Peer Tutor Training Manual by Derek

Riverland Community College

Peer Tutor Training Manual For a Community College Audience

Positive Communication Assertiveness Cultural Diversity Direct Techniques Establishing the Right Environment Communication Getting Students to Talk Online Tutoring Setting Goals Tutoring Students with Disabilities Writing as a Process Confidentiality Gendered Communication Styles Group Tutoring Learning Styles Structuring a Session Direct Techniques Cross-Cultural Communication Student Populations Study Skills Tutoring Math Establishing Rapport Structure Matrix Questioning Techniques Positive Communication Assertiveness Cultural Diversity Direct Techniques Establishing the Right Environment Communication Getting Students to Talk Online Tutoring Setting Goals Tutoring Students with Disabilities Writing as a Process Confidentiality Gendered Communication Styles Group Tutoring Learning Styles Structuring a Session Direct Techniques Cross-Cultural Communication Student Populations Study Skills Tutoring Math Establishing Rapport Structure Matrix Questioning Techniques Positive Communication Assertiveness Cultural Diversity Direct Techniques Establishing the Right Environment Communication Getting Students to Talk Online Tutoring Setting Goals Tutoring Students with Disabilities Writing as a Process Confidentiality Gendered Communication Styles Group Tutoring Learning Styles Structuring a Session Direct Techniques Cross-Cultural Populations Study Skills Derek Thurber, VickiCommunication Fisher, andStudent Erin McCormick-Lee Tutoring Math Establishing Rapport Structure Matrix Questioning Techniques with Attina Earl, Carol Robison, and Sharon Stiehm Riverland Community College Student Success Center

Riverland Community College

Peer Tutor Training Manual For a Community College Audience Derek Thurber Vicki Fisher Erin McCormick-Lee with

Attina Earl Carol Robison Sharon Stiehm

Riverland Community College Student Success Center

Peer Tutor Training Manual For a Community College Audience Copyright ÂŠ 2014 by Riverland Community College. Printed and bound in the United States of America. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced for sale in any form by any electronic or mechanical means without written permission from the publisher. First Edition

For additional information, contact Student Success Center Riverland Community College 1900 8th ave. NW Austin, MN 55912 www.riverland.edu/tutor

This manual is the product of an AmeriCorps VISTAâ&#x201E;˘ project

Table of Contents

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Preface How to Use This Manual CRLA Certification Index Online Training Index

iv v vii ix

Section 1: Basic Training

Establishing the Right Environment Communication & Professionalism Learning Styles Cultural Diversity Tutoring Students with Disabilities Tutoring Effectively Online Confidentiality

2 6 9 12 14 17 23

Section 2: Training Modules

Session Structure Module 1 - Structure Matrix

Adult Learner Case Studies Activity Structure Matrix Activity

Module 2 - Setting Goals

Module 3 - Group Tutoring

Do Your Best Activity Lifeline Activity

Disruptive Scenarios Activity Movers and Shakers Activity

Table of Contents

Tutoring Techniques Module 4 - Getting Students to Talk Active Listening Hand Raising Activity Vacation Planner Listening Activity Guess the Question Type Activity

Module 5 -Direct Techniques Peanut Butter Sandwich Activity Building Blocks Activity Drawing Bugs Activity

Module 6 - Positive Communication Positive vs. Negative Task Feedback Activity Feedback Role Play Drawing Activity Drawing Teams Activity

Module 7 - Establishing Rapport Drawing in the Dark Activity Minefield Activity One Up, One Down Activity

Module 8 - Questioning Techniques Increasing Wait Time Activity Teaching versus Tutoring Activity

112

Student Populations Module 9 - Cross-Cultural Communication Step Forward Activity Value Differences Problem Scenario Activity What Do You Think? Activity Crossing the Line Activity

125

Module 10 - Gendered Communication Styles Gender Role Play Activity Battle of the Sexes

138

Table of Contents

Section 3: Subject/Content Tutoring

Tutoring Writing Tutoring Math

150 155

Index

162

iii

Preface

PREFACE This training manual and the associated interactive, online trainings are the culmination of a year’s worth of intensive work. I came to Riverland Community College in August 2013 as an AmeriCorps VISTA Member tasked with improving the peer tutoring program. While developing a training manual was not a part of my VISTA project work plan, I came in during the third year of the VISTA project where the need was in increasing the capacity and the quality of the tutoring program. Tutor training had been provided in the past by my predecessors and colleagues, but each training was developed in a rush from scratch every time and little effort was made towards sustainability. Online trainings were virtually non-existent and what Riverland did use was from other tutoring centers. This project began with the idea to create a better online training experience. After much searching, we determined that no high quality online tutor trainings existed at an affordable price. We also quickly learned that those resources which are out there from CRLA, Put the Pencil Down, and other resources were largely tailored to a four year college tutoring center. We still drew heavily from many of these existing resources in developing our trainings and ultimately this manual, but often these other resources were not a “turnkey” solution for us at the community college. Not finding anything suitable for our purposes, I looked into creating the online trainings in house. From the very beginning, I knew I would never accept a training that simply provided resources for our tutors to read and digest themselves then report back in writing as many online tutor trainings do. In our training, we spend hours telling our tutors not to simply provide information or lecture to their tutees, yet this is precisely what we so often do in our own online training to our tutors. In developing material for a more immersive, interactive online training experience, we learned a number of lessons: (1) it’s not nearly as easy to come up with engaging activities online as it is in person; and (2) before we could create an online training experience, we needed to know what the training content should be. We knew we wanted our training sequence to be interrelated and build on itself as the tutors progressed. Yet, we also knew our tutors at the community college come and go, sometimes every semester. Finally, at the community college, we needed a training that was relevant to all types of tutoring—not just traditional academic tutoring, but also technical programs, online degrees, certificate’s, associate’s, and, on occasion, bachelor’s degree students. The training had to be simple enough for nine-month career technical tutors, but advanced enough for two-year transfer degree students. All of these concerns led us to the structure we developed for this manual, discussed more in the “How to Use This Manual” section. I sincerely hope that this training manual provides a turnkey-style solution for a community college tutoring center audience. While I may have selfish motivations for that desire, not wanting my hard work to go to waste, I also hope that it proves to fill what I discovered was a genuine gap in training resources available cheaply to a community college tutoring center—the one place where high quality tutoring at low cost is perhaps most needed. -Derek Thurber Riverland Community College AmeriCorps VISTA Member iv

How to Use This Manual

HOW TO USE THIS MANUAL This manual is organized into training modules designed and used by the peer tutoring program at Riverland Community College. Each module contains the actual content of the information as it is presented to the tutors, along with suggestions for activities to reinforce the training. Within each module, you will find the following sections: • • •

Training Content Activities References

In addition, each module in the manual has a short description of the module with the key “take aways” at the top. Below that is a link to our interactive online training associated with that module ( ). Within the content of each section, we have separated out discussion questions ( ) and knowledge checks ( ). These discussion questions and knowledge checks can be used by the trainer to facilitate interaction among tutor trainees. They are optional to the content, but help reinforce it. If you take the time to work through the online training modules, you will notice that many—though not all—of these questions and activities have been adapted into the online trainings. Finally, each training has several standard sidebars of content that provide additional supplemental information for the trainer. At the beginning of every module are the learning objectives. Each activity has a “in brief” sidebar that helps explain that activity quickly without having to read through every activity to determine the best one for each training. In the bibliography, is a sidebar with a list of the CRLA certification topics covered in that training. Sections The manual is broken into three distinct sections. The first section of this manual comprises the “Basic Training” delivered by Riverland to all tutors prior to beginning work as a peer tutor for the Student Success Center. At Riverland, this training is delivered entirely online through our interactive “Virtual Student Success Center.” Each section of this basic training is broken out here, but it is presented as one comprehensive training module. Online basic training takes approximately 1.5-2 hours for tutors to complete and is followed at Riverland by a 30-45 minute in person wrap-up session. Content in the other sections at times assumes knowledge from this basic training. Section two comprises our regular tutor training modules. There are 10 modules in this section broken into three subcategories: Session Structure, Tutoring Techniques, and Student Populations. At Riverland, these trainings are delivered continuously throughout the year—two per semester. These trainings can be delivered in any order and do not assume any prior knowledge other than from the basic training. For example, module 8, though after module 5, does not require module 5 to be delivered first. Instead, the modules are broken into the subcategories listed above because these offer helpful suggestions in how to order the delivery of the trainings. For examples, modules within the session structure subcategory at times repeat or reinforce content from the other modules in that same subcategory. As such, it is recommended that modules from different subcategories be interspersed with each other within the training sequence in order v

How to Use This Manual

to vary the type of content delivered and allow an appropriate amount of time to pass before reinforcing similar content. For example, one possible 2.5 year training sequence could deliver these training modules in the following order: Year 1 Fall #1: Year 1 Fall #2:

Module 1 – Structure Matrix Module 4 – Getting Students to Talk

Year 1 Spring #1: Year 1 Spring #2:

Module 9 – Cross Cultural Communication Module 7 – Establishing Rapport

Year 2 Fall #1: Year 2 Fall #2:

Module 2 – Setting Goals Module 5 – Direct Techniques

Year 2 Spring #1: Year 2 Spring #2:

Module 10 – Gendered Communication Styles Module 8 – Questioning Techniques

Year 3 Fall #1: Year 3 Fall #2:

Module 3 – Group Tutoring Module 6 – Positive Communication

Each module in this training is intended to be delivered in 1-1.5 hours, but could be expanded to take longer if several activities were incorporated or discussions were expanded on. Similarly, they could be delivered in a shorter time frame by being selective about what topics to cover and which—if any—activities to use. The online modules take an average of 45-60 minutes for tutors to complete. Section 3 is focused on subject- or content-specific tutoring. These modules could also be delivered at any time and are intended to provide specific tips and strategies for tutoring the specific subject(s) covered in that training. At Riverland, these trainings are entirely supplemental and delivered online. Only certain tutors complete these trainings if they are relevant to the subjects they tutor. Any tutor can complete any of these trainings at any time, but we also occasionally require tutors to complete them because of a specific need. For example, our tutors who work in our writing center are required to complete the tutoring writing module.

CRLA Certification

CRLA CERTIFICATION INDEX Level 1 Training Topics Definition of tutoring and tutor responsibilities Communication & Professionalism �� 6 Confidentiality ��23 Basic tutoring guidelines / Tutoring do’s / Tutoring don’ts Communication & Professionalism �� 6 Group Tutoring ��53 Techniques for successfully beginning and ending a tutor session Establishing the Right Environment �� 2 Adult learners / Learning theory / Learning styles Learning Styles �� 9 Structure Matrix ��29 Assertiveness / Handling difficult students Direct Techniques ��75 Role modeling Setting Goals ��40 Setting goals / Planning Establishing the Right Environment �� 2 Setting Goals ��40 Communication skills Establishing the Right Environment �� 2 Communication & Professionalism �� 6 Tutoring Effectively Online ��17 Getting Students to Talk ��68 Positive Communication ��87 Establishing Rapport ��99 Questioning Techniques �� 112 Active listening and paraphrasing Getting Students to Talk ��68 Establishing Rapport ��99 Referral skills Tutoring Students with Disabilities ��14 Study skills Setting Goals ��40 Critical thinking skills Questioning Techniques �� 112 Compliance with the ethics and philosophy of the tutor program / Sexual harassment / Plagiarism Communication & Professionalism �� 6 Confidentiality ��23 vii

CRLA Certification

Level 2 Topics Use of probing questions Getting Students to Talk ��68 Questioning Techniques �� 112 Cultural Awareness and inter-cultural communications / Diversity Cultural Diversity ��12 Cross-Cultural Communication �� 125 Identifying and using resources Tutoring Effectively Online ��17 Tutoring in specific skill/subject areas Tutoring Effectively Online ��17 Tutoring Writing �� 150 Tutoring Math �� 155

Level 3 Topics How to tutor/deal with Target Populations Tutoring Students with Disabilities ��14 Gendered Communication Styles �� 138 Structuring the learning experience Structure Matrix ��29 Group management skills (group interaction and group dynamics) Group Tutoring ��53

viii

Online Trainings

ONLINE TRAINING INDEX

Basic Training http://tinyurl.com/Riverland-BasicTraining

Training Modules Session Structure Structure Matrix http://tinyurl.com/Riverland-StructureMatrix Setting Goals http://tinyurl.com/Riverland-SettingGoals Group Tutoring http://tinyurl.com/Riverland-GroupTutoring

Tutoring Techniques Getting Students to Talk http://tinyurl.com/Riverland-GettingToTalk Direct Techniques http://tinyurl.com/Riverland-DirectTechniques Positive Communication http://tinyurl.com/Riverland-Communication Establishing Rapport http://tinyurl.com/Riverland-Rapport Questioning Techniques http://tinyurl.com/Riverland-Questioning ix

Online Trainings

Student Populations Cross-Cultural Communication http://tinyurl.com/Riverland-Cross-Cultural Gendered Communication Styles http://tinyurl.com/Riverland-Gendered

Subject/Content Tutoring Tutoring Writing http://tinyurl.com/Riverland-Writing Tutoring Math http://tinyurl.com/Riverland-Math

Section 1

Basic Training ESTABLISHING THE RIGHT ENVIRONMENT COMMUNICATION & PROFESSIONALISM LEARNING STYLES CULTURAL DIVERSITY TUTORING STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES TUTORING EFFECTIVELY ONLINE CONFIDENTIALITY http://tinyurl.com/Riverland-BasicTraining

Basic Training

ESTABLISHING THE RIGHT ENVIRONMENT LEARNING OBJECTIVES By the end of this section, tutors should be able to: 1. Know how to physically arrange a tutoring session effectively 2. Greet tutees and establish a rapport with them 3. Have an ongoing professional relationship with their tutees 4. Set an effective agenda for their tutoring sessions

The first, and perhaps most important, lesson any tutor can learn and take to heart is how to establish the right environment. Simple things like professional attire, demeanor, and eating during a session can have a huge impact on the effectiveness of the tutoring session and the desire for the student to seek additional tutoring down the road. More complex things like setting a good agenda, pacing, and summarizing the session at the end are ways to make the most out of any tutoring session and could mean the difference between an effective session and a waste of time. Without the right environment, a tutoring session and the relationship between the tutor and the student will not get off the ground.

