ChemII Biorenewables Collection

A collaborative research project between Hoover High School’s advanced chemistry class and the Center for Biorenewable Chemicals

1

TABLE OF CONTENTS BY AUTHOR Genetic Sequencing of Plants………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………5

By Jordan Anderson Self-Healing Platics…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….………….……………………………11

By Bak’r Brown Algae as an Alternative Energy Source......………………………………………………………………………… ………….…………………….……17

By Emily Chappell Turning Chemicals into Electricity……………………………………………………………………………………..………….……………………………23

By Holden Clark Careers in Biorenewables…………………………………………………………………………………………………..………….……………………..……29

By Quynh Dang Biodiesel Production……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…………………….……35

By Zachary Dickhoff Biochar…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..………………..…………41

By Zachary Doyle Life Cycle of Aluminum Cans………………………………………………………………………………………………………….……………………………47

By Anna Ho Life Cycle Analysis of Silly Putty™…………………………………………………………………………………………………..……………………………53

By Eric Kalianoff Pyrolysis………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..……………………………57

By Omar Lamar Gasification for a Greener World…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..……61

By Kristin Lengeling Biorenewable Research at Iowa State University…………………………………………………………………………..……………………………67

By Merisa Lengeling Biochemical Production………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………………….………73

By Erna Mahmutovic One Midwest Cellulosic Boom!........................................................................................................ ……………………………79

By John Nguyen From Algae to Biofuel………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….……………………..………85

By Madelyn Plain Ethanol…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..……………….….………95

By David Reierson Pyrolysis Oil……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….….……99

By Sydney Swift The Scoop on the Poop…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..……………………..……103

By Michelle Tran

2

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Teachers don’t often have the opportunity to publicly thank their students.

The papers that follow these acknowledgements represent several months of hard work. Students were asked to learn, understand, create, write and evaluate the information presented in this collection. Although every moment spent working on these papers wasn’t rainbows and butterflies, nothing worth being proud of ever is.

Many – if not all – of these topics were completely new to us, and forced us into an uncomfortable realm of merging old knowledge with new discoveries. We learned.

So, to my students: “thank you”…for a product we can all be proud of, for allowing me to explore the writing process with you, and for appreciating our final product as much as I do.

NSF Engineering Research Center for Biorenewable Chemicals Highlight of Significant Achievement and Impact “The National Science Foundation Engineering Research Center for Biorenewable Chemicals (CBiRC) headquartered at Iowa State University, has established a partnership with the Des Moines School District. Within this framework, CBiRC provides Des Moines science teachers with professional development opportunities including the Research Experiences for Teachers (RET) Internship Program. Eric Hall, chemistry teacher at Hoover High School, participated in the CBiRC RET and created a unit on biorenewables and bioplastics for his advanced chemistry class. The unit included a student project to research and review an area relating to biorenewables. The students sent their written drafts to eight CBiRC graduate students for feedback about the validity of the content, proper citation of references and correct terminology. The students used the feedback to improve their projects and create their final documents.”

CBiRC would like to thank Mr. Hall and his students for the opportunity to collaborate on such a significant and relevant project. We hope it leads you – our future scientists – on to doing great things in the fields of science, technology, engineering and mathematics.

Sincerely, Dr. Adah Leshem

Special thanks to these graduate students at ISU for their meaningful and timely feedback: Mike Nolan, Jason Anderson, Adam Okerlund, Alexis Campbell, Bryon Upton, Pete Hondred, Brendan Babcock, Shivani Garg and Catie Brewer.

3

4

Jordan Anderson 03/24/12 Advanced Chem 5

Genome sequencing takes place in a laboratory. In the lab, scientists go through a process to figure out the DNA sequence in the genome of the particular plant that they’re working on. The scientists also have to sequence DNA from the plant’s chromosomes, chloroplast, and mitochondria. The whole purpose of this process is to see if they can get the plants to evolve or learn more about a certain plant.

In understandable words, a genome is like the blue print of a plant. It tells the plant what to do, how to grow, how to multiple, and so on. It contains all of the information needed. Once scientists are able to gain all this information they are able to expand their knowledge of the plant and begin to play around with it.

For an example we’ll talk about cotton. At the molecular level, cotton was one of the first plants studied. The cool thing about genetic sequencing of cotton is that it could later on be useful to produce biofuel which is something that would help the world out a lot in the future. Not only does genetic sequencing of cotton help our environment, it can also evolve cotton into a larger more durable plant.

A good example of genetic sequencing would be Mendel’s experiment. Mendel was a scientist who did research on plants. In his experiment he took genes from different plants and extracted them to a pea plant. The results were a pea plant with different color pedals and taller or shorter stems. The reason for this was because he was able to obtain the plant’s DNA, chloroplast, and mitochondria so that he could manipulate and evolve any plant that he wanted.

One popular method that scientists use in the lab to sequence plants is called “shotgun sequencing”. This method was first seen in 1979. In the method the plant’s DNA is separated into many different pieces. After that, scientists then sequence the DNA back together into a continuing sequence. The Sanger method is another method that is used for sequencing. Heat plays a key role in this method because before the DNA of the plant can even be sequenced they have to be in single strands. Once they are in single strands, primer is added to them with heat and then it is allowed to slowly cool off and be put into separate test tubes for samples. Once this whole process is finished, new DNA strands are produced.

6

Most of these genetic sequencing projects take place in labs on college campuses where all of the lab equipment is accessible. The equipment used for the procedures during the sequencing is: test tubes, beakers, computers, pipettes, microscopes, heating mantles and other advanced technology.

It is important for the scientists that are responsible for the genetic sequencing to know chemical formulas, vocabulary, and equations. They need to understand what chromosomes are. They need to understand what the molarity is of the solutions they are using. They need to go through certain chemical formulas and equations to make sure things are balanced correctly. One mistake could jeopardize their whole project causing them to start over from scratch.

Genetic sequencing of plants is most important for our environment. By furthering our knowledge of plants we can find out ways to help our crops maybe grow faster or become more durable. By durable I mean last/live longer or become less vulnerable to things that harm them. If we’re able to enable these plants to grow faster, such as cotton, then major companies that use cotton for their products won’t have to worry about losing out on money.

In my advanced chem class I was able to get a basic understanding of evolution and genetic sequencing of a plant thanks to the trip that we took to Iowa State. At Iowa State, the agricultural science department was trying to find out ways that they could get cotton to evolve, make it more useful, and produce useful chemicals out of it.

In class, we also learn about all types of compounds, elements, and reactions. To relate to my topic and from what I’ve learned in class, I can say that DNA contains a hydrogen while nucleotides contain a hydroxyl group (OH -1). The difference between the two is that hydroxyl contains one oxygen atom in addition to the hydrogen, it has a change, and is connected by a covalent bond.

7

GLOSSARY Genome: A full set of chromosomes Biofuel: Fuel derived from biomass Extract: To get, pull, or draw out, with a special effort.

DNA: Deoxyribonucleic Acid Chromosomes: A threadlike structure of nucleic acids and protein found in the nucleus of most living cells.

Molarity: concentration measured by the number of moles of solute per liter of solution.

8

SOURCES lifescientist.com.au dictionary.com Photograph: http://www.eeob.iastate.edu/faculty/profiles/WendelJ/ALLseeds1.gif

9

10

SELF-HEALING PLASTICS

Bak’r Brown January 1, 2012 Advanced Chemistry 11

Infomercials and advertisements always stress the durability of their product with claims that their product will last forever, but before you know it the product would end up either broken or at the bottom of some pile of useless junk. Yet people still bought into this marketing strategy and the use of the word forever.

How long is forever? Is it until a new product comes out, or is it when the product becomes irrelevant?

Scientists have put the word forever to question by researching and developing the future, also known as selfhealing polymers.

The term self-healing should be easy to break down and comprehend. Self-healing plastics are plastics that can heal themselves with the exposure to light and mechanical use. These self-healing plastics are exposed to light rather than heat, melt, and then fill up any cracks or damage done to the plastic itself. After the light is removed from the surface of the polymer, the plastic becomes solid and is restored to the original state in which it began, or the closest it will ever be, due to damage. Scientist say that self-healing plastics will start as household items, and eventually will move to medical advancements. Nature magazine states that with such a bright future the self-healing plastics are not yet open to the public. Some options that came to mind when placing the self-healing plastics on the market are cell phones, automobiles, floors, and furniture.

The “so-called” fathers of these plastics are two men by the names of Biswajit Ghosh and Marek W. Uban. They created this polymer back in 2009 on the idea of a substance that when damaged, it would create two equal ends similar to chains that would react and link back together when exposed to UV rays. With such a great discovery, this was only the beginning for the two scientists. One minor setback to this polymer is the time frame it took to “heal” itself.

The average time it took to repair the damage done would take at least an hour. A new scientist, Mark Burnworth has come across a different type of self-healing plastic or polymer, this substance was the “new and improved” version of the original, with the healing time decreased down to only one minute when exposed to UV light. The size of the self-healing polymers is at the minimum using only small scale tests. The 12

end product was the same but the basis of the reaction was different. Mark Burnworth and his fellow scientists came upon these faster polymers by doing many tests involving two films that were 350 – 400 uM thick shaped with self-healing substance, and UV rays. After conducting these tests the team came to the conclusion that the UV rays increased the energy of the polymer which caused heat that liquefied the polymer and after the UV rays were removed, the polymer cools off and seals up the damage.

The discovery of these polymer plastic substances is huge not only in the science and medical world, but in the lives of everyday citizens. Imagine the money and time saved if a car would fix its own scratches and every time a phone was dropped the problem at hand could be fixed in a matter of minutes thanks to a UV light. To say the least the use of self-healing plastics will blow up on the scene in a matter of no time and will continue to improve and this branch of science will never stop expanding.

13

GLOSSARY Polymer – A substance made up of similar units bonded together.

UV Rays – Ultraviolet light with similar properties to x-rays.

14

REFERENCES "Self-healing Material." Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. 13 Jan. 2011. Web. 01 Jan. 2012. <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-healing_material>.

Stuart J. Rowan & Christoph Weder et al , Optically healable supramolecular polymers, Nature, April 01 Jan. 2012.

J. R. Soc. Interface 02 Jan 2012 vol. 4 no. 13 347-348

15

16

Algae as an Alternative Energy Source

Emily Chappell 1/13/12 Advanced Chemistry

17

The production of algae being used as an alternative source of fuel and energy has been around since the 1970’s but it is just now starting to be a growing option in today’s world. Not only scientists, but average citizens of the world, recognize that the world is running out of fossil fuels to run our cars, heat our water, and keep the Earth growing in many different aspects. There are many other types of biofuels and alternative sources of energy. We capture the sun’s energy by capturing it’s heat on solar panels which turns the heat into energy, we put dams in rivers to capture the energy of water, and we build turbines in fields to capture the wind to make energy, but how can algae give us energy?

Biologist and chemists work together to cultivate algae. Biologists are needed to grow the algae and work together with chemists to cultivate it. Chemists extract the chemicals for fuel and energy that come from the algae.

To get energy from algae farmers grow and cultivate it in large plastic bags called photobioreactors.

After the algae is grown they harvest it and take the water out of it, then they process it and get a substance called lipids which are full of oil, after they press the lipids you get a high-energy-density biofuel. The process doesn’t stop there, the dry residue that isn’t used to make the fuel is turned into carbohydrates and proteins that are converted to methane and used in industrial facilities and power plants. After this; the leftover nitrogen, carbon dioxide, and sugars are absorbed again by the new growing algae and the cycle is repeated.

What makes this process more efficient than our current process of turning fossil fuels to oil and turning that into gasoline is that, that process releases carbon dioxide into the air, which is very bad for the environment. The growth of the algae reabsorbs the carbon dioxide emitted in the process needed to grow it, making it much less harmful for the environment.

