis of Human Brucellosis by Laboratory Standardized IgM and IgG ELISA
Rajeswari Shome, M. Nagalingam, K. Narayana Rao, B.Jayapal Gowdu, B. R. Shome, K. Prabhudas
Microbiology
40
Study of Non-Isothermal Kinetic of Austenite Transformation to Pearlite in CK45 Steel by Ozawa Model Free Method
Mohammad Kuwaiti
Metallurgical Engineering
53
Face Exposure Technology
Thanigaivel.V
Recovery of Decayed Species through Image Processing
K.Priyadharsan, S.Saranya
Physiotherapy
23
34
60 Computer Technology 70
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Editorial Dear Readers, I am very pleased to present the third issue of the Scientific Research Journal of India (SRJI). This multidisciplinary and open access Journal of science is the official organ of Dr. L. Sharma Medical Care and Educational Development Society. The previous issues had covered three disciplines of science Physiotherapy, Agriculture, Anthropology and Computer science. In this current issue we are covering two new branches of science- Microbiology and Metallurgical engineering. I would like to mention that this journal is intended to publish selected original research articles, reviews, short communications and book reviews etc. in the various fields of science like Botany, Zoology, Medical Sciences, Agricultural Sciences, Environmental Sciences, Natural Sciences, Anthropology and any other branch of related sciences and we’ll be more than happy to recognize any of your works in these field too. Your comments and suggestions are very valuable for us.
Happy Reading.
Regards,
Dr. Popiha Bordoloi, Editor in Chief
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Perception of students for laptop ergonomics and its use in the learning centre of Sheffield Hallam University, U.K. Mayank Pushkar. BPT, MSAPT (Musculoskeletal)*, Shobhit Sagar. BPT, MSAPT (Musculoskelatal)**
Abstract: Background and purpose: Laptop ergonomics is one of the most concerned topics which result in high number of symptoms. The aim of this study is to find out student’s perception about laptop ergonomics and how to make the learning centre more laptop friendly. Methodology: A Qualitative survey with questionnaire consisting of both open and close ended questions was used. 80 volunteer participants participated in this study. Convenience Sampling was used for the selection of participants. Qualitative Content Analysis has been used for the analysis of the data. Results: It was observed that most of the students use laptop but they also get musculoskeletal problems (Laptopitis) because of the extended use and adopting improper posture while using laptop. Poor adaptation of posture was mainly because of unawareness about laptop ergonomics and also because of poor set-up in the learning centre. Conclusion: Laptop can be used in more friendly way without causing any discomfort if both the factors (awareness and ergonomics setup) will be considered. Also the awareness about the laptop ergonomics and proper posture should be spread among student populations as most of students from other faculties (0ther than related with health faculty) was not aware about the proper posture and ergonomics.
Keywords: Laptop Ergonomics, Library Setup, Workplace Ergonomics, Laptopitis/ Laptop Related Injury
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INTRODUCTION Now a days, technological advances such as
numbness,
use of personal computers directly affect the
sensation5.Laptops induced injuries have
life of people1. As per the National Centre
become
for Education Statistics (2000), the number
encompassing term has been used to refer to
of students using computers has increased
them
by more than 50% between 1985 and 1999
musculoskeletal
in the United Kingdom alone. With 98% of
disorders6. Laptops construction and usage
universities having internet facilities, the
result in users assuming improper posture
number of students opting for use of laptops
resulting in body discomfort, visual and
to
also
mental strains2. Moreover, workstations
increasing2.In fact, 80% of British students
configured for laptop computers, unsuitable
own a laptop in which 40% spends 3 – 4
furniture faulty lightings, further contribute
hours daily on internet3. Laptops are widely
to the physical injuries resulting from use of
being used by professionals who need to
laptops5.
travel and work in different places like
Hence, there is a great need to study the
office or college4. This phenomenon is
ergonomics of laptops. Laptop ergonomics
occurring largely because of the many
is a sub discipline under the broad umbrella
benefits accruing from laptops.
Laptop
of ergonomics that postulates the optimal
offers high technology performance in a
manner of working on laptops and the
compact, light, portable and self-sufficient
design of workspaces, where they are used
2
in order to keep related injuries to a
conduct
their
activities
is
with battery provided .
as
swellings,
so
common
“Laptopitis”, and
and
that
tingling
an
all-
which
includes
vision
related
minimum and optimize performance7. This It may be noted though, that the laptop was 2
study is focused on the views of students
not configured for long or constant use .
about the laptop ergonomics and how to
However,
increasingly
modify or redesign the learning centre, so
replacing desktops, students do use them for
that laptops can be used in their preferred
extended periods of time. This has resulted
way in the learning centre for extended
in a series of illnesses affecting different
periods of time without causing any
parts of the body which include pain in the
physical discomfort or injury.
since
they
are
neck, upper back, hands and wrists,
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Scientific Research Journal of India
employers. It was found that laptop users
LITERATURE REVIEW Few
studies
have
9
been
previously
adopt a posture with increased neck,
undertaken on ergonomics related to the use
shoulder
of laptops or computers. This report has
difference was not significant as compared
tried
of
to desktop users. Similar results were
participants about laptop ergonomics and
observed by Harbinson and Forrester (1995).
their views about the lack of resources in
The study concluded that laptop users
learning centre for use of laptop in
required
ergonomic way.
inclination in order to operate the laptop due
Straker and Harris (2000) have completed a
to lack of its adjustability.
mixed study with both qualitative and
Gold et al. (2011) quantitatively studied
quantitative data in order to establish the
postural characterisation in Laptop users in
physical ergonomics issues associated with
non-desk setting with 20 asymptomatic
the use and carry of laptop computers by
right-hand
school children. In total 314 participants
between
aged between 10 and 17 years participated,
participants were assessed in 3 postures
and filled the questionnaire in phase 1 of the
with two minute typing task followed by 5-
study and 20 participants were observed
minute editing task on laptop. The study
using the laptop in various locations in
has used MaxMATE motion data analysis.
second phase of study. The result found that
It was found that subjects reported greater
the participant's discomforts were resulted
intensity of discomfort while using laptop in
from using the laptop in a variety of non-
prone lying.
traditional work postures and also depend
Price and Dowell (1998) conducted a
on the model of laptop they use and carry.
quantitative
The study identified the potential physical
participants to evaluate the effect of laptop
implications associated with the use of
configuration and external input device on
laptops.
posture and comfort of laptop users. Each
Straker et al. (1997a) had studied the
participant was asked to work on 6 different
adoptive posture while using laptops and
computer configuration and anthropometric
desktops. The study was a cross-over study
data and baseline Nordic Discomfort Scale
with 16 participants, who were government
was completed before the start of the task.
to
discover
the
perception
and
an
elbow
increased
dominant 18
flexion
and
study
but
forward
participants 25.
on
The
14
the
head
aged
selected
volunteer
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The study concluded that use of extra
to find out the solution so that people can
peripherals in laptop seems to be more
use laptop in more comfortable and in their
comfortable
preferred way for prolonged time without
and
thus
decrease
the
discomfort associated with laptop usage.
causing any discomfort. Hence, this study
Kumari and Pandey (2010) have conducted
aims to focus on the ergonomics of laptops
a cross-sectional study to analyse the health
and what modification can be done in the
problems associated with computer usage
learning
and role of ergonomic factors. A total of
University, so that students can use their
200 participants were selected by stratified
laptop in learning centre in their preferred
random
way without any discomfort.
sampling
from
different
IT
centre
of
approval
Sheffield
was
obtained
Hallam
industries. Close ended questionnaire were
Ethical
from
used as data collection tool. The analysis of
Dissertation Management Group (Sheffield
the data was done by using SPSS software.
Hallam University). Participants were given
A standardized Nordic Questionnaire was
the information sheet and completion of an
use to assess musculoskeletal problems and
anonymous questionnaire was considered as
Zung’s self-rating scale was used to assess
consent from the participants.
depression. The study concluded the various problems
associated
with
laptops
or
METHODOLOGY
desktops use and also the effects of underlying
factors
like-
environment,
Research Design
lighting and setup of the work place on
A
laptop ergonomics.
questionnaire survey was used to obtain the
Several studies on ergonomic research with
student's
desktops while the same cannot be said for
ergonomics. A qualitative research is the
laptops,
best means of generating in-depth ideas and
through
some
studies
have
indicated the development of physical
Qualitative
developing
study
perception
hypothesis
design
about
which
with
laptop
may 8
symptoms associated with laptop use. Few
eventually decide to test quantitatively . As
of the researches have been done, which
the main aim of this study was to gather in-
found the symptoms associated with the use
depth information and generate ideas so the
of laptop
2,4,5
. As per the researcher’s
knowledge till now none of the studies tried
design of the study was chosen as a qualitative study. http://www.srji.co.cc
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Sampling
fast method of sampling if the population is
A total of 80 participants were selected
very large9. Convenience Sampling is said
based on inclusion criteria by ‘convenience
to be more appropriate for the study in
sampling’ as it was not possible to approach
which
the
aim
is
to
get
in-depth
10
all the student population in Sheffield
information .
Hallam University. It is practically easy and TABLE 1- INCLUSION AND EXCLUSION CRITERIA: INCLUSION CRITERIA Students of Sheffield Hallam University.
EXCLUSION CRITERIA Students who were not using laptop/Desktop.
Students who were using Laptop/ Desktop for their course work.
Students who were not student of Sheffield Hallam University.
Students who knew English Language.
Data collection:
among the colleagues to check for content
The data was collected through the survey
validity and suggestions were considered
method
a
while reframing the questionnaire. The
questionnaire as it is the essential form of a
questionnaire was pilot tested with 7
by
using
a
tool
called 11
survey to a large sample population . A
participants and the information was taken
questionnaire is an important method of
into consideration while making final
11
survey to a large sample population . The
questionnaire. Changes were made in 7
questionnaire consisted of both close and
questions after piloting of the study. The
open
evidence
ended
questions.
Close
ended
suggested
that,
for
the
questions were objective and unambiguous.
questionnaire to be valid and reliable, it
Open ended questions were used for
should go through the formal pilot of the
collection of larger amounts of information.
questionnaire
The questionnaires were developed on the
population12.
by
the
same
sample
basis of Environmental and Occupational Health
and
Computer
Safety
Service
Workstation
(EOHSS)
Data Analysis:
Ergonomics
The main purpose of data analysis is to
Questionnaire. Prior to the implementation
identify what the texts of participants talk
of questionnaire, they were circulated
about. The qualitative content analysis is http://www.srji.co.cc
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used to process and analyse the information
5. Code all the text: Involves coding
given in text format or from an open ended
all the data which have been.
13
questions . The data gathered was more
Different
descriptive, hence it was suitable for
similar sense were given single code
14
qualitative content analysis . Hence,
the
qualitative
with
6. Assess coding consistency: This content
step
data
15
analysis was used for data analysis, which
involves
rechecking
the
consistency of coding.
involves the following steps:
7. Draw conclusion from the coded data: This step involves making
1. Prepare the data: Present all the
sense of themes and identified their
data collected in a chart format.
properties.
2. Identifying the unit of analysis: Identify
units/keywords
the
different
Rigour of analysis was enhanced by a several-stage
Units/keywords from the text.
process
of
defining and
a
refiningthemes, by constant comparative
coding scheme: It can be derived
analysis between scripts and themes until
from
data,
final themes were developed. This analysis
previous related studies, and theories.
produced 7 key themes, which are listed
3. Developing
categories
three
sources:
and
the
4. Code testing on a sample of text: It is
used
for
the
clarity
with their definition in Table 2.
and
consistency of category definitions.
TABLE- 2: Main Themes from Data Analysis. THEMES
DEFINITION
Factors which facilitates the use of
Reasons because of which students use
LC.
LC.
Preference of use of Laptop/Desktop in
What’s the reason for preference of
LC
using Laptop/Desktop.
Symptoms faced while
Which all symptoms the participants
using Laptop/Desktop
suffer and what’s its cause?
Posture Awareness
Awareness about the posture in participants.
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Environment/ Infrastructure of LC
13
How is the environment and setting of LC for the use of laptop.
Interference with extra
How does the extra computer-accessories
Computer-accessories.
interfere the level of comfort and increase the work efficacy.
Recommendation to Improve LC
What changes can be done to improve the LC for the use of Laptop.
RESULT:
“psychological motivation they get in
The questions which were related were put
learning centre for study”.
into similar themes and then the results were presented on the basis of sub-themes.