Beginning a Session Wherever tutors are, they should be mindful of their volume level. When they meet with their tutee and find out what kind of environment is most conducive for learning, they should plan accordingly.

Tutors should make sure they have adequate space to accommodate materials they will be using (i.e. books, notes, etc.) and the activities they will be doing. Tutors should try to sit side-by-side with their tutees, as it not only make sharing materials easier but also encourages interaction and makes tutees feel more comfortable, like they are an equal. As far as food and drinks, every situation will be different. If tutors are working on computers, not having food and drinks is obviously best. However, if tutors are meeting with tutees over their lunch hour and they both agree, eating and drinking would be acceptable. Also, leaving greasy fingerprints on tuteesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; books or having food in their teeth is rude, so tutors need to use good judgment. Since many people are sensitive to odors, having cigarette or coffee breath, too much cologne, or not enough deodorant when working in such close proximity is inconsiderate and unprofessional. Basically, tutors should be mindful of this during their tutoring session or drop-in. John met his tutee in the Student Success Center. It was a busy day and several of the tables were already occupied, as well as a number of the computers. John knew his tutee was in an online class, so he wanted to sit near the computers, in case they needed to refer to some materials online, but none of the tables near the computers were available so he sat himself and his tutee down at a computer and worked off of the computer desk between two computers. What did the tutor in this scenario do well? What could the tutor have done better?

Establishing the Right Environment

Greetings New Students For many students, asking for help can be very difficult; therefore, their first tutoring session can be really intimidating. Because of this, tutors should spend the first few minutes getting to know each other. By sharing a little about themselves (i.e. major, hobbies, kids/family, etc.) and asking tutees about themselves, tutees will be more comfortable with the tutor and the situation. Background information is essential for establishing rapport and having a productive session. Finding out about tutees’ instructor/class, as well as things that they are interested in will enable tutors to relate materials to something tutees are already familiar with; this makes learning authentic, which increases the rate of comprehension. Returning students Because building rapport with tutees is very important, having a few minutes of “small talk” will allow both the tutor and the tutee to feel comfortable with each other. Samantha was meeting a tutee for the first time. She knew from the appointment that had been set up, that her new tutee is named Willy and that he needs help in statistics. When Willy comes in, he says hello, then immediately dives into a question about statistics. Sensing that Willy already knows what he needs help with, Samantha takes her cue from Willy and gets right to work on the problem Willy asked about without any further introduction. What did the tutor in this scenario do well? What could the tutor have done better?

Review Expectations It is also important for tutors to review expectations with their tutees. Tutees should know that: The tutor: • • • •

Is not a homework machine. It is up to tutees to do their homework. A good strategy is for tutors to work similar problems with them and leave the assigned homework problems for them to do on their own. Is not a miracle worker. Tutees are not going to magically be able to solve every problem at the end of a tutoring session. Also, if the tutee has procrastinated throughout the semester, cramming with the tutor during finals week will not produce great results. Is not an instructor. Tutors do not teach material to students; they help them with strategies to help them learn the material. Will not know ALL the answers to EVERY question ALL the time. When tutors do not know the

Basic Training

•

answer to a question, this is an ideal time to model good academic behavior for the student. Tutors can show tutees how they would figure it out, e.g. look in the book and their notes for similar examples, reason through the problem, etc. An important thing to remember while tutors are doing this, though, is to give voice to their thoughts as they go through the process. Lets tutees know what they are thinking as they attempt to find an approach to solving the problem. Also, remember that other tutors and professional staff members are great resources, not just for tutees, but for tutors as well.

The tutees: • • •

Are expected to be an active participant and contributor in their sessions. Tutoring is a two-way street, one in which tutees should play a very active role. Should bring all relevant materials, including textbook, the syllabus, class notes, assignment instructions, past papers, and past tests to tutoring sessions. Should come prepared by: • Attending class - again, tutors are not instructors; they will not teach the class to them. • Taking notes - if they need help with note-taking, tutors should work with them on those skills; if they missed a class, let them know that they need to get the notes from a classmate. • Reading assignments - they should understand what the assignment is and have already prepared for it. • Trying homework problems - it is a waste of their time and tutors’ time (and, thus, another potential tutee’s time) for tutees to come without having attempted their homework problems.

Once these guidelines have been established, tutors should give tutees the opportunity to discuss their expectations from tutoring. Do they want a certain grade in a class? Do they want help with study skills? Are they performing poorly on tests? The answers to these questions will give tutors a good indication of what role to play in their learning. Ryan has been working with Curtis for a few weeks now and their sessions are generally productive, but he knows they can often get side tracked by Curtis’ lack of focus or interest in working the problems himself. In order to stay more on task, Ryan decides he is going to start his next session by talking about expectations. When Curtis arrives for his appointment, he and Ryan discuss the fact that Curtis needs to come prepared to their tutoring sessions and should have already attempted the homework. What did the tutor in this scenario do well? What could the tutor have done better?

Setting the Agenda Because tutors serve so many students and are busy college students themselves, they obviously need to make the best use of the time they have with their tutees. After greeting tutees, tutors should set up their session at the beginning, continually monitor its progress, and wrap up sessions with a final summary.

Establishing the Right Environment

Getting Started With the Session Tutors should always be up front with their tutees about the amount of time they have to work with them. To start, tutors can set goals for what their tutees want to cover during the session; this way, tutors are able to prioritize the items and cover the most important things first. By doing this, there are no surprises, and expectations for the session are established ahead of time. Monitoring the Session Once the agenda has been set, it’s very important to stay on task. However, if tutors or tutees feel as if the pace is too fast or too slow, tutors can alter it if necessary. Another appointment can always be scheduled if needed. Summarize the Session About 5-8 minutes before the end of the session, tutors should begin to wrap things up. The following guidelines should be kept in mind during session summary: • • • • • • • •

Remind the tutee of the time. Ask the tutee to summarize what he/she accomplished during the session. Be sure to re-iterate any main points that might have been overlooked. Ask if the tutee has any questions or is unclear about something tutors went over during the session. Ask the tutee to repeat any instructions/assignments tutors might have given him/her. Give earned reinforcements. Encourage the tutee to practice any skills learned during the session. Ask if the tutee wishes to schedule another appointment. Thank the tutee for using tutoring services.

Drop-in Tutoring If tutors are doing a drop-in and only have a few minutes left in their “shift” when someone comes in, they can find out what the tutee needs help with. If it’s something that will not take a long time and they are able to cover the info in the short time they have, tutors can go ahead and help. However, if the student needs more time than what they have left, tutors should schedule an individual tutoring session or inform the student of the next drop-in day/time.

Referring to other Resources No one knows everything about everything. Tutors are not the only resource for their tutees, so there will absolutely be times when they are not able to answer a specific question. There also might be times when tutees would like to do extra work outside of their tutoring sessions. In these cases, Riverland has online resources to which tutors can refer their tutees. Tutors should take some time and explore the different tutoring resources in order to be able to refer students to use these resources.

Basic Training

COMMUNICATION & PROFESSIONALISM LEARNING OBJECTIVES By the end of this section, tutors should be able to: 1. Understand and engage in best practices for tutors

Tutors are professionals, meaning they have been trusted with a certain degree of responsibility and independence. It also means they should act professional in their communication, attire, demeanor, and interactions with their tutees, fellow tutors, and professional staff and faculty.

First of all, What is a tutor?

1. A Tutor Explains. Tutors help students understand concepts that will improve the student’s success in the course. 2. A Tutor Evaluates. Tutors can identify students’ strengths and weaknesses by looking at the students’ work. 3. A Tutor Supplements Classroom Instruction. Tutors add to what students learn in class. Tutors help students review the course requirements and decide together how to meet those requirements. Tutors can help students identify questions they need to ask their instructor. 4. A Tutor Checks Progress. Tutors can check homework to see if students are mastering the material. Tutors do not do student work. 5. A Tutor Plans. Tutors can help students set and achieve goals. Tutors can also develop a plan of action to help their students master the material. 6. A Tutor Encourages and Models Good Study Skills. Tutors can help their students learn how to efficiently study by encouraging, educating, and modeling practical organization and time management skills. 7. A Tutor Supports. Tutors support students through genuine positive feedback, providing practical study skills, helping set achievable goals, and taking a vested (but professional) interest in their students’ lives.

2. Know what it means to act professionally as a tutor in their attire, communication, and demeanor

Tutors are because they: • • • • • • • • • • •

Are committed and trustworthy. Are competent and interested in the subject matter they plan to tutor. Exhibit professional demeanor and appearance. Will respond to emails and phone messages in a timely manner. Will meet strict deadlines. Have reliable transportation to and from their preferred home campus. Have daily internet access. Will notify staff immediately if they cannot tutor at any time for any reason. Understand that their primary focus is to improve student academic performance. Will accurately report and track their tutoring hours. Know that falsification of any kind is grounds for immediate termination.

Communication & Professionalism

Tutor Code of Ethics From the National Association of Tutorial Services 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17.

My proficiency and knowledge in subjects I tutor have top priority. My major motivation is to build my tutees’ self-confidence. My tutees deserve and will receive my full attention. The language my tutees and I share will be mutually understood at all times. I am able to admit my own weaknesses and will seek assistance whenever I need it. Respect for my tutees’ personal dignity means I accept them without judgment. My tutees will constantly be encouraged but never insulted by false hope or empty flattery. I will strive for a mutual relationship of openness and honesty as I tutor. I will not impose my personal value system or lifestyle on my tutees. I will not use a tutoring situation to promote my personal belief system. My tutees and I understand my role is never to do their work. I count on my tutees to be my tutors and teach me ways to do a better job. I will do my best to be punctual and keep appointments, not only out of courtesy, but also to set an example for my tutees. I will maintain records, lesson plans, and progress data as expected and required. I will do my best to stay abreast of current literature about tutoring as it relates to my work. Good tutoring enables my tutees to transfer learning from one situation to another. Making learning real for my tutees is what tutoring means and is an important part of my goal. My ultimate tutoring goal is my tutees’ confidence in and ownership of their own learning processes.

What do this code of ethics mean to you? Pick out several of these statements and describe how you plan to exhibit that behavior.

Professionalism What does it mean to be professional? Professionalism can be something as simple as attire and demeanor to timeliness and respectful communication. Tutors should always come properly dressed to tutoring sessions with a professional demeanor. This does not mean they have to dress up for tutoring, but they should be aware of how their appearance is perceived by their peers. If tutors come in a ripped t-shirt with coffee stains, their tutees will be much less likely to trust them and look to them for support. Similarly, tutors should be mindful of the way they act and present themselves to their tutees. With their friends, tutors might curse or use slang language, but with their tutees, tutors should communicate professionally. Tutors don’t have to be cold and robotic in their interactions with their tutees, but they also shouldn’t use curse words, derogatory phrases, or informal slang. Email and text-based communication should also be professional, with tutees, with fellow tutors, and with college staff and faculty. Communicating professionally by email, text, and voice leaves a good impression with the person they are communicating with and takes hardly any work on their part.