18

Unlike ethanol, another way scientists are cultivating a crop to make gasoline go further, algae is not an additive meant to make gasoline go farther. Producing algae fuel will completely replace the petroleum needed to make gas making a 100% green fuel. Another reason algae is beneficial is that it has been around for millions of years, this being said, algae can grow in places corn cannot. It can grow in the desert, in wastelands, and in areas other plants simply refuse to grow. That helps save land in Iowa from being dug up and cultivated for corn. Another pro-algae argument is that algae uses many nutrients that we dump into our oceans that are polluting it. In order for any photosynthetic process to take place, sunlight and carbon dioxide are needed but nitrogen and phosphate are also needed. Currently all of the wastewater we are dumping into our oceans have an abundant amount of nitrogen and phosphate in it that we donâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t remove before draining it into the ocean. Instead of releasing it into the ocean scientists could take the water and cultivate an algae crop that would purify the water and help sustain the fuel shortage.

This seems like a picture-perfect solution to our fuel problem; however there are some risks and skeptics have their doubts. Algae is very expensive to grow and keep the technology used to cultivating it going. Another problem is finding a steady source of carbon dioxide, algae requires twice as much carbon dioxide to grow than is readily available and it is very important that the perfect amount of carbon dioxide is used to get the yield needed. The inevitable problem facing algae biofuel is the weather, nobody can rely on the weather being ideal 100% of the time and algae needs reliable weather to be useful.

19

The technology is not perfect for cultivation of algae but there are brilliant people dedicated to solving the problems being faced. Our current fuel source has enough problems and there are many other ways of replacing it. Algal biodiesel could be what the planet needs.

20

GLOSSARY Photobioreactor- Plastic or glass tubes (called "bioreactors") that are exposed to sunlight.

21

WORKS CITED "Algae Biofuels with Stephen Mayfield UC San Diego - YouTube." On Beyond [Science]. San Diego, California. YouTube - Broadcast Yourself. Creative Commons. Web. 12 Jan. 2012. <http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6MruUfjpgFQ>. Transcript.

Ciampa, Frank J. "Algal Biodiesel: Pros and Cons (A Response to “Could Algae Be the New Corn?” by Julia Verdi)." The Green Economy Post: Green Careers, Green Business, Sustainability. Green Economy Post. Web. 12 Jan. 2012. <http://greeneconomypost.com/algal-biodiesel-pros-and-cons-9573.htm>.

Donavan, Jamie, and Ned Stowe. "Is the Future of Biofuels in Algae? | Renewable Energy News Article." Renewable Energy World - Renewable Energy News, Jobs, Events, Companies, and More. EESI. Web. 12 Jan. 2012. <http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/rea/news/article/2009/06/is-the-future-of-biofuelsin-algae>.

Jones, Willie D. Man pointing at vertical photobioreactors with algae in them. Digital image. Spectrum. Valcent Products, 21 Apr. 2008. Web. 8 Jan. 2012. <http://spectrum.ieee.org/energy/fossil-fuels/the-power-of-pondscum-biodiesel-and-hydrogen-from-algae>.

22

Turning Chemicals Into Electricity

Holden Clark Advanced Chemistry 11, January 2012 23

Fuel cells are devices that generate electricity by a chemical reaction. Every fuel cell has two electrodes, one positive and one negative. These electrodes are called the anode and cathode respectively.

Hydrogen is the basic fuel for any fuel cell, but it also requires oxygen to function.

Fuel cells give off very little pollution. Fuel cells

produce an electrical current that can be directed outside of the cell to produce work. Fuel cell can power an electric motor, a light bulb, and even a city if a large enough fuel cell exits. There are several kinds of fuel cells but all of them work little different. The basic fuel cell has hydrogen enter the cell at the anode. At that point a chemical reaction strips hydrogen from their electrons. The hydrogen atoms are ionized and are positively charged. The negative charge electrons provide the current through wires to produce work.

If an alternating current (AC) is need,

direct current (DC) must be sent through a converter called an inverter to produce the alternating current (AC). Oxygen now enters the fuel cell at the cathode and it combines with electrons that are returning from the electrical circuit and hydrogen ions that have gone through the electrolyte from the anode.

Fuel cells are more efficient because they

create electricity through chemical reaction and not by combustion. This is more reasonable because it does not give off pollution, while the others give off pollution that can be harmful.

The first fuel cell was created in England in 1839 by Sir William Grove. His experiments included research of using electricity to split water in hydrogen and oxygen.

Grove thought that it was possible to split

water into hydrogen and oxygen with electricity, then to reverse the 24

process to make electricity.

He put two platinum strips in two

containers, one of them containing hydrogen and the other oxygen. When the containers were placed into diluted sulfuric acid, a current began to flow between the two electrodes. Water then formed in the gas collection bottles.

To increase the voltage, he linked containers together to

produce what he referred to as a "gas battery."

In the 1950s and 1960s

there was an increased interest in fuel cells. NASA was looking for a more adequate power source to use on their space flights.

Over the following

years scientists researched more applications for fuel cells.

There are many different types of fuel cells that use different types of fuel.

Some types are Alkali, Molten Carbonate, Phosphoric Acid, Proton

Exchange Membrane, and solid oxide.

They have different fuel sources but

all have the same purpose, to produce electricity.

Alkali fuel cells

operate on hydrogen and oxygen and use a solution of potassium hydroxide (KOH). These fuel cells are able to produce 300 watts.

The Molten

Carbonate fuel cell use high-temperatures compounds of salt.

These fuel

cells output up to 2 megawatts, but high-temperatures limits damage from carbon monoxide.

Phosphoric Acid fuel cells use phosphoric acid as the

fuel, and can output up to 200 kilowatts and 11 megawatts. They produce a carbon monoxide concentration of 1.5 percent. The Proton Exchange Membrane fuel cell works off a polymer electrolyte in the shape of a thin sheet.

This cell generally outputs a range from 50 to 250 kilowatts. This kind of fuel cell works at a low temperature so they can be used in homes and cars, but their fuels must be purified.

The Solid Oxide fuel cell uses a

hard ceramic compound of metals such as calcium or zirconium oxides. This 25

cell outputs 100 kilowatts. Since they are rather large in size they do not require extracting hydrogen from the fuel, and waste heat can be recycled to make additional electricity.

Over the past few years fuel cells have been put into places like hospitals and schools. Even the U.S. Department of Defense has a program that is researching more to improve and implement uses for fuel cells.

Automotive companies have unveiled prototype fuel-cell powered cars and buses.

Some fuel-cell powered buses have been placed in Chicago and

Vancouver and many cities across North America. Europe and North America have been looking to incorporate more fuel-cell powered vehicles in their cites in the future. There is a common interest to make fuel cells more available to the home, schools, and hospitals in an attempt to make renewable energy. Scientists across the country in different labs and different schools are trying to find new ways to make the fuel cells more efficient and more available.

Fuel cells have been helpful in research towards chemistry because of how they are built and the fuel they use.

The first is the chemical

formulas that a fuel cell uses the anode reaction has

2H2 => 4H+ + 4e- . Then

the cathode reaction O2 + 4H+ + 4e- => 2H2O, but the overall cell reaction is 2H 2 + O2 => 2H2O. That is how the fuel cell makes electricity. solubility of the fuel that a fuel cell uses.

The second is the

The fuel that it uses is not that

soluble, but it is partly soluble.

26

GLOSSARY 

electrode - a conductor, not necessarily metallic, through which a current enters or leaves a nonmetallic medium, as an electrolytic cell, arc generator, vacuum tube, or gaseous discharge tube.



anode - the electrode or terminal by which current enters an electrolytic cell, voltaic cell, battery.



cathode

-

the negative terminal, electrode, or element of an

electron tube or electrolytic cell. 

direct current - a continuous electric current that flows in one direction only, without substantial variation in magnitude.



alternating current - a continuous electric current that periodically

reverses direction, usually sinusoidally. 

electrolyte - a chemical compound that dissociates in solution into ions.



watts - the SI unit of power, equivalent to one joule per second and equal to the power in a circuit in which a current of one ampere flows across a potential difference of one volt.



megawatts - a unit of power, equal to one million watts.



kilowatts - a unit of power, equal to 1000 watts.

27

BIBLIOGRAPHY http://americanhistory.si.edu/fuelcells/policy.htm http://www.fctec.com/fctec_history.asp http://www.fctec.com/fctec_basics.asp

28

CHEMisTryCHEMisTryCHEMisTry CHEMisTryCHEMisTryCHEMisTry CHEMisTryCHEMisTrCHEMisTryC HEMisTryCHEMisTryCHEMisTryC HEMisTryCHEMisTryCHEMisTryC Careers in HEMisTrpaCHEMisTRYCHEMisTr Biorenewables yCHEMisTryCHEMisTryCHEMisTr yCHEMisTryCHEMisTryCHEMisTr yCHEMisTrasdEMisTryCHEMisTr yCHEMisTryCHEMisTryCHEMisTr yCHEMisTryCHEMisTryCHEMisTr CHEMisTryCHEMisTryCHEMisTry Quynh Dang CHEMisTryCHEMisTryCHEMisTry March 26 2012 CHEMisTryCHEMisTryCHEMisTry Chemistry II CHEMisTryCHEMisTryCHEMisTrC HEMisTryCHEMisTryCHEMisTryC 29

In the new era of modern day technologies advancements and scientific discoveries, the powering agent that we have used for decades has become scarce. Over the years we have relied too heavily on fossils fuels to power our house and fill gas into our tanks. But now with heavy costs from overseas imports and the soon to be dried up wells, as a whole we are no longer able to sustain our once was surplus supply. Due to this fact scientist and various industries are attempting to create a more environmentally healthy substitute. Businesses are now looking for ways to save with cheaper and more efficient energy alternative because of the current energy crisis. Today plenty of Companies are encouraging students to take part in this field of careers choices.

Like any other careers some form of training is required. According to CBiRC in order to become a Bio renewable Chemicals Graduate Minor must have at sequences of 14 hours of credit classes. If wanting to achieve for a higher education like a master degree the requirement includes; “A graduate faculty member from the minor program must serve on the POS committee and the final oral examination must test for the minor” (CBiRC) these are requirement set out at the Bio renewable technologies programs at Iowa State University.

Depending on schools the requirement may be more or less.

To many students who are interested in this career path but not too eager on constant hours in lab doing research, find the variety of jobs having to do with this field to be quite fascinating. To name only a few, examples of jobs this field provides could be but not limit to Power manger in Sustainable Materials/BioFuels/Organic , Bio chemist, Bio chemistry college Professor, Biotechnologist, and Engineer.

Companies like; Glucan Bio renewable, Frontline Bioenergy, Pine Creek Systems, or The Bio Business Alliance MN, are looking for graduates as potential workers and may have internships for students who want to see hand on hand work With cooperation and business attempting to save on spending costs, they are willing to fund schools and researches to help them explore other options.” According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, plant and systems operators earn $40,000 to $45,000 annually.” (Keith Kor, Corn Plus) This quote is a possible annual income to biomass production workers. “For specific biochemistry areas of expertise, such as biotechnology 30

research scientists, the salaries can be quite high - between $43k-$71k - while those just starting out in their careers can expect to see around $35k-$56k.â&#x20AC;?( Biochemistryjobs.org) There has been much conversational debate on how bio renewable jobs and research can be beneficial.

Taking into account the great amount of work and money put into creating these new renewable materials.

However with research and consist scientific involving it may be possible to create a substance which takes little energy to produce and is environmentally friendly. Plus with all the pollution and the overfilling land fields these jobs are now being more necessary. Not only is helping cure the energy crisis important but so creating substances that can dematerialize over time is another factor that is sometime overlooked. Due to all these environmental and energy cost problems bio careers are becoming essential.

31

GLOSSARY Requirements- the amount obligated.

Program Manager- A manger how is in charge of guiding workers through leadership and establish research on Sustainable Materials and biofuel.

Biochemist: skilled worker in studying biochemistry and associates with living organisms through research

Biotechnical- working with living organism and applied biology that can also involve engineering.

Engineer- applies in the study of engineering, using math and scientific knowledge to machinery and varies from design to construction.