Preference of use of laptop or desktop in learning centre
Factors that facilitates use of Learning
When the participants were asked whether
Centre
they use laptop or desktop in learning centre,
Almost all participants were using the
42 participants said that they use desktop as
learning centre for their course work
they feel it convenient and comfortable.
because of better facilities or resources like-
They said that they "do not have to bring
"Books,
IT
laptop and it is easy for them to use desktop
equipment/resources, café etc.", while many
than laptop". Some of them said that, they
participants said that they prefer Learning
"prefer desktop because of big screen of
Centre because they like the environment of
desktop and also there is less space and
Learning Centre as it is "Quite place and
plug points for laptop in learning centre…".
easy to concentrate for the study". Some of
Few of the participants said that it is "easy
the
Centre
to work on desktop as the desktop is fast
because of the convenience and comfort,
and more comfortable" and also they "can
like- they can "use leisure hours between
use it for prolonged period of time…". Only
the lecture, the convenient opening and
11 participants said that they use laptop in
closing hours of Learning Centre and group
learning centre because they "prefer to use
study/work". Few of participants said about
laptop" and also it is "convenient for them
Journals,
participants
use
area,
Learning
to save their data". Some of the participants http://www.srji.co.cc
Vol.1 ● No.3 ● 2012
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said that they use laptop as they "can use it
Posture Awareness
anywhere in learning centre, comfortable,
Out of 80 participants, 55 participants stated
easy to use and it is more portable…".
a positive response and defined posture in their own words, while 25 participants have
Problems
or
symptoms
faced
by
given negative response as they were not
participants while using laptop or desktop
aware with the correct position or posture
From the result it was observed that, the
for the use of laptop. The participants who
most experienced symptoms were “Tight,
were not aware about the posture were
sore neck and shoulder muscles”, followed
mainly from the faculty other than health
by “Pain or aching in wrists, forearms,
related courses such as: Criminology,
elbows,
Events management, Information system
neck,
or
back
followed
by
discomfort”, and then “General fatigue or
management,
Law
etc.
tiredness”, then “Blurred or double vision”.
participants said, usually posture means: sit
Also it was found that, the least faced
straight, back support, hip and knee flexed,
symptom was “Swelling or stiffness in the
and screen at eye level. Some of the
hand or wrists”.
statements
Most of the participants said that, these
participants to define posture for laptop are
symptoms are because of their bad or poor
presented below:
given
by
Most
the
of
the
different
posture like- (Keeping laptop on knee, using laptop while lying down, Slouched posture
“Screen in line with eyes, elbow flexed to
etc.), continuous position such as: (Sitting
90°, knee at 90°, hip at 90°, shoulder flexed.”
for prolonged, focusing on small screen for
(2)
long period, no interval between work etc.), and ergonomics setup like- (Desks and
“Back support, Hip + Knee supported,
chairs not adjusted, Too close to screen for
Appropriate Height.” (39)
long period etc.). Some of the participants said that there might be some other reasons
“Sit erect, avoid neck flexion, sitting at
for the symptoms like- (weak joint, poor
comfortable distance, and avoid excessive
posture throughout the day, Back and neck
elbow bending.” (62)
pain from exercise).
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Vol.1 ● No.3 ● 2012 Environment
or
Scientific Research Journal of India Infrastructure
of
15
fewer resources such as: “Area, less table and chairs, less space around the table”.
Learning Centre (LC) More than half of participants found environment of learning centre to be
Interference
comfortable
accessories like- keyboard and mouse on
for
the
use
of
Laptop.
with
extra
computer-
Participants found environment of learning
laptop work
centre comfortable because of different
Out of 80 participants, some of the
resources like- “Tables, adjustable chairs,
participants answered that, use of extra
more space for laptop, plug points, proper
equipment like- mouse and keyboard could
lighting and easily accessible resources”.
provide more comfort and can work with
While less than half of the participants
greater ease. Participants answered that use
found the environment of Learning Centre
of extra equipment can provide more
is
use.
comfort, free movement and also they can
Participants said that, there is “less space,
modify their position accordingly. Some of
less number of tables for laptop, tables and
the participants said that “mouse is better
chairs are not setup at proper height or not
than touchpad” and they can “work faster
adjustable, and also there is less charging
and in more comfortable way”. Few
plug/points for laptop use”.
participants answered that use of keyboard
When asked about the infrastructure/ setting
and can provides “more comfort to them
of Learning centre, most of them said that
and they do not have to negotiate with
the environment of learning centre is
posture”.
comfortable
and
participants answered that, they do not find
adjustable chairs, proper lighting and quite
any difference in comfort level with the use
area”. While one quarter of participants did
of extra keyboard and mouse in the Laptop.
not find the infrastructure of LC to be
Some of them said that they “do not want to
comfortable because of different difficulties
carry keyboard and mouse and also they
such as: “Limited space around the table,
can manage fine without it”.
not
comfortable
because
for
of
laptop
“tables
While
more
than
half
of
uncomfortable chairs, cold environment, chairs do not have armrest, very much
Recommendation to improve Learning
crowded”. Some of them said that there are
Centre for use of Laptop
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16
have
condition16. Student population use laptops
suggested with different recommendation
in the learning centre because of the many
for the use of laptops in learning centre so
benefits of the laptop. It is easy to carry and
that laptop can be used for extended period
use laptop as the participants can save their
of time. Most of them want “proper
data17.
ergonomic setup for laptop users, more
It was observed that most of the participants
laptop
table,
experienced some of the symptoms while
comfortable chairs with neck and back
using either laptop or desktop. From the
support,
laptop
data gathered by questionnaire, it was found
changing”. Some of the participants have
that the participants faced problems related
suggested for the “Laptop stand, specific
to neck, shoulder, hand, back and eyes. The
type of table for laptop and dock station for
most common symptoms were “Pain or
laptop”. Few of the participants said that
aching in wrists, forearms, elbows, neck, or
there should be “more tables for laptop in
back followed by discomfort” (42%) and
silent area and also individual/ separate
eye strain (42%). Similar type of results was
booth/ room for laptop users”.
found by Kumari and Pandey (2010) and
Major
number
area,
and
of
participants
more
plug
spacious
points
for
said that the common causes of these DISCUSSION
symptoms were sitting for prolonged in
This qualitative study obtained student’s
awkward or poor posture (Fig-1). Also the
perception about laptop ergonomics and its
literature suggested that the participants
use in the learning centre of SHU. Almost
should take eye break every after 20 min to
all participants use learning centre for their
reduce strain on eye while working on
course
laptop18. It was also found that participants
work
environment
because and
of
different
the
better
types
of
who use laptop faced more symptoms than
resources available. The environment of
the one who use desktop. This could have
learning centre provides more comfort and
been in order to adjust the posture to use
motivation to the students for the study,
desktop and laptop in more comfortable
because the setup of the environment is
position3.
study oriented. It has also been shown that
participants adopt poor posture because of
hot and noisy environment directly affects
the lack of adjustability of the laptop as the
the work productivity and ergonomic
screen and keyboard are attached2. This was
Even
evidence
proves
that
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17
supported by another study by Straker et al.
communal table which are being used for
(1997a), they have suggested that usually
laptop use are of very low height so it is
laptop users tried to assume posture that
difficult to adjust the chairs accordingly. As
would
by
the evidence by Straker and Harris (2000)
increased neck, shoulder and elbow flexion.
suggested that the participants experienced
They adopt this posture in order to see a
physical discomfort because of the physical
lower screen and reach a higher keyboard.
ergonomic issues as they use the laptop in
The main factors judged by the participants
poor posture. This was supported by Moffet
as cause of their symptoms while using
et al. (2002) in their study; evaluated the
laptop or desktop were “Sitting in same
impact of two work station (desktop and
posture
hours”,
laptop) on neck and upper posture, muscle
“Awkward and poor posture”, and the
activity and productivity. The study said
“setup
that the workstation setup influenced the
compromise
for
for
their
continuous
laptop”
posture
long
which
was
not
ergonomically correct.
physical exposure variable while working
As the height of table in the learning centre
on laptop.
is not appropriate, and also some of the
Fig-1: Shows the poor and good posture for Laptop.
Some of the participants who were not
of lack of awareness about ergonomics
related with health course, they did not
among that students population. So the
know about the correct position or posture
participants adopt the poor posture while
for the use of laptops. They have not
working on laptop, because it has been
defined the posture. This might be because
found that lack of knowledge about posture http://www.srji.co.cc
Vol.1 â—? No.3 â—? 2012
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18
can leads to symptoms as they do not adopt
Kumari and Pandey (2010) found that the
the proper posture while working on
use of various computer accessories like-
5
desktop or laptop .
adjustable keyboard tray, foot rest, best-fit
From the result it was also found that use of
computer mouse design, task lighting and
extra computer- accessories can provide
docking station can help in preventing the
more comfort, and can ease the symptoms
health related symptoms. Even some of the
and increase the work efficacy of the
participants have suggested for the use of
participants. This is because the extra
laptop stand or docking station (Fig-2). It
equipment
adjustability
might be helpful because they can fix the
according to the posture and the users do
laptop and can use it in ergonomic way so
not have to compromise with the posture.
that the symptoms can be prevented.
provides
the
This was supported by a study done by
Fig-2: Show the ideal Laptop stand/Docking station for laptop. According to the ergonomic advice by
The study has suggested the use of docking
Stanford University, Environment Health
station, so that the subjects do not have to
and Safety, the laptop workstation has been
adopt the poor posture and can use laptop in
suggested, so that the laptop could be used
effective way.
as workstation if working for long hours
The study had several limitations. Many of
and the symptoms can be minimized.
the participants have not answered all the
Moffet et al. (2002) have given some
questions which might be because of lack of
advices to prevent pain while using laptop.
interest, lack of time or the structure of the http://www.srji.co.cc
Vol.1 â—? No.3 â—? 2012
Scientific Research Journal of India
questions. All the analysis and calculations
spread
were done manually so there might be some
distributing leaflets,
chances of manual error. It was not possible
seminar.
to
of
recommendation in improving learning
participants as the method of data collection
centre can be given into the notice to the
was questionnaire. The sample size (n=80)
learning centre authority Dept., so that they
in the study was relatively large, which was
can use the finding as feedback in
the strength of the study. The participants
improving the learning centre for better use
were from different faculties, which might
for students and staffs. And also the
have result in variable data as the students
students will be benefited by these changes
from
and they might be able to use learning
explore
different
in-depth
course
perception
have
different
though
19
the
The
means
of
Poster,
and
induction
or
findings
about
the
perception about the ergonomics. Rich
centre in more efficient way.
informative data were gathered through the
The data of this study also has a further
open-ended questionnaire, which was one of
clinical relevance; Symptoms are mainly
the aims of qualitative research.
because of poor posture and wrong setup of workstation of laptop, so in order to prevent
CLINICAL IMPLICATION:
those symptoms, both the factors should be
Laptop ergonomics is very applicable for all
corrected.
who use laptops. The result of this study might help not only the student populations
FURTHER RESEARCH:
but also the general population who use
As this was the first study to researcher's
laptop. As it was found that there is lack of
knowledge done on the student population
awareness about the proper posture for
in SHU about laptop ergonomics, so an
laptop use among students, so the measure
obvious need for more research in this area
should be done to spread the awareness.
is observed. More research should be done
Mainly the student population, who are not
in order to find out the actual ergonomic
from health related courses, should be
setup of the working environment in the
focussed. It might be very helpful if there
learning centre.Also a quantitative study
should be some induction about the posture
could be suggested as further research in
for the student population before start of the
order to find out the effectiveness of
course. Awareness about the posture can be
ergonomics training program on posture http://www.srji.co.cc
Vol.1 ● No.3 ● 2012
Scientific Research Journal of India
20
while working on laptop. Looking to the
From the research done, it can be seen that
current scenario it seems that in coming 10
students population prefer to use learning
years laptop or i-pad or tablet will be
centre because of the different facilities and
replacing the desktop so the study should be
environment. But they also get symptoms
conducted in order to find out how the
by using the resources like- desktop or
learning
laptop, which is because of wrong posture
centre
should
be
designed
ergonomically for laptop or i-pad or tablet
they adopt
while working.
So
these
use.
resources should be set-up on the basis of
CONCLUSION:
ergonomics way and awareness about the posture should be spread among students.
REFERENCES: 1. Gulek, J. C. and Demirtas, H. Learning
4. Moffet, H. et al. Influence of laptop
with technology: The impact of laptop use
computer design and working position on
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of
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exposure
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Clinical
biomechanics, 2002;17(5):368-375.
2005;3(2). 5. Kumari, G. and Pandey, K.M. Studies on 2. Harris, C. and Straker, L. Survey of
health problems of software people: A case
Physical Ergonomics Issues Associated with
study of Faculty of GCE and GIMT
School
Gurgaon, India. International Journal of
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Computers.International
Use
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Journal
of
Innovation,
Management
and
Industrial Ergonomics, 2000;26;337-346.
Techonology,2010;1(1):388-397.
3. Thrasher, M. and Chesky, K. Medical
6. Blome, M., Johansson, C. R. and
Problems of Clarinetists. Results from the
Odenrick, P. Visualization of ergonomic
UNTMusician Health Survey. Texas Music
Guidelines –A comparison of two computer
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Dec
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systems
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support
vehicle
Ergonomics,2005.
/thr1998.pdf. http://www.srji.co.cc
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Scientific Research Journal of India
21
7. Szeto, G. and Lee, R. An Ergonomic
their applications in nutrition education.
Evaluation Comparing Desktop, Notebook,
Journal
and Sub-Notebook Computers. Arch. Phys.
Behavior, 2002;34: 224-230.
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Med. Rehabilitation, 2002;83: 527-532. 14. Ffiman, A., Ebbeskog, B. and Klag, 8. Kumar, R. Research Methodology, A
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step-by-step guide for beginners. 1st edn.,
care:district nurses’needs for co-operation
SAGE,London, New Delhi, 2005.
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Interprof Care,2010; 24: 90–99. 9. Marshall, M.N. Sampling for qualitative research. Family Practice,1996;13: 522-525.
15. Mayring, P. Qualitative content analysis. Forum:
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Computers
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Ergonomic
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on
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http://www.stanford.edu/dept/EHS/prod/gen 13. Kondracki, N. L. and Wellman, N. S.
eral/ergo/documents/laptop_guide.pdf
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Scientific Research Journal of India
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19. Environmental and Occupational Health
21. Price, J.M. and Doewell, W.R. Laptop
and Safety Service (EOHSS). Computer
Configuration in office: Effects on posture
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Ergonomics
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Questionnaire. Dec,
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http://www.umdnj.edu/eohssweb/publicatio ns/directory.htm#Office
22. Straker, Leon, Jones, Kerry J.,Miller, an Jenni. A comparison of the postures
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ACKNOWLEDGMENT: A special thanks to my family and friends for their continuous support. Also thanks to the management of Sheffield Hallam University for giving me opportunity to complete my study.