Basic Training

With emails, tutors should always communicate clearly, in complete sentences and with proper grammar. Never abbreviate words or use “texting” language like LOL or emoticons (ex. “:-)”). Emails should always contain a descriptive subject line, a greeting (ex. Dear Joe), and a signature with a full name to identify the sender to the recipient. Professional communication extends to timeliness. When someone—whether it is a tutee or a professional staff member—contacts tutors by email, phone, text, etc. they should make every effort to respond in a timely manner. Even if they do not have time for a full response, they can always respond to let the person know they received their message and will get back to them when they get a chance. This is a nice courtesy that leaves a good impression with the person trying to communicate with the tutor.

Positive Reinforcement Praise is one of the most influential tools a tutor can use. It encourages students to develop good study habits, utilize productive thinking and reasoning skills, and learn course content. Praise is also a tool that can affect whether students will or will not return for more tutoring sessions. Students will likely return to tutoring when they leave sessions feeling supported and sensing progress. Praise is needed to indicate to students when they are headed in the right direction both in terms of content and learning skills. Without praise from the tutor, students may become confused and uncertain about what they have done and what they know. Tutors need to make a conscious effort to be positive in their sessions.

Empathy Tutors should imagine they are in the other person’s situation, experiencing that situation from the other person’s point of view. They should try to understand the reasons they feel a certain way. Tutors can communicate empathy with feedback. After listening to the other person, tutors should give feedback: a summary of what they heard, focusing on both the person’s emotions and the reason(s) for them (“I’m hearing that you feel this way because...”). For example: Student: Tutor:

“I can’t believe I bombed that chemistry exam. I studied and studied; I can’t figure out why I can’t get it. I don’t want to blame the professor, but the average was only 47; no one I talked to did OK either.” “Your distress is understandable. It’s really frustrating to work so hard and not have things turn out and not know why.”

The Tutor Did Not: Judge...” You should have studied harder.” Negate...”Don’t feel that way. It’s only one test.” Sympathize...”Sometimes professors can be such jerks.” Rescue...”It’s too bad. I’m sure you’ll do better next time.” Own...”It’s my fault for not focusing on those.”

Learning Styles

LEARNING STYLES Since everyone has a preference for how he or she learns, it is LEARNING OBJECTIVES the tutors’ job to make sure they are helping students learn the way they prefer to learn. When people use strategies that play into By the end of this section, tutheir personal learning preferences, they are more apt to really tors should be able to: learn and retain the information. For each learning style from VARKs—Visual, Auditory, Read/Write, and Kinesthetic—most people are able to exhibit characteristics in each learning style. Yet, while people may behave differently depending on the situation, their preferred learning style is what they use when in a relaxed environment.

1. Identify what learning style(s) they prefer and how that informs their tutoring. 2. Define the four different learning styles.

Take the VARKs assessment or a similar learning style assessment to discover your own learning style(s).

3. Identify strategies for helping learners with different preferences.

What learning style(s) are you? Are you actively aware of your own learning style? Does it affect how you study? Why or why not? Should it affect how you study? Why or why not?

4. Identify strategies to help students adapt to situations outside of their preference.

Visual Learners Visual learners use visual objects such as graphs, charts, and pictures. They can read body language well, and have a good perception of aesthetics. They are able to memorize and recall various information, as well as remember things that are written down. Visual learners learn better in lectures by watching them, rather than just hearing them. Recommended Strategies When helping tutees, tutors should encourage their tutees to: • • • • •

Review notes immediately after class. Use graphic organizers (visual representations of knowledge, concepts, thoughts, or ideas. To show the relationships between the parts, the symbols are linked with each other; words can be used to further clarify meaning). Make note cards with visual clues to help with recall. Use flashcards for any vocabulary or concepts. Watch tutorials online to reinforce the lesson.

Auditory When memorizing important information, an auditory learner will say it out loud and then remember how it sounded to recall it. Auditory learners are good at writing responses to lectures they have heard. They are also

Basic Training

good at oral exams, retaining facts by listening to information delivered orally in lectures, speeches, and oral sessions. When an auditory/verbal learner reads, it is almost impossible for the learner to comprehend anything without sound in the background. In these situations, listening to music or having different background sounds (TV, people talking, etc.) will help learners work better. Recommended Strategies When helping tutees, tutors should encourage their tutees to: • • • • • • • •

Record class notes and then listen to the recording (repeatedly), rather than reading notes. Remember details by trying to “hear” previous discussions. Participate in class discussions. Ask questions and volunteer in class. Read assignments out loud. Study by reading notes aloud. Whisper new information when alone. Use a speech recognition tool on computers and telephones.

Read/Write Read/write learners make good traditional studiers; they fit in with the school-taught method of reading text and writing notes. Read/write learners would rather read by themselves or to others than be read to and prefer to study by themselves to avoid distraction. It is common for these learners to enjoy reading, and they like to look unfamiliar words up in the dictionary. Recommended Strategies When helping tutees, tutors should encourage their tutees to: • • • •

Take LOTS of notes. Read over notes and rewrite them in their own words. Condense information into a bulleted list to make it easy to read. Turn diagrams and charts into words. If they are unable to do that, they should add as many subheadings and explanations in their own written handwriting as possible to help explain and interpret.

Kinesthetic Kinesthetic learners are thought to be discovery learners: they have realization through doing. They may struggle to learn by reading or listening. When learning, it helps for these learners to move around. This increases the students’ understanding, and kinesthetic learners generally receive better scores in exams when they can move around. Kinesthetic learners usually succeed in activities such as chemistry experiments, sporting activities, art and acting. It is common for kinesthetic learners to focus on two different things at the same time, remembering things in relation to what they were doing. They possess good eye-hand coordination. For kinesthetic learners, learning occurs

Learning Styles

by using their body to express a thought, an idea or a concept (in any field). Recommended Strategies When helping tutees, tutors should try to encourage their tutee to: • • • • •

Find a hands-on activity to do while learning something new or studying (chew gum, squeeze a stress ball, or run on the treadmill). Work while standing. Take study breaks often. Try to take courses with instructors who encourage fieldwork and demonstrations. Study with others in a small group. Knowledge Check Categorize each of the following study strategies into groups based on which type of learner it will help best: Read assignments out loud

Use graphical organizers

Add subheadings and explanations

Work while standing

Record class notes and listen

Watch tutorials online

Create games out of your studying Re-write notes in own hands

Multimodal Not all, or even most, learners fit into just one category. It’s estimated that at least 2/3 of the population have a preference for two or more learning styles. These types of learners are called multimodal learners. For multimodal learners, a combination of strategies based on their personal preferences will be the most effective way to study and retain the material. Plus, many strategies can be effective for more than one learning style at the same time. Tutors should find the study strategy that will help their tutees the most based on their preferred learning style or styles.

Basic Training

CULTURAL DIVERSITY LEARNING OBJECTIVES By the end of this section, tutors should be able to:

Cultural Diversity Every institution, every tutor, every student is unique. Looking at the multiple ways people differ can help tutors choose appropriate strategies and reflect on the effectiveness of their choices.

1. Identify their own cultural values.

What is Culture?

2. Respect and value cultural differences of other tutors and students.

Culture is a set of norms, traditions, events, rituals, symbols, and language that are transmitted through social interactions with other individuals or groups who share similar beliefs and practices.

What is Diversity? Diversity is the differences between individualsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; socioeconomic status, race, gender, sexual orientation, able-bodied-ness, culture, communication, learning styles, and more. What do these terms mean to you? Do you think they are the same as others? Why or why not?

Culture and diversity are not simply racially, ethnically, or internationally based. Every group has shared values, beliefs, and practices. Identity is developed through membership in these different groups. Understanding identity will help tutors understand how their tutees may be different from them on an individual level. Knowledge Check How do you describe yourself in terms of: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12.

Gender:________________________________________________________________________________ Sex:____________________________________________________________________________________ Ethnicity:______________________________________________________________________________ Race:__________________________________________________________________________________ Religion:_______________________________________________________________________________ Age:___________________________________________________________________________________ Socioeconomic Status:__________________________________________________________________ Sexual Orientation:____________________________________________________________________ Language:_____________________________________________________________________________ Physical/Mental Ability:________________________________________________________________ Education:_____________________________________________________________________________ Political Views:_________________________________________________________________________

Cultural Diversity

Understanding Your Identity While culture affects how people understand and interpret the world, it also affects how people understand and interpret their own identities. When someone is a member of a majority group in his or her community, defining culture in every circumstance may be difficult. Many people may not consider their language as something that is culturally based if they spend most of their time around people who speak as they do. People often see how they are different from the norm that surrounds them, and that helps define their identity. It is important to recognize that identity is affected by all aspects of culture. How Will Understanding Cultural Difference Help Tutors? Tutees will differ from their tutors culturally, but what does that mean? Because one individual can identify with many cultures, it is unlikely that every person tutors meet will match their cultural identity exactly. By recognizing and being aware of identity and culture—and how it can be different from their tutees’— tutors will be able to think outside of their “normal” way of tutoring. Additionally, talking about cultural difference will improve tutors’ communication skills and their ability to empathize, listen, and learn about their tutees’ identities and culture. Knowledge Check Read the following scenario based on a real situation that has occurred and then respond to the questions below: Student: [35 years old] Why does a gaussian surface around a line have to be a cylinder? Tutor: [20 years old] That’s just the way it is. A single charge has a sphere, a wire has a cylinder and so on... I just memorized them. Student: Yeah, but why? Tutor: You always want your electric field to be either parallel or perpendicular to the surface. A sphere’s surface vector is always parallel to the e-field created by a single charge; the cylinder’s body is always parallel, but the ends are perpendicular. Student: Yeah, well, I’ll check with my instructor. What are some identity differences the tutor overlooked? How? What could the tutor have handled this situation differently (better)?

Basic Training

TUTORING STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES LEARNING OBJECTIVES By the end of this section, tutors should be able to: 1. Understand and appreciate that students with disabilities are people first. 2. Recognize that there are laws protecting the rights and confidentiality of students with disabilities. 3. Demonstrate confidence when working with students with disabilities. 4. Take into consideration accessibility of the practices and the environment used for tutoring.

The number of students with disabilities pursuing postsecondary education continues to increase. More than 11 percent of all undergraduate students in the United States reported having a disability. This number increases to 12.5 percent for 2-year institutions and nearly 15 percent for 3 - 18 month career and technical programs. It is important for tutors to remember at all times that students with disabilities are people first. People with disabilities are ordinary people with the same common goals as most people without disabilities. Do you know anyone with a disability? How has it affected his or her life? How has it not?

Confidentiality Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 and the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 protect students with disabilities from discrimination. These same laws mandate the confidential treatment of disability-related information. Whether students disclose that they have a disability or whether tutors suspect students have a disability, this information should only be shared with the Disability Service Office or the designated Student Success Center & Disability Service staff on their campus.

Disability Etiquette When tutors are comfortable, their actions and theirs words give a person a sense of calmness and safety. Many people do not know what to say or how to act when they meet someone with a disability. People with disabilities have the same feelings as anyone else. Tutors should, therefore, treat someone with a disability the same way they would like to be treated. Guidelines for Communicating with People Who Have a Disability • • •

Remember, people with disabilities are people first. One of the most important things to remember when having a conversation with a person who has a disability is to talk to that person directly, not to their companion or service provider and make sure to use appropriate eye contact. If it looks like someone with a disability may need assistance, ask them. The worst they can do is say, “No, thank you.”

Tutoring Students with Disabilities

• • • • • • •

When offering assistance, do it in a dignified manner with sensitivity and respect. If your offer is declined do not proceed to give assistance. If the offer is accepted, listen carefully and follow the person’s instructions. Be patient when an individual is using a communication device. Do not talk down to people with disabilities. Avoid using the following terms when talking to or referring to a person with a disability: “wheelchair bound,” “handicapped,” or “suffers from…” The following terminology is appropriate when speaking to or about someone with a disability: “blind,” “visually impaired,” “hard of hearing,” or “physically disabled.” Avoid terms that imply that people with disabilities are overly courageous, brave, special, or heroic. People with disabilities want “equal treatment” not “special treatment.” If you must ask someone about their disability (given the disability is obvious or the person revealed they have a disability), be sensitive and show respect. If the person declines to discuss it, do not probe.

How might tutoring a student with a disability be different from tutoring any other student? How would it be the same? In what ways, if any, would you be nervous about tutoring a student with a disability? Why or why not? How would you handle that situation?