Internship- A period where a beginner is able to experience training Bio renewable: process crops use to produce energy and various other products

32

WORK CITED -Fales, Steven, and Susan Thompson. "College of Agriculture and Life Sciences - News Releases Promoting Biorenewables Is New Job for Iowa State Agronomy Professor." Iowa State University - College of Agriculture and Life Sciences. College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, 18 Apr. 2006. Web. 02 Jan. 2012. <http://www.ag.iastate.edu/news/releases/41/>.

-"Biorenewable Fuels Technology." Iowa Lakes Community College. Iowa Lake Community College. Web. 02 Jan. 2012. <http://www.iowalakes.edu/academic_programs/programs_of_study/agriculture/biorenewable _fuels_technology/>.

-"Industry Internships & Jobs." The Center for Biorenewable Chemicals. Iowa State University of Science and Technology., 2008. Web. 02 Jan. 2012. <http://www.cbirc.iastate.edu/industry/opportunities/>.

-Baughman, Jacqulyn A. "Biorenewable Resources and Technology Graduate Certificate Online."

Engineering Online Learning –. Iowa State University, 2012. Web. 02 Jan. 2012. <http://www.eol.iastate.edu/graduate-certificates/biorenewable-resources-and-technologygraduate-certificate-online/>.

-"ISU Seeks Approval for $74.5 Million Biorenewables Building | TheGazette." Eastern Iowa Breaking News and Headlines | Thegazette.com - Cedar Rapids, Iowa City. The Gazette, 15 Sept. 2011. Web. 02 Jan. 2012. <http://thegazette.com/2011/09/15/isu-seeks-approval-for-74-5-million- biorenewables-building/>.

-"Biochemistry Jobs." BIOCHEMISTRY JOBS. BIOCHEMISTRY JOBS, 19 Sept. 2012. Web. 26 Mar. 2012. <http://www.biochemistryjobs.org/>.

-Pkeeling. "Technology-Led Entrepreneurship (Spring Semester)." Search Results Company. 28 Sept. 2011.

Web. 26 Mar. 2012. http://www.cbirc.iastate.edu/?s=company - "Join Us." Careers. Danisco A/S. Web. 26 Mar. 2012. <http://www.danisco.com/careers/>.

- Keeling, Peter. "Education Opportunities." The Center for Biorenewable Chemicals. Iowa State University, 2012. Web. 26 Mar. 2012. <http://www.cbirc.iastate.edu/education/education-opportunities/>.

33

34

BIODIESEL PRODUCTION

Zachary Dickhoff Mr. Hall Chemistry II January 3rd, 2012

35

Biodiesel is one of the top fuels out there that is made out of biorenewable products. In Europe, it is the most common type of biofuel. It is one of the most eco-friendly biofuels, which is why the amount of usage of biodiesel has substantially increased since 2001 and is predicted to increase even more throughout the next decade.

Biodiesel was founded on August 10th, 1893, by Rudolf Diesel. He invented it when he created the diesel engine in Augsburg, Germany. His invention of the diesel engine and biodiesel fuel helped scientists try to find more ecofriendly products to help the environment become a better place. This is very important because harmful gases are going into the air and it hurts our environment as a whole. If the world starts using biodiesel instead of just regular diesel, it will help our environment and our air because it does not produce harmful gases into the air like diesel does.

It is also known that it was created far before then. It is said that in the year 1853, two scientists, E. Duffy and J. Patrick, used a process called transesterification of a vegetable oil to create diesel fuel. Transesterification is the process of exchanging the organic group of ester with the organic group of alcohol. From this, people infer that Rudolf Diesel did not actually create biodiesel. They infer that E. Duffy and J. Patrick were the creators of biodiesel.

Biodiesel is made up of long-chain fatty acids with an alcohol attached. It goes through a process called transesterification, which produces biodiesel and glycerin. The transesterification process is used because scientists can change something as simple as vegetable oil into a biodiesel. By doing this, it is safer on the environment and it still has the same effect that fuel does.

Other key facts about biodiesel include flashpoint and calorific value. Biodiesel’s flashpoint is much greater than petroleum’s flashpoint. This makes biodiesel less of a fire hazard than petroleum. Also, biodiesel’s calorific value is about 37.27 MJ/kg, which is 9% lower than petro diesel.

Many people in the world have begun to start using biodiesel fuel because of how much it helps the environment compared to regular fuel. It is known that biodiesel is more expensive per gallon than gasoline is, but biodiesel is much more efficient and it lasts much longer than gasoline.

Biodiesel has many properties. Biodiesel has very low levels in high pressure systems, which increases the life of the fuel injection equipment. It also has better lubricating properties than regular fuel. This makes the biodiesel reduce 36

the fuel system wear which makes a product easier to use and more efficient towards the environment. All of the properties of biodiesel make it better and easier for people to use.

Biodiesel is also nice to use because it is cheaper. During a nationwide research in the year 2007, the average price of biodiesel per gallon was 11 cents cheaper than regular diesel. It is also compatible with a regular diesel engine.

This make consumers want to use biodiesel even more.

Overall, biodiesel is a much better product to use over regular diesel. The reason of that is because biodiesel is much cheaper, eco-friendly, and has a better wear on an engine. The reason people want to use biodiesel more than regular diesel is simply because it lasts longer and it helps the environment. It is more eco-friendly because there are not any harmful gases in it. All of these things result in a happier consumer, a safer engine, and a much cleaner planet.

37

GLOSSARY

Biodiesel- vegetable oil or animal fat based fuel consisting of long-chain alkyl esters.

Biorenewable- source of energy that can be reused.

Diesel- heavy petroleum fraction that is used in diesel engines.

Eco-Friendly- terms for products that have little or no harm on the environment.

Efficient- object that has a maximum amount of productivity and a minimum amount of wasted effort.

Fuel Injection- direct introduction of fuel under pressure into the combustion units of an internal combustion engine.

Glycerin- sweet, syrupy alcohol made of fats and oils.

Lubricating- reduction of wear on a surface.

Substantial- considerable amount of importance or size.

Transesterification- process of exchanging the organic group of ester with the organic group of alcohol.

38

WORKS CITED

Hofman, Vern. "Biodiesel Fuel." NDSU Agriculture â&#x20AC;&#x201D; NDSU. Feb. 2003. Web. 19 Dec. 2011.

"Mission." Great Lakes Bioenergy Research Center. Web. 02 Jan. 2012.

"Biodiesel.org - Biodiesel 101." National Biodiesel Board - www.biodiesel.org. Web. 02 Jan. 2012

39

40

Zach Doyle January 1, 2012 Advanced Chemistry

41

Biochar is a zero-waste solution; a charcoal that is made by the land when organic matter smolders in oxygen depleted environments. This process created by using a process known as pyrolysis. It gathers an assortment of nutrients along with water to make the soil extremely fertile. Using this Biochar to improve the richness of soils originated back in the Amazon basin thousands of years ago. Studies have indicated that this Biochar can remain stable for up to a millennia. The native Indians of the area would create charcoal and integrate it in small areas of land. Around Brazil, it is known as Terra Preta, and it remains highly fertile until today, even with little or no appliance of fertilizers. Scientists think that production of crops in terra preta is twice that of crops grown in nearby soils. It is a relatively new discovery and scientists are hoping that it could someday replace oil and gasoline as a sustainable fuel.

Terra preta was a very well kept secret until 1879, when explorer Herbert Smith came back and published his stories of the Amazon in Scribner’s Monthly. It was an illustrated magazine for the people, published from 1870- 1881. He wrote “The cane-field itself is a splendid sight; the stalks ten feet high in many places, and as big as one’s wrist. The secret was the rich terra preta, ‘black land’, the best on the Amazons. It is a fine, dark loam, a foot, and often two feet thick.” People were intrigued by his writings of this terra preta, but it wasn’t until recently that scientists traveled to Brazil to get their hands on some and begin research.

The soil scientists, archeologists, geographers, agronomists, and anthropologists who study Terra preta unanimously agree that the soil comes from around river basins, possibly dating back up to 7000 years.

Scientists have discovered that terra preta contains not one or two, but three times as much phosphorus and nitrogen compared to surrounding soil. This is very important because they are two of the three essential element classified as a macronutrient because of the relatively large amounts of required by plants. An adequate level of phosphorus stimulates early plant growth and speed ups maturity, while sufficient levels of nitrogen must be available to the soil to avoid deficiency. It is a major part of chlorophyll which responsible for 42

lush, vigorous plant growth. Scientists have also recently revealed that terra preta is also up to 9% carbon opposed to .5% of neighboring areas. This is vital because this allows more carbon to remain in the ground, therefore in wouldn’t be in the air allowing it to convert in to carbon dioxide which replenishes the carbon in the ground. This is why so many people have high hopes that this will revolutionize the fight against global warming.

These studies have become extremely important. As global warming becomes more of a significant issue scientists are striving to make biofuels that are carbon neutral. This refers to have net zero carbon emissions which is basically the carbon dioxide in the biomass makes up for the carbon dioxide given off by the burning, but with Biochar, many scientists also believe that this is the only way to make fuel that is actually carbon negative, which means that even after the fuel has been burned, more carbon dioxide is removed from the atmosphere. That’s only one of the positives Biochar has to offer, it also reduces odor, methane emissions, and nitrous oxide emissions and that’s only for our atmosphere. For our soil, Biochar captures the soil in the ground, improves soil fertility and tilth, and decreases nutrient run off. All these encouraging attributes make this soil amazing, and if you want to buy it, you can buy it online. It’s sold as a soil modification for up to $500 per ton or $12.50/50 lbs plus shipping.

As you can see, Biochar is only in its infant stages, and it’s going to be a long time before people realize how vital this can be. There are extremely high hopes for this because this is the cleanest way of producing fuel, and hopes are only going to get higher as more research is conducted, but this is the key to unlocking large scale food and energy production all while being green and reducing global warming.

43

GLOSSARY Biochar:- a charcoal type material produced by cooking organic matter in a low-oxygen environment Pyrolysis:-Decomposition of material through extremely high temperature Biomass:- Organic material used as fuel Carbon Neutral:- Carbon dioxide in the material makes up for the carbon dioxide given off by burning Carbon Negative:- More carbon dioxide is put back into the ground than the air even after it is burned Terra Preta:- Or â&#x20AC;&#x153;black soilâ&#x20AC;? is the rich soil found in the Amazon Macronutrient:- Nutrients that living things uses in relatively large amounts Viable:- Capability of working Soil Fertility:- he ability of a soil to supply plant nutrients.

Soil Tilth:- the physical condition of the soil Nutrient Runoff:- Excess nutrients from fertilizer, applications on pastures are carried by surface or ground water and flushed into waterways

44

REFERENCES What Is Biochar? | International Biochar Initiative." International Biochar Initiative | International Biochar Initiative.

Nternational Biochar Initiative., 24 June 2011. Web. 01 Jan. 2012. <http://www.biochar-international.org/biochar>.

Hall, Eric, and Jeff Rudasill. Chicken Poop For The Soil. 11 July 2011. Web. <http://dl.dropbox.com/u/26251534/RET%202011/Chicken%20Poop%20for%20the%20Soil/Chicken%20Poop%20for%2 0the%20Soil%20Complete.pdf>.

Lehmann, Johannes. "Biochar Articles." Welcome to Biochar.Info. Nature Publishing Group, 10 May 2001. Web. 02 Jan. 2012. <http://biochar.info/index.cfm?view=52.3>.

Busman, Lowell, John Lamb, Gyles Randall, George Rehm, and Michael Schmitt. "The Nature of Phosphorous in Soils." University of Minnesota Extension. Regents of the University of Minnesota, 2002. Web. 02 Jan. 2012. <http://www.extension.umn.edu/distribution/cropsystems/DC6795.html>.

Brenner, John. "Soil Carbon Storage." National Association of Conservation Districts. National Association Of Conservation Districts. Web. 02 Jan. 2012. <http://www.nacdnet.org/resources/reports/carbon_storage.phtml>.

"Biochar." US Biochar Initiative Home Page. US Biochar Initiative, 2009. Web. 08 Jan. 2012. <http://www.biocharus.org/>.