CORRESPONDENCE: * Sheffield Hallam University, United Kingdom. Email: physio.mayank.pushkar@gmail.com **Sheffield Hallam University, United Kingdom
http://www.srji.co.cc
Vol.1 ● No.3 ● 2012
Scientific Research Journal of India
23
Effectiveness of Educational Sessions on Reducing Diabetes in Women with PCOS— A Pilot Study B. Sharmila, BPT, MSc (Yoga)*, B. Arun, MPT**
Abstract: PCOS (Poly cystic ovarian syndrome) is one of the common syndromes in females, around 10 % of females in world having PCOS. PCOS have a strong link on Diabetes. Study is a descriptive study to find out the effect of educational session on diabetes for women who has PCOS. Around 20 females with PCOS were selected, an Educational session was conducted for duration of 4 weeks, and Diabetic Questionnaire was given to analyze the knowledge of diabetes. Following the 4 weeks of educational sessions, all participants have gained a good knowledge on PCOS and Diabetes. This study concludes that educational session is very important for the management of Diabetes and especially for females who has PCOS.
Key words: Type II diabetes, PCOS, Educational Session, Diabetic Questionnaire.
INTRODUCTION Diabetes is one of the most common health
family members due to the constant need
problems in the world. India is the capital of
for decision-making and actions to promote
diabetes. Many studies conducted in India
good
showed that prevalence of type 2 diabetes
acknowledged as the foremost goal in
was more and it is increasing in urban
diabetes care and treatment3.
populations1, 2. Diabetes exerts a significant
The burden of diabetes on women is unique,
impact on the lives of individuals and their
because the disease can affect both mothers
glycemic
control,
an
outcome
http://www.srji.co.cc
Vol.1 ● No.3 ● 2012
Scientific Research Journal of India
24
and their unborn children. Diabetes can
glucose intolerance in PCOS women has
cause difficulties during pregnancy such as
been reported to occur at an earlier age than
a miscarriage or a baby born with birth
in the normal population (approximately by
defects. Women with diabetes are also more
the 3rd-4th decade of life). However, other
likely to have a heart attack and at a
risk factors such as obesity, a positive
younger age than women who do not have
family history of type 2 diabetes and
diabetes. Type 2 diabetes is strongly
hyperandrogenism
associated with Women who suffer from
increasing the diabetes risk in PCOS4.
PCOS (Poly cystic ovarian syndrome).
Dr.Geoffrey Redmond said that “There is
PCOS is a leading cause of menstrual
no question about the association” one of
irregularity and female infertility. The
the problems is that people haven’t put the
Statistical links between diabetes and PCOS
pieces together” He added that there is a
are
strong association between PCOS and
very
strong
about
5%--10%
of
may
contribute
to
reproductive age women have PCOS and 50%
Insulin resistance. While focusing the
--70%
also
infertility and menstrual changes, health
experience insulin resistance and 20%--40%
care professionals should also look for the
obese women with PCOS may have insulin
chance of diabetes, and screening of
resistance and diabetes.
diabetes is much desirable.
of
women
with
PCOS
Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is a
Women with polycystic ovary syndrome
affecting
(PCOS) are insulin resistant, have insulin
women in reproductive age, characterized
secretory defects, and are at high risk for
by
and
glucose intolerance. PCOS women are at
hyperandrogenism. The etiology of PCOS is
significantly increased risk for IGT and type
still unknown. However, several studies
2 diabetes mellitus at all weights and at a
have suggested that insulin resistance plays
young age, The prevalence rates are similar
an important role in the pathogenesis of the
in 2 different populations of PCOS women,
syndrome. The risk of glucose intolerance
suggesting that PCOS may be a more
among
be
important risk factor than ethnicity or race
approximately 5 to 10 fold higher than
for glucose intolerance in young women,
normal and appears not limited to a single
and the American Diabetes Association
ethnic group. Moreover, the onset of
diabetes diagnostic criteria failed to detect a
common
endocrine
chronic
PCOS
disorder,
anovulation
subjects
seems
to
http://www.srji.co.cc
Vol.1 â—? No.3 â—? 2012
Scientific Research Journal of India
significant number of PCOS women with 5
diabetes by post challenge glucose values . Type 2 Diabetes has pancreas that produces little or no insulin. As the pancreas
25
cholesterol) and triglyceride levels in the blood stream, as well as decreasing HDL cholesterol (high-density density lipoprotein - the "good" cholesterol.)
struggles to keep up with the body's need
While there is no cure for diabetes, a
for more insulin, excessive levels of glucose
number of steps can be taken to prevent
and insulin build up in the blood stream,
complications. plications. Research showed that losing
often leading directly to Type 2 Diabetes.
5-7% 7% of body fat and increasing physical
Certain factors actors that figure in the onset of
activity by taking a brisk walk 4-5 4 times a
PCOS
week can reduce risk of developing Type 2
are
also
implicated
in
the
development of Type 2 Diabetes: excessive
Diabetes by almost 60%.
abdominal fat, high LDL "bad" blood cholesterol and low HDL "good" cholesterol, high levels of triglycerides and hypertension
DIABETES PCOS LINK
(high blood pressure). Although PCOS is much perceived as gynecological disorder because it impairs
PCOS EXCESSIVE ANROGEN SECRETION
fertility and can cause irregular periods or no periods at all. Evidences suggest that PCOS is more of a disorder of the endocrine system with gynecological consequences.
HORMONAL IMBALANCE INSULIN RESISTANCE
Diabetes Prevention Program study 2001, study shows that all of the factors associated
with
Insulin
Resistance,
Polycystic ic Ovarian Syndrome and PrePre
STIMULATE THE PANCREAS TO SECRETE MORE INSULIN HYPER INSULINEMIA
Diabetes are interrelated. Obesity and lack of exercise worsen Insulin Resistance, which then has a negative effect on blood lipid production, increasing VLDL (very
CELL DYSFUNCTION
DIABETES
low-density density lipoprotein), LDL cholesterol (low-density
lipoprotein ein
-
the
"bad" http://www.srji.co.cc
Vol.1 ● No.3 ● 2012
Scientific Research Journal of India
26
damage and blindness. Overweight women INSULIN RESISTANCE
do not, however, have a monopoly of Polycystic Ovarian
HIGH SUGAR IN BLOOD
Syndrome and its
related disorders because females of normal weight and even lean women are also prone
STIMULATE THE PANCREAS TO SECRETE MORE INSULIN
to these conditions. Insulin Resistance occurs when the body produces enough insulin but its cells lack
INCREASE PRODUCTION OF ANDROGEN
enough
receptor
sites
to
allow
the
absorption of insulin at a cellular level. Type 2 Diabetes develops when the body either doesn't produce enough insulin or it
PCOS
can't process the insulin that is produced. Aim of the study:
Need for the study: It's important to understand the distinction between Insulin Resistance and Type 2 Diabetes. Type 2 Diabetes is one of the top fatal disorders in the World. In 2000, it was the sixth leading cause of death and has been
associated
with
long
term
complications affecting almost every part of the body, including blindness, heart and blood vessel disease, stroke, kidney failure, amputations and nerve damage.
Obese
Study Objectives: To educate the patient about disease (PCOS) and teach on link between PCOS and Diabetes To make the patient learn about the preventive methods To reduce the risk of getting diabetes To
make
patient
to
understand
the
importance of Diet, Exercises etc.
women are particularly susceptible to PCOS and Type 2 Diabetes. A vicious cycle quickly forms because these conditions, in turn, put women at dramatically increased risk of Cardiovascular Disease, as well as the development of many other serious health conditions, including stroke, kidney
METHODOLOGY: The study is a descriptive study design, 100 women with PCOS were examined by the Gynecologist and 20 women were selected for the study. The subjects were selected based on age group of 25—33years, http://www.srji.co.cc
Vol.1 ● No.3 ● 2012
Scientific Research Journal of India
27
Married females, Married within 2 years,
questionnaire and their performance was
Obese or female in Borderline obesity. No
assessed. At the end of the 4 week class the
history
other
questionnaire was repeated and assessed the
irregular
knowledge on diabetes for women with
of
gynecological
conception, problems
No like
menstrual periods or small uterus. No other
PCOS.
relevant medical problems. Before initiating the study Blood test was conducted to check
RESULTS:
their random blood sugar levels. Clear
The demographic data about the subjects
instructions
were mentioned in Table 1.
were
given
to
all
the
Table 1 Demographic Data
participants. The educational class is for 4 weeks of duration and the Diabetic educator role is to make all participants attending all
Age Group
25—27
28—30
31—33
7
6
7
the sessions. Prior to the class a Diabetic knowledge Questionnaire was distributed to
Figure 1
all individuals and to find out how much knowledge on Diabetes and PCOS. The questionnaire was a single paged one which
7
includes the questions about the knowledge
7
on diabetes and the knowledge on PCOS. The participants were asked to fill up the
6
questionnaire with Yes or No. Questions are valued as 1 point for Yes and 0 point for No. Educational Classes conducted on Every
Age
25-27
28-30
31-33
Sunday Morning (10 am —1 pm). The content of the Classes include 1) What is
The Table 2 shows the result using students ‘t’ test.
PCOS 2) What are the Causes 3) Symptoms of Diabetes with PCOS 4) Diabetes Link with PCOS 5) Prevention Methods. The
Groups
Pre Test mean
Post Test mean
S.D
3.8
7.85
0.285
Paired ‘t’ Value 14.19 (P<0.05%)
questions asked by the women participants were clarified. At the end of the programme all participants were instructed to fill up the http://www.srji.co.cc
Vol.1 ● No.3 ● 2012
Scientific Research Journal of India
Figure 2
28
be prevented as well as prevent the complications following diabetes. 157
200 150
Women with PCOS (Polycystic Ovarian Syndrome) who become pregnant may
76
100
experience more health problems than the
50
general population, including gestational
0
diabetes, pregnancy-induced pregnancy high blood Pre
Post
pressure,
miscarriage
and
premature
delivery. Table 2 shows the paired t values of the Diabetic
Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is a
Questionnaire. This shows that the educational
common
programme has shown positive effect on the
women in reproductive age, ag characterized
participant’s attitude. It also shows that there was a significant improvement on the knowledge on
by
endocrine
chronic
disorder,
affecting
anovulation
and
hyperandrogenism. The etiology of PCOS is
diabetes mellitus.
still unknown. However, several studies DISCUSSION: Women
with
have suggested that insulin resistance plays PCOS
generally
an important role in the pathogenesis of the
Overweight or Obese. Because of obesity
syndrome. The risk of glucose intolerance intoleranc
they have more chance of insulin resistance.
among
Usually women with PCOS don’t have a
approximately 5 to 10 fold higher than
regular check up on diabetes. But screening
normal and appears not limited to a single
for diabetes is very important in prevention
ethnic group. Moreover, the onset of
of diabetes. A root cause of Polycystic
glucose intolerance in PCOS women has
Ovarian
obesity-
been reported to occur at an earlier age than
linked Insulin Resistance, which can also
in the normal population popul (approximately by
increase the risk of developing Pre-Diabetes Pre
the 3rd-4th 4th decade of life). However, other
and Type 2 Diabetes. All are disorders that
risk factors such as obesity, a positive
may result in Cardiovascular
family history of type 2 diabetes and
Syndrome
are
(PCOS) is
Disease
PCOS
subjects
seems
leading to a heart attack or stroke. Creating
hyperandrogenism
self awareness in people with PCOS is very
increasing the diabetes risk in PCOS
may
to
contribute
important, so that the Type 2, diabetes can http://www.srji.co.cc
be
to
Vol.1 ● No.3 ● 2012
Scientific Research Journal of India
29
The link of PCOS with insulin resistance
lack of uniformity between patients, thus
was subsequently established by clinical
reflecting the heterogeneity of PCOS.
studies characterizing the profound insulin
Impaired insulin action and/or beta-cell
resistance in obese and lean PCOS patients.
dysfunction
Insulin resistance, hyperinsulinemia, and
clearance of insulin have been implicated so
beta-cell dysfunction are very common in
far.
PCOS, but are not required for the diagnosis.
The overall risk of developing diabetes
Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is a
mellitus and glucose intolerance seems to be
major risk factor for impaired glucose
higher in women with polycystic ovary
tolerance (IGT) and type 2 diabetes mellitus
syndrome (PCOS) than in healthy women.
(T2D). Several studies have examined
Limitations of this study include, no control
possible mechanisms related to glucose
group, it was a pilot study; need a bigger
metabolism and insulin secretion that may
study to evaluate the effectiveness of the
be responsible for the high prevalence of
programme. Blood report investigations can
disorders of glucose metabolism in women
show some reliable information. Efficacy of
with
the treatment can also be evaluated through
PCOS.
The
actual
pathogenic
mechanisms appear to be complex and
and/or
decreased
hepatic
objective methods.
multifactorial, possibly characterized by the
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of
the
Int J Obes 2001; 25: 1-8.
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4. Pelusi B, Gambineri A, Pasquali R..
obesity and dyslipidaemia in urban
Type 2 diabetes and the polycystic http://www.srji.co.cc
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ovary syndrome. Minerva Ginecol. 2004 Feb;56(1):41-51.
9. Canadian (1998).
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syndrome: a prospective, controlled study in 254 affected women,” The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, vol. 84, no. 1, pp. 165–169, 1999.
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32
APPENDIX I DIABETIC QUESTIONNAIRE Name
:
Age
:
Occupation
:
Address
:
Weight
:__________ Kgs.
Height
: __________CMS
BMI
:
Do you have Diabetes
Date
:
: YES / NO
If YES, How long
:___________ Months/ Years.
Are you in medications for Diabetes
: YES / NO
If YES, Specify medicines : ________, ___________, ___________ Do you have PCOS
: YES / NO
If YES, Since when
: ____________ Months / Years
Are you in medications for PCOS
: YES / NO
If YES, Specify medicines : ________, ___________, ___________ Please fill up the given statement with Yes or No. S.No
STATEMENT
1.
Do you know symptoms of Diabetes
2.
Do you know about PCOS
3.
Do you know Obesity may cause Diabetes
4.
