SRJIS/ BIMONTHLY/NIKHILA BHAGWAT (2498-2505)
Research and Development Models in Agricultural Extension
Nikhila Bhagwat, Ph. D. Assistant Professor, S.M.R.K Mahila Mahavidyalaya, Nashik, Maharashtra State. Director, NOBLE Institute of Research Guidance, Nashik, Maharashtra State. President, Consumer Protection Organisation, Maharashtra State, India.
Abstract Extension, broadly, is a function that can be applied to various areas of society, such as Agriculture Extension, University Extension, Rural Development Extension, Health Services Extension, Industrial Extension, etc. All of which thrive on non formal ways and participatory management principles. The Agricultural Extension is a general term meaning the application of scientific research and new knowledge to agricultural practices through farmer education. (Wikipedia) The ‘Food & Agriculture organisation of the United Nations’ states that agricultural extension operates within a broader knowledge system that comprises of research and agricultural education. The R and D (Research and Development) is an inseparable wing of Extension activity. In many parts of the world it is also called RTD, which means ‘Research and Technological Development’. It refers to a specific group of activities within an industry. Since ‘Extension’ is concerned with expansion as well as enhancement of agricultural industry it automatically connects with RTD. The primary function of R and D is to develop new products and services or to generate new knowledge to improve existing products, processes and services. There are three primary models of Research and Technological Development- the Exploration Model, the Improvement Model and the Testing Model. The Exploratory Model is used when there is no earlier theory to support and guide the investigation or when the field of enquiry is absolutely new. It is a gradual process of accumulating understanding about the object under study. During the exploratory research project, the provisional concepts slowly gain precision. In the Improvement Model the work starts from what is known and simply proceeds by enlarging an earlier theory. The existence of a tentative model helps in selecting the logical structure of the entire research project and planning it. Many of the problems of exploratory research can be avoided if the researcher can start with a model, developed in earlier studies, which he uses as a ‘working premise’. This model consists of cases or concepts. During the analysis with help of the collected material, the researcher either conforms to the model or corrects the model by suggesting required improvements. In Testing Model, sometimes the object of study is already well known and its behaviour in a specific situation is to be investigated. In such a situation a hypothesis as ‘an expectation of the behaviour of the object’ is constructed. During the project empirical data is collected which helps to test the hypothesis and see if it is true or not. This type of research aspires to get factual knowledge about the object of study. The relationship between agricultural research and agricultural extension is intimate. The knowledge that agricultural extension transfers is usually generated by agricultural research to promote sustainable development. Therefore, it is imperative for extension personnel to know the implications of the commonly used Research and Development Models in Agricultural Extension. Key Words: Agricultural Research, Models of Research, Sustainable Development.
Introduction: Extension, broadly, is a function that can be applied to various areas of society, such as Agriculture Extension, University Extension, Rural Development Extension, Health Services Extension, Industrial Extension, etc. All of which thrive on non formal ways and participatory management principles. NOV - DECEMBER, 2014. VOL-II/XV
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The Agricultural Extension is a general term meaning the application of scientific research and new knowledge to agricultural practices through farmer education. (Wikipedia) The ‘Food & Agriculture organisation of the United Nations’ stated that agricultural extension operates within a broader knowledge system that comprises of research and agricultural education. The R and D (Research and Development) is an inseparable wing of Extension activity. In many parts of the world it is also called RTD, which means ‘Research and Technological Development’. It refers to a specific group of activities within an industry. Primarily, the function of research and development is to either develop new products or to discover and create new knowledge about scientific and technological aspects for the purpose of enabling development of valuable new produce, processes and services. Since ‘Extension’ is concerned with expansion as well as enhancement of agricultural industry it automatically connects with research and technological development. According to Roling (2004) in most developing countries, the words Research, Extension and Education are not essentially linked. Research and Extension usually are the responsibilities of different directorates of the Ministry of Agriculture, while Education is the responsibility of another Ministry. Hence, what the three have in common is not immediately clear. The World Bank in year 2000 defined the ‘Agricultural Knowledge and Information System’ as a system that links people and institutions to promote mutual learning and generate, share and utilise agriculture-related technology, knowledge and information. The system integrates farmers, agricultural educators, researchers and extension personnel to harness knowledge and information from various sources for better farming and improved livelihoods’. Figure 1: Chema’s Agricultural, Knowledge and Information System’s model EDUCATION
FARMERS
RESEARCH
EXTENSION
Chema (2003) has depicted the same in the following diagram putting the farmers in the centre and linking the other three dimensions of development; the Research, Extension and Education. This interaction and interface of the farmers and end-users with researchers, extension and education practitioners will help to promote sustainability in agricultural development.