45

46

Anna Ho 1/3/12 Advanced Chemistry

47

Recycling has been promoted and its importance has been emphasized in this generation more than any other. This is because people want to conserve energy and not waste raw materials.

Aluminum cans are the fifth most recycled item in the U.S (Kaplan). An aluminum can has a closed circle life cycle that it can go through if it is recycled.

The process of making aluminum cans all starts with bauxite. This usually comes from an Australian outback or Jamaica. Bauxite mining destroys more surface area than any other ore which harms the earth and environment (Tufts). Bauxite is processed into alumina before it can be converted to aluminum by electrolysis.

The amount of alumina produced is approximately half the weight of the original bauxite.

Alumina is shipped across the world for further processing using tons of energy and polluting oceans.

Alumina goes through something called smelting. Smelting is one of the most destructive processes to our climate. In the smelting process the alumina is dissolved in huge pots filled with cryolite while carbon electrodes are added to the pot to send a giant 100,000 amps electricity (Ryan).

The aluminum slabs are then shipped and/or trucked to a factory the aluminum is flattened and then shipped to the next mill. Shipping aluminum from place to place soon adds up. Each year, the aluminum industry pays out over $800 million dollars for empty aluminum cans (Cummings). At this mill, the aluminum is shaped into a can and printed with design. The can is then baked twice and then sent to the next factory.

Once the can has been used, it can be recycled or be thrown in a landfill.

More than half of the aluminum currently produced is from recycled raw materials (How). Aluminum can be recycled again and again without losing any of its properties (Ryan). By recycling, it eliminates the need to mine bauxite or smelt alumina which makes it earth friendly. Recycling benefits people now and in the future by conserving energy and other natural resources. Recycling saves up to 95% of the energy required for primary aluminum production which avoids greenhouse gas emissions used in the process (Recycling). The life cycle of an aluminum can from mining to recycling is 60 days 48

(Ryan). If a can is thrown into a garbage can instead of recycling bin it will be transported to a dump.

A can may sit in a landfill for 500 years before it is decomposed (Ryan). This is inefficient because it forces more aluminum ore to be harvested only to go through the same energy wasting process.

Life cycle analysis is important to the earth because it stops the problem of shifting environmental impacts, can help to minimize secondary effects if used in conjunction with design, can help to reduce environmental pollution and resource use Enables understanding of true and total costs (monetary and environmental) of manufacture and design and using environmental management, including LCA, can often improve profitability (Life).

The Life cycle analysis connects to our classroom because we have gone on a field trip to Iowa State University to learn about biorenewables. Plastic, like aluminum, has a closed loop life cycle because it can also be recycled. Aluminum is made of different raw resources put together and then it is melted together. Plastic is also the same but less toxic. In our lab, we made plastic by combining different ingredients together and then letting it dry to form plastic.

49

GLOSSARY:

Bauxite- aluminum ore Alumina- aluminum oxide Electrolysis- Chemical decomposition produced by passing an electric current through a liquid or solution containing ions.

Smelting- Extract (metal) from its ore by a process involving heating and melting: "tin smelting"

50

WORKS CITED Cummings, By Larry. "Benefits of Aluminum Can Recycling - Earth911.com." Earth911.com - Find Recycling Centers and Learn How To Recycle. Web. 08 Jan. 2012.

"How It's Made Aluminum Cans (Sam's Club Choice) - YouTube." YouTube - Broadcast Yourself. Web. 02 Jan. 2012.

Kaplan, Melanie D.G. "Top 10 Recycled Items in 2009 | SmartPlanet." SmartPlanet - Innovative Ideas That Impact Your World. 13 Mar. 2010. Web. 08 Jan. 2012.

"Life Cycle Assessment." Quantis - Environmental Life Cycle Assessment Consultants. Web. 08 Jan. 2012.

"Recycling | Reduce, Reuse, Recycle | US EPA." US Environmental Protection Agency. Web. 02 Jan. 2012.

Ryan, John C., and Alan Thein. Durning. Stuff: The Secret Lives of Everyday Things. Seattle: Northwest Environment Watch, 1997. Print.

"Tufts Recycles! - The Life of a Soda Can." Tufts University. Web. 02 Jan. 2012.

51

52

Life Cycle Analysis Of

Putty

By Eric Kalianoff January, 2012 Advanced Chemistry 53

Silly Putty is a rubber-like material that is used for entertainment among young children and adults. It is easy to mold into any shape, stretchy, and able to pick pieces off of it. While the silly putty is non-toxic and has a very high heat resistance, it is also able to absorb petroleum based ink, and copy the image or words.

Silly Putty is composed of 65% dimethyl siloxane, 17% silica, 9% thixatrol ST, 4% polydimethylsiloxane, 1% decamethyl cyclopentasiloxane, 1% glycerine, and 1% titanium dioxide. Most of which are naturally occurring, and a majority of which are made of silicone.

Dimethyl siloxane is made industrially and may result in a small amount of air pollution. Silicone is a petroleumbased substance. Since silicone is made from petroleum, it may cause pollution of the air, and reduce the amount of petroleum that the earth has left.

The dimethylsiloxane gives the silly putty its rubbery feel, as does the polydimethylsiloxane and decamethyl cyclopentasiloxane. Everything within silly putty is industrially produced, giving it a potentially high pollution value.

The egg the Silly Putty is contained in is thin plastic, which is petroleum based. Millions of these thin eggs are made to accommodate the Silly Putty, as Silly Putty is sold in Europe along with the United States, and is a big hit in both of them.

Once at a consumer's home, the silly putty is used over and over, lasting for a relatively long time, since it is extremely durable. Once it has been used, most likely having been split and pieces been scattered wherever, it is eventually thrown away.

Silly Putty does not decompose swiftly, if at all. It sits in a landfill, along with millions of other 13 grams of Silly Putty. It just sits there, until the very small amounts that are biodegradable degrade. However, that leaves at least 95% of the silly putty intact, not even including the egg that contains it.

In short, Silly Putty provides entertainment, but is an inorganic polymer, and does not decay. The production of it causes pollution, and uses petroleum, a limited resource. It is not good for the environment at all.

54

GLOSSARY dimethyl siloxane: Any of a class of organic or inorganic chemical compounds of silicon, oxygen, and usually carbon and hydrogen with the alkyl methyl.

Silica: a granular, vitreous, porous form of silicon dioxide made synthetically from sodium silicate.

Thixotrol: a modified derivative of castor oil for use in aliphatic and aromatic solvent-borne coatings.

Petroleum: Crude oil. Flammable, and naturally occurring.

55

BIBLIOGRAPHY http://pubs.acs.org/cen/whatstuff/stuff/7848scit3.html http://www.google.com/patents?vid=2541851 http://textile2technology.com/fibreinfo/the-preparation-of-silly-putty-an-inorganic-polymer.html http://www.campoly.com/general_research.html http://www.michaelcoolidge.com/silly_putty_04.asp http://www.hickorees.com/brand/silly-putty/product/classic-silly-putty http://everythingmadehere.blogspot.com/2009/11/how-to-make-silly-putty.html http://www.elementis.com/esweb/webproducts.nsf/allbydocid/64055937894AF84985257657004B2155/$FILE/ELEMEN TIS-THIXATROL%20ST.pdf

56

PYROLYSIS

Omar Lamar March, 2012 Advanced Chemistry 57

Pyrolysis is the process of reacting organic compounds at high temperatures, which results in decomposition. The word came from the Greek words ‘pyro’, which means fire and ‘lysis’ which means to separate. When pyrolysis takes place in water, it is called ‘hydrous pyrolysis’ and is most commonly used for organic materials.

Pyrolysis is not effective in either destroying or physically separating inorganics from the contaminated medium. Metals may be removed as a result of the higher temperatures associated with the process, but they are not destroyed. Products containing heavy metals may require stabilization before final disposal. When the off-gases are cooled off, liquids condense, producing an oil or tar residue and contaminated water. These oils and tars may be hazardous wastes, requiring proper treatment, storage and disposal. (cpeo.org) Pyrolysis’ organic materials are transformed into gases, small quantities of liquid, and a solid residue containing carbon and ash. The off-gases may also be treated in a secondary thermal unit. Particulate removal equipment is also required. Several types of pyrolysis units are available, including the rotary kiln and fluidizing bed furnace. These units are similar to incinerators, except that they operate at lower temperatures and with less air supply.

Pyrolysis is important because it is used to make a lot of things that we use such as charcoal for the grill, activated carbon, methanol, and many other substances from wood. Pyrolysis wood starts in fires which make the burning fuels in a volcano come together with lava and make a volcanic eruption. (Wikipedia.org)

58

GLOSSARY Organic compounds – those with high carbon content; carbon-based compounds Inorganic compounds – those that contain mostly elements besides carbon Medium – the substance being heated Incinerator – piece of equipment that is used to burn (incinerate) materials

59

SOURCES http://www.cpeo.org/techtree/ttdescript/pyrols.htm http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyrolysis photo: Wikipedia.org

60

Gasification for a Greener World

Kristin Lengeling Chem. II 26 March 2012 61

With the recent energy crisis many scientist are looking for a renewable resource that is cost efficient and can reduce the dependency on foreign oils and natural gas. Gasification is a way to solve this problem. Gasification is a growing industry that will help stimulate the economy (Gasification Technologies). It also reduces the amount of greenhouse gasses released into the atmosphere (What is Gasification). Gasification has many applications and is very versatile.

Gasification occurs when biomass or coal is combined with oxygen and steam which is heated to 3,000-4,000°F or 1648.8-2204.4°C. There is not enough oxygen to produce a fire and incinerate the materials. When it is all done there is a byproduct and synthesis gas (Syngas) which can be used to make fuels, consumer products and burned to generate electricity. One of the byproducts is nontoxic slag it is used in roofing material and in constructing roadbeds. When converting the syngas into the different fuels and electricity, carbon dioxide (CO2) is produced. To keep the CO2 out of the atmosphere they capture the CO2. Scientists have found a way to store the CO2 underground which keeps the CO2 out of the ozone so it does not add to global warming. The cost of storing the CO2 underground is only 55 dollars (Governor’s Hot Topics). This is cheaper than a barrel of oil. The CO2 can also be sold to help get oil out of the ground that we could not otherwise get. This is a good thing because it allows more oil to be extracted from existing wells.

Gasification is a worldwide industry, with over 150 plants and 19 in the USA (Gasification Technologies). The gasification industry is projected to grow at least 100% in the next four years because of the concerns about greenhouse gasses and global warming added to the unpredictable prices of oil (Gasification Technologies). Gasification takes low costing biomass, any type of organic matter and turns it into fuels and electricity which is worth a lot more. Biomass is any organic material used as fuel. “Almost any organic- based materials can be utilized in biomass energy schemes” (DeGunther 222). Some of the common biomass materials used are, garbage, wood chips, and agricultural waste. It is cheaper than using coal and petroleum.

The website Clean-enegry.us, has divided the history of gasification into five stages starting in the 1850’s and leading up to the present. To summarize the stages the first stage is the time when all fuel sources for lighting and heat utilized the strictly coal gasification. The second stage started in during World War 2 when the Germans developed technology to produce synthetic fuels using gasification. They passed this technology on to other countries so they 62

could use gasification to produce chemicals and other fuels (Facts about Gasification). “The next [3rd] stage in the evolution of gasification began after the Arab Oil Embargo of 1973” (Facts about Gasification). During this time the United States Government began giving money for projects. One of the first projects to get money was the Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle (IGCC) electric power plant (Facts about Gasification). According to Gregg Easterbrook the IGCC “reduced emissions substantially” (Easterbrook). According to Clean-enegry.us, it says the fourth stage has the governments from the United States and other countries continuing to give money to gasification plants and research.

Finally the fifth stage started in 2000 and continues to present day. It shows an increase in private plants funding their own projects and less government involvement. These plants are located in other countries. They are being built near refineries where the hydrocarbon and petroleum byproducts needed are more readily available. It is stated that the first person to patent gasification was Robert Gardner in 1778(Gasification History).