Do you know Obesity may cause PCOS
5.
Do you know relation between PCOS & Diabetes
6.
Do you know the Risk factors for Diabetes
7.
Do you think it is good to do Exercises regularly
8.
Do you think intake of Rice may cause Diabetes
9.
Do you think you can get Diabetes
10.
Do your Parents or Relative have Diabetes
Signature of the Participants
Yes
No
Signature of the Assessor
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33
CORRESPONDENCE: *Physiotherapist, K.M.C.H Hospital, Coimbatore. Email: sharmibala85@gmail.com. **Physiotherapist, K.G. Hospital, Coimbatore.
http://www.srji.co.cc
Vol.1 ● No.3 ● 2012
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34
Efficacy of McKenzie Approach combined with Sustained Traction in improving the Quality of life following low Back Ache – A Case Report A.Sridhar MPT (Neuro)*, S.Vimala BPT**
Abstract: Objective: To evaluate the effectiveness of traction combined with McKenzie approach for the sub acute low back ache (LBA) patient and evaluating the quality of life post treatment. Design: Single Case Report Setting: PSG Hospitals Participant: A 45 years old female with the complaint of LBA with 6 month duration, gait problem, participatory problem in social activities and also with the impairment of function. Intervention: One hour session of physiotherapy including traction and McKenzie exercises interrupted with rest period. Outcome Measures: Visual Analogue Scale (VAS) (Pain), Quality of life (QOL) (American chronic Pain Association). Result: There is a significant reduction of pain and improvement of quality of life after one month of treatment. Conclusion: McKenzie exercises combined with traction plays a major role in reducing pain and improving the quality of life following Low Back Ache patient.
Key words: LBA, McKenzie, Traction, Quality of Life, Visual Analogue Scale.
INTRODUCTION LBP affects 70–80% of adults at some point
pain is a common disorder. Nearly everyone
in their lives, with peak prevalence in the
is affected by it at some time. The acute low
fifth decade. The drastic increase in LBP in
back pain may develop to chronic pain and
the past two to three decades. Low back
disability. The treatment of low back pain http://www.srji.co.cc
Vol.1 â&#x2014;? No.3 â&#x2014;? 2012
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35
remains as controversial today as it was
Basically she is from rural area and there is
fifty Years ago. Over the years the medical
no facility for her to go for hospitals. But
profession used a wide range of treatments,
she went to nearby physician and she got
such as heat or cold, rest or exercise, flexion
some
or
or
ointments for pain relief. As time goes on
immobilization, manipulation or traction.
she is complaining of severe pain in the
Nearly always drugs were prescribed, even
back and unable to walk for even 10
when
purely
minutes continuously. She feels weakness
mechanical in origin. Amazingly, most of
of bilateral lower limb and restricted her
the patients recovered, very often inspite of
participation in the social activities and also
treatment rather than because of it. But
reducing the usual work what she is doing
McKenzie
on
regularly. She could not do even carrying
mechanical basis and he assessed the
the drinking water from a distance place as
movements of spine and also the treatment
their primary need.
extension,
the
Mobilization
disturbance
approach
in
proved
LBA
is
pain
medications
and
tropical
is based on the patient complaints of pain whether in flexion or extension or lateral
Misdiagnosis:
flexion. So we had tried to apply this
After she felt more discomfort she went to
technique coupled with traction for LBA
various hospitals and diagnosed as GBS,
patient.
and someone diagnosed as disc herniation and advised her to go for surgery. She was
METHODOLOGY:
confused and she refused to undergo surgery. Finally she came to our hospital
Case History:
and she got medications. In the mean time
A 46 years old female came with the
we send her for the neuro consult but the
complaints of pain in the bilateral lower
neurologist also advised her to take MRI
limb, difficulty in walking, getting up from
and after the he also advised her to go for
the floor, and toileting activities for 6 month
surgery.
duration. But she doesnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t complaints of any
Being a low economic status she could not
sensory loss over the bilateral lower limb
spend more money and she refused for
and also in anal area.
surgery and come back to our hospital with the reports. http://www.srji.co.cc
Vol.1 ● No.3 ● 2012
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36
Its is widely used to measure the severity of Our Views:
pain from patient feeling of pain. Zero
As we (Physician, Junior Doctors and
indicates no pain and 10 indicate severe not
Physical therapist Team) read the MRI and
tolerable pain.
also observed her complaints of pain. We taught that she does not need surgery at this
Quality of Life:
stage and we make her bed rest for one day
American Chronic Pain Association created
and we started our own assessment and
this measure with the following explanation.
treatment procedures.
Pain is a highly personal experience. The
We underwent observational, palpation, and
degree to which pain interferes with the
examination
movements
quality of a person’s life is also highly
including reflex, muscle strength, balance,
personal. The American Chronic Pain
coordination and Activities of daily living.
Association Quality of Life Scale looks at
We came to the conclusion that she had a
ability to function, rather than at pain alone.
derangement syndrome one with complaints
It can help people with pain and their health
of symmetrical pain across L4, L5, no
care team to evaluate and communicate the
radiating pain and no deformity so it comes
impact of pain on the basic activities of
under the first type of derangement so we
daily life. This information can provide a
decided to treat her
basis for more effective treatment and help
approach
and
of
various
traction.
with McKenzie As
McKenzie
to measure progress over time.
exercises are very much appreciated in
Scoring
treatment of lower back ache population in
functioning and ten indicates normal quality
world wide. we tried our traditional
of life.
approach
of
traction
and
system
zero
indicates
non
McKenzie
approach
Treatment protocol:
Outcome Measures:
Traction:
1. Visual Analogue Scale (VAS).
Sustained Traction
2. Quality of Life (QOL).
This term denotes that a steady amount of traction is applied for periods from a few
Visual Analogue Scale:
minutes up to ½ hour. This shorter duration http://www.srji.co.cc
Vol.1 ● No.3 ● 2012
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37
Table 1.1 Comparing omparing the visual analogue
is usually coupled with stronger poundage.
scale on the first visit and 4th week
This method thod is most widely used in Europe and much of the literature describes various
Visual Analogue Scale (Pain)
applications of sustained traction. Sustained traction is sometimes referred to as static traction. As per the patient’s weight we
1st visit
2nd Week
3rd Week
4th Week
9
7
4
0.5
applied 15kg of lumbar static traction for 30 minutes.
McKenzie Exercises:
Graph 1.1 comparing the values of visual analogue scale
This is a set of exercises we asked her to do for 30 min. 1. Prone Lying. 2. Extension in prone lying (forearm support). 3. Extension in prone lying ( hand support). 4. Extension in prone lying with belt fixation.
10 8 6 4 2 0 1st visit 2nd Week 3rd Week 4th Week Visual Analogue Scale (Pain)
5. Sustained extension in tilt bed. 6. Extension in standing. 7. Extension Mobilization (Therapist doing passively)
Initially when we assess in VAS she complaints of pain as nine and at the end of 4th week she complaints of 0.5 which means near normal.(table (table 1.1)(graph 1.1)
RESULT AND INTERPRETATION: The assessment is taken on the first visit,
Table 1.2 Comparing the quality of life
2nd week, 3rd week, and 4th week.
scale on the first visit and 4th week
According to McKenzie approach at any time of disease the particular particul form of Quality of Life ( American chronic Pain
exercise may worse the condition so we are assessed her at one week interval.
Association)
http://www.srji.co.cc
Vol.1 ● No.3 ● 2012 1st
2nd Week
Scientific Research Journal of India 3rd Week
38
4th Week
visit
DISCUSSION:
1
4
8
10
There are various treatment procedures p are widely used in treating the LBA cases. On
Graph 1.2 comparing the values of Quality Of
reviewing 21 papers in 1995, only one paper was found to be of
Life Scale cale
high quality, Van der Heijden concluded no
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
inferences could be drawn(Phys Ther 1995). A trial by Cherkin (N Eng J Med 1998) compared
threee
manipulation,
groups:
McKenzie
chiropractic exercise,
vs
education leaflet. He did not find any difference among the three groups with regard to pain recurrence or days off work. 1st Visit 2nd Week 3rd Week 4th Week Quality of Life ( American chronic Pain Association)
Initially when we assess in QOL she complaints of 1, and at the end of 4th week she complaint of 9 which means she can work for 8 hours and she actively participate
in
family
and
social
activities.(table 1.2) (graph 1.2) From the above mentioned table and graph its clearly seen that patient’s pain is reduced and her quality of life is improved a lot. Thereby this
case
report is strongly
recommending that traction coupled with McKenzie exercises are very much helpful in treating the disc herniation condition.
The
chiropractic
significantly
group
better
than
performed the
minimal
intervention rvention group at 4 weeks, but not at 3 months and the 11-year. But as per the complaints of the patient we have to choose the technique and apply with precautions and assess the patients periodically to get the knowledge of patients pain and related features. es. This case report is a eye opening for
the
new
physio
to
apply
these
procedures widely for most of the LBA patients and thereby improving the patient condition. Static lumbar Traction is useful for this patient as there is narrowing of the disc space, after fter applying traction there will be a reduction of the nerve impingement. McKenzie had classified the low back pain http://www.srji.co.cc
Vol.1 â&#x2014;? No.3 â&#x2014;? 2012
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39
in 3 categories viz. dysfunction, postural
This case report supports that traction
and derangement syndrome. As this patient
combined with McKenzie exercises plays a
had complaint of derangement symptoms so
major role in reducing pain and improving
we applied the treatment protocol for
the quality of life.
derangement syndrome one. Conclusion:
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Thanks to my client & PSG Hospitals and
in treating the patients who need physical
also to our superintendent and deputy
therapy.
superintendent for having confident with us
REFERENCES: 1. Lumbar spine, mechanical diagnosis and therapy,(1981) R.A. McKenzie, pages 122-150
3. Low Back Pain, royal college of practitioners pages 3-39. 4. Lumbar traction, journal of orthopaedic
2. Orthopaedic rehabilitation, assessment and enablement , John C.Y.Leong et al.
and sports therapy 1979, H.duane saunders pages 36-40
pages 481-488.
CORRESPONDENCE *Neurophysiotherapist- TLM Naini, UP.
sriarusaro@gmail.com Cont: +91-8765152734. **Physiotherapist
Trainer- TLM Naini, UP.
http://www.srji.co.cc
Vol.1 â&#x2014;? No.3 â&#x2014;? 2012
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40
Diagnosis of Human Brucellosis by Laboratory Standardized IgM and IgG ELISA Rajeswari Shome*, M Nagalingam*, K. Narayana Rao*, B.Jayapal Gowdu**, B. R. Shome* and K. Prabhudas*
Abstract: Brucellosis is a zoonosis caused by facultative intracellular bacteria of the genus Brucella, which are capable of surviving and multiplying inside the cells of mononuclear phagocytic system. ELISA is rapid, robust, coast effective and is most commonly used diagnostic technique for brucellosis. Our present research communication deals with optimization of IgM and IgG antibodies for diagnosis of brucellosis in human beings. In the present investigation, out of the 179 sera samples from risk groups screened for brucellosis, 10(5.58%) and 4(2.23%) were positive for anti Brucella antibodies by RBPT and STAT respectively. Seropositivity by IgM and IgG ELISAs were 2.23% (4/179) and 17.3% (31/179) respectively. In case of blood donors, out of 123 serum samples 1.62% and 4.87% were positive by RBPT and IgG ELISA respectively. No antibodies were detected by STAT and IgM ELISA in blood donors. Among serum samples from Pyrexia of Unknown Origin patients tested, 7. 61% (15/197) by RBPT, 1.01% (2/179) by STAT and 0.5% (1/197) by IgM ELISA and 11.67% (23/197) IgG ELISA respectively were found positive.
INTRODUCTION Brucellosis is a
zoonosis caused
by
surviving and multiplying inside the cells of
facultative intracellular bacteria of the
mononuclear phagocytic system and are
genus Brucella, which are capable of
widely distributed in both humans and http://www.srji.co.cc
Vol.1 â&#x2014;? No.3 â&#x2014;? 2012
Scientific Research Journal of India
41
animals1. Human brucellosis varies from an
linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and
acute fabrile illness to chronic, low grade ill
indirect fluorescent assays, to the recent
defined disease. It is a systemic disease
molecular techniques such as polymerase
characherized
by
chain reaction (PCR) are available.5, 6, 7.
accompanied
with
pausity nocturnal
of
signs
sweating,
2
Isolation from blood, bone marrow and
malaise, fatigue and backache . The disease
other
can be a very debilitating, despite the fact
diagnostic (gold standard) method for
that the fatality rate is generally low. It
brucellosis. However, this microbiological
often becomes sub-clinical or chronic,
technique is having the draw back of time
especially if not diagnosed early and
consumption as the organism is having
properly treated. The incidence in humans
incubation period of 6 weeks and possibility
ranges widely between different regions,
of contamination to personnel cannot be
with values of up to 200 cases per 100,000
avoided8. Rose Bengal Plate test (RBPT) is
populations with high prevalence in Middle
commonly used for the screening of
East, Mexico, Central and South America
brucellosis however results may at times
and the Indian subcontinents2, 3. High-risk
inconclusive9.
groups include those exposed through
agglutination test (STAT), interpretation of
occupation
animal
the result is difficult due to false positive
infection occurs, such as slaughterhouse
reaction with Salmonella, Yersinia and
workers, hunters, farmers and veterinarians.