Learning Disabilities and ADHD Learning disabilities and Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) are commonly referred as “Invisible Disabilities” as there are no outward indications a person has a disability. Learning disabilities and ADHD are also the most frequent type of disabilities among students in higher education. A learning disability affects how an individual of average to above average intelligence processes information (i.e. takes it in, stores it, retrieves it, and expresses it). An adult with a learning disability may have language-based and/or perceptual problems that affect reading, spelling, written language, and/or mathematics. For some, organization, time management, and social inter-personal skills also are affected. ADHD is a chronic condition that affects an individual’s ability to maintain focus. Symptoms may include difficulty following instructions, listening to lectures, and completing tasks. Individuals may also exhibit hyperactive-impulsive behaviors such as problems with organization, extreme fidgetiness, excessive talking, and an inability to wait. Abilities are frequently disparate: a student who is highly verbal with an excellent vocabulary may have difficulty spelling elementary-level words; a student who learns very well in lectures may not be able to complete the reading assignments. These striking contrasts in abilities and learning styles were evident in many famous individuals. For example, Nelson Rockefeller had dyslexia, a severe reading disability, and yet he was able to give very effective political speeches. Other famous people with learning disabilities or ADHD include Albert Einstein, Thomas Edison, Jules Verne, John Lennon, Cher, and Jay Leno. Students with learning disabilities or ADHD do not differ from other students in appearance, background, intelligence, or emotional stability.

Basic Training

Barriers to Learning Environmental The environment disables impaired people by not being accessible enough for them to move, function and communicate as effectively as people without impairments. A great deal of the environment is designed by non-impaired people, for non-impaired living. For example, a person in a wheel chair is only “disabled” if the environment is not designed for people with wheel chairs. A wheel chair friendly building would include ramps, lifts, wide doorways and corridors and accessible fittings such as light switches, and motorized doors, etc. Economical Economically, society does not provide the same opportunities to people with impairments. This starts at school and continues throughout one’s career. Disabled people are more than twice as likely as nondisabled people to have no qualifications, and only about half of impaired people of working age who can work are in work, compared with 80 percent of non-disabled people of working age. At school, lessons are designed for non-impaired people, using environments and teaching methods that are not suitable for some individuals with impairments. For example a person with dyslexia has a learning disability only in a lesson structured for non-dyslexic students. If the lesson is taught in a way that suits people with dyslexia then they will not have a disability. Cultural Culturally, society lets impaired people down because of the prejudiced views and negative shared attitudes of the non-impaired community towards people with physical and psychological impairments. Prejudice is associated with the recognition of difference, and “disabled” people are not seen as normal in the eyes of “non-disabled” people (Swain, Finkelstein, French & Oliver, 1993). People are more than just a label describing a negative attribute, and the stigma attached to those labels means that people with impairments are held back from achieving what they want to achieve. Knowledge Check Think about a common learning space such as a classroom, the library, or the Student Success Center from a new perspective: one of a student with a disability. Evaluate what that space is doing well to accommodate students with disabilities, what it is doing poorly, and what could be improved. Share your answers and discuss with a group of other students.

Making Referrals There will be times when tutors need to refer a student to the disability services coordinator or staff member on their campus for additional services. It is important to provide the student with the name and contact information of the person they are referencing. Offer to write down this information for the student.

Tutoring Effectively Online

TUTORING EFFECTIVELY ONLINE What makes an effective tutor?

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

If a group of people are asked what makes an effective tutor, chances are they will come up with some variation of the following characteristics:

By the end of this section, tutors should be able to:

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Subject matter expertise Good communication Familiarity with the course Enthusiasm Effective use of resources Flexibility and patience

Why are these good skills for a tutor to possess? Would you include anything else? Not include something? Why? Would your list look the same for an effective online tutor? What would be the same? Different? Why?

The list of skills for an effective online tutor is largely the same as the list above. The one skill that does not exist for the in-person tutor, but does exist online is an understanding and comfort with the technological platform for tutoring.

1. Understand the challenges and benefits of tutoring online. 2. Integrate best practices from in person tutoring into an online environment. 3. Foster communication and provide helpful, positive feedback nonverbally online 4. Gain an understanding and comfortability with the technology used to facilitate online tutoring.

However, it is absolutely untrue that an effective in-person tutor can become an effective online tutor simply by learning the technical requirements of the online platform. Instead, the in-person tutor must learn methods to adapt his or her skills to an online environment in order to communicate and support his tutees effectively.

Skills of an Effective Online Tutor The following categories for how to tutor effectively online warrant extra attention in this section: good communication, enthusiasm, effective use of resources, using technology, and flexibility and patience. Good Communication When conveying feedback and communicating with tutees in person, it is possible to convey subtlety in the tone and body language. However, online, it is important to realize that there is no tone conveyed through text conversations and limited tone through voice conversations. Therefore, it is critical that care must be taken in all communication online and particularly when giving feedback:

Basic Training

•

Be Positive – Even if an answer or activity is completely wrong or lacking, always begin by having something positive and encouraging to say. Discuss some particular aspect of the work that shows promise or highlights a good idea. It is important that the tutee never perceives feedback as harsh or unfair. All feedback should begin and end on a positive note.

•

Be Clear and Constructive – Never assume that a tutee understands what was meant. Always state exactly what is expected and exactly what has to be done in as specific terms as possible. For example, don’t ask a tutee to complete a homework assignment. Ask him to complete each step of the assignment one by one.

•

Be Personal – Maintaining a personal connection with a tutee in an online environment can be challenging. Make sure that communication does not sound like a robot or like a generic response. Use the tutees name and adapt the wording to respond to that individual student.

Knowledge Check For the following tutor statements, assume the tutoring is occurring online without the use of voice or video camera. For each statement, change the response to be more positive, clear, and/or personal: 1. 2. 3.

Supply and demand relate exactly to each other. For example, when the supply is higher for a given product, then the demand will go down. You’re on the right idea, but manifest destiny had more to do with the general feeling, while the gold rush was more about greed. Using the pen tool on the white board, can you write out the chemical formula for carbon dioxide?

How is the response positive? Clear? Personal? How is it not? How is the response different online than it would be in person?

Enthusiasm In person, a tutor can show enthusiasm through non-verbal communication. Whether it is through nodding a head or hand gestures or some other method, body language is often a major way a tutor can show enthusiasm. Online, this is not possible. Instead, the online tutor must show enthusiasm other ways: 1. Offering positive feedback 2. Demonstrating a willingness to engage in any topic 3. Commenting on any resources the tutee brings to the session Effective use of resources In person, a tutor might use the student’s notes and textbook. Online, the tutor likely does not have access to these resources, but the tutor does have access to a vast wealth of resources online. When tutoring online, tutors should keep in mind what resources they do have available to them and how they can use them:

Tutoring Effectively Online

•

External website – Often, textbooks will have companion website materials available online. These resources can be effective tools for covering textbook content in an online tutoring session. Also, frequently other interactive resources are also available online, just be mindful of which web sites are reputable and which might not have the most reputable information.

•

Uploaded content – If tutors or their tutee has homework assignments, handouts, Power Point lectures, etc. saved to a computer, these can be uploaded to the online tutoring platform and used to discuss topics and be referred to during online tutoring session.

Evaluating Web Resources Evaluating web resources skillfully requires tutors to do two things: 1. Train their eye to identify key features about a web URL and site. 2. Train their mind to think critically about the information presented by asking a series of questions. Question to Ask:

Implication:

Personal pages are not necessarily “bad,” but they need to investigate the author carefully. For perIs it somebody’s personal page? sonal pages, there is no publisher or domain owner vouching for the information. What type of domain does it come from? Look for appropriateness. What kind of information (education, nonprofit, commercial, government, etc.) source do they think is most reliable for their topic? They can rely more on information that is published Is it published by an entity that makes sense? by the source. For example, look for news from the Who “published” the page? New York Times from www.nytimes.com. When would it be okay to use a personal web site? When not? How would you know if it is okay to use or not? Can you trust all .org sites? .gov? .edu? Why or why not?

Once tutors have decided to look at a page based on its URL, they can ask more questions about the content of the page to determine if it is a reputable source. The key steps to take are to: 1. Scan the perimeter for reliable information about the author, date, company, etc. 2. Look for indicators of quality information such as links to other resources or citations. 3. Find out what other sources link to the page. Question to Ask:

Implication:

Who wrote the page?

Web pages are created with a purpose in mind by some person or agency or entity. Look for someone who claims accountability and responsibility for the content.

Basic Training

Question to Ask:

Implication:

Is the page dated? Is it current enough? CAUTION: undated factual or statistical information is no better than anonymous information. Don’t use it without confirmation. Are there links to other resources on the topic? Do the links work? Are the links well chosen, well organized?

How recent the date needs to be depends on their needs. For some topics, they will want current information. For others, they may want information put on the web near the time it became known. Many well developed pages offer links to other pages on the same topic that they consider worthwhile and/or a bibliography of sources.

Types of Web sites For the purposes of tutoring, tutors will mainly use three broad types of websites: 4. Online Tutoring: Sites that provide targeted tutoring help to a student who navigates to that site. Sometimes this help is provided by live online tutors and sometimes by videos, games, or other non-human interactions. Online tutoring sites are great for making referrals if a tutee has questions they can’t answer or tutees can’t meet with them. (examples: SmarThinking, Tutor.com, Khan Academy) 5. Textbook Companion: Sites which are created by the publishers of a textbook and which contain materials that are directly related to the subject of that textbook. These sites often have games, practice questions, animated demonstrations, and other content which tutors can use to help tutees practice and apply their knowledge. (examples: Saladin, Pearson) 6. References: Sites which provide additional information about a subject. While encyclopedias would be considered references, there are numerous other types of reference sites as well, many of which can be useful in tutoring. NOTE: Wikipedia is not considered a reliable reference site. (examples: Mindtools.com, Wolphram Alpha) Knowledge Check Find an online resource that would be useful to you in your tutoring sessions. Identify the following information and present it back to the other tutors: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Web site URL Type of Web site (online tutoring, textbook companion, or reference) How the Web site is reputable How the Web site could be used in tutoring

Technological competence In order to tutor online, tutors must be comfortable with the technology for delivering the tutoring. Tutors will often be required to provide technical support to tutees before or during the session. It is important

Tutoring Effectively Online

that tutors be comfortable enough with the technology to not have it inhibit the effective conducting of the tutoring session. Beyond just technical competence, the online tutor should be comfortable with finding and using the vast resources available with technology in his or her tutoring session. This is primarily a pedagogical skill and not a technical one. For example, the tutor may have several methods of communicating with the tuteeâ&#x20AC;&#x201D; demonstrating a problem on the white board, explaining the problem in text, or communicating by voiceâ&#x20AC;&#x201D; and it is up to the tutor to know which technique for communication is most appropriate in each situation and for each unique learner.

Flexibility and Patience Tutoring online also provides its own unique challenges dealing with the technology. As much as tutors might try to minimize the problems with technology, sometimes the technology does not work the way it is supposed to. It is important that the tutor have flexibility to conduct the tutoring session. If the online tutoring platform isnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t working, the tutor should have a back-up plan for how to conduct that tutoring session online. Often this will involve phone calling and/or email or other text messaging and communication program online such as Skype.

A note about Learning Styles and Indirect Techniques When tutoring online, often tutors will revert to a question and answer technique for their tutoring. For example, instead of letting tutees struggle through a problem with some guidance, the tutor might provide a straight answer to the question presented by tutees. It is important for tutors to make sure they continue to use indirect techniques. More than ever, online tutoring sessions should involve interactivity from tutees at all times. All sessions should have a majority of the time spent with tutees doing the work, not tutors. It is also important for the tutor to recognize that different learners will have different learning styles. Just like in person, a good online tutoring session will accommodate those differences. The tutor must be aware that what suits one learner may not suit another, and be ready to make suggestions about how the course and its activities could be tackled by each type of learner. In general, it is important to not forget good tutoring practices just because the tutoring is online. The effective online tutor will adapt effective in-person tutoring practices to the unique environment of the online tutoring session, not change practices.