The applications of using gasification are more than just producing electricity. The products made from gasification are chemicals like ammonia, which can be used to make things like fertilizers. This helps out farmers because it allows them to use to use the excess biomass to power the farm. Gasification can be used as a substitute for natural gas and it is used to find imperfections in different types of fuels.

In class we talked about balancing and writing equations. This is a key part in gasification because if you don’t have the right formula the whole gasification process will be messed up and you won’t get the right product.

Gasification is a cost efficient way to solve the USA’s dependency on foreign oils and natural gas. Gasification takes biomass and turns them into syngas that can be used to generate electricity and it can be used as a substitute to natural gas. Gasification is a growing worldwide industry that applications help create a greener world for future generations.

63

GLOSSARY 

Gasification- the process of taking a solid and turning it into a gas



Biomass- organic material as a fuel i.e. Wood, trash, sewage



Synthesis gas- gas produced in during gasification



Hydrocarbon- chemical containing only hydrogen and carbon



Byproduct(s)- the waste that is leftover or produced during gasification



Slag- a sort of glass-like byproduct of gasification

64

WORKS CITED "Clean-energy.us - Facts about Gasification." News and Information About Coal Gasification. Web. 01 Jan. 2012. <http://www.clean-energy.us/facts/gasification.htm>.

DeGunther, Rik. Alternative Energy for Dummies. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 2009. 222. Print.

Easterbrook, Gregg. "The Dirty War Against Clean Coal." New York Times 29 June 2009: 21. TOPICsearch. Web. 8 Jan. 2012.

"Gasification History and Development." Turare. Web. 02 Jan. 2012. <http://cturare.tripod.com/his.htm>.

The Gasification Technologies Council. Web. 01 Jan. 2012. <http://www.gasification.org/default.asp>.

"Governor's Hot Topics - Mt.gov - Montana's Official State Website." Montana Governor Brian Schweitzer - Mt.gov - Montana's Official State Website. Web. 06 Jan. 2012. <http://governor.mt.gov/hottopics/faqsynthetic.asp>. â&#x20AC;&#x153;Gasification Process.â&#x20AC;? Graphic. New Energy and Fuel. Web. 2 Jan. 2012. <http://newenergyandfuel.com/http:/newenergyandfuel/com/2008/09/12/progess-check-biomass-and-coal-togasoline/>.

"What Is Gasification?" Sierra Energy: Waste Gasification, Renewable Energy, FastOx

Gasifier. Web. 1 Jan. 2012.

<http://www.sierraenergycorp.com/innovation/whatis-gasification/>.

65

66

Biorenewable Research at Iowa State University

Merisa Lengeling

Chemistry 2 Gold 4 1/1/12

67

Petrochemicals are chemicals made with petroleum. These chemicals are then used to make products used every day like gasoline, plastic, fertilizer, paints, inks, chemicals and many other products (Passero pg.

14). Petroleum is a non-renewable resource, so it is a limited. Recent concerns about oil prices, production and American dependence on foreign oil, along with concerns for the environment have led to a need to develop other ways to produce these products, thus decreasing on dependency on oil. In order to achieve this, a renewable resource must be found to replace these petrochemicals. The Center of Biorenewable Chemicals, CBiRC, located at Iowa State University in Ames, Iowa, attempting to create biorenewable chemicals to replace the petrochemicals we use today.

In 2008 Iowa State University was given a grant from National Science Foundation to create a research center for biorenewable chemicals. (Crop Biotech Update).The NSF main mission in granting this funding was to “create university and industry partnerships in research and education that promote innovation, transform engineered systems, advance technology and produce engineering graduates who can creatively contribute to US competitive advantage in a global economy,”(Crop Biotech Update). CBiRC is working with different college majors, from nine different national institutions and four international institutions (CBiRC). CBiRC is currently working with three thrusts of research, which are Biocatalysts, Microbial Metabolic Engineering, and Chemical Catalysis, (CBiRC). Each thrust is conducted separately but they utilize the previous processes to help develop the new one (CBiRC). All these different research projects are to help create biorenewable chemicals that can be used instead of petroleum based chemicals.

The first thrust in their research is to create “New Biocatalysts for Pathway Engineering” (CBiRC). A biocatalyst is an enzyme that speeds up a chemical reaction (McGraw-Hill). Pathway engineering is a type of genetic engineering that changes the speed of the biological or the metabolic process (McGraw-Hill). They are concentrating on changing the process of the fatty acid at the microbe level. Currently they are using the enzymes, 3-ketoacyl-ACP Synthase, Acetoacetyl-CoA, Acetyl-CoA/Propionyl-CoA Synthetase, Acyl-CoA 68

Carboxylases, Methylketone Synthase, Thioesterases, Biocatalysts of the Acetyl-CoA Condensation, Fatty Acid Elongase. (CBiRC) The second thrust in their research is “Microbial Metabolic Engineering,” (CBiRC). This research concentrates on genetically modifying the microorganisms to make them efficiently produce biochemicals (CBiRC). This research helps make the molecules in thrust one be mass produced inexpensively (CBiRC). Dr. Laura Jarboe an Assistant Professor of Engineering at Iowa State recently received additional funding from the NSF for her research in thrust two. “The goal of their project is to produce biorenewable chemicals from biooil, using . . . in this case E-coli, as a catalyst. The microalgae in one process and E-coli in another, convert sugars in the bio-oil to hydrocarbons – a major energy source.” (Neary) The third thrust is “Chemical Catalysis” (CBiRC). This thrust is trying to take the bio intermediate chemicals in thrust one and two and chemical catalysts, to create useful compounds that can be used by industries to create polymers (CBiRC). These polymers will replace the petrochemicals that make up many products used today (YouTube). Thrust three has eight associated projects.

Besides the three major thrust discussed above the research includes testing, application and assessment areas. These areas will help determine future directions for the research.

Our classes went to the CBiRC research center in Ames to learn about bioplastics. The bioplastic we made had water cornstarch glycerin and vinegar. Three of these items are household items that anyone can find. This shows in a very simple process how to make biorenewable products, and it gets at the fact they could be cheaper than plastic made with petrochemicals.

This research is meant to create processes and chemicals that can be used as substitutes to petroleum based products. This is hard because not very many people have done this before, and they must conduct research from the ground up. The University of Virginia and Berkley in California have also received NSF grants to research this topic. They are using other materials as a catalyst. This research could mean a future clean and bright, where we don’t have to rely on petrochemicals, but instead use biorenewable chemicals.

69

GLOSSARY Catalysis- the acceleration of a chemical change by adding a catalyst Biocatalyst- a biological material that accelerates a chemical reaction without changing Polymer- A molecule that is made up of smaller molecules Enzyme- a type of protein that can make changes different substances, they are made up of living cells Thrust- projects that focus on this main point Petroleum- a dark, oily liquid that is made up of hydrocarbons Microbe- a microorganism Fatty Acid- a class of nonaromatic hydrocarbon compounds Petrochemical â&#x20AC;&#x201C; a chemical made with petroleum Biorenewable chemical- a chemical that is made with a material that has an unlimited supply

70

WORKS CITED "Iowa State to Create NSF Engineering Research Center for Biorenewable Chemicals." Crop Biotech Update (12 Sept. 2008). International Service for the Acquisition of Agri-biotech Applications - ISAAA.org. 12 Sept. 2008.

Web. 1 Jan. 2012. http://www.isaaa.org/kc/cropbiotechupdate/article/default.asp?ID=3117.

McGraw-Hill Concise Encyclopedia of Chemistry. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2004. Print.

"Testbeds." The Center for Biorenewable Chemicals. Web. 01 Jan. 2012. http://www.cbirc.iastate.edu/research/testbeds/.

"Thrust 1: New Biocatalysts for Pathway Engineering." The Center for Biorenewable Chemicals. Web. 19 Dec. 2011. http://www.cbirc.iastate.edu/research/thrust1/.

"Thrust 2: Microbial Metabolic Engineering." The Center for Biorenewable Chemicals. Web. 01 Jan. 2012. http://www.cbirc.iastate.edu/research/thrust2/.

"Thrust 3: Chemical Catalyst Design." The Center for Biorenewable Chemicals. Web. 01 Jan. 2012. http://www.cbirc.iastate.edu/research/thrust-3-chemical-catalyst-design/.

Neary, Chris. "Biorenewables Team Earns $300,000 NSF Grant." Iowa State University College of Engineering News. Iowa State University, 27 Sept. 2011. Web. 25 Mar. 2012. http://news.engineering.iastate.edu/2011/09/27/biorenewables-team-earns-300000-nsf-grant/

Passero, Barbara. "Introduction." Introduction. Energy Alternatives: Opposing Viewpoints. Detroit: Greenhaven/Thomson Gale, 2006. 14-17. Print.

YouTube. Dir. ISUengineering. Perf. Brett Shanks. YouTube. YouTube, 28 Nov. 2011. Web. 25 Mar. 2012. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qnqX4XOAE14

71

72

BIOCHEMICAL PRODUCTION

Erna Mahmutovic January 13, 2012 Advanced Chemistry

73

Biochemical production is transforming the chemical industry into an industry that is much cleaner and inexpensive. The goal of biochemical production is to find a way to produce products with bio renewable resources. There are many different companies researching biochemical production and there have been many reinvented products due to this research.

Research labs such as CBiRC based at Iowa State University are trying to optimize the coupling of two catalyst types such as a biocatalyst which will convert glucose to an intermediate chemical that can be used regularly with a chemical catalyst to create products that are better for the environment and use bio renewable resources. The research being done at ISU will be helpful in building a framework for producing biochemical production. To achieve this CBiRC has made five interdependent research areas that include Biocatalyst (Thrust1), Microbial Engineering (Thrust2), Chemical Catalysis (Thrust3), test beds, and life cycle assessment (CBiRC). Thrust 1 is focused on the enzymes involved in claisen condensation-based carbon chain extension and chain termination with the aim of directing the process of fatty acid assembly in microbes (CBiRC).

Thrust2 is developing microbial platform technologies with the goal of predicting the process if fatty acid assembly. Thrust 3 is focused on making chemical catalysis platform technologies and then trying to engineer perfected processes. The test beds combines multiple technologies developed from Thrusts 1, 2, and 3. They used the life cycle assessment to evaluate whether or not an existing or proposed chemical process is sustainable by assessing its broader impacts (CBiRC).

By having biochemical production it will hopefully replace the more traditional chemicals used such as ethylene and methanol to bio based chemicals. These chemicals are a better alternative to the traditional chemicals used because those nonrenewable resources will run out and it takes many years to produce those resources. For example, coal will eventually disappear, but since it canâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t be exactly counted how much is left. It is estimated that if we continue to use coal with a 1.1% increase per year then it is estimated that we will use up all the coal in 119 years if no reserves are added(EIA).Due to biochemical production, companies have been able to produce material such as bio plastics. Bio plastics are made completely from renewable resources.

74

Plastic is made from polymers and when we use resources such as petroleum to make plastic it canâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t decompose, but bio plastics made with natural ingredients such as cornstarch allow its components to be broken down by bacteria. This then helps preserve nonrenewable resources like petroleum, natural gas, and coal. These bio plastics are made from converting the sugar found in plants to make the renewable plastic. Two of the most produced plastics are polylactic acid (PLA) and polyhydroxyalkanoate. With PLA, corn kernels are milled and the glucose is taken out and fermented by bacteria and yeast.

Biochemical production is a way for the chemical industry to preserve our non-renewable resources and use natural resources that come in abundance. Biochemical production will benefit the environment. The affect that biochemical production will have on our society in general is that it will open up different and less traditional ways that products can be produce at very little cost. Biochemical production is just part of the stepping stones to changing the traditional chemical industry. It is extremely important that we convert to biobased chemicals because then we will be able to have a cleaner environment and it would be very cost effective.

Also we would be able to preserve those resources that arenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t renewable.

75

GLOSSARY 

Bio-based chemicals-naturally made chemicals.



Polymers- a compound of high molecular weight derived either by the addition of many smaller molecules, as polyethylene, or by the condensation of many smaller molecules with the elimination of water, alcohol, or the like, as nylon.