Vibrio
The diagnosis of
molecular technique which is employed for
in
contexts
where
brucellosis can
be
tissues
species.
of
suspect
In
is
classical
standard
Further
PCR
tube
is
the
challenging, and its diagnosis demands
the detection of brucellosis,
epidemimology, clinical and laboratory
technique is uneconomic and poorly suited
information. Its routine biochemical and
for the laboratory with limited resources. In
hematological laboratory tests also overlap
view of these limitations,
with those of many other pathogens such as
effective and rapid ELISA has been found
4
but the
robust , coast
Salmonella, Yersinia, and Vibrio . Many
an ideal tool for the diagnosis .
tests are reported for diagnosis of Brucella,
In brucellosis, titre of IgM usually raises
ranging from microbilogical culture to
from day 5 to 7 with peak titre and IgG
serodiagnostic tests such as slide or tube
starts to appear from day 14 to 21, reaching
agglutination, indirect coombs test, enzyme-
peak during next 2 to 3 weeks in the http://www.srji.co.cc
Vol.1 ● No.3 ● 2012
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42
infected individuals. Clinical applications
according to standard procedures12. Briefly,
of IgM and IgG ELISA in human disease
for the RBPT , undiluted serum sample (30
. This manuscript
µl) was mixed with an equal volume of
deals with the study on diagnosis of
colored antigen on a glass slide. The results
Brucella
laboratory
were rated negative when agglutination was
standardized IgM and IgG ELISA protocol
absent and 1+ to 4+ ratings as positive,
and
according
have been reported
its
10, 11
infection
by
comparison
to
conventional
serological tests.
to
the
strength
of
the
agglutination within 1 to 3 min. RBPT
positive
samples
were
further
Materials and methods:
evaluated by STAT and 2ME STAT by
Collection of sera samples
preparing two-fold serial dilutions of the
During the course of the study, 2 ml of
serum samples starting at a dilution of 1:20
blood samples without anticoagulant was
in the test tube and the addition of an equal
collected aseptically in vaccutainers. The
volume of plain antigen according to
samples were sourced from risk group
Weybridge technique12. The 2ME test is
(veterinarians,
farm
identical to STAT except that 2ME was
workers, animal-handlers and farmers),
added to each test tube to a final
blood donors and patients with pyrexia of
concentration of 0.05 M, and 0.85% saline
unknown origin (PUO). The pyrexia may be
was used to dilute the antigen.
due to systemic cause of rheumatic fever,
mixtures were incubated
jaundice, C reactive protein, hepatitis etc.,
37°C and read by visual inspection for
The
transparency
samples
para
were
veterinarians,
allowed
to
clot,
of
The
for 24 hours at
suspension
and
mat
transported to laboratory immediately at
formation. The highest dilution of the serum
4°C.
by
which showed 50 percent agglutination was
centrifuging the sample at 2500 r.p.m for 5
taken as end point titre and titre of 1:160
min and stored at –20°C for further use.
(320 IU/ml) and above was considered as
The
serum
was
separated
positive for humans brucellosis13, 14. The B. Rose Bengal Plate Test (RBPT) and
abortus S99 colored and plain antigens were
Standard Tube Agglutination Test (STAT)
procured from Institute of Animal Health
Sera
and Veterinary Biologicals (IAH&VB),
samples
subjected
to
received rapid
were
screening
initially RBPT
Hebbal, Bangalore, India. http://www.srji.co.cc
Vol.1 ● No.3 ● 2012
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43
Preparation sLPS antigen extraction Smooth
Lipopolysaccharide
(sLPS)
Wet cells of Brucella (5 gm) were
antigen extraction
suspended in 17 ml of distilled water and
Standard strain
followed by the addition of 19 ml of 90%
Standard antigenic strain of B. abortus S99
(v/v) phenol at 66°C.
procured from Indian Veterinary Research
stirred continuously at 66°C for 15 min,
Institute,
and
cooled and centrifuged at 10,000 rpm for
confirmed as B. abortus by biochemical
15 min at 4°C. The brownish phenol in the
tests, PCR, cloning and sequencing in our
bottom layer was aspirated with a long
was used for antigen extraction15.
micro tip and large cell debris was removed
Large scale bacterial culturing
by filtration (using a Whatman No.1
Freshly
Izatnagar,
grown
U.P.,
pure
India
colonies
were
The mixture was
filter).The sLPS was precipitated by the
suspended in 10 ml of sterile PBS, after
addition
vortexing, the bacterial suspension was
containing 0.5 ml methanol saturated with
overlaid on Ttyptose Agar (TA) in Roux
sodium acetate. After 2 hours incubation at
flasks. Thirty flasks were simultaneously
4°C, the precipitate was removed by
inoculated from the same master plate to
centrifugation at 10,000 r.p.m for 10 min,
provide the identical bacterial population
stirred with 8 ml of distilled water for 18
originating from a single colony. After one-
hours and centrifuged at 10,000 r.p.m for 10
hour adsorption, Roux flasks were inverted
min. The collected supernatant solution was
and incubated for 72 hours at 37oC. The
kept at 4°C and
purity of the culture in every flask was
twice for the best recovery of antigen. Then,
confirmed by Gram’s staining
after 48
0.8 g of trifluroacetic acid was added to the
hours. To each flask, 30 ml of 2% phenol
16 ml of crude sLPS, stirred for 10 min and
saline was added, gently agitated and
the
incubated for 24 hours at 37oC.
The
centrifugation. The translucent supernatant
pooled,
solution was concentrated and dialyzed
centrifuged at 14,000 r.p.m at 4oC for 20
against distilled water (two changes of at
min. The centrifugation was repeated and
least 4000 ml each) and then freeze dried to
pellets were carefully collected, weighed
get the final yield of 10 ml of sLPS
suspensions
were
collected,
of
50
precipitate
ml
chilled
methanol
this step was repeated
was
removed
and used for antigen extraction. http://www.srji.co.cc
by
Vol.1 ● No.3 ● 2012
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44
containing the antigen concentration of 3
The polysorp micro titer plates (Nunc,
mg/10ml. [16].
Germany) were coated with 1:300 dilution
The optimum concentration of antigen for
of sLPS antigen at 100 µl per well in
ELISA was standardized by checkerboard
carbonate-bicarbonate buffer (pH 9.6) and
titration against 1:100 and 1:200 dilution of
incubated 4°C for overnight. Antigen coated
strong positive convalescent sera. The OD
plates were washed three times with PBST
values were plotted on a graph and the point
wash buffer (Phosphate buffered saline
where there was sharp fall on the line graph
containing 0.05 % Tween 20) pH 7.2. Test
was taken as the optimum dilution of
and control sera diluted in PBST blocking
antigen.
buffer (1:100) containing 2% bovine gelatin was added to respective wells (100 µl) of
Controls for ELISA
the plates in duplicates (test sera) and
The convalescent sera for IgM and IgG
quadruplicate (controls) and incubated at
ELISA
by RBPT
37°C for 1hour. The plates were then
screening, the strong RBPT positive sera
washed as mentioned earlier. The anti-
showing the 2 ME- STAT titer of 1:640
human IgG and IgM HRP conjugates
(1280IU /ml) and
STAT titre of 1:1280
(Pierce, Germany), diluted 1:8000 and
was considered positive control for IgM
1:4000 respectively in PBST buffer were
ELISA and STAT titres of 1:1280 (2560IU
added to all the wells (100 µl) and incubated
/ml)
positive
for 1 hour at 37°C on orbital shaker (300
convalescent sera control for IgG ELISA.
r.p.m./min). After washing, freshly prepared
These sera samples were further confirmed
o-Phenylenediaminedihydrochloride (OPD)
by DOT-ELISA antibody detection Kit
(Sigma, Germany) solution containing 5 mg
(DRDE
The
OPD tablet in 12.5 ml of distilled water and
undiluted sera were used as strong positive
50 µl of 3% H2O2 was added and kept for
controls and sera from healthy donors as the
color development for 10 min. Enzyme-
negative control. The moderate positive
substrate reaction was stopped by adding
control was prepared by diluting strong
1M H2SO4 (50 µl) and color development
positive sera with 1:500 dilutions donor sera.
was read at 492 nm using an ELISA micro
were selected first
was
considered
Jhansi,
Gwalior,
as
India).
plate reader (Biorad). The optical density Standard ELISA protocol
(OD) obtained for the negative and positive http://www.srji.co.cc
Vol.1 â&#x2014;? No.3 â&#x2014;? 2012
Scientific Research Journal of India
45
samples were interpreted by cutoff values
tested, 2 (1.62%) and 6 (4.87%) were
set at 3 standard deviations above the
positive
arithmetical mean of the OD obtained for
respectively. In case of PUO sera samples, a
17
the healthy controls .
by
RBPT
and
IgG
ELISA
total 197 samples were analyzed, out of which, 34(17.25%), 2(1.01%), 1(0.5%) and
RESULTS
23 (11.26%) were found positive by the
To obtain 5 gm wet weight of bacteria,
RBPT, STAT, IgM ELISA and IgG ELISA
fifteen Roux flasks were used and from 5 g
respectively (Table 1).
wet weight of bacterial cells, 10 ml of sLPS
positive samples, only one sera (0.5%) was
was extracted (3mg). The convalescent sera
found positive by 2ME-STAT.
positive
by
RBPT,
DOT-ELISA
Out of 27 RBPT
and
showing 2ME-STAT titer of 1:640 (1280IU
DISCUSSION
/ml) and STAT titres of 1:1280 (2560IU /ml)
The true incidence of human brucellosis
were considered as positive convalescent
however, is unknown for most countries and
sera
no data are available for many parts of India.
controls for IgM ELISA and
IgG
ELISA respectively. In
ELISA,
the
It has been estimated that the true incidence 1
in
200
antigen
may be 25 times higher than the reported
concentration was found optimum at serum
incidence due to misdiagnosis and under-
concentration of 1 in 100 (Fig 1). Similarly,
reporting. Several publications indicate that
the conjugate dilutions were established by
human brucellosis can be a common disease
checkerboard titration and
IgM conjugate
in India. The ELISA was first developed by
of 1 in 4000 and IgG conjugate at 1 in 8000
Carlson et al, for the diagnosis of human
were found optimum dilutions for the test
brucellosis and since then, a large number
(Fig. 2)
of variations have been described18. ELISA
Among the 179 sera samples from risk
have a distinct advantage over conventional
groups screened for brucellosis, 10(5.58%)
serological tests in that, they are primary
and 4 (2.23%) were positive for Brucella
binding assays that do not rely on secondary
antibodies by RBPT and STAT respectively.
properties of antibodies such as their ability
In IgM and IgG ELISA, 4 (2.23%) and 31
to agglutinate or to fix complement.
(17.3%) were detected positive respectively.
Secondly, ELISA can be tailored to be more
In case of blood donors, out of 123 samples http://www.srji.co.cc
Vol.1 â&#x2014;? No.3 â&#x2014;? 2012
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46
specific by using highly purified reagents
at concentration of 1 in 200, serum
such as antigens and monoclonal antibodies.
concentration of 1 in 100 and conjugate
The sLPS antigen of Brucella is considered
concentrations of 1 in 4000 and 1 in 8000
the most important antigen during immune
for IgM and
response and is the target for many
concentrations/ dilutions for the test.
serological and immunological studies. The
Currently, RBPT is regarded as one of the
strains that are pathogenic for humans carry
essential procedures for initial screening of
sLPS involved in the virulence of these
livestock and humans for brucellosis. This
bacteria. It gives better sensitivity and
test is sensitive, rapid and simple as well as
specificity with good reproducibility. It also
it gives high throughput to localize the
possesses a convenient cut off value for
range and frequency of the disease, but
diagnostic purposes. Finally, it is not
suffers from low specificity13, 23. Similarly,
restricted to bovines alone and can be
STAT is most preferred for serodiagnosis of
adapted to different species of animals as
brucellosis in many countries, however,
well as to humans beings3.
OIE recommended for its discontinuation,
The sLPS antigen coated passively on to a
as the test is susceptible to false positive
polystyrene matrix is the method commonly
reaction by cross reacting antibodies (IgM).
employed in the ELISA19. The indirect
In our investigation, out of the 179 sera
ELISA
seen
samples from risk groups screened for
standardized by several researchers using
brucellosis, 10(5.58%) and 4(2.23%) were
sLPS antigen from B. abortus S99 to screen
positive for anti Brucella antibodies by
the livestock and humans for brucellosis15, 19,
RBPT and STAT respectively.
20, 21
investigation
and
AB-ELISA
have
. According to Guarino et al.22, the high
IgG were
reports
from
optimum
Latest
Karnataka
percentage of positivity was due to the
revealed the similar findings of higher
ability of ELISA to detect very low levels
prevalence in the risk group ranging from
of antibodies present in the early stage of
2.26% to 15.69% positivity among 618
infection, while RBPT and STAT cannot
human samples
detect it. Keeping this in view, a pilot study
ELISA respectively21. A extensive study by
was aimed to develop and evaluate ELISA
Mantur et al, reported the prevalence of 1.6%
for diagnosis of human brucellosis. In this
and 1.8% by STAT (â&#x2030;Ľ 1:160) in 93 children
investigation, it was observed that, antigen
and 495 adult patients
by RBPT and indirect
respectively in
http://www.srji.co.cc
Vol.1 â&#x2014;? No.3 â&#x2014;? 2012
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47
Bijapur24, 25. Further the incidence rate from
infection in the donors might be due to the
other parts of the country has been reported
exposure of the donors unintentionally to
26, 27, 28,
to be ranging between 0.9 and 18.1%
the animals or due to the consumption of
29
. The higher prevalence rates reported by
raw milk, or may be due to the cross
various researchers are in accordance with
reacting antibodies such as vibrio or
our present findings in the high risk groups
yersinia.
21, 25, 30
. High sero prevalence in the risk
Brucellosis has fluctuating manifestations
group is attributed to constant exposure to
with similarities to other un-diagnosable
infection due to contamination of hands and
fevers, these patients were considered under
arm while handling animals and also human
the category of PUO. These patients
infection
generally
referred
occupational exposure of abattoir workers,
laboratory
investigations,
veterinarians and laboratory technicians. In
Brucella testing. The presence of Brucella
addition, consumption of infected raw milk,
antibodies in 197 PUO patients
raw milk products and raw meat can result
ranged from 15 (7. 61%) and 2 (1.01%) by
in infection25.