Basic Training

Knowledge Check Online Tutoring Scavenger Hunt. Complete some or all of the following actions in the online tutoring platform: Basic set up • Log in to the whiteboard as a tutor • Greet the tutee • Change the color of your chat text • Start your audio • Start your video • Save a whiteboard • Clear the current whiteboard • Create a new whiteboard • Take a video snapshot Drawing Tools • Draw a square • Draw 12x¬2+8x-3 • Draw an octagon • Lock an object • Delete an object • Undo last • Redo last • Change the color of your object or line Advanced tools • Use Wolfram Alpha • Upload an asset • Download an asset • Drag an Asset to the white board • Turn off participant voice • Raise your hand • Flip an object vertically • Flip and object horizontally • Change white board background color • Change white board background to graph paper • Copy and paste an object Answering a tutoring question (pick one) • Find the answer in Wolfram Alpha • Explain the answer on the white board • Explain the answer by chat message

Confidentiality

CONFIDENTIALITY Professionalism includes the ability to maintain confidentiality. Tu- LEARNING OBJECTIVES tees should be able to speak frankly about academic problems, knowing their tutors will not repeat what they said outside of the By the end of this section, tututoring environment. tors should be able to: Tutors are not allowed to discuss their tutees’ personal or academic information with anyone other than SSC staff; with exceptions for college faculty, counselors, or other professional staff members who possess a legitimate need to know. If tutors are unsure whether an information request is appropriate, they can consult a professional staff member. The Federal Education Right to Privacy Act (FERPA) regulates how college employees are allowed to share student information. Concerning students, staff are allowed to release “directory information” only. For tutoring purposes, consider “directory information” as only the student’s name and the fact he/she is enrolled at the college. “Anyone else” means anyone other than college employees, including the student’s family.

1. Know federal law as it pertains to the role of a tutor. 2. Understand the issues pertaining to confidentiality in the workplace 3. Handle common situations regarding confidentiality

Students may waive their privacy rights under FERPA to allow their parents, employers, or others to receive information, but tutors will likely not know whether they have waived this right. Therefore, whenever another party, either inside or outside of Riverland, requests student information and tutors are uncertain whether they can provide it, they should refer the request to a professional staff member. Example 1: Scenario Professor Allbright stops by while the tutor is sitting at SSC’s reception desk and asks: “Has Jane Smith from my Monday & Wednesday Beginning Algebra class been coming in? If so, what has she been working on?” Response - This information can readily be shared with the professor because she has a “need-to-know.” the tutor can look up Jane’s information to find that she has made three appointments this semester, but has kept only one. Now that the professor knows this, she will be able to intervene and convince the student to get help. Example 2: Scenario Ten minutes later while the tutor is still at the reception desk, a man comes in and says he is Jane Smith’s father. He says, “I’m worried about how my daughter is doing in Algebra. She really struggled with it in high school, and I want to make sure she is getting the help she needs.” Response - Even though Mr. Smith genuinely wants to help his daughter, and it might be in her best interest, the tutor cannot lawfully provide the information he seeks unless Jane has already signed a release form. If he insists that Jane has signed a release, the tutor still cannot take action based on his word. The tutor

Basic Training

would not be permitted to release any information about her activities. The tutor should refer her father to a professional staff member to submit a FERPA request. Remember, maintaining confidentiality includes not disclosing information about students to other students. Tutors are encouraged to speak with a professional staff member any time they have concerns about tutees, fellow tutors, or anyone else. Staff are here to help and support. Knowledge Check For each of the following questions are based on real situations that have occurred. Determine what information, if any, can be shared with the party asking the question. 1. 2.

“Hi, my best friend, Jody, said she has been coming to your study group. Can you tell me what day and time she has been coming so that I can join in with her? What have you been covering in the sessions?” Hi. My son, Pablo, is a PSEO student this semester. He has been struggling with English and told me he has been working with you in the writing center. If he doesn’t pass this class, he might not graduate from high school! Have you been helping him? How is his writing? And, by the way, do you know who his teacher is? Hello. As you know, I teach Anatomy and Physiology here and am concerned about a few of my students. Amy and John were supposed to have made appointments with you, and Soo Yeon planned to attend your drop-in session. Have they followed through? How are they doing?

Bibliography & Additional Resources

BIBLIOGRAPHY & ADDITIONAL RESOURCES Barr, Linda T., Karen Agee, and Russ Hodges. “Effective Cross Cultural Communication” in Handbook for Training Peer Tutors and Mentors. Ohio: Cengage Learning, 2012. Communication Across Barriers. “Communication Styles.” . http:// www.combarriers.com/Communication Styles (accessed May 19, 2014). Ens, Anita H., Karen Agee, and Russ Hodges. “Communicating Across Cultures.” in Handbook for Training Peer Tutors and Mentors. Ohio: Cengage Learning, 2012. Knowles, M. S., Holton, E. F., & Swanson, R. A. The adult learner: The Definitive classic in adult education and human resource development (5th ed.). Houston, TX: Gulf, 1998 Stockton College Committee for Diversity, Equity and Affirmative Action. “A Booklet of Interactive Excercises to Explore our Differences.” http://intraweb.stockton.edu/eyos/affirma tive_action/content/docs/Interactive%20Diversity%20 Booklet%2010-14-2011.pdf (accessed May 19, 2014). Toms, Marcia. “Chapter 3: Cultural Differences” In Put the Pencil Down. Raleigh: NC State University Undergraduate Tutorial Center, 2011.

CRLA CERTIFICATION Level 1 Topics • Definition of tutoring and tutor responsibilities • Basic tutoring guidelines • Techniques for successfully beginning and ending a tutor session • Learning styles • Setting goals • Communication Skills • Referral skills • Compliance with ethics and philosophy Level 2 Topics • Cultural awareness and diversity • Identifying and using resources Level 3 Topics • Tutoring targeted populations

Section 2

Training Modules SESSION STRUCTURE TUTORING TECHNIQUES STUDENT POPULATIONS

Session Structure It is a common misconception that anyone who is really good at a given subject makes a really good tutor. Expertise in a given field is one of the requirements, but without the basic understanding of how to structure tutoring sessions, an expert in a subject all too often simply answers any questions posed by a tutee directly. Instead, tutors need to understand many of the basic principles of how students learn and how they can be motivated to succeed. By looking at adult learning theory, expert learning theory, goal orientation, and self-efficacy in the modules in this section, tutors can gain a better understanding of how to effectively structure their tutoring sessions to maximize their tutees ability to become self-directed learners. The trainings in this section have some overlap in content and were not intended to be delivered back to back. Instead, they cover alternate theories and direct applications for how to properly motivate students and address long-term tutoring goals using indirect techniques. These modules are effective methods for tutors to use in understanding better how to structure tutoring sessions and can be delivered at the beginning of alternating years to maximize effect for all the tutors in the tutoring program.

STRUCTURE MATRIX

SETTING GOALS

GROUP TUTORING

01 29

Module 1 - Structure Matrix

Module 1

Structure Matrix Knowing when to jump in and when to back off to let a student learn for him or herself is one of the hardest things to figure out as a tutor. With the right amount of session direction and support, students will better learn the course content and better learn how to be a student. This module covers how to determine the level of support and direction needed by the tutor without overstepping. http://tinyurl.com/Riverland-StructureMatrix

TRAINING CONTENT Expert vs. Novice Learners

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

When tutors are hired for a particular subject, they know that subject very well. They know the patterns of thinking that work; have access to knowledge that helps them solve problems; and have the desire to know the subject. These are all attributes of expert learners. One of the most important ways tutors can help students is to model those expert learning skills.

By the end of this section, tutors should be able to:

At its most fundamental level, a key difference between expert and novice learners is that experts see patterns in information that are overlooked by novices. Experts have a lot of background knowledge in the subject and a thorough understanding of interrelationships; novices do not.

2. Identify where different learners fit on the learning styles continuums

Experts often see beyond surface features to deeper connections. In a study that watched how novices and experts classified physics problems, novices tended to group problems together that had similar pictures or similar key words. For instance, all the inclined plane problems were together. Experts, on the other hand, group problems based on concept: one inclined plane problem was in the “Energy Conservation” group and another was in “Newton’s Second Law” group. The experts were able to look beyond the surface to see conceptual patterns.

1. Identify the 4 major components of learning theory

3. Relate learning theory to the structure of a tutoring session 4. Define indirect techniques and identify why they are important

Experts also have developed ways of retrieving information smoothly. This does not mean they immediately solve a problem but that they are able to use their knowledge to follow a path to the correct solution and not get sidetracked.

Session Structure

Do not equate being an expert in one area with being an expert in all areas, however. Throughout everyone’s lives, when they start learning something new, they are novices. What are you an expert in? What are you not an expert in? How did you become an expert?

Child vs. Adult Learners Another way to conceive people’s different learning styles is as a progression from a child learner to an adult learner. This method is a good way of perceiving key attributes that affect learning, but it is important to note that the difference between a child learner and an adult learner is not based on age. Tutors can probably think of examples of young “adult learners” and older “child learners.” Adult learners: • • • • •

Learn material because they want to apply it, not just because they want to pass a test. See themselves as being responsible for their learning instead of at the mercy of an instructor or subject. Bring their “life experience” to the learning situation and value it. See learning as a tool for solving a problem or completing a task. Are motivated by internal factors (self-esteem, desire for a higher quality of life), not just external factors (grades, teacher approval).

In what ways are you more like an adult learner? More like a child learner? Why? What can you do to become more of an adult learner?

Learning Continuums The tutors now know about the two learning dichotomies: Expert vs. Novice and Child vs. Adult learners. A key thing to remember, however, is that both of these distinctions (expert vs. novice and child vs. adult) exist on a continuum. One is not a novice until spontaneously becoming an expert just as one does not instantly become an adult after being a child. Instead, people learn little by little, day by day; over time, people’s brains begin acting more like an expert’s than a novice’s and more like an adult’s than a child’s. Understanding where a tutee fits along the two continuums can help tutors figure out how to structure their tutoring session.

Structuring a Session Understanding the difference between expert/novice and adult/child learners can help determine how much structure to apply in each session. Note that the terms adult, child, expert, and novice are meant to help conceptualize the difference between students, not compartmentalize them. Although the traits appear dichotomous, each is a continuum that tutors can help students move along.

Module 1 - Structure Matrix

figure 1.1

Novice

Need more assistance processing Struggle with background knowledge

Child

Expert

Learn to pass tests Externally motivated

Learn to apply knowledge Take responsibility for their learning Internally motivated

Adult

See patterns in information Have lots of background knowledge

One of the ways tutors help students move along these continuums is through the amount of structure provided in a session. Structure is the frame that tutors provide (or do not provide) to the session. The two theories about learning affect the two parts of structure: session direction and tutor support.

Knowledge Check As a tutor, you will see a variety of students. For each description of a student below, identify where he or she would fit on the continuums in figure 1.1. 1. 2. 3. 4.

A student who is studying very hard, but is still not grasping the course content A student who seems to grasp the material in your sessions yet does poorly on exams A student who is struggling to understand basic concepts but you believe could be very successful in the class, if he or she would put more time into the course A student who is very successful, and you wonder why they requested tutoring

Session Structure

Session Direction Who decides what to work on during the session? In a highly structured session, the tutor will make decisions about how to spend the session or frequently help the student with this decision. In a session directed by the student (low structure), the student will decide what material to work on and how long to work on it. In general, adult learners will decide what concepts they need to study, whereas child learners will need more assistance. Tutors can ask themselves the following questions to decide whether the student needs more session direction: • • •

Can the student identify which concepts are important and difficult? Can the student gauge his or her understanding of concepts? Can the student study effectively?

If a student is not performing as well in the class as he or she would like, tutors should consider providing more session direction, even if the student wants to direct the session him or herself. Any student may come to a session and say, “I need help with the third homework problem,” and for some, working through that problem is an effective use of their time. For others, however, working on a single homework problem will not lead to a significant change without addressing other issues first. Tutors should decide how the time in the tutoring sessions should be spent to maximize the student’s short-term and long-term success. Tutor Support How frequently does the tutor provide support when the tutee is working on specific content? In a highly structured session, the tutor will step in frequently to ask guiding questions, direct the student to a specific resource, or give feedback. When the tutor support is less frequent and the student can answer many of the questions, the structure is low. In general, expert learners are able to use resources well, whereas novice learners need more assistance. Tutors can ask themselves the following questions to decide if the student needs more tutor support: • • •

Is the student able to make connections among the material? Is the student able to see patterns? Is the student able to use resources to solidify understanding?

Different students need different types of tutoring. In general, letting the student do as much work as possible is a good idea, but there are times when a student may be working hard but not really getting anywhere. Tutors can offer the kind of help a student needs when and where he or she needs it. Think about tutoring situations you have been in. Do you tend to provide more support or less support? More direction or less direction? Did you do that because you needed to? Would you provide the same level of support and direction to that student knowing what you know now?

Module 1 - Structure Matrix

Novice Learners Tutor Support: Frequent

Expert Learners Tutor Support: Limited

Child Learners Session Direction: Tutor The novice/child learner has trouble grasping material because he or she is not studying enough or effectively. The student is not performing well and may not be able to identify why. May have difficulty grasping basic principles presented in resources and may not retain information between sessions. The expert/child learner is able to learn relatively easily from class and resources, but may not be persistent or use all resources fully. May not be performing well on exams because of overconfidence. Probably has experience in previous courses where only minimal studying was effective.