Catalyst- a substance that causes or accelerates a chemical reaction without itself being affected.



Enzymes- any of various protein, originating from living cells and capable of producing certain chemical changes in organic



Microbes- a microorganism, especially a pathogenic bacterium



Fermented- any of a group of living organisms, as yeasts, molds, and certain bacteria, that cause fermentation.



Optimize- to make as effective, perfect, or useful as possible.

76

WORKS CITED "Mission." The Center for Biorenewable Chemicals. Web. 02 Jan. 2012 <http://www.cbirc.iastate.edu/overview/mission/>.

"What Are Bioplastics." Sustainable Design Award Online. Web. 02 Jan. 2012. <http://www.sda-uk.org/materials/popups/plastics/what_are_bioplastics.htm>.

"How Much Coal Is Left - Energy Explained, Your Guide To Understanding Energy?" U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA). Web. 08 Jan. 2012. <http://www.eia.gov/energyexplained/index.cfm?page=coal_reserves>.

77

78

John Nguyen January, 2012

Advanced Chemistry Mr. Hall

79

Ethanol is a high octane fuel known as the grain alcohol (Zumdahl,2003). It can be mixed with gasoline to be used in vehicles. Ethanol is produced from starches and sugar based feedstocks. Most of the ethanol is produced in the Midwest and Upper Midwest where ethanol plants are close to and have a consistent supply of corn, access to water resources, and have livestock production nearby (Ethanol:What, 2012). Researchers are studying and looking for new unique methods, resources, and places to produce ethanol.

A popular unique way to obtain a great amount of ethanol fuel is by using cellulosic feedstocks.

Common feedstocks that can be used are crop residues, plant materials, wood chips, corncobs, grass, sawdust, leaves, waste from paper industries, waste from our communities, and many more other plant materials (Alternative, 2011). These biomasses, which are another term for feedstocks, contain cellulose, lignin, and hemicellulose which would need to be broken down to retrieve the sugar therefore it makes the cellulosic ethanol process difficult (Alternative,2011). Producing ethanol is easier than producing cellulosic ethanol because it doesn’t use a plant material’s cell wall.

A cellulosic ethanol plant is being built in Nevada, Iowa. Two companies that are making the plans for this plant are DuPont and Danisco (Lorenc, 2011). This new plant is aiming to produce 25 million gallons of cellulosic ethanol per year (Lorenc,2011). "Building the plant is going to help keep Iowa in the forefront of the ethanol industry by developing cellulosic ethanol from sources other than corn-based grain," said Tormey (a public information /communications at Iowa Office of Energy Independence) (Lorenc, 2011). The only main cellulosic material that this plant is considering to use is called corn stover. The two companies picked a great location because it’s located near inputs and abundant resources such as corn. This would definitely help out Iowa’s economy creating an economic boom and more jobs.

The process to producing cellulosic ethanol involves five steps. The first step in the process is to harvest the biomasses and transport them to a plant or bio-refinery (Alternative, 2011). Biomasses become very bulky when harvested which makes it challenging to transport (Alternative, 2011). The second step is Pre-treatment.

The biomass is either cut into shreds or grinded down and would have its structure of cellulose softened 80

(Alternative, 2011). Then it would be pretreated with chemicals and heat. The next steps are Hydrolysis and Fermentation. Enzymes would be added to breakdown the cellulose into simple sugars. Next is the fermentation stage where the sugars could now be converted to ethanol. The last step in the process would be Distillation.

The ethanol would be purified, collected, and prepared for distribution(Ethanol POET,2011).

After the process is completed waste and material is left behind because of producing the ethanol. The waste would then go to anaerobic digesters to be turned into renewable power. The anaerobic digester turns the waste into a rich bio-gas. The biogas can be used to power the current cellulosic ethanol plant that was being used to convert cellulosic feedstocks and can also power any other ethanol plants or facilities located nearby (Ethanol POET,2011).

Ethanol plants seem useful and beneficial but there are also slight negative impacts. Some cons about producing cellulosic ethanol would be that if it was very popular in the world and was ever to be mass produced it would require additional farmland which means more areas would have to be cleared to create farm land which could lead to deforestation in certain areas. Since ethanol is corrosive and absorbs water this makes it very difficult to ship through pipelines or other existing ones. Also ethanol plants could be government incentive driven which means that if plants fail to attract private funding then it would slow or might as well stop ethanol plant constructions. Also the distribution of ethanol and cellulosic ethanol will be difficult to transport to areas along the East and West coasts in the U.S. Ethanol plants arenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t so bad and harmful. Ethanol can be a great energy alternative fuel to use rather than gasoline. Ethanol burns cleaner than gas (Zumdahl, 2003). It reduces emissions of greenhouse gases and other harsh pollutants( Ethanol POET, 2011). When carbon dioxide is released from ethanol a plant or crop recycles and absorbs it back which helps balance the carbon dioxide in the air (Alternative, 2011). Ethanol is renewable and biodegradable which means it wonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t harm our environment and marine life too. Ethanol spills in the ocean donâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t pose as a threat to ground and surface water. The sinking of Bow Mariner happened near the Virginia coast in February 2004 and U.S. Coast Guard officials had noted that the 3.2 million gallons of 81

industrial ethanol had dissipated quickly and safely and did not stood as an environmental threat to humans or the marine life (Alternative, 2011). Ethanol biodegrades rapidly and naturally in our environment because it is a naturally occurring substance made up with organic materials.

The ethanol industry is still growing today as researchers find more ways to potentially improve ethanol plant productions. There are also over billions of biomasses out there that can help produce ethanol. Researchers are also looking for newer biomass crops to use. New ethanol plants will definitely be more environmentally friendly as the future comes.

82

GLOSSARY Anaerobic digesters- Converts the energy stored in materials to biogas.

Biogas- Gas produced from organic matter or waste.

Biomass (feedstocks) - Organic material that contains stored energy.

Cellulose- A substance that makes up most of a plantâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s cell wall and strength.

Corn Stover- The waste products of a corn which includes leaves and stalks.

Corrosive- The capability to eat away metal or destroy other structural material Distillation- A way of purifying a liquid by boiling it and then condensing its gas back into a liquid form.

Fermentation- Breaking down sugar and converting it into alcohol or acid.

Hydrolysis- A process in which a chemical compound reacts with water. It is used to break down substances.

Lignin- A organic polymer that can be found in the cell walls of plants and it also strengthens the walls.

Hemicellulose- Found in a plantâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s cell wall.

83

REFERENCES "Alternative Fuels and Advanced Vehicles Data Center: Ethanol." EERE: Alternative Fuels and Advanced Vehicles Data Center Program Home Page. US Dept of Energy, 10 Aug. 2011. Web. 02 Jan. 2012. <http://www.afdc.energy.gov/afdc/ethanol/>.

"Ethanol." Home - POET. POET, 2011. Web. 02 Jan. 2012. <http://www.poet.com/index.asp>.

"Ethanol: What Is It? - Ethanol - University of Illinois Extension." University of Illinois Extension: Ethanol.

University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 2012. Web. 02 Jan. 2012. <http://web.extension.illinois.edu/ethanol/default.cfm>.

Lorenc, Elisse. "Iowa in Consideration for New Ethanol Plant." Iowa State Daily. 24 Jan. 2011. Web. 2 Jan. 2012. <http://www.iowastatedaily.com/news/article_195e6942-2729-11e0-94dc-001cc4c002e0.html>.

Zumdahl, Steven S., and Susan A. Zumdahl. "Thermochemistry: Other Energy Alternatives." Chemistry. 6th ed.

Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin, 2003. 277. Print.

84

Madelyn Plain March 26, 2012 Advanced Chemistry II 85

Like today, skyrocketing gasoline prices and large needs for gasoline created a national oil crises that lead to research in alternative fuel sources in means of easing the problem in the 1950s. During the early 1950s, algae became the first explored fuel alternative as researchers at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology performed the first experiment in mass culturing Microalgae simply because algae can produce 10-30 times what the leading oil producing crops in America can create. (Benemann, "Algae Oil to Biofuels”; Banderson 16). Following the idea of algae biofuel, The National Renewable Energy Laboratory that ran the Aquatic Species Program researched algae’s ability to produce a high oil-output for the use of biofuel by testing over 3,000 types of algae, determining algae to be a high-yielding plant, and concluding that algae could be produced in large amounts to replace fossil fuels for the purposes of transportation and heating homes (Benemann, "Algae Oil to Biofuels "; Kotrba 12). Even though research projects for the mass production of algae biofuel were executed because they were deemed too expensive in 1978, the idea of algae biofuel lives again as another energy crisis hit worldwide due to the increased need of oil in the worldwide market in 2003 (Newman, “How Algae Biodiesel Works”).

Today, concern about the global oil demand is at the highest peak since petroleum has fueled the world’s energy needs for the past century and industrialization continually increases. Because the global oil demand increased twice as fast in 2007 than it did in 2006, OriginOil claims the exponential demand for oil, “… reaching 36 billion barrels per year and a critical price point of more than $140 per barrel. The Energy Information Association predicts global oil demand of 43 billion barrels per year by 2030” (Eckelberry, “The Need for a New Oil”). The inflation- adjusted price of a barrel of crude oil on New York Mercantile Exchange was generally under $25 per barrel from the late 1980s to September 2003 (Omega Research, “Daily Commodity Futures Price Chart”). The United States Department of Energy reports that due to the decline in petroleum reserves, the price of a barrel of oil rose above $30 during 2003, reached $60 by August 11, 2005, and peaked at $147.30 in July of 2008 (Omega Research, “Daily Commodity Futures Price Chart”). Because the energy crisis negatively affects the economy of many countries on a significantly large scale, the interests in alternative fuels gained popularity again.

Biofuels are alternative fuels that have many benefits due to the main concerns that are carried worldwide. The first concern is the unfortunate decrease in oil supplies. Because oil supplies are largely decreasing as petroleum 86

producers are drilling in remote, war-torn and environmentally sensitive areas on the way to running out of oil altogether, OriginOil also predicts, “the world will experience serious shortages that will cause catastrophic economic dislocation and decades of continued fighting over the last remaining reserves” (Eckelberry, “The Need for a New Oil”).

The second international concern is global warming, the continuation of the gradual increase in the average temperature of the Earth’s atmosphere and oceans caused by the greenhouse effect, the increased levels of carbon dioxide and other pollutants. The Union of Concerned Scientists states that, “Each country contributes different amounts of heat-trapping gases to the atmosphere” and provides the data compiled by the Department of Energy of 20 countries (The top five countries are China, the United States, Russia, India, and Japan.) with the highest carbon dioxide emissions from all sources of fossil fuel burning and consumption (MacDonald, “Each Country's Share of CO2 Emissions”). Along with the data provided by the Department of Energy, OriginOil claims that oil is a dangerous polluter and a major contributor to global warming because it emits over 3 billion metric tons of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere a year when it is burned (Eckelberry, “The Need for a New Oil”). According to National Geographic, biofuels do not depend on the oil supply and contribute less to global warming and therefore are specific fuel alternatives that have gained popularity (Johns 54).

Due to the most recent renovations in research, biofuel made from algae has reached the top of the list in having the highest chance in successfully allowing the United States to become independent from using petroleum as a fuel. The first renovation is destroying the original problem of production being too costly and inventing an economical process that allows maximum profit. In discovering the most efficient economical process, there are several ways of producing biofuel from algae.

The first step in creating biofuel from algae is cultivating the plant. The two main methods of cultivation are growing algae in an open water source such as a pond or growing algae in the closed system called a photobioreactor.

While operating open water systems, the sunlight is poorly utilized by the cells, there is requirement of large areas of land, and outside elements and heterotrophs contaminate the water. In photobioreactors, all the growth requirements of algae are introduced and controlled according to the requirements in the system. Photobioreactors facilitate better control of culture environment such as carbon dioxide supply, water supply, and optimal temperature, efficient 87

exposure to light, culture density, pH levels, and gas supply rate. The advantage of using an open water system is that ponds are easier to construct and operate than most closed systems, but the limitations allow photobioreactors to be more efficient because they eliminate these disadvantages (Sreevatsan, “Cultivation of Algae”).