RBPT and
The transmission of brucellosis to man is
and 11.67% by IgM and IgG ELISA
primarily by direct contact with infected
respectively.
animals or their products. However, the
seroprevalence of 3.30% out of 121 PUO
organisms can also be transmitted by
cases27,
transfusion of infected blood31. The blood
and 0.8% seropositive cases in a group of
donors tested in the study, showed 1.62%
3,532 patients with PUO34 have been
positivity by RBPT and 4.87%, by IgG
reported. In the present study, the higher
ELISA. Two such similar reports from
sero prevecelance of anti Brucella antibody
Karnataka, revealed the prevalence ranging
was detected ranging from 7.61% (RBPT)
from 1.8% (out of 26,948 adult donors )
to 11.67% (IgG ELISA). This is attributed
25
by
to the collection of samples from diagnostic
These findings are relatively
laboratories located in Bangalore rural areas
identical to our findings. The higher
where intensive dairy is practiced. So
prevalence of 4.87%, in case of IgG ELISA
exposure might be due to animal handling
can
occur
through
aerosol,
to 14.7% (out of 353 donors) 32
RBPT .
for
various but
other
not
for
tested
STAT respectively and 0.5%
A
Similar
studies
on
6.8% of 414 patients with PUO33
signifies the better efficiency of test. This http://www.srji.co.cc
Vol.1 â&#x2014;? No.3 â&#x2014;? 2012
Scientific Research Journal of India
48
(farmers) or consumption of unpasteurized
of the disease in humans and to identify
milk
active infection (IgM ELISA). The use of
In general, overall prevalence of the disease
sLPS as antigen in the I-ELISA might be
by RBPT and STAT tests were 5.14% and
one of the reasons for higher sensitivity as
1.2% respectively whereas, 1.00% and
the stronger immune responses are elicited
12.02%
against sLPS in infected individual.
by
IgM
and
IgG
ELISA
respectively. All the 27 RBPT positive sera
advantage
samples were found positive by either of the
developed kit/tests is that the large number
two
of samples can be analyzed economically
ELISAs
confirming
the
100%
it
of
will
using
also
the
The
help
indigenously
agreement of the test with the classical test
and
to
generate
(RBPT. This numerical data is the evidence
seroepidemiological data of the disease in
for the higher efficiency of the ELISA over
the country. Screening of large number of
RBPT and STAT. The basic knowledge of
sera samples and validation as per OIE
this study will help us for the development
guidelines is underway.
of indigenous ELISA kit for sero screening REFERENCES: 1. Jarvis BW, Harris TH, Qureshi N, Splitter
GA:
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lipopolysaccharide from Brucella
blood donors. Indian J Med Micro 2007; 25:302-304. 3. Salmani AS, Siadat S, Fallahian MR,
coli
Ahmadi H, Norouzian D, Yaghmai
differentially activates the same
P, Aghasadeghi MR, Mobarakeh JI,
mitogen-activated
kinase
Sadat
tumor
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abortus
signaling
and
Escherichia
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SM,
Zangeneh M.
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2002; 70:7165-7168.
optimized method. Am J Infe Dis
2. Vaishnavi C, Kumar S. Investigation for
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4. Fadeel MA, Wasfy MO, Pimental G,
agglutinins among the
Klenna JD, Mahoney FJ, Hajjeh RA.
background
Brucella
2009; 5:11-16.
prevalence
Rapid
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for
the
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brucellosis . Clin Lab 2003; 49:577589.
surveillance and clinical settings in
10. Queipo-Ortuno MI, Morata P, Ocon
Egypt. Saudi Med J. 2006; 27:975-
P, Manchado P, Colmenero JD.
981.
Rapid
5. Baily G, Krahn G, Drasar JB, Stoker NG.
Detection
of
Brucella
melitensis and Brucella abortus by DNA amplification. J Trop Med Hyg 1992; 95:271–275. 6. Bricker
BJ,
diagnosis
of
human
brucellosis by peripheral-blood PCR assay. J Clinic Microbiol 1997; 35: 2927–2930. 11. Morata
P,
Queipo-Ortuño
MI,
Reguera JM, García-Ordoñez MA,
Halling
SM.
Cárdenas
A,
Colmenero
JD,
Differentiation of Brucella abortus
Development and evaluation of a
bv. 1, 2, and 4, Brucella melitensis,
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Brucella ovis, and Brucella suis bv.
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7. Ouahrani-Bettach S, Soubrier MP,
12. Alton GG, Jones LM, Angus RD,
Liautard JP. 1S6501- anchored PCR
Verger JM, Techniques for the
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8. Srikantiah P, Girgis FY, Luby SP,
13. Smits HL, Kadri SM. Brucellosis in
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Population based surveillance of
Indian J Med Res 2005; 122:375-
typhopid fever in Egypt. Am J Trop
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Scaramuzzo A, Gallo P.. Detection
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of Brucella species in buffalo whole
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AA. Enzymelinked immunosorbent
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Protean clinical manifestations and http://www.srji.co.cc
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diagnostic challenges
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thrombocytopenia. Saudi Med J 2000; 21:877-879. 31. Khorasgani
MR,
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26. Mathur TN. A study of human
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Indian Vet J 2004; 81:744-747. 29. Ajay
Kumar
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT We are thankful to Deputy Director General, (Animal Sciences) ICAR, New Delhi for his moral support and encouragement. The laboratory help from Hanumantharaju B (supporting staff) is also acknowledged.
CORRESPONDENCE http://www.srji.co.cc
Vol.1 ● No. 3 ● 2012
Scientific Research Journal of India
52
*Project Directorate on Animal Disease Monitoring And Surveillance, (PD-ADMAS), Hebbal Bangalore-560 024. Email: krishnamsetty1@gmail.com. ** Asst Professor, Dept of Microbiology, Yogi vemana University Kadapa, Andhra pradesh
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Vol.1 ● No. 3 ● 2012
Scientific Research Journal of India
53
Study of Non-Isothermal Kinetic of Austenite Transformation to Pearlite in CK45 Steel by Ozawa Model Free Method Mohammad Kuwaiti*
Abstract: In recent years, many researchers have been done about the kinetics of thermal decomposition processes. In this study, The Ozawa model free method were used to study the Non-Isothermal kinetic of Austenite Transformation to Pearlite. DTA o
method was used at cooling rates of 5, 10 and 20
min , under argon atmosphere.
Activation energy as a kinetics parameter was determined by using of Ozawa model free method. The results show that the Activation energy in Ozawa model free method is in range of 44.8-45.6 KJ mol . Keywords: Kinetic, Non-Isothermal, Austenite, Pearlite, Ozawa model, DTA, Activation Energy.
INTRODUCTION
Heterogeneous
chemical
reactions
are
ferrite. In kinetic study of heterogeneous
reactions that the components of reaction
reactions, is assumed that the equation of
are in different phases, these phases that
rate is also true in the homogeneous gas
make up the interfaces and usually reactions
reactions2. In the effect of cooling, in
are performed in interfaces1. Reactions are
diagram of equilibrium of Iron – Carbon,
started in Austenite transformation to
austenite transformation to pearlite occurs at
pearlite from interface of austenite and
the temperatures near 727°C
3, 4
. In this
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Vol.1 ● No. 3 ● 2012
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54
study, Ozawa and Friedman models free
energy in the various progresses fraction of
method were used for kinetic of austenite
reaction11.
transformation to pearlite in non-isothermal conditions. Using model free methods begin to investigate non-isothermal kinetics from 60 A. D.5, 6. In model free methods, is assumed that changing rate of heating the sample,
do
not
change
the
reaction
ln( β i ) = C −
(1)
Eα RTα ,i
In equation 1, C is the constant, Tα ,i is the temperature in the fraction of distinguished progress, R is the gas constant, β i
is
mechanism and rate reaction is only a
cooling rate and Eα is activation energy in
function of temperature. Today, determining
the fraction of reaction progress. For
parameters of kinetics are used by model
calculating
free methods and the development of
fraction of the distinguished progress (α ) ,
equipment7. On the base, these methods are
1 changing of Ln β i are drawn vs. Tαوi
8
obtained from STA or DTA . Freeman, Carroll to calculation parameters of kinetic, use from equation of gases rate, although these equations are correct from the standpoint of mathematical, but from the standpoint of practical are excited some limitations9. In addition, Coats and Redfern use from the approximation of temperature function in integral equations, although this approximation has some limitation to
activation
energy
in
each
and the activation energy is calculated according to slope of the drawn line. Model of fraction of the converter was proposed by Friedman, in this method, is necessary that the experiments are performed at least three different heating rates5. In this method, from Equation 2 is used for calculating the activation energy in the various progresses fraction of reaction.
convert data into logarithms, but it can be a suitable method for the evaluation initial of the
models
of
10
kinetic .
Ozawa
for
E dα ln βi ( )α = ln[Af (α )] − ( )α RT dT
(2)
calculating the activation energy proposes his own method in a fraction of the distinguished converter. In this method, equation 1 is used for calculating activation
In this equation, α is the fraction progress of reaction, T is the temperature, R is the gas constant, β i is the cooling rate, A is the http://www.srji.co.cc
Vol.1 ● No. 3 ● 2012
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55
pre-exponential factor, f (α ) is the reaction mechanism and E is the activation energy. For calculating the activation energy in each
α
dα , changing ln β i ( ) α is drawn vs. dT
1 T
and similar Ozawa method, the slope α
of the drawn lines, will be determined the activation energy. In this study, by using Ozawa and Friedman model free methods, activation
energy
of
austenite
transformation to pearlite in CK45 steel was calculated at cooling rates of 5, 10 and 20 o
C
min
Figure 1. Microstructure austenite transformation to pearlite of CK45 steel a) 500X b) 100X
50 mg samples of the steel was used for the
.
DTA experiments, by apparatus STA 503, o for cooling rates of 5, 10 and 20 C
METHOD OF RESEARCH
min
, in
The simple of CK45 steel, with the
non-isothermal conditions and under argon
specified chemical composition in Table 1,
atmosphere. The used range for the DTA
was used as basic material.
experiments was 1200 to 650 o C .
Table 1. Chemical composition of CK45 steel used in this study %S
%Mn
<0.03
0.5-0.8
%Si <0.4
%P 0.35
%C
steel Heat treatment
0.42-0.5
CK45
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Figure 2 is shown the results of the DTA experiments at cooling rates of 5, 10 and 20 o
C
min
.
Figure 1 shows microstructure of the sample which is used.
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Vol.1 â&#x2014;? No. 3 â&#x2014;? 2012
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fraction progress of reaction vs. time at different cooling rates.
Figure 3. The fraction progress of reaction vs. time In this Method, not only parameter of time but also temperature is important, values of the fraction progress of reaction and the transformation temperatures were calculated at different cooling rates that are specified in Table 2.
Figure 2. Used peaks to calculate the fraction progress of reaction of austenite transformation to pearlite in the cooling o rates (a) 5, (b) 10 and (c) 20 C . min According to this figure, the start and finish temperatures of austenite transformation to pearlite are calculated and with increasing the cooling rate, the starting temperature of transformation is reduced from 883 to 679 o
C . For calculating the fraction progress of
reaction, the area under peak of DTA curve calculated at any moment and is divided on the area of peak total. Figure 3 shows, the
Table 2. Values of the fraction progress of reaction at different cooling rates 10 C fraction progress of reaction 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
5C
min
min
T (o C )
T (o C )
883 879 877 876 875 875 874 873 872 871 867
886 882 881 880 879 878 877 876 874 872 867
20 C
min
T (o C )
679 675 672 672 670 669 668 667 666 665 662
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Vol.1 ● No. 3 ● 2012
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57
As explained in Equation 1, for Calculating activation energy in each fraction of progress should be drawn changing of Ln β i 1 vs. Tαوi 1 Tαوi
. Table 3 shows the values of
for the fraction progress of
reaction in various cooling rates.
1 Figure 4. Curves Ln β i vs. in the T α fraction progress of reaction 0.1-0.9 It noticed that the drawn lines are almost
Table 3. The calculated values by the Ozawa method at different cooling rates
parallel and thus can be concluded that according to Ozawa model, changing the
Fraction progress of reaction 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
β =5 1 T α
β = 10 1 T α
β = 20 1 T α
0.0008679 0.0008688 0.0008696 0.0008704 0.0008704 0.0008713 0.0008721 0.0008729 0.0008738
0.0008654 0.0008663 0.0008671 0.0008679 0.0008679 0.0008688 0.0008696 0.0008713 0.0008729
0.0001054 0.0001057 0.0001025 0.0001060 0.0001060 0.0001062 0.0001063 0.0001064 0.0001065
This information has been calculated by using available information in Figure 3. Figure 4 shows changing of Ln β i vs. 1 Tαوi
for the austenite transformation to
pearlite.
fraction progress of reaction did not fluctuate in activation energy. Table 4 shows the calculated values of activation energy by using the Ozawa model, for the fraction progress of reaction. Table 4. The values of activation energy in the fraction progress of reaction of austenite transformation to pearlite is obtained from Figure 4 for the Ozawa method Fraction progress of reaction 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
Activation Energy( J ) mol 45685 45319 45269 45228 45111 44945 44870 44870 44912
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58
On this base, with increasing the fraction
of nucleation and growth. Different reports
progress of reaction, reduced activation
and models in the cases of kinetic of
energy partially and in addition to Kinetic
austenite transformation to pearlite have
barriers that exist in the early stages of
been published But the numerical values is
transformation, it is justified. It is important
not registered for the activation energy of
that the calculated values of activation
this transformation 13-17.
energy is the apparent activation energy of transformation and can be included stages
REFERENCES 1. W.,
Christian:
The
theory
of
transformations in metals and alloys , Pergamon, Oxford, 2002.
rates”,
J. therm. Anal.,
Vol.27,
pp.95-101, 1983. 7. M ., Enomoto and H.I., Aaronson,
2. L.W., Coudurier, “Thermodynamics
"Austenite to Ferrite Transformation
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12A, pp. 1547-1557, 1986.