Adult Learners Session Direction: Student The novice/adult learner is highly motivated and studies a lot. He or she may be able to identify conceptual difficulties but is having difficulty using resources for better understanding. Might be studying a lot, but not the important issues.

The expert/adult learner is able to identify weak areas of content, is doing well in the course, and is able to use resources effectively. Might need reassurance; might be going above and beyond classroom expectations.

Knowledge Check For each of the descriptor labels of a student below, match them to the goal for the tutoring session described on the right. Child/Novice

Child/Expert

Adult/Novice

Adult/Expert

The goal is to hold the student accountable. Since the student already understands the materials well, there is little one can do to help him or her until the student is willing to put forth effort outside of the tutoring session The goal is to hold the student accountable for studying and help him or her learn how to use resources. The student must take responsibility for studying before significant changes will occur. You can both teach this student how to use resources and hold him or her accountable at the same time. The goal is to help the student use resources more effectively. He or she may be studying a lot, but not improving his or her grade. The goal is to help with content that is not easily accessible in the classroom lecture, textbook, or other sources.

Indirect Techniques It can be difficult for a tutor to watch a novice learner struggle with material. Tutors are probably a tutor because they want to help people. They like it when they see a wave of understanding pass over someoneâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s face. They probably dislike watching someone struggle.

Session Structure

However, a good tutor knows when someone’s struggle is worthwhile. If tutors are always doing the heavy “mental” work when tutoring, their students will have a harder time not only on tests but also in future courses when a tutor is not available. Indirect Techniques—strategies that tutors use to get a student actively learning (whether by working silently, thinking quietly, or discussing with the tutor)—help a student become independent. Simply telling someone something is often not enough to help him or her learn. Imagine if calculus was taught simply by stating facts: “Differentiation is the rate of change, so it is graphically represented by the slope of a tangent line to a curve.” A young child could learn to repeat those words, but that does not mean she understands it. Instead, when students do more, when they talk through problems and find errors themselves, they are more likely to have a deep understanding of the subject. What are the challenges of a session with a novice/child learner? Benefits? What are the challenges of a session with an expert/adult learner? Benefits? Which do you prefer? Why?

Conclusion Tutors’ main goal is to help students become self-directed learners who can use all their resources fully. Tutors help students become self-directed in their learning by using indirect techniques. It is important for tutors to offer only the amount of assistance that students need to get past their difficulties. Doing too much does not help them move along the continuum from novice to expert learner. If tutors work with a student regularly, they should try lessening the amount of structure they give over time so that the student has the opportunity to gradually begin to succeed alone.

Module 1 - Structure Matrix

ACTIVITIES Adult Learner Case Studies Activity Tutors should be broken into small groups of 2-3 people. Each group is provided with one of the following case study scenarios describing an adult learner tutee (handouts in appendix I): Scenario 1 John is a 43-year-old who spent most of his career in the construction industry. He has recently been laid off and forced to seek new employment elsewhere. Because the health field seemed promising, he decided to seek a nursing degree. However, the courses are very difficult. His previous career did not require the use of computers, and most of his current academic work requires the use of various electronic tools. He is not currently employed and is the single parent of a 6-year-old boy.

AT A GLANCE Summary This activity can be used to demonstrate the unique challenges and goals of a tutoring session when working with adult learners. Timing 25-30 min. Requirements Pen and paper; Whiteboard; Handout of scenarios (appendix I)

Scenario 2 Group size Sara earned her GED recently and wants to pursue an associate’s de4+ people gree in criminal justice with the hope of transferring for a bachelor’s degree. The expectations in coursework for the associate’s degree are much higher than they were for her GED, and she struggles academically. Sara has cerebral palsy; her lips cannot move well, so her speech is difficult to understand, and her fingers are gnarled and stiff, making note taking and keyboarding difficult. She also works a full-time job at a local clinic. Scenario 3 Sierra is a single mother of one boy, age 12, who is receiving treatment for bipolar disorder. She works full time at a law office and attends college part time in the legal studies program. Her most recent schooling was high school—20 years ago. She has not written a research paper in years and feels overwhelmed with all the writing, and studying she is required to complete each week. Groups should first identify all possible tutoring options available for the student in the scenario. For example, if a student works full time, perhaps online tutoring would be best suited for that student. Once the groups have identified the tutoring options, they should devise a plan of action for their tutee, including short- and long-term goals for tutoring and ways to address them. Tutors should be given ample time to discuss and create detailed plans. At least 15 minutes should be allowed for this part of the activity. Once every group has created their short- and long-term goals and ways to address them, the groups should share with each other and discuss the options as a whole. Allow 10-15 minutes for discussion. Why did you chose the short- and long-term goals that you established? Would the answer be the same for a child learner? How so? How much support and direction do you think the tutee from your scenario would need to learn and stay on task? Why?

Session Structure

AT A GLANCE

Structure Matrix Activity

Summary This activity is designed to allow tutors to discover how to determine what the goals of a tutoring session should be by completing the structure matrix.

This activity requires two separate handouts (see appendix II). The first handout should be of the structure matrix as it is shown in this module. The second will be the same matrix without anything filled in to the boxes.

Timing 15-20 min. Requirements Paper, pencils; whiteboard; handout of matrix (appendix II) Group size 8+ people

This activity should be completed before the tutors are told what the goals of a tutoring sessions should be. The tutors should be broken into four groupsâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;one for each box of the matrix. The groups will be given the first handout with all of the information filled in asking them to discuss what the information means. It is important to remind tutors at this point that this information is meant to help them understand ways to support tutees, but not to place them into a box. Discussion could revolve around the usefulness of the theories presented in the structure matrix.

Next, the tutors receive copies of the version of the matrix that has no information within it (appendix II). Each group should be assigned a section of the matrix. For example, one group will have the child/novice; one the child/expert; etc. The tutors should spend 5-10 minutes in their groups determining what the goal of a tutor session should be for the type of learner in their assigned box. While doing that, the facilitator should draw a version of the chart on the whiteboard with the boxes similarly blank. Once every group has determined at least one short-term and one long-term goal for their box, each group should come up and write their goals into the whiteboard. As a whole, the tutors can discuss the different goals. Why did you choose the short- and long-term goals that you did for your type of learner? Do you think every learner should focus on the same type of goals? Why or why not? Are some learners more focused on short-term goals? Long-term goals? Why? Would some learners need more or less support and direction to reach these goals? How would you provide it?

Module 1 - Structure Matrix

BIBLIOGRAPHY & ADDITIONAL RESOURCES Herr, Norman. “2 How Experts Differ from Novices.” How Experts Differ from Novices. http://www.csun.edu/science/ref/rea soning/how-students-learn/2.html (accessed June 23, 2014). Knowles, M. S., Holton, E. F., & Swanson, R. A. The adult learner: The Definitive classic in adult education and human resource development (5th ed.). Houston, TX: Gulf, 1998 MSU Writing Center. “Minimalist vs. Directive Tutoring.” http://msu writingcenter.wikispaces.com/Minimalist+vs+Directive+ Tutoring (accessed June 23, 2014).

CRLA CERTIFICATION Level 1 Topics • Adult Learners and learning theory Level 3 Topics • Structuring Learning Situations

Ota, Carrie, Cynthia DiCarlo, Diane Burts, Robert Laird, and Cheri Gioe. “Training and the Needs of Adult Learner.” Journal of Extension 44. http://www.joe.org/joe/2006december/tt5.php (accessed June 24, 2014). Reedy, David L., Karen Agee, and Russ Hodges. “Andragony and Self-Directed Learning.” in Handbook for Training Peer Tutors and Mentors. Ohio: Cengage Learning, 2012. Toms, Marcia. “Chapter 4: Structuring a Session” In Put the Pencil Down. Raleigh: NC State University Undergraduate Tutorial Center, 2011. Toms, Marcia L., edited by Karen Agee, and Russ Hodges. “Using the Structure Matrix to Determine Appropriate Tutor Support.” in Handbook for Training Peer Tutors and Mentors. Ohio: Cengage Learning, 2012. Tutors Globe. “Comparison of Direct and Indirect Methods.” http://www.tutorsglobe.com/homework-help/ microbiology/comparison-of-direct-and-indirect-methods-72882.aspx (accessed June 23, 2014).

Session Structure

APPENDIX I: CASE STUDY HANDOUTS Scenario 1 John is a 43-year-old who spent most of his career in the construction industry. He has recently been laid off and forced to seek new employment elsewhere. Because the health field seemed promising, he decided to seek a nursing degree. However, the courses are very difficult. His previous career did not require the use of computers, and most of his current academic work requires the use of various electronic tools. He is not currently employed and is the single parent of a 6-year-old boy. 1. 2.

Identify all possible tutoring options available for the student in the scenario. Devise a plan of action for their tutee, including short- and long-term goals for tutoring and ways to address them.

Scenario 2 Sara earned her GED recently and wants to pursue an associate’s degree in criminal justice with the hope of transferring for a bachelor’s degree. The expectations in coursework for the associate’s degree are much higher than they were for her GED, and she struggles academically. Sara has cerebral palsy; her lips cannot move well, so her speech is difficult to understand, and her fingers are gnarled and stiff, making note taking and keyboarding difficult. She also works a full-time job at a local clinic. 1. 2.

Identify all possible tutoring options available for the student in the scenario. Devise a plan of action for their tutee, including short- and long-term goals for tutoring and ways to address them.

Scenario 3 Sierra is a single mother of one boy, age 12, who is receiving treatment for bipolar disorder. She works full time at a law office and attends college part time in the legal studies program. Her most recent schooling was high school—20 years ago. She has not written a research paper in years and feels overwhelmed with all the writing, and studying she is required to complete each week. 1. 2.

Identify all possible tutoring options available for the student in the scenario. Devise a plan of action for their tutee, including short- and long-term goals for tutoring and ways to address them.

Module 1 - Structure Matrix

APPENDIX II: MATRIX ACTIVITY HANDOUTS

Novice Learners Tutor Support: Frequent

Expert Learners Tutor Support: Limited

Novice Learners Tutor Support: Frequent

Expert Learners Tutor Support: Limited

Child Learners Session Direction: Tutor

Adult Learners Session Direction: Student

Module 2

Setting Goals Goals are one of the easiest and most effective ways for tutors to structure their tutoring sessions and motivate students to work harder, longer, and on more challenging assignments. Additionally, goals are a good way for tutors to model good study behaviors that can make their tutees more independent learners. This training covers the basics on how and why to set effective goals in tutoring sessions. http://tinyurl.com/Riverland-SettingGoals

TRAINING CONTENT

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

By the end of this training, tutors should be able to:

1. Understand the importance of setting goals to structure tutoring sessions.

2. Identify strategies to set goals and manage time.

3. Understand the importance of engaging students in increasing their self-efficacy.

4. Be able to provide strategies that equip their tutees to accomplish long-term goals.

Introduction Tutors will best serve their tutees by establishing goals for each tutoring session. Setting session goals not only enables tutors to manage time most effectively, but also to model for tutees how to best use their time, resources, and abilities within each session. Modeling goal-setting behavior in tutoring sessions will also show students how to create plans and set goals for studying and learning that occurs outside of tutoring session. In fact, goals affect performance in four primary ways: 1. Goals are directive. As such, they direct attention and effort toward activities that are relevant to achieving a goal and away from irrelevant activities. Students with goals often pay more attention to and learn more from the task at hand. 2. Goals are energizing. Striving for and accomplishing a goal— particularly a high goal—can motivate students to want to achieve. High—but achievable—goals lead to greater effort than low goals. 3. Goals affect persistence. With the ability to prolong effort spent on a task, goals can strongly motivate toward persistence. Goals that are difficult to achieve often require a tradeoff in time spent working on a task and intensity of effort. 4. Goals affect action indirectly. They lead to the arousal, discovery, and/or use of task-relevant knowledge and strategies. Action is the result of cognition and motivation.

Module 2 - Setting Goals

Goal Orientation One factor that determines whether students will set goals, attempt tasks, and persist to completion is their self-efficacy—or belief in their own ability to complete something. Research on self-efficacy suggests that changes in attitude toward self may be related to changes in effort and achievement. Thus, greater selfefficacy is associated with setting higher goals and improved performance. More specifically, self-efficacy relates to goal orientation: a construct that suggests individuals hold either a learning (i.e. mastery) or performance orientation toward tasks and goals. These two types of orientation can be roughly broken down as follows:

• • • • •

Mastery Orientation Have a desire to increase competence. Believe that their abilities are malleable. Approach tasks with the intention of developing their skills and abilities. Have higher self-efficacy. More likely to interpret a past experience, even if it was a failure, as something positive from which they can learn.