The second step to creating biofuel from algae is harvesting the plant. Harvesting algae consists of separating the algae from its medium and drying it. The most common methods of harvesting algae are flocculation and centrifugation. Flocculation uses chemicals to force the algae to lump. The disadvantage of flocculation is the additional chemicals are difficult to remove from the separated algae, making the process inefficient and uneconomical for commercial use. Centrifugation uses a device called centrifuge that puts an object in rotation around a fixed axis, applying a force perpendicular to the axis. The centrifuge works using the sedimentation principle, where the centripetal acceleration is used to evenly distribute substances (usually present in a solution for small scale applications) of greater and lesser density. Centrifuge allows the algae to settle to the bottom of the flask and may prove to be useful on a commercial and industrial scale. Both ways can be used on all strains of algae (Sreevatsan, “Cultivation of Algae”).

The final step, extracting oil from the algae, is currently a heated debate topic because it is the most costly process that determines the ability to make an algae-based biodiesel. Extraction can be generalized into mechanical methods that include Expression and ultrasonic-assisted extraction and chemical methods, hexane solvent and supercritical fluid extraction. Oilgae claims that the mechanical press and supercritical extraction are expensive and energy intensive because they require drying the algae. Other methods include enzymatic extraction where enzymes degrade the cell walls with water performing as a solvent, making fractionation of the oil much easier and osmotic shock where the shock is sudden reduction in osmotic pressure, causing the cells in a solution to rupture and release oil (Sreevatsan, “Cultivation of Algae”). However, most algae-oil manufacturers just use a combination of mechanical pressing and chemical solvents when extracting oil.

The top five most recent companies leading projects in creating biofuel from algae are Algenol Biofuels, Solix Biofuels, Sapphire Energy, Solazyme, and Seambiotic. Seambiotic began its project in 2003, conducting research with NASA to grow microalgal cultures in open ponds, using carbon dioxide and nitrogen from a nearby coal plant for feedstocks and producing 200 gallons of biofuel on its 1000-square-meter facility in Israel. Algenol Biofuels started 88

production in 2010 in Sonoran Desert, Mexico, intending to produce 10,000 gallons annually by 2012 with production costs around 85 cents per gallon. On October 24, 2011, Algenol Biofuels announced a break through on the construction of pilot-scale integrated bio-refinery, its success becoming the first large-scale deployment of Algenol's patented Direct To Ethanol® technology with the support of the United States Department of Energy, and creating a facility with the capacity of 100,000 gallons of fuel per year (Myers, “Algenol Biofuels”). Solix Biofuels facility in Coyote Gulch, Colorado began demonstrating the scalability of Lumian technology, specialized photo-bioreactors in which batches of microalgal cultures produce seven times as much biomass as open-pond systems, while producing 3000 gallons of algae biofuels per acre annually by 2009, marketing it’s success in 2011 (Jacquot, “5 Companies Making Fuel from Algae Now”).The algae biomass is available to customers developing algae-derived products. The oil can be converted into biodiesel, green diesel, bio-jet and chemicals. The residual biomass can be used in aquaculture and animal feed, helping to eliminate the concerns about corn feed farms (Money, “Solix AGS4000”). Solix collaborates with the Los Alamos National Laboratory to use its acoustic-focusing technology to concentrate algal cells into a dense mixture by blasting them with sound waves so that oil can be extracted by squeezing it out without chemical solvents, making the extraction process much easier and cheaper. Sapphire Energy holds a 300-acre integrated algal biorefinery in Southern New Mexico, making 1 million gallons of diesel and jet fuel annually that is capable to be used by cars and jets. Solazyme, located in South San Francisco, designed algal cultures using DNA from different strains of maximize oil production and size, tested its jet fuel in 2008, and produced over 20,000 gallons of fuel for the Navy in 2010 at the cost of $80 per barrel (Jacquot, “5 Companies Making Fuel from Algae Now”). Each company has made great progress, proving to create processes at large annual rates that can be used in cars and jets.

Unfortunately, the number of “cons” to using algae as a fuel source restricts the ability of algae biofuel to reach the nation or worldwide market. Even though algae is fast growing (Each oil-producing cell matures in just hours), contains as much as 60% of its dry weight in oil, is carbon neutral, and is fuel efficient being 1000 times more productive than corn, the benefits of producing oil from algae are outweighed by the fact that algae biofuel companies are still in the test phases, working with large oil companies to test and produce algae biofuel (Eckelberry, “The Need for a New Oil”). Several jet fuels have been tested and in January 2008, a company used algae biodiesel to fuel a Mercedes Benz

89

E320 diesel to cruise the streets of Park City, Utah during the Sundance Film Festival, but now statistics have been released on the mileage or what kind of emissions given off (Newman, “How Algae Biodiesel Works”).

The research in producing algae biofuels teaches that chemistry is not only about students playing with colorful strips of paper to indicate the pH of a solution or students creating small explosions so they are sent to the principal’s office. Through chemistry, scientists can apply the basic knowledge that they gained as a student about different chemical equations, double-replacement reactions, and net ionic equations describing precipitant solutions, and pH to stabilize the growth of algae. During the process of cultivating algae, photosynthesis takes place, allowing the algae to produce carbon compounds or sugars as an energy source, which is mainly represented by the equation 6CO2 + 6H2O + light → C6H12O6 + 6O2. Afterwards, chemists who work to create algae biofuels utilize a more advanced chemical formula to transform the sugars into oil, C6H12O6 → 2 CH3CH2OH + 2 CO2, and then relate insight about solvents other than water when extracting oil from the algae as the cell walls act as a solute (Garner). Instead of starting World War III with the newest bomb, chemistry can be applied to prevent war by creating alternatives to petroleum like algae biofuel.

90

GLOSSARY Aquatic Species Program was a research program in the United States launched by Jimmy Carter in 1978 that was funded by the United States Department of Energy, researched producing energy or bio-diesel for transportation using algae for two decades, and discontinued in 1996 with completed compile of work report in 1998.

Biofuel is a type of fuel whose energy comes from carbon fixation, the reduction of carbon dioxide to organic compounds by living organisms.

Biomass is a renewable energy source from a living or recently living material that can be converted into biofuel.

Biorefinery is a facility that combines biomasses conversion processes and equipment to produce fuels, power, and chemicals from biomass.

Cultivating means preparing and using land for crops.

Algae Cultures means farming and collecting species of algae.

Feedstocks are any bulk and raw material used as an input for an industrial process.

Fermentation is the breakdown of sugar into an acid or alcohol.

Global Warming refers to the continuation of the gradual increase in the average temperature of the Earthâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s atmosphere and oceans caused by the greenhouse effect, the increased levels of carbon dioxide and other pollutants.

Heterotrophs are organisms that depend on a complex, organic substance for nutrition.

Los Alamos National Laboratory is United States Department of Energy institution that is managed and operated by the Los Alamos National Security located in Los Alamos, New Mexico, the largest science and technology institution in the world, and conducts research in fields such as national security, space exploration, renewable energy, and medicine.

Massachusetts Institute of Technology is a private engineering research university, founded in 1861 in Cambridge, Massachusetts famous for its scientific and technical advances.

Microalgae are microscopic algae that are unicellular species which exist individually or in chains, normally found in freshwater and marine systems.

National Renewable Energy Laboratory is the government agency the is part of the United States Department of Energy located in Golden, Colorado which is responsible for renewable energy, energy efficiency research and development of alternative fuel.

New York Mercantile Exchange is the world's largest trading exchange and dominant trading gathering for energy and precious metals.

Petroleum is oil or a liquid mixture of hydrocarbons that can be extracted from rock and refined to produce fuels including gasoline, kerosene, and diesel oil.

Photobioreactor is a closed system used to grow algae, carefully controlling light, nutrients, and temperature.

91

REFERENCES Banderson. "Biodiesel Facts." Biodiesle Book. Savannah: Network 6000, 2005. 16. Print.

Benemann, John R. "Algae Oil to Biofuels." Algal Oil for Jet Fuel Production. Web. <http://www.nrel.gov/biomass/pdfs/benemann.pdf>.

Eckelberry, Riggs. "The Need For A New Oil | OriginOil - Breakthrough Algae Oil Technology." OriginOil. 2009. Web. 25 Mar. 2012. <http://www.originoil.com/about-algae/need-for-a-new-oil.html>.

Garner, Bryan. "Next Big Bio-Fuel." News Channel 5. NBC. West Palm Beach, Florida, May 2008. Youtube.com. 11 July 2008. Web. 23 Dec. 2011. <http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n9_-ZguuhBw>.

Jacquot, Jeremy. "5 Companies Making Fuel From Algae Now - Popular Mechanics." Automotive Care, Home Improvement, Tools, DIY Tips - Popular Mechanics. Hearst Communication, 13 Oct. 2009. Web. 30 Dec. 2011. <http://www.popularmechanics.com/science/energy/biofuel/4333722>.

Johns, Chris. "Biofuel Facts, Biofuel Information - National Geographic." National Geographic Apr. 2011: 54-55. Print.

Kotrba, Ron. "Making History in Algae." Biodiesel Magazine 27 Apr. 2011: 28-31. Print.

MacDonald, Colleen. "Each Country's Share of CO2 Emissions." Global Warming. Union of Concerned Scientists, 20 Aug. 2011. Web. 4 Jan. 2012. <http://www.ucsusa.org/global_warming/science_and_impacts/science/each- countrys-areof-co2.html>.

Money, Joanna. "Solix AGS4000 High Productivity Algae Growth System for Algae Biomass Production | Solix Biofuels Algae to Energy - The Production Technology Company." Solix Biofuels. 2011. Web. 22 Mar. 2012. <http://www.solixbiofuels.com/content/products>.

Myers, Fort. "Algenol Biofuels Inc. Announces Ground Breaking of Its Pilot-Scale Integrated Bio-Refinery in Lee County, Florida." About Algenol. PRNewswire, 24. Oct. 2011. Web. 22 Mar. 2012. <http://www.Algenol.com>.

Newman, Stefani. "How Algae Biodiesel Works." How Stuff Works. Discovery Communications, July 2009. Web. 21 Dec. 2011. <http://science.howstuffworks.com/environmental/green-science/algae-biodiesel.htm>.

Omega Research. "Daily Commodity Futures Price Chart: May 2012." Crude Oil EmiNY.DDF Plus, 1997. Web. 21 Dec. 2011. <http://tfc-charts.com/chart/QM/W.>.

Photograph. Gizmag. 29 Apr. 2010. Web. 29 Dec. 2011. <http://www.gizmag.com/pressure-cooking-algaeiofuel/14943/picture/113963/>.

Photograph. Gizmag. 29 Dec. 2010. Web. 29 Dec. 2011. <http://www.gizmag.com/pressure-cooking-algaeiofuel/14943/picture/113964/>.

Photograph. Gizmag. 3 June 2008. Web. 29 Dec. 2011. http://www.gizmag.com/orignoilpatents-technology-for-largescale-algae-oil-production/9414/picture/44695/>.

Photograph. Gizmag. 3 June 2008. Web. 29 Dec. 2011.<http://www.gizmag.com/orignoil-patents-technology-for-largescale-algae-oil-production/9414/picture/44696/>.

92

Sreevatsan, Sumukhi. "Cultivation of Algae - Open Pond - Oilgae - Oil from Algae." Biodiesel from Algae Oil - Oilgae Information, News, Links for Algal Fuel, Alga Bio-diesel, Biofuels, Algae Biofuel, Energy - Oilgae.com. Oilgae.com, 2007.

Web. 31 Dec. 2011. <http://www.oilgae.com/algae/cult/op/op.html>.

93

94

David Reierson 1/11/2012 Chemistry II 95

Ethanol is the most fun fuel. This paper will explain how ethanol is produced. The history of ethanol.

What is it used for? Why even use ethanol? Also show the arguments against producing ethanol.