3. E.,
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8. J.S., Kirlcaldy and Baganis," A computational
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the
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4. D.A., Porter and K.E., Easterling:
alloys.,
Vol.
London,
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Metall.trans. A., Vol. 9A , pp.495501, 1978. 9. E.S., Freeman, B.J., Carroll, “The Application
of
Thermoanalytical
5. H., Friedman, "Kinetics of thermal
Techniques to Reaction Kinetics:
degradation of char-forming plastics
The Thermogravimetric Evaluation
from thermogravimetry. Application
of the Kinetics of the Decomposition
to a phenolic plastic", Polym. Sci. J.,
of Calcium Oxalate Monohydrate”,
Vol.7, pp. 183–195, 1964.
Phys. Chem., Vol. 62, pp.394-397,
6. J.H., Flynn, “The isoconversional method for determination of energy of activation at constant heating
1958. 10. A.V., Coats and “Kinetic
J.P., Redfern,
Parameters
from
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Vol.1 ● No. 3 ● 2012
Scientific Research Journal of India
Thermogravimetric Data”, Nature, 201, pp.68-69, 1964.
59
15. M., Hillert, " Formation of Pearlite Colonies for Simple Models of
11. T., Ozawa, “A New Method of
Alloys
Iron-Carbon-Mangenise",
Analyzing Thermogravimetric Data”,
Jernkont. Ann.,
Bull. Chem. Soc., Japan., Vol.38,
1962.
pp.1881-1887, 1965. 12. C.
W.,
Wegst:
Vol.88, p. 130,
16. A., Roósz, Z., Gácsi, E.G., Fuchs, " Stahlschlussel,
western, Germany, 1989.
Isothermal formation of austenite in eutectoid plain carbon steel ", Acta.
13. M., Hillert, L., Höglund," Reply to
Metall., Vol. 31, p.509, 1983.
comments on kinetics model of
17. C., García de Andrés, L.F., Alvarez,
isothermal pearlite formation in a
M., Carsí, "Modelling of Kinetics
0.4C–1.6Mn steel ", Scripta Mater,
and Dilatometric Behavair of Non-
Vol. 141, p. 46-78, 2003.
Isothermal
14. J.S., Kirlcaldy and Baganis," A computational
model
for
the
prediction of steel hardenability",
Pearlite-to-Austenite
Transformation in an Eutectoied Steel.", Welding International, Vol.6, p.612, 1992.
Metall.trans. A., Vol. 9A, pp.495501, 1978.
CORRESPONDENCE * Department of Metallurgical Engineering, Islamic Azad University of Najaf Abad University, Iran Email: Mohammad.Kuwaiti@gmail.com
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Vol.1 â&#x2014;? No.3 â&#x2014;? 2012
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60
Face Exposure Technology Thanigaivel.V*
Abstract: The Face recognition is concerned with determining which part of an image contains a face. If present, return the image location and content of each face. The automatic system that analyzes the information contained in faces. While earlier works deal primarily with standing front faces, several systems have been developed that are able to detect faces reasonably truly plane or out-of-plane rotations in real time. Even if a face exposure module is normally designed to deal with single images, its performance can be improved if video capture.
INTRODUCTION The
technology
development
of
has
facilitated
real-time
the
visualization
foundation, faces need to be located and registered
first
to
facilitate
further
modules that interact with humans. For
processing. It is evident that face detection
biometric systems that use faces as non-
plays an important and critical role for the
intrusive input modules, it is imperative to
success of any face processing systems. The
locate faces in a picture before any
face detection problem is testing as it needs
recognition algorithm can be applied. A
to account for all possible look difference
vision based user interface should be able to
caused by change in lights, facial features,
tell the attention focus of the user in order to
occlusions. In addition, it has to detect faces
respond as a result. To detect facial features
that appear at different technology, with in
truly for applications such as digital
plane revolution. In spite of all these
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Vol.1 â&#x2014;? No.3 â&#x2014;? 2012
Scientific Research Journal of India
61
difficulty, great progress has been made in
detected faces are usually further processed
the last decade and many systems have
to combine overlapped results and remove
shown inspiring real-time act. The recent
false positives with heuristics1 or further
advances of these algorithms have also
processing
made major help in detecting other objects
intensity
such as humans,
representations have been proposed for face
(e.g.,
edge
exposure
variance).
and
Numerous
exposure, including pixel-based1, 3, 5, partsFace Exposure System
based4,
Most exposure systems carry out the task by
wavelets4,10, and Haar-like features2,
extracting certain properties of a set of
While
training images acquired at a fixed pose in
schemes are able to detect faces1,
an off-line setting. To reduce the effects of
recent systems with Haar-like features2, 12, 13
illumination change, these images are
have demonstrated impressive empirical
processed with histogram equalization1,
3
results in detect faces under occlusion. A
Based on the extracted properties, these
large and representative training set of face
systems typically scan through the entire
images is essential for the success of
image at every possible location and scale
learning-based face detector. From the set
in order to locate faces. The extracted
of collected data, more positive examples
properties can be either manually coded or
can be synthetically generated by perturbing;
learned from a set of data as adopted in the
mirroring, rotating and scaling the original
recent systems that have demonstrated
face images1, 3. On the other hand, it is
impressive results1, 2, 3, 4, 5. In order to detect
relatively
faces at different scale, the detection
examples by randomly sampling images
process is usually repeated to a pyramid of
without face images1, 3. As face exposure
images whose resolution is reduced by a
can be mainly formulated as a pattern
1, 3
6, 7
, local edge features8, 9, Haar
earlier
easier
holistic
to
11
.
representation
collect
3, 5
, the
negative
.
recognition problem, numerous algorithms
Such procedures may be expedited when
have been proposed to learn their generic
other
accurately
templates (e.g., eigenface and statistical
incorporated (motion) as pre-processing
distribution) or discriminate classifiers (e.g.,
certain factor (1.2) from the original one
visual
cues
can
be 5
steps to reduce the search space . As faces
neural networks, Fisher linear discriminate,
are often detected across scale, the raw
sparse network of Winnows, decision tree, http://www.srji.co.cc
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62
Bays classifiers, support vector machines,
like features (at different position and scale)
and AdaBoost). Typically, a good face
is very large (about 160,000). Contrary to
detection system needs to be trained with
most of the prior algorithms that use one
several iterations. One common method to
single
further improve the system is to bootstrap a
networks and support vector machines),
trained face detector with test sets, and re-
they used an ensemble of weak classifiers
train the system with the false positive as
where
well as negatives1. This process is repeated
shareholding of one Haar-like feature. The
several times in order to further improve the
weak classifiers are selected and weighted
performance of a face detector. A survey on
using the AdaBoost algorithm14. As there is
these topics can be found in5, and the most
large number of weak classifiers, they
recent advances are discussed in the next
presented a method to rank these classifiers
section.
into several cascades using a set of
strong
each
classifier
one
is
(e.g.,
neural
constructed
by
optimization criteria. Within each stage, an Recent technology
ensemble of several weak classifiers is
The AdaBoost-based face detector by Viola
trained using the AdaBoost algorithm. The
and Jones2 demonstrated that faces can be
motivation behind the cascade of classifier
fairly reliably detect in real-time (i.e., more
is that simple classifiers at early stage can
than 15 frames per second on 240 by
filter out most negative examples efficiently,
320images with desktop computers) under
and stronger classifiers at later stage are
partial occlusion. While Haar wavelets were
only necessary to deal with instances that
used
in10
for representing faces and
look like faces. The final detector, a 38
pedestrians, they proposed the use of Haar-
layer cascade of classifiers with 6,060 Haar-
like features which can be computed
like features, demonstrated impressive real-
efficiently with integral image2. Figure 1
time performance with fairly high detection
shows four types of Haar-like features that
and low false positive rates. Several
are used to encode the horizontal, vertical
extensions to detect faces in multiple views
and diagonal intensity information of face
with in-plane ration have since been
images at different position and scale.
proposed12, 13, 15. An implementation of the
Given a sample image of 24 by 24 pixels,
AdaBoost-based face detector2 can be found
the exhaustive set of parameterized Haar-
in the Intel Open CV library. Despite the http://www.srji.co.cc
Vol.1 â&#x2014;? No.3 â&#x2014;? 2012
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excellent run-time performance of boosted 2
63
selection algorithm used as a pre-computing
cascade classifier , the training time of such
procedure, they reported that the training
a system is rather lengthy. In addition, the
time of the classifier cascade with AdaBoost
classifier
of
is reduced by 50 to 100 times. For learning
degenerate decision tree with an unbalanced
in each stage (or node) within the classifier
data set (i.e., a small set of positive
cascade, they also exploited the asymmetry
examples and a huge set of negative ones).
between positive and negative data using a
Numerous algorithms have been proposed
linear classifier with the assumptions that
to address these issues and extended to
they can be modeled with Gaussian
detect faces in multiple views. To handle
distributions17. The merits and drawbacks of
the asymmetry between the positive and
the proposed linear asymmetric classifier as
negative
data
Jones
well as the classic Fisher linear discriminate
proposed
the
AdaBoost
were also examined in their work. Recently,
algorithm16 which keeps most of the
Pham and Champ proposed an online
weights on the positive examples. In 2, the
algorithm that learns asymmetric boosted
AdaBoost algorithm is used to select a
classifiers18 with significant gain in training
specified number of weak classifiers with
time. In
lowest error rates for each cascade and the
automatically determine the number of
process
of
classifiers and stages for constructing a
optimization criteria (i.e., the number of
boosted ensemble was proposed. While a
stages, the number of features of each stage,
greedy
and the detection/false positive rates) is
employed in 2, Brubaker et al. proposed an
satisfied. As each weak classifier is made of
algorithm for determining the number of
one single Haar-like feature, the process
weak classifiers and training each node
within each stage can be considered as a
classifier of a cascade by selecting operating
feature
points
cascade
is
is
sets,
Viola
example
and
asymmetric
repeated
selection
an
until
problem.
a
set
Instead
of
repeating the feature selection process at 17
19
, an algorithm that aims to
optimization
within
a
algorithm
receiver
was
operator
20
characteristic (ROC) curve . The solved the
presented a greedy
optimization problem using linear programs
algorithm for determining the set of features
that maximize the detection rates while
for all stages first before training the
satisfying the constraints of false positive
cascade classifier. With the greedy feature
rates19. Although the original four types of
each stage, Wu et al.
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64
Haar-like features are sufficient to encode
which consists of a series of detectors
upright frontal face images, other types of
trained with positive images only, and the
features are essential to represent more
energy-based method25 that simultaneously
complex patterns (e.g., faces in different
detects faces and estimates their pose in real
11,12,13,15,21
pose)
. Most systems take a divide-
time.
and-conquer strategy and a face detector is constructed for a fixed pose, thereby
Quantifying Performance
covering a wide range of angles (e.g., yaws
There are numerous metrics to gauge the
and pitch angles). A test image is either sent
performance of face detection systems,
to all detectors for evaluation or to a
ranging from detection frame rate, false
decision module with a coarse pose
positive/negative rate, number of classifier,
estimator for selecting the appropriate trees
number of feature, and number of training
for
ensuing
image, training time, accuracy and memory
problems are how the types of features are
requirements. In addition, the reported
constructed, and how the most important
performance also depends on the definition
ones from a large feature space are selected.
of a “correct” detection result1, 5. Figure 2
More generalized Haar-like features are
shows the effects of detection results versus
defined in11,
in which the rectangular
different criteria, and more discussions can
image regions are not necessarily adjacent,
be found in1, 5. The most commonly adopted
and furthermore the number of such
method is to plot the ROC curve using the
rectangular blocks is randomly varied11.
de facto standard MIT + CMU data set
Several
been
which contains frontal face images. Another
proposed to select features efficiently by
data set from CMU contains images with
exploiting the statistics of features before
faces that vary in pose from frontal to side
training boosted cascade classifiers17,
.
view4. It has been noticed that although the
There are also other fast face detection
face detection methods nowadays have
methods that demonstrate promising results,
impressive real-time performance, there is
including
face
still much room for improvement in terms
detector using Naive Bays classifiers , the
of accuracy. The detected faces returned by
face
vector
state-of-the-art algorithms are often a few
24
pixels (around 5) off the “accurate”
further
processing.
12
greedy
the
The
algorithms
have
component-based
21
4
detectors
machines
7, 22, 23
using
support
, the Anti-face method
http://www.srji.co.cc
1
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65
locations, which is significant as face
images alone. The research will focus on
images are usually standardized to 21 by 21
improvement of detection precision for face
pixels. While such results are the trade-offs
exposure.
between speed, robustness and accuracy, they inevitably degrade the performance of
Adaptive Boosting
any
the
The Adaptive Boosting) is a machine
contents of detected faces. Several post-
learning algorithm formulated by Freund
processing algorithms have been proposed
and Shapiro14 that learns a strong classifier
to better locate faces and extract facial
by combining an ensemble of weak
features (when the image resolution of the
classifiers
detected faces is sufficiently high)26, 27.
Adaptive Boosting algorithm was originally
biometric
applications
using
with
weights.
The
discrete
developed for classification using the Applications
exponential loss function and is an instance
As face detection is the first step of any face
within the boosting family.
processing
system,
applications tracking, facial
in
face
facial feature
classification,
it
finds
numerous
recognition,
expression
recognition,
extraction,
gender
Similar to the what Haar wavelets are developed for basis functions to encode signals, the objective of two-dimensional
biometric
Haar features is to collect local oriented
systems, to name a few. In addition, most of
intensity difference at different scale for
the face detection algorithms can be
representing
extended to recognize other objects such as
representation transforms an image from
cars, humans, pedestrians, and signs, etc5.
pixel space to the space of wavelet
digital
attentive
Hear-like features
user
interfaces,
clustering,
face
cosmetics,
image
coefficients
with of
patters.
an
features.