• • • • •

Performance Orientation Have a desire to do well and be positively evaluated by others. See their capacities as static. Approach tasks with the intention of doing well. Have lower self-efficacy. Interprets any mistake or less-than-perfect performance as indicative of failure and lower ability.

As tutors, why would do you want to move your tutees toward a learning orientation? How can you do that? What role do goals play in improving one’s self-efficacy? Why? For tutors, the goal is to increase their student’s self-efficacy and motivation. This means moving them more towards a mastery orientation. One way to do this is through the concept of control. Students who tend to attribute their successes and failures to factors under their control such as the amount of effort put in, use of additional resources, and use of learning strategies, tend to be more motivated. Students who focus on factors outside of their control, such as the difficulty of the test, not having time to study, or the ability to understand the instructor, will be less motivated. As a result, it is important for tutors to makes sure their students understand that they have control over their learning and their ability to succeed. Tutors can help their students focus on controllable factors and not dwell on those factors they cannot control. Providing repeated, directive feedback on the specific controllable factors a student uses can reinforce their self-efficacy. For instance, after students succeed on a goal, tutors can tell them they did well because of their hard work; or, after students perform poorly or fail to meet a goal, tutors can show them how their study strategies could be improved to increase their chances of success on their next goal. Other strategies that can help students adopt more of a mastery orientation include:

42 • • • •

Session Structure

Tutors can convey mastery goals to students, conveying to their students that they should learn meaningfully and retain course content, instead of conveying that learning for a course grade is sufficient. Tutors can introduce assignments with a mastery orientation, explaining that the purpose of the assignment is to learn “five concepts” not complete “five problems.” Tutors can help students set goals focused on the methods and strategies they will use to learn information rather than goals focused on the outcome they want to achieve. Tutors can help students reflect and evaluate their learning progress.

S.M.A.R.T. Goals Goals are not dreams, wishes, or illusions but specific results worth achieving. Certain goals, however, are far more likely to improve effort than others. Specific goals are more likely to elicit effort than vague goals like “do better in school.” Many people set S-M-A-R-T goals: Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Relevant, and Time-Bound.

Specific

Measurable

Attainable

Relevant

Time-bound

Specific goals are those that are clearly defined. Who? What? When? Where? For instance, “I will be healthier” is not specific, whereas “I will work out three days a week and eat at least seven servings of fruits and vegetables a day” is specific. Measurable goals have objective results or outcomes. While “becoming more active” could refer to a range of undefined behaviors, “working out three days a week” is a measurable action. Meeting this goal can be objectively determined. Attainable goals can be met. Unrealistic goals often reduce the effort one is willing to exert. For instance, a student with a family and job might set a goal to take 18 credits and earn a 4.0 GPA each semester. If she realizes this goal is not practical, she will probably not work hard to attain it. But if she sets a goal to complete all requirements to earn 12 credits, maintain her family and job, and earn a 3.0 GPA, she is more likely to perceive the goal as realistic and work to attain it. Beware of setting goals that are too low, however; goals that are too easy decrease effort. Relevant goals are more likely to motivate students. A goal that is too remote can fall prey to more pressing needs. For example, a student whose goal is to compete in the Miss America pageant, but needs to complete a statistics course to keep her job so that she can remain in school, is more likely to work toward completing the most immediately relevant goal. Time-bound goals are set to be completed within a certain time frame. Sometimes those dates are set, such as an exam date or graduation day. When there is no defined end date, creating one can motivate action toward attaining a particular goal. For large projects with a due date, such as a final paper, break the task into smaller segments with earlier due dates.

How can you use SMART goals in your tutoring sessions? What is an example of a SMART goal for one of your tutoring sessions? Why are SMART goals a helpful way to organize tutoring sessions?

Module 2 - Setting Goals

Knowledge Check Complete the following steps for something you have to do (for school, work, anything): 1. 2. 3. 4.

Create a SMART goal Identify what tasks will need to be completed to complete the goal Estimate the approximate time needed to complete the task Does your goal have a deadline? If not, set a deadline.

Time Management One of the defining characteristics of SMART goals is that they are time-bound, which works well for motivating students. But what if a student is faced with a paper deadline in two weeks and has multiple obligations to complete within the same time frame? Individuals handle deadlines differently and can still be successful. Some are motivated by deadlines and perform much more productively when a deadline looms. Others handle deadlines by working in advance, planning carefully to complete the work well ahead of time. It is important to remember that when a student is successfully handling deadlines, even using a different method than the tutorsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;, tutors should not impose a new time management strategy on him or her. Students often seek tutoring assistance in subjects that are difficult for them. Therefore, one might say that the aptitude, or amount of time required to learn the material, is significantly higher than it might be for other courses. It is important for tutors to understand why their students seek tutoring for a particular course. Perhaps it is to get an A, to more fully understand the material, or to simply pass the class. Once a student has stated her goal, she must identify the daily and weekly tasks necessary to achieve it. How can you model good time management behavior in your tutoring sessions? Why is it important to model this behavior for your tutees?

Time Variables Typical college courses require at least two hours of studying outside of class for every hour spent in class; however, a study by the Indiana University Center for Postsecondary Research and Planning showed that 65 percent of first year college students spend less than 16 hours per week studying, and only 8 percent spend 26 or more hours studying. A number of variables, however, come into play when students are deciding how much time to spend on a particular task or goal, including: 1. Aptitude, which encompasses variables that affect the time required to learn given material 2. Opportunity to learn, or available time 3. Perseverance, or the amount of time a student is willing to spend learning.

Session Structure

Actual time spent learning is limited by each of these variables. Every student, after figuring out the time required to be successful, must decide (1) whether they have that much time available (opportunity to learn), (2) if it is worth it to them (perseverance), and (3) what they will give up, if necessary. Knowledge Check Looking back on your previous SMART goal, compare the time needed to the time you have available. Is success possible? If not, what sacrifices will need to be made to make time available? Are those sacrifices worth it? If not, revise your goal now to make it fit into your personal time table, taking into account your aptitude, opportunity to learn, and perseverance. Create an action plan for accomplishing your SMART goal using the time you have available by your deadline.

Ultimately, the value students place on a task or skill will strongly influence the amount of time they are willing to spend on it. To increase students’ willingness to persevere on a task, tutors can relate the task to the students’ interests, make studying into a game, create study groups for students who enjoy working together, explain to student why learning information or developing a skill is important, or have students consider how learning in a particular area is important for achieving a future goal.

Motivation and Reinforcement As established earlier, self-efficacy is a key factor in creating motivation for students to learn. Therefore, tutors should work to increase their students’ self-efficacy through identifying strengths that will guide them to reach their goals, build confidence, and reach their full potential. As a result, they will internalize a learning orientation and strengthen internal motivation to create higher goals. For example, if a student learns best by using visuals, the tutor might help him identify visual aids that will help him grasp new concepts, study for exams and retain new information. For most people, accomplishing a goal feels great; this intrinsic motivation may be all some students need to motivate themselves toward their goals. Other students create rewards for themselves after they accomplish a goal. For example, a student who achieves his goal of earning an “A” on his Physics midterm might choose to positively reinforce his success with a meal at his favorite restaurant. During a tutoring session, students might earn a five minute break after working for 30 minutes. Small and large rewards alike can help students stay motivated through all types of goals. Knowledge Check Will you feel accomplished when you complete your SMART goal? If not, modify your goal now to challenge yourself to set a goal that will give you a sense of accomplishment when you complete it. What type of reward will help motivate you to complete your higher goal? Why? Establish a reward now for completing your SMART goal. If your goal is long-term, you may want to establish several short-term goals to help you achieve your overall goal, each with their own reward.

Module 2 - Setting Goals

As tutors help their tutees establish goals early in tutoring sessions, reinforce academic learning, and progress through each session to accomplish their goals, tutors will increase their students’ self-efficacy and, as a result, their motivation.

Short-Term and Long-Term Goals of Tutoring Many students take advantage of tutoring because they are worried about a specific test or even a particular homework assignment. These are all short-term goals of tutoring. Long-term goals of tutoring include mastering the material, becoming an independent learner who is able to identify what needs to be learned, and how to learn it. Long-term goals are best promoted by using the least amount of structure possible for that student. Sometimes tutors might feel tension between the short-term and long-term goals of tutoring. When students need more guidance, it is easy to fall into the trap of doing more of the “thinking work” for them. However, if tutors deal only with immediate concerns and problems, their students are not being helped. Instead, they need to be confident—before beginning a tutoring session—that long-term goals for students are ultimately more important than any short-term goal. Keeping this in mind will remind tutors to focus on developing their students’ study skills and to consistently use indirect tutoring techniques. Promoting study skills is one way of helping students work toward the long-term goal of becoming independent learners, while still helping them reach their short-term goals. Knowledge Check In small groups or pairs, tutors can read one of the following scenarios of student concerns often seen in tutoring (see Appendix I). Each student in the scenarios has a need in a different aspect of college. Tutors should identify the areas of need and devise strategies for the student to try: • • • • • • •

Sarita states that she studied for hours for a history test, “more than she has ever studied before,” yet she scored only 54%. Jack does his moth homework and can usually do the problems unassisted; when taking tests, however, he never scores above 65%. Carrie states that she reads and re-reads the summary pages of the psychology textbook, yet she cannot answer the “picky” multiple-choice questions on tests and has now failed her second test. Matt is concerned about getting his paper completed by the deadline a week away. He has had the assignment for 6 weeks but has not started it yet. Kirstin says that she “knew everything in her notes” for the political science test, but she got a D, and the professor indicated that she needed to include more details. Frederico believes that there are so many facts to learn in the history course that it is impossible to memorize everything. Brianne is frustrated with her geography text, professor, and exams because the course is “just a liberal arts requirement.” She has not yet chosen a major.

What are the short-term goals for a tutoring session with this student? What are the long-term goals? What strategies can tutors use to achieve long term goals?

Session Structure

Conclusion Goals are an effective way to increase studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; self-efficacy and motivation and to structure a tutoring session around both short- and long-term needs. Studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; goals should be SMART, promote self-efficacy and motivation, and work toward greater independence and mastery orientation. Moreover, using goals to structure tutoring sessions will keep sessions on track and make sure students continue to develop and learn independently. When students are not meeting their goals for a particular course, tutors should recognize that something needs to change. Tutors are uniquely positioned to help students see when they need to change their course of action in order to achieve their desired results. Because students who become accustomed to setting goals and accomplishing them experience a form of learning that increases their motivation, direction, and persistence, the over-arching goal of any tutoring session is for tutors to model this practice for their students, ensuring they adopt it for themselves.

Module 2 - Setting Goals

ACTIVITIES Do Your Best Activity Divide participants into groups of two. Have the groups determine who is the builder and who is the instructor. Give the instructor the sugar cubes and handouts (see appendix II). Tell the instructor to read each exercise’s directions before beginning each activity. Exercise #1 •

• • • •

AT A GLANCE Summary This activity helps tutors understand the importance of goals in motivating success and in communication. Timing 15-20 min.

Read the following instructions to your builder. “Your job is to stack as many blocks as you can in one minute. Each sugar cube will be stacked one on top of the other in a Requirements single, vertical column. How you stack the sugar cubes is Sugar cubes; Exercises handout up to you. If the column topples and time remains, you (appendix II) may rebuild. Your score is the number of sugar cubes standing in a column when I call time. Your minimum Group size score is always one.” 4+ people Do not specify or suggest how many sugar cubes might be stacked. Simply say, “Do your best.” Time the exercise as accurately as possible. (1 minute) When the exercise is finished, have the builder count the number of sugar cubes standing. Do not comment (verbally or nonverbally) in any way on your builder’s results. If asked directly, avoid the question.

Exercise #2 •

• •

This time you set the goal (number of sugar cubes to be stacked) based on the number actually stacked in Exercise #1. If the total was fewer than 10 sugar cubes, then set the goal at 10. Do not allow the builder to participate in setting the goal. Become autocratic, if necessary. Remember, the goal should be exactly what was stacked in #1, with 10 being the minimum. Allow 1 minute for the exercise. Do not comment (verbally or nonverbally) in any way on your builder’s results. If asked directly, avoid the question.

Exercise #3 • • •

Repeat Exercise #2, but this time set the goal two times higher than actually achieved in Exercise #2. If the result was fewer than 10 sugar cubes, then set the goal at 20. Do not allow your builder to have any input on the new goal. Allow 1 minute for the exercise. Do not comment (verbally or nonverbally) in any way on your builder’s results. If asked directly, avoid the question.