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This paper intends to explore the commonly used research and development models in Agricultural Extension; particularly the models used for research and technological development- the Exploration Model, the Improvement Model and the Testing Model. Agricultural Extension: Agricultural extension operates within a broader knowledge system that includes research and agricultural education targeted at development. The primary function of Research and Development is to develop new products and services or to generate new knowledge to improve existing products, processes and services. There are three primary models of Research and Technological Development- the Exploration Model, the Improvement Model and the Testing Model. FAO (Food and Agricultural Organisation) and the World Bank refer to this larger system as AKIS/RD (Agricultural Knowledge and Information Systems for Rural Development). The OECD countries (around 20 countries that have originally signed the Convention of the ‘Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development’) refer to it simply as the Agricultural Knowledge System (AKS). Others describe the three pillars of this system as Research, Extension and Agricultural higher education. It is suggested that since the three pillars involve complementary investments they should be planned and sequenced as a system rather than as separate entities. (Eicher, 2001) Broadly we can say that agricultural extension provides agriculturally related nonformal continuing adult education to a variety of target groups; such as farmers, farmwives, youth, horticulturalists, etc. in order to bring about agricultural development, community resource development, community building and promotion. In India agricultural extension is mainly linked to agricultural production services. Research in Agriculture: According to SARE (Sustainable Agriculture Research and Education, 2012) farmers around the world develop new, innovative strategies to produce and distribute food, fuel and fibre sustainably. While their strategies vary greatly they all embrace three broad goals, or what SARE calls the 3 Pillars of Sustainability: 1. • Profit over the long term. 2. • Stewardship of their nation's land, air and water, and 3. • Quality of life for farmers and their communities. This sustainability can be promoted by research and development in the agricultural sector. The Indian Minister of Agriculture and Food Processing Industries, Mr. Pawar (2011) spelt out ‘vision 2030’ for the ‘Indian council of Agricultural Research’ mentioning that agriculture sector is witnessing radical changes and challenges at national and global level. The demand for agricultural commodities is steeply rising; food preferences of the nextgeneration consumers are changing; and agriculture sector is struggling with decelerating profitability which is dragging its performance. The emerging challenges and opportunities NOV - DECEMBER, 2014. VOL-II/XV
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call for a paradigm shift in the innovation driven architectural research systems to connect inventions with all the stakeholders in the entire food supply chain. This document narrates role of agricultural research in shaping the future growth, development and equity in India. Godin (2006) indicates that the early model of innovation, the Linear Model suggests that technical change happens in a linear fashion from Invention to Innovation to Diffusion. It prioritises scientific research as the basis of innovation, and plays down the role of later players in the innovation process. INVENTION
INNOVATION
DIFFUSION
Rothwell (1994) explains that from the 1950s to the Mid-1960s, the industrial innovation process was generally perceived as a linear progression from scientific discovery, through technological development in firms, to the marketplace. The stages of the ‘Technology Push’ model are: Basic Science → Design and Engineering → Manufacturing → Marketing → Sales However, in agricultural research the linear model is used more vividly to answer the concerns of end-users by transferring the technology, as shown below. Figure 2: Transfer of Technology Model (also called ‘The Linear Model’) Fundamental Research Applied Research Adaptive Research Subject Matter Specialists Frontline Extension Workers Progressive Farmers (Diffusion) To End Users Transfer of Technology assumes a one-way and uninterrupted flow of technologies from fundamental scientists, to ultimate users via various intermediaries and delivery mechanisms. It therefore is also called the linear model. (Kline and Rosenberg, 1986; Chambers and Jiggins, 1987). Commonly used Research Models in Agricultural Extension: The Improvement Model: The research process in agriculture begins with selection of the research method. It is usually desirable to consider the earlier research done in the field. If NOV - DECEMBER, 2014. VOL-II/XV
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one gets an earlier theoretical model or practical base he can build his work on the same footings. Such a model, even if it is very preliminary in nature, can help the research work decisively. It also supports in drawing the logical process of analysis. Here the researcher tries to expand or refine the earlier model. Hence such a process of research can be called ‘The Improvement Model’. In this model the work starts from what is known or what is already been done and it simply proceeds by enlarging an earlier theory. The existence of a tentative or provisional model helps in selecting the logical structure of the entire research project and planning it. Many of the problems of exploratory research can be avoided if the researcher can start with a model developed in earlier studies, which he can use as a ‘working premise’. Often such studies can easily proceeds by enlarging an earlier model and linking the new ideas and understandings to the known facts. This is often applicable in case of studies that tend to give new dimension to an earlier theory or product. This model helps the researcher to decide and define about the variables. Often this study simply proceeds by enlarging an earlier model. However, if the existing model is weak, it can guide the researcher wrongly and he may discard the abnormal observations that may differ from what would be expected on the basis of the old theory. Keeping this in mind one has to be extra cautious while using the improvement model.