Ethanol is created from corn. In order to turn corn into ethanol the corn is first ground into a powder or flour. Then the powder is mixed with water and enzymes. After that the slurry sits in order to let the enzymes break down the starch in corn into sugars then yeast is added which is let set for 50 hours this mixture is now called “beer.” Adding yeast creates a decomposition reaction making ethanol and carbon dioxide. This is the reaction that takes place C6H12O62 CH3CH2OH+2CO2. In our chemistry class, this discussion took place as we learned about writing and balancing chemical equations, as well as the various reaction types.

The “beer” is then distilled creating 190-proof ethanol and the solid is pumped away. This ethanol still contains five percent water. In order to remove the water it is put through molecular sieves making 200-proof ethanol (100% ethanol).

No one knows who first

created ethanol because it has been around for centuries

for the purpose of intoxication

and in early American history it was used for

lamp fuel. Ethanol has

been used for fuel in lamps for

centuries; it now is used as a fuel for

cars mainly mixed with gasoline. It is used as a solvent

in producing perfumes and

varnishes. Ethanol is also used as a disinfectant.

Using ethanol is beneficial because it is more environmentally friendly because it is only releasing carbon dioxide that would have been released either way as petroleum is releasing carbon that has already been stored away. Argonne National Laboratory studied and found that there has been a reduction in petroleum use, fossil energy use, and greenhouse gas emissions from using ethanol-blended fuels.The ethanol can absorb water allowing an engine to run with the fuel contaminated with some water.

There are arguments against producing ethanol. The Institute for Local Self-Reliance say that producing ethanol creates a negative gain of energy. Producing ethanol is using too much of our food and that federal money is the only thing keeping ethanol production going.

96

BIBLIOGRAPHY American Coalition for Ethanol : Home. Web. 11 Jan. 2012. <http://www.ethanol.org/index.php?id=51>.

Ethanol." American Coalition for Ethanol : Home. American Coalition for Ethanol. Web. 03 Jan. 2012. <http://www.ethanol.org/index.php?id=73>.

"Congress Actually Ends Taxpayer Funding Of Ethanol Subsidies." Hybrid and Electric Car News and Reviews - Green Car Reports. Web. 03 Jan. 2012. <http://www.greencarreports.com/news/1071085_congress-actuallyends-taxpayer-funding-of-ethanol-subsidies>.

"E85 | Why Should I Use E85?" E85 | Ethanol Gasoline Blend. Web. 03 Jan. 2012. <http://e85.whipnet.net/why.e85/>.

97

98

PYROLYSIS OIL

Sydney Swift January 12, 2012 Advanced Chemistry 99

Pyrolysis oil is an alternative fuel made from natural products. It is currently being researched to see if it would be fit to be an alternative to petroleum. The energy in pyrolysis oil comes from biological carbon fixation. Carbon fixation is the reduction of carbon dioxide to organic compounds by living organisms. It requires both a source of energy, and an electron donor. Pyrolysis oil contains other types of chemicals, which can be used as fuels, including fuels made from biomass conversion, solid biomass, liquid fuels, and several biogases. What separates pyrolysis oil from other fossil fuels is the background of the carbon fixation. Fossil fuels contain carbon that is “out” of the carbon cycle. The carbon cycle is a biogeochemical where carbon is exchanged among the different spheres of the Earth. It’s one of the most important cycles on earth, and allows carbon to be reused and recycled. The typical definition of pyrolysis oil is using carbon that is still going through the cycle and reusing it. Another factor that differentiates the two, is the “water” inside of them. The water in the pyrolysis oil molecules do not separate as they do in fossil fuels.

Pyrolysis oils have been used since cars were first introduced. However, they were long forgotten once it was acknowledged that gasoline and diesel fuels were found in large petroleum deposits. Recently people are discovering that oil prices are rising, and are not what is best for the environment, causing a popularity rise in pyrolysis oil once again.

Most gasoline in the United States is already being mixed with ethanol, which is made from heavily processed corn. There are various ways these bio-oils can be made, but scientists typically use chemical reactions, fermentation, and heat to break down the molecules.

The study of making pyrolysis oil would be included in the chemistry and biology branches of science. Chemistry, because it deals with different chemicals and reactions to make an ending product. It would also be included with biology because it deals with life and the nature of it.

The companies BTG-BTL are huge producers of pyrolysis oil. They are currently located in the Netherlands. They have feedstock (biomass) testing, carbon credit valorization, engineering services, and much more. They are taking large steps in finding even more ways for the use of pyrolysis oil.

100

GLOSSARY Carbon fixation: reduction of carbon dioxide to organic compounds by living organisms

Fermentation: The chemical breakdown of a substance by bacteria, yeasts, or other microorganisms

Valorization: Increase in value

101

BIBLIOGRAPHY "Biofuel." Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. Web. 02 Jan. 2012. <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel>.

"Carbon Fixation." Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. Web. 02 Jan. 2012. <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_fixation>.

"Biofuel Facts, Biofuel Information - National Geographic." Environment Facts, Environment Science, Global Warming, Natural Disasters, Ecosystems, Green Living - National Geographic. Web. 02 Jan. 2012. <http://environment.nationalgeographic.com/environment/global-warming/biofuel-profile/>.

Google. Web. 02 Jan. 2012. <http://www.google.com/#hl=en>.

"Pyrolysis

Oil." Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. Web. 09 Jan. 2012. <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyrolysis_oil>.

"Carbon Fixation." Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. Web. 12 Jan. 2012. <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_fixation>.

"Carbon Cycle." Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. Web. 12 Jan. 2012. <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_cycle>.

102

103

Biodegradable. It’s a term that is thrown around quite often these days. With products ranging from teddy bears to balloons under the definition of “biodegradable,” it is important to get the facts on what it all means.

Companies such as Coca-Cola, Solo Cup, International Paper, Glad, Whole Foods and Dixie Cup have all come to the biodegradable scene in recent years. [1] According to the Biodegradable Products Institute (BPI), a leading third-party certifier of biodegradable claims, the word has gone “mainstream”. [1] Biodegradable means a substance is capable of being broken down, especially into innocuous products by the action of living things, such as microorganisms.

The definition of biodegradability is important to keep in mind because materials that remain after biodegradation are generally safe, as they have been broken down into elemental compounds such as phospholipids and sulpholipids, sugar amines, polysaccharides, carbon, and water. [1]

Being that diapers have grown into an essential product, it has caught all ranges of environmentalists on how they can better improve the mass product. Being that conventional disposable diapers are the third largest contributors to landfills in the world. [2] Diapers make up 3.4 million tons of waste, or 2.1 percent of U.S. garbage, in landfills in 1998 - the last year this information was collected, according to the Environmental Protection Agency. [3] It is especially problematic in underdeveloped countries because they are often not properly disposed and excrement leaks into the local water supply. The new innovative necessity of biodegradable diapers is now providing an eco-friendlier alternative to other disposable diapers.

With the brand gDiapers, it began with Jason and Kim Graham-Nye in 2002, which came across the fact that a single disposable diaper can take up to 500 years to biodegrade in the landfill. [2] Most disposable diapers-- Pampers, Huggies, and the like--are made of plastic. [3] Then they are bleached with chlorine, which releases dioxin, a toxic byproduct and known carcinogen. [3] Seeking out for alternatives, disposables were out and cloth used too much water for the water conscious couple living in Australia. Then they found a company in 104

Tasmania that made flushable diapers. [2] Inspired, the couple worked with a Tasmanian biochemist to form a biodegradable diaper which consist of a washable cotton elastane, a synthetic fiber, outer pant and an insert made of fluffed wood pulp and viscose rayon, both of which are harvested from trees certified by the Sustainable Forestry Initiative. [3] The insert contains neither elemental chlorine nor dioxin, which leading diapers brands contain, so it can be chucked, flushed, or composted and takes just 50 to 150 days to biodegrade.

[3] With the composting, the products break down quickly. The resulting compost should not be used on plants grown for food, but is suitable for flowers and other decorative plants. In some areas where commercial garbage collection includes composting, you may also be able to discard biodegradable diapers in the compost. [5] Other brands such as Seventh Generation and Nature Babycare diapers are all also taking the initiative to protect the earth.

Diapering is arguably the most important decision parents could make for the environment and their young children, who could be in diapers up to two years. Many dispute that these innovative diapers are not much better for the environment or the health of babies than Huggies and Pampers.

"These diapers all contain super-absorbent gelling materials," or AGM, said the latest newsletter from cloth diaper service Tiny Tots. "AGM is linked to an increase in childhood asthma and a decrease in sperm count among boys. Environmentally, these diapers require as much water, energy and fuel to produce as any other single-use diaper. The bottom line is they offer no environmental or health benefits." [3] However, no studies indicate that the absorbent substance used in disposables harms babies. [4] According to the LCA of VTT Chemical Technology in a technical research center of Finland, an outcome of a study showed that there was little difference in the traditional and the biodegradable diapers. The fluff component (70%) of the diaper turned out to be dominant in most environmental stressors. In most scenarios, polyolefin based diaper is slightly better, but the results are not far from each other. [6] Overall, there is little guidance within the studies put out by the diaper industry. â&#x20AC;&#x153;There is no answerâ&#x20AC;?, claims Chaz Miller, director of state programs for the National Solid Wastes Management Association. It is difficult to say definitively whether traditional or disposable diapers are better for the environment.

105

This biodegradable diaper related to the coursework I did this semester in Chemistry through many ways. Learning what biodegradable means was a big topic, giving insight on how important it is as an alternative to saving our environment and what characteristics it possessed. Also learning how to create biodegradable plastic paralleled how to create biodegradable diapers as it had the same concept of needed materials to have the proper chemical degrade, such as phospholipids, sugar amines, polysaccharides, carboncomposed and water. So now mothers can efficiently meet their babyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s needs as well as taking care of Mother Earth.

106

GLOSSARY Byproduct - a secondary or incidental product, as in a process of manufacture Carbon- composed basic organic compounds Carcinogen - any substance or agent that tends to produce a cancer Elastane - a synthetic fiber characterized by its ability to revert to its original shape after being stretched Environmental Protection Agency - an agency of the federal government of the United States charged with protecting human health and the environment Innocuous - safe, not harmful National Solid Wastes Management Association - a trade association representing for-profit companies that provide professional and consulting services to the waste services industry NSWMA Phospholipids and sulpholipids â&#x20AC;&#x201C; fats Polysaccharides - carbohydrate compounds Sugar amines - nitrogen-composed basic organic compounds Sustainable Forestry Initiative - a â&#x20AC;&#x153;forest certification standardâ&#x20AC;? and program of SFI Inc., a non-profit organization Viscose rayon - a rayon fabric made from viscose (cellulose xanthate) fibers

107

REFERENCES 1. "GDiapers - We Believe Work and Family Can Go Together Better." GDiapers - Adorable Eco-friendly Diapers for a Happy Planet. Web. 03 Jan. 2012. <http://www.gdiapers.com/the-g-story/family-flexible>.

2. Paul, Haley. "Cheat Sheet: Biodegradable." (2009). Web. 3 Jan. 2012. <http://earth911.com/news/2009/09/07/cheat-sheet-biodegradable/>.

3. "The Poop on Eco-Friendly Diapers." Wired.com. Web. 03 Jan. 2012. <http://www.wired.com/science/discoveries/news/2004/04/63182?currentPage=all>.

4. Nitasha. "What's In That Diaper? - Biodegradable Diapers - Green Business | Inc.com." Small Business Ideas and Resources for Entrepreneurs. Web. 03 Jan. 2012. <http://www.inc.com/magazine/20071101/whats-in-that-diaper.html>.

5. Smith, S.E. "Do Biodegradable Diapers Exist?" WiseGEEK: Clear Answers for Common Questions.

2003. Web. 12 Jan. 2012. <http://www.wisegeek.com/do-biodegradable-diapers-exist.htm>.

6. Yrjo Virtanen and Hakala, Sirpa,. "Life-cycle Assessment, Comparison of Biopolymer and Traditional Diaper Systems." Dec. 1997. Web. 26 Mar. 2012.

108