This
over-complete
Summary
dictionary
The
Haar-like
The advance in face exposure has created a
features, similar to Haar wavelets, compute
lot of exciting and reasonably applications.
local oriented intensity difference using
As most of the algorithms can also be
rectangular blocks (rather than pixels)
applied to other problem domains, it has
which can be computed efficiently with the
broader impact than detecting faces in
integral image2. http://www.srji.co.cc
Vol.1 ● No.3 ● 2012
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66
of examining all scanned image patches can be reduced significantly.
Receiver operating characteristic A receiver operating characteristic is a plot p commonly used in machine learning and data mining for exhibiting the performance of a classifier under different criteria. The yy axis is the true positive and the xx-axis is the false positive (i.e., false alarm). A point on operating characteristic shows sho that the trade-off off
between
the
achieved
trues
positive detection rate and the accepted
(a) Face images
(b)Non-face images
Fig. 1. Four types of Haar Haar-like features. These features appear at different position and scale.The Haar Haar-like features are computed as the difference of dark and light regions. They can be considered as features
false positive rate.
that collect local edge information at different orientation and scale. The set of
Classifier cascade In face detection, a classifier cascade is a degenerate decision tree where each node (decision stump) consists of a binary
Haar-like like features is large, and only a small amount of them are learned from positive and negative ive examples for face detection.
classifier. In 2, each node is a boosted classifier
consisting
of
several
weak
classifiers. These boosted classifiers are constructed so that the ones near the root can be computed very efficiently at very high detection rate with acceptable false positive rate. Typically, most patches in a test image can be classified as faces/non faces/nonfaces using simple classifiers near the root, and relatively few difficult ones need to be analyzed by nodes with deeper depth. With this cascade structure, the total computation
(a) Test image
(b)Detection results
Fig. 2. Detection results depend heavily on the adopted criteria. Suppose all the subsub images in (b) are returned as face patterns by a detector. A loose criterion may declare de all the faces as “successful” detections while a more strict one would declare most of them as non non- faces.
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CORRESPONDENCE *Centre for Research and Development. PRIST University, India. E-Mail:svthanigaivel@gmail.com
http://www.srji.co.cc
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Recovery of Decayed Species through Image Processing K.Priyadharsan*, S.Saranya** Abstract: The problem of rebuilding a structure from decayed remains has been, until now, especially relevant in the ambit of forensic sciences, where it is obviously oriented toward the identification of unrecognizable corpses; but its potential interest to archaeologists and anthropologists is not negligible. This paper is about recovering the decayed species’ structure, through Spiral Computed Tomography data and virtual modeling techniques (in this case with VTK software), 3-D models of the possible physiognomy of ancient mummies. The species representation is based on 3D models and soft tissues are reconstructed.Isosurfaces generation is based on Marching cubes algorithm. The resulting voxel models are converted into 3d wrapped models that are coded using VTK software. The presented results iiustrate that based on the proposed methods a complete recovery of decayed structure can be built with less cost.
Keywords: VTK, CT,3-D
INTRODUCTION Reconstruction is an important key feature
amount of information not only about the
of image processing applications. It uses CT
mummy and its skeleton, but also about the
scanning’s numbers allowed a very fine
artifacts buried with the mummy and its
discrimination
with
coffin2. Compared to traditional x-ray
different densities providing an enormous
techniques, multiple axial images displayed
between
materials
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in a clearer way the different details of car
The
tonnage, wrappings, amulets an and internal
mummified cranial remains allowed us to
3
anthropological
study
of
the
organs of a mummy and allowed easy
identify a male subject with an age at death
measurements of exact distances between
of
objects inside or outside the mummy. In the
dolichocranic, of medium height and with
last years, spiral CT has considerably
rounded
enhanced clinical imaging. The use of this
cheekbones, bones, gracile even if well developed
new technique has fatherly widened the
in its height, jaw; the orbits are narrow, the
range and quality of possible possi investigations
nose is well-shaped, shaped, and of Europoid look.
around
40
occiput,
years.
The
narrow
skull
face,
is
high
on mummies. So far, related work only considered initial
2. Spiral CT Scanning
representation of the fossil using CT scanning. Soft tissue reconstruction and texture mapping has to be studied in detail. In my paper, surface is constructed using Marching
cubess
algorithm
and
some
changes are made to the existing aalgorithm to get better results. 3D models are wrapped and coded using VTK software This process is organized as follows. In the Fig. 2 CT scanning of the head
next section, I describe the process of anthropological and egyptological analysis of the head. Section 2 presents spiral CT of the head. Section 3 presents. Reconstruction of a 3-D D model of the skull generated from CT data processing. Section 4 presents
The cranial cavity was filled with hot melted resin, later solidified, introduced with the mummy resting on its back, as the model reconstructed from the CT images clearly displays.
application of textures fitting the somatic features.
3. Reconstruction of a 3D Model of the Skull
1. Preliminary Anthropological thropological Results
CT
slices must be
stacked
up and
interpolated in order to build a volume. http://www.srji.co.cc
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Once created a volume, it is possible, by
This stage of our work is still in a
means of suitable algorithms, to generate
preliminary phase. Among the possible
surfaces whose points have the same
methodologies to deal with this complex
function value. They are called is surfaces A
problem, I focused two different promising
popular
ways:
algorithm
for
determining
is
surfaces is the so called marching cubes.
A. Protocols rotocols developed to the reconstruction
The principle underlying the application applica of
of
this algorithm to the kind of problem here
B. Use of warping techniques. t
soft
tissues
on
skull
described is that similar materials have the same radio-opacity opacity and are, consequently,
A. The thickness of the soft tissues is
represented in a CT scan by the same
reconstructed on the bones through the use
densitometry level. In CT slices, the
of pegs at marked points. All the pegs are
intensity associated to each pixel in the
joined by strips of plotline of fixed
grey-scale scale is proportional to tissues density:
thickness and the empty spaces among them
black corresponds to air, white to bones. It
are then slowly filled with mould able
is therefore possible processing the CT
material: in this way, it is possible to
scans sequence so as to obtain a 3-D 3 grid,
reconstruct nearly all the face that belonged
where to each "knot" (control point) is
to the living subject; on this, nose cartilage,
associated the densitometry value measured
eye globes and lips are added.
by the CT scans. The result is a 33-D 256 grey levels image.
B. A different method consists in the distortion (warping) of the 33-D model of a reference ce scanned head, until its hard tissues match those of the mummy. The subsequent stage is the construction of the hybrid model composed by the hard tissues of the mummy plus the soft ones of the reference
Fig. 3 a) hard tissues b) external surface
head.
4. Reconstruction off Soft Tissues
5. Textures Fitting the t Somatic Features
http://www.srji.co.cc
Vol.1 â&#x2014;? No.3 â&#x2014;? 2012 While
hard
and
soft
Scientific Research Journal of India tissues
73
give
morphological information, textures provide colours and aesthetical features. They are "pasted" over the 3D models by means of mapping procedures. Moreover, being a frontal view, it does not give sufficient Fig.6Lateralview
information for the mapping of the entire model. We get a low resolution image (fig4).
Development of the project: soft tissue reconstruction using VTK After a first part of work, open problem is to reconstruct the lacking elements of a 3D digital model generated from CT scans applied to a mummified cranial remains.
Fig 4 low resolution image The texture was mapped onto the 3D model to perfectly match the frontal view of the mummy but it loses its grain as soon as we depart from the frontal view. Much better results could be obtained with different high resolution views of a new subject.
The aim is to obtain a perfect match among hard tissues so that soft tissue of reference model can be used to represent those of the mummy
with
a
good
approximation.
Moreover a tool is developed in order to apply to the model cylindrical textures obtained multiple views of a well suited individual Software implementation has been designed using VTK. Cylindrical textures obtained multiple views of a well suited individual Software implementation has been designed using VTK.
Fig 5texture, processed and colored, is
CT scans data representing our model and
mapped onto the 3-D model.
mummy should have the same placing, orientation, dimensions and resolution. This is generally not true especially when dealing with data coming from different machine so
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the first step is to perform a manual registration (Figure 3), that is a rigid transformation, among volumes in order to work in the same system of coordinates. Software like AIR are also available for automatic
registration
but
sometimes,
especially when volumes are quite different, they do not produce satisfactory results. As further requirement grayscales of hard tissues must be similar, in spite of different methodologies
of
acquisition
though
Fig.6 Manchester points placed over the
mummyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s tissues has been deteriorated. It is possible to correct these differences shifting and scaling intensities using histogram information.
remove aliasing phenomena) and surface generation Vtk internal facilities are used. At this point we precede with the setup of the Manchester pegs onto the surface of the hard tissues of the mummy while for the reference model it can be predetermined. The aim of this phase is to fix some constraints for the resulting physiognomy and to provide a first guess for the following that
is
the
features
tracking.
Pegs are mapped onto a spherical surface of parametric ratio, so that the user can place quickly the whole set and the adjust single pegs.
Calculating vector displacement among couples of corresponding points we obtain a scattered field to drive a first warp phase. A
For volume resembling, smoothing (to
step
mummy
feature tracking consists in determining a correspondence characteristic
between points
sets
of
pertaining to
the
volumes in order to obtain a scatter motion field with more details. It is the most important
step.
Initially this set of points is chosen as a subset of points that are vertices of hard tissues surface of the mummy; some of these points, corresponding position in the reference volume. If the result is good, the resulting motion field is defined among subsets of bone surfaces, with particular characteristics, are identified as features. If, consecutively a test, a feature is retained reliable, we search the from the reference http://www.srji.co.cc
Vol.1 â&#x2014;? No.3 â&#x2014;? 2012 model
to
the
mummy
Scientific Research Journal of India
75
volume..â&#x20AC;Ś.
Once generated a scattered motion field, it must be diffused within the whole reference volume. Diffused motion field can be used to warp arp every structure pertaining to
Fig .9 Model skin (blue) and mummy skull
reference model coherently with mummy
(white)
model therefore we reconstruct mummy soft tissues warping those of reference model
Fig 10 Face generated
We consider the relation between hard tissues surface of the reference model and Fig 7 wrap driven by manchester points
hard tissue surface of the mummy as a continuous deformation in the time. If
is the intensity of a point
of coordinates (x,y,z) at time t in the mummy
volume
and
is where e
the
motion m
field,
, are components in x, y e z
directions of velocity vector, we suppose that the intensity function is the same at the time
in
the
Fig.8 Model skull (blue) after this stage overlapped with mummy skull (white)
point
of the http://www.srji.co.cc
Vol.1 ● No.3 ● 2012
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reference
model,
where e
and
76
we can write the 3 as
,
(5)
.
Known as motion field constraint equation, where Ex, Ey, Ez ed Et are partial
(1)
derivatives. We say that x is a reliable feature if If the intensity function change smoothly sm
(6)
with x, y, z e t, we can manipulate the equation (1) with Taylor’s series to obtain (2) Where: I(
, t) is the matrix of intensity function
where e contains terms in x, y, z e t
E in the point
higher than first order.
at the time t;
=(x,y,z) in the region W(x)
is the gradient operator; Eliminating
, rationing by t,
and calculating limit for
, we
min ()) represents the smaller eigenvalue of matrix ;
obtain
are predetermined thresholds.
(3) We consider a window (q) centered in q of
dimensions.
We represent (6) in discrete fashion that is the totally derivative of
in the
(7)
time.
(4) Using abbreviated notation:
The solution of (4) respect to V is given by In this moment this stage is still in developing so we have no picture, anyway the idea is simple: for each of the Manchester points we w find its corresponding http://www.srji.co.cc
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on the skin surface, in this way we can
amount of data, was to process and visualize
measure the actual soft tissue thickness. By
in real time and in 3D the data volume.
consulting the thickness table we find the
Through this paper I hope that this method
corresponding desired thickness measure.
will be a useful one to the society.
Saying that the actual thickness must become the desired thickness we generate
REFERENCES 1. S.B. Kang, R. Szeliski, and P.
another scattered field.
Anandan,
“The
Representation
Texture Application
Geometry-Image Trade
off
for
Rendering”, Proc. ICIP, Vancouver, Canada, September 2000.
2. P. Eisert, E. Steinbach, and B. Girod, “Multi-hypothesis,
Volumetric
Reconstruction of 3-D Objects. Proc. ICASSP, pp. 3509-3512, Phoenix, Mar. 1999.
3. W. E. Lorensen, and H. E. Cline, “Marching Cubes: A high resolution CONCLUSION: In
this
paper,
performances
3D surface reconstruction algorithm,” for
through
obtaining the
better
virtual
3D
Proc. SIGGRAPH, vol. 21, no. 4, pp 163-169, 1987.
visualization of the reconstruction i have used the powerful workstation Onyx2
4. P. Debevec, C. Taylor, and J. Malik,
equipped with an architecture of type
“Modeling
multiprocessor, with 4 processors R10K, 1
architecture from photographs: A
Gbyte of RAM, computing power of 1.5
hybrid
Gflop, 1 graphic pipeline, that it can process
approach,” Proc. SIGGRAPH, pp.
11 millions of polygons per second. In fact
11-20, 1996.
and
geometry
rendering
image
based
the main problem, processing a large http://www.srji.co.cc
Vol.1 ● No.3 ● 2012
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CORRESPONDENCE *DR-DO
Project
Assistant,
Centre
for
R&D,
PRIST
University,
Thanjavur,
India.
Email:
kvpriyadharshan@gmail.com. **Lecturer, Department of Comp Science & Engg, Bharadhidasan University, Trichy, India. Email: saranyapristina@gmail.com
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