EXISTING THEORY
Object of Study
The
Data Collection
Analysis
Exploratory
New Theory
Model:
This model is used when there is no earlier theory to support and guide the investigation or when the field of enquiry is absolutely new. It is the initial research into a hypothetical or theoretical idea. Kowalczyk (2014) explains it using a metaphor to make it simple to understand. ‘Imagine one is blindfolded or placed into a room without light. He is not told if something is in the room, but he has a suspicion that there is something in there. He shuffles out slowly into the room, exploring with the tips of his fingers until he finds something.’ Here, researcher has an idea or has observed something and seeks to understand more about it by exploring it further. In the absence of tried models and definite concepts one must start the exploratory study from whatever is available. Exploratory research means that hardly anything is known about the matter at the outset of the project. One has to begin with a rather vague impression of what should be studied, and it NOV - DECEMBER, 2014. VOL-II/XV
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is also impossible to make a detailed work plan in advance. An exploratory research project is an attempt to lay the groundwork for future research. It is a gradual process of accumulating understanding about the object under study. During the exploratory research project, the provisional concepts slowly gain precision. Viewpoint 3 INITIAL UNDERSTANDING
Perspective 1
Idea 5
Opinion 4
Standpoint 2
The
THOROUGH UNDERSTANDING
Testing
Model:
In this type of research sometimes the object of study is already well known and its behaviour in a specific situation is to be investigated. In such a situation a hypothesis is constructed which is actually ‘an expectation of the behaviour of the object’. During the project empirical data is collected which helps to test the hypothesis and see if it is true or not. This type of research aspires to get factual knowledge about the object of study. According to Bunge (1998) the logic of testing hypothesis goes like this:
Ask well formulated and fruitful questions to gather preliminary information.
Devise both grounded and testable hypotheses to answer the questions.
Derive logical consequences of the assumptions.
Design techniques to test the assumptions; test the techniques for relevance and reliability.
Execute the tests.
Interpret the results.
However, it is well accepted that absolute assurance when verifying a hypothesis is a rare phenomenon. Another interesting thing about testing a descriptive hypothesis is that the process of development need not end in the test. If the first proposal is rejected, another test proposal can be prepared. This means that the process of development returns to the Improvement Model, discussed above.
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Induction
Deduction Testing
Observation Evaluation
The Testing model consists of following stages as shown above: Observation- involves collecting and organizing pragmatic facts to form hypothesis. Induction- is the process of forming hypothesis. Deduction-analysing data to deduct results from collected empirical data. Testing- Test the hypothesis with help of statistical tools. Evaluation- Evaluate the outcome of testing and if required with fresh observation form another hypothesis. Conclusion: The ‘Food and Agriculture Organisation of United State’ believes that the Success in agricultural and rural development depends on individual actions of millions of rural families, whose decisions are shaped by the information, knowledge and technologies available to them. Research and Extension supports this development by enhancing national agriculture research institutions and agricultural and rural extension services through policy advice, technical support, projects and programmes as well as studies and workshops. Today the national agriculture research and extension systems face many challenges and opportunities. In order to use agricultural research systems to strengthen farmers’ abilities to generate, adapt and transfer appropriate technologies for improved and sustainable production systems in agriculture, forestry and fisheries; people should be involved in the research process. The relationship between agricultural research and agricultural extension is intimate. The knowledge that agricultural extension transfers is usually generated by agricultural research to promote sustainable development. Therefore, it is imperative for extension personnel to know the implications of the commonly used Research and Development Models in Agricultural Extension. References: Bunge, Mario. (1998) ‘Philosophy of Science’, Springer-Verlag, New York, pp-9. Chambers, R. and J. Jiggins (1987) ‘Agricultural Research for resource-poor farmers’, Part I: Transfer-of-Technology and Farming Systems Research. Part II: A parsimonious
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paradigm. Agric. Administration and Extension, 27: 35-52 (Part I) and 27: 109128 (Part II). Chema, S., E. Gilbert and J. Roseboom. (2003) ‘A Review of Key Issues and Recent Experiences in Reforming Agricultural Research in Africa.’ The Hague: ISNAR, Research Report 24. Eicher, C. K. (2001) ‘Africa’s Unfinished Business: Building Sustainable Agricultural Research Systems’, Staff paper 2001-10, Department of Agricultural Economics, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan. Godin, Benoit (2006) ‘The Linear Model of Innovation: the Historical Construction of an Analytical Framework’ Science, Technology and Human Values, Vol-31, pp639–667. Indian
council
of
Agricultural
Research,
(2012)
‘Vision
2030’.
http://www.icar.org.in/files/ICAR-Vision-2030.pdf Kline, S. and Rosenberg N. (1986) ‘An Overview of Innovation’, The Positive Sum Strategy, Harnessing Technology for Economic Growth, Washington (DC), National Academic Press, pp 275-306. Kowalczyk, Devin. (2014) ‘Purposes of Research: Exploratory, Descriptive & Explanatory’. http://education-portal.com/academy/lesson/purposes-of-research-exploratorydescriptive-explanatory.html#lesson Roling, Niels. (2004) ‘Communication for Development in Research, Extension and Education’
Wageningen,
Netherlands.
http://www.fao.org/nr/com/gtzworkshop/rolingpapereng.pdf Rothwell, Roy,(1994) ‘Towards the Fifth-generation Innovation Process’, International Marketing Review,Vol.11,No 1,1994,pp.7-31 SARE-Sustainable
Agriculture
Research
and
Education.
(2012)
http://www.sare.org/Learning-Center/SARE-Program-Materials/NationalProgram-Materials/What-is-Sustainable-Agriculture#
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