Session Structure

Exercise #4 • • •

Repeat exercise. Set the same goal as was set in Exercise #3. Do not increase the goal if the builder stacked the number of sugar cubes that you requested. If fewer than 10 sugar cubes were stacked, keep the goal at 20. This time, however, make a substantial change in your feedback practices, if the goal was met. Praise your builder by saying, “great job” or “I knew you could do it.” If the goal was not met, say and do nothing, keeping the negative impact of this to a minimum. Allow 1 minute for this exercise.

Exercise #5 •

• •

Repeat the exercise. To establish the goal this time, ask your builder for his/her input. Say, “You’ve had some experience in stacking sugar cubes now, what do you think the goal should be?” As the instructor, you are to provide your insight and help in establishing the goal; this is to be a shared, participative process. Do not set the goal until you have mutually agreed on the number to be stacked. If the goal is reached, praise your builder as in the last exercise. If not, say nothing. Allow 1 minute for this exercise. Which one of these exercises was easiest? hardest? Why? How did it feel to have positive feedback or encouragement? How did it feel to not? How did it feel to have a say in the goal setting? Were you more motivated to achieve the goal you had a say in? Were you more motivated to achieve some of the goals and not others? Why? How is this similar to “real life” situations? How does this make you feel?

AT A GLANCE Summary This activity demonstrates how to visualize long-term goals and apply them to motivation for short-term goals. Timing 20-25 min Requirements Paper, pencils Group size Any size

Lifeline Activity Have the tutors begin by taking a blank piece of paper and drawing eight vertical lines down the page. The first line should be labeled with 10, the next 20, and so on until you get to the last line labeled 80+. Depending on the age of the tutor, have them write “my age” next to the line they are closest in age to currently. 1. First, complete the Lifeline. The tutors begin by writing on the left side of the Lifeline (i.e. before their labeled “my age” line), alongside the corresponding age (number) the important events that have happened to them. If they are struggling to come up with what to write, you can provide suggestions, such as “Beside 6, I would write, ‘Began first grade’; beside 7, ‘Sister born’; beside 12, ‘Father died’; beside 13 ‘First confirmation’; etc.” Give the tutors 3-5 minutes to complete.

Module 2 - Setting Goals

2. After completing the “Past Events,” the tutors move to the right side of the line and perform the same activities with their “Future Events.” Again, you can model what you would record, such as retirement, building a new home, traveling to Europe, etc. Give the tutors about 5 minutes to complete (it’s okay if it is not fully done). 3. After the “Future Events” are completed, the tutors should circle the event that is most important to them now. 4. Turning the paper over, the tutors should write a goal that would help them achieve the future event they circled. You can model this again if necessary, such as: “By the summer of 2003, I will have a new home in North Carolina.” The tutors can then share their goals with a partner or group of other tutors, and volunteers can share with everyone. 5. Finally, tutors should write three behaviors they could put into practice this semester that would help them work toward their goal. Again you can model if necessary, such as: “I will look for property in North Carolina; I will begin to research house plans; I will talk to friends who have recently built homes.”

Session Structure

BIBLIOGRAPHY & ADDITIONAL RESOURCES CRLA CERTIFICATION Level 1 Topics • Setting goals and/or Planning • Role Modeling • Study Skills

Acee, Taylor W., et al. edited by Karen Agee, and Russ Hodges. “Motivational Perspectives on Student Learning.” in Handbook for Training Peer Tutors and Mentors. Ohio: Cengage Learning, 2012. Brigham Young University. “Mastery vs. Performance Goals.” Mastery vs. Performance Goals. https://americanheritage.byu.edu/Pages/ LearningTips/Attitude/Mastery-vs--Performance-Goals.aspx (accessed June 27, 2014).

Daddona, Mark F., edited by Karen Agee, and Russ Hodges. “The Self-Regulated Learning Workshop as a Training Tool.” in Handbook for Training Peer Tutors and Mentors. Ohio: Cengage Learning, 2012. Downing, Skip. “The Impact of Extrinsic Motivation (Two Research Studies) - On Course Workshop.” On Course Workshop. http://oncourseworkshop.com/self-motivation/impact-extrinsic-motivation-two research-studies/ (accessed June 27, 2014). Idoux, Monique, edited by Karen Agee, and Russ Hodges. “Setting Goals for the Tutoring Session: Evaluating Tutees’ Needs.” in Handbook for Training Peer Tutors and Mentors. Ohio: Cengage Learning, 2012. Heerspink, Janice B., and Thea J. Brophy, edited by Karen Agee, and Russ Hodges. “Self Regulated Learning: A Scenarios Approach to Training.” in Handbook for Training Peer Tutors and Mentors. Ohio: Cengage Learning, 2012. May, Mark S., and Jacqueline Harris, edited by Karen Agee, and Russ Hodges. “Clarifying Goals for a Tutoring Session.” in Handbook for Training Peer Tutors and Mentors. Ohio: Cengage Learning, 2012. Palmer, Sue B. . “Drawing Motivation Out of Students.” . http://oncourseworkshop.com/self-motivation/ drawing-motivation-students/ (accessed June 27, 2014). Rotter, J.B.. “The Locus of Control.” http://www.psych.uncc.edu/pagoolka/LocusofControl-intro.html (accessed June 27, 2014). Svinicki, Marilla D.. “Student Goal Orientation, Motivation, and Learning.” The Idea Center Idea Paper #41. (accessed June 26, 2014). The Ohio State University. “Communication #5: Do Your Best.” Communication Activities - Building Dynamic Groups, OSU Extension. http://hostedweb.cfaes.ohio-state.edu/bdg/pdf_docs/g/G05.pdf (accessed June 27, 2014). Toms, Marcia. “Chapter 7: Developing Good Study Skills” In Put the Pencil Down. Raleigh: NC State University Undergraduate Tutorial Center, 2011.

Module 2 - Setting Goals

APPENDIX I: SCENARIO HANDOUTS Sarita states that she studied for hours for a history test, “more than she has ever studied before,” yet she scored only 54%. What are the short-term goals? Long-term goals? What strategies can you use to accomplish the long-term goals while still addressing the short-term needs? Jack does his moth homework and can usually do the problems unassisted; when taking tests, however, he never scores above 65%. What are the short-term goals? Long-term goals? What strategies can you use to accomplish the long-term goals while still addressing the short-term needs? Carrie states that she reads and re-reads the summary pages of the psychology textbook, yet she cannot answer the “picky” multiple-choice questions on tests and has now failed her second test. What are the short-term goals? Long-term goals? What strategies can you use to accomplish the long-term goals while still addressing the short-term needs? Matt is concerned about getting his paper completed by the deadline a week away. He has had the assignment for 6 weeks but has not started it yet. What are the short-term goals? Long-term goals? What strategies can you use to accomplish the long-term goals while still addressing the short-term needs? Kirstin says that she “knew everything in her notes” for the political science test, but she got a D, and the professor indicated that she needed to include more details. What are the short-term goals? Long-term goals? What strategies can you use to accomplish the long-term goals while still addressing the short-term needs? Frederico believes that there are so many facts to learn in the history course that it is impossible to memorize everything. What are the short-term goals? Long-term goals? What strategies can you use to accomplish the long-term goals while still addressing the short-term needs? Brianne is frustrated with her geography text, professor, and exams because the course is “just a liberal arts requirement.” She has not yet chosen a major. What are the short-term goals? Long-term goals? What strategies can you use to accomplish the long-term goals while still addressing the short-term needs?

Session Structure

APPENDIX II: DO YOUR BEST HANDOUT Exercise #1 • Read the following instructions to your builder. “Your job is to stack as many blocks as you can in one minute. Each sugar cube will be stacked one on top of the other in a single, vertical column. How you stack the sugar cubes is up to you. If the column topples and time remains, you may rebuild. Your score is the number of sugar cubes standing in a column when I call time. Your minimum score is always one.” • Do not specify or suggest how many sugar cubes might be stacked. Simply say, “Do your best.” • Time the exercise as accurately as possible. (1 minute) • When the exercise is finished, have the builder count the number of sugar cubes standing. • Do not comment (verbally or nonverbally) in any way on your builder’s results. If asked directly, avoid the question. Exercise #2 • This time you set the goal (number of sugar cubes to be stacked) based on the number actually stacked in Exercise #1. If the total was fewer than 10 sugar cubes, then set the goal at 10. Do not allow the builder to participate in setting the goal. Become autocratic, if necessary. Remember, the goal should be exactly what was stacked in #1, with 10 being the minimum. • Allow 1 minute for the exercise. • Do not comment (verbally or nonverbally) in any way on your builder’s results. If asked directly, avoid the question. Exercise #3 • Repeat Exercise #2, but this time set the goal two times higher than actually achieved in Exercise #2. If the result was fewer than 10 sugar cubes, then set the goal at 20. Do not allow your builder to have any input on the new goal. • Allow 1 minute for the exercise. • Do not comment (verbally or nonverbally) in any way on your builder’s results. If asked directly, avoid the question. Exercise #4 • Repeat exercise. Set the same goal as was set in Exercise #3. Do not increase the goal if the builder stacked the number of sugar cubes that you requested. If fewer than 10 sugar cubes were stacked, keep the goal at 20. • This time, however, make a substantial change in your feedback practices, if the goal was met. Praise your builder by saying, “great job” or “I knew you could do it.” If the goal was not met, say and do nothing, keeping the negative impact of this to a minimum. • Allow 1 minute for this exercise. Exercise #5 • Repeat the exercise. To establish the goal this time, ask your builder for his/her input. Say, “You’ve had some experience in stacking sugar cubes now, what do you think the goal should be?” As the instructor, you are to provide your insight and help in establishing the goal; this is to be a shared, participative process. Do not set the goal until you have mutually agreed on the number to be stacked. • If the goal is reached, praise your builder as in the last exercise. If not, say nothing. • Allow 1 minute for this exercise.

Module 3 - Group Tutoring

Module 3

Group Tutoring Group tutoring offers its own unique challenges and benefits for collaborative work and learning. Tutors have to know how to navigate these differences in order to be an effective group tutor. This module covers group tutor roles, collaborative learning strategies, general tips for group sessions, and more strategies to help traditional peer tutors be effective in a group tutoring session. http://tinyurl.com/Riverland-GroupTutoring

TRAINING CONTENT

Group tutoring sessions provide a platform to equip members to LEARNING OBJECTIVES learn and master specific subjects or course content. Groups typically meet one or more times weekly to review, reinforce, explain, By the end of this section, tuexpound, or share expertise to facilitate learning for all particitors should be able to: pants. When it comes to effectiveness, “participation” is the operative word. 1. Define group tutoring and explain why it Leading Group Sessions: The Basics works. To be effective, group sessions must generate active participation, discipline, and commitment from all group members—dynamics critical to the learning process. Quality sessions are designed to help students learn how to apply information and synthesize course material. Participants enjoy the opportunity to think out loud, share insights, and discuss concepts in-depth with others. As a result, members not only build confidence in their knowledge, but also discover what they do not yet know or understand. Optimally, group members will find and fill in their knowledge gaps before they take their tests, not during them.

2. Understand the tutor’s purpose, role, and responsibilities within the group tutoring process. 3. Prepare for group tutoring sessions. 4. Deal effectively with troublesome group members or situations.

Why Does it Work? Group tutoring sets the stage for active learning to occur, which, in turn, promotes a far greater level of retention than traditional forms of passive learning. Students who actually work through challenging material, identify and solve problems, engage in discussion, and help others to grasp key concepts find the practice invaluable for mastering new course material, as illustrated by the learning pyramid in figure 3.1.

Session Structure

figure 3.1

The Learning Pyramid

Lecture 5% Reading 10% Audio/Visual 20% Demonstration 30%

Average learning retention rates

Discussion Group 50% Practice by Doing 75% Teaching Others 90%

The Purpose of a Group Tutor: • • • • • •

To reinforce what students have been learning in class. To create an environment conducive for teamwork and group study. Integrate how to learn with what to learn. To encourage good study habits and serve as a resource for students. Serve as an academic and attitudinal role model. Support faculty members. Knowledge Check (use a video of a typical group tutoring session from You Tube or elsewhere) In this video of a typical group tutoring session, identify things that the tutor does well and things that the tutor does not do well. What does the tutor do well? Why? What does the tutor not do well? Why?

Group tutors DO: • • • •

Show up for each scheduled session on time and ready to work. Prepare appropriate material prior to each session. Welcome and encourage students by fostering an environment conducive to group study. Help students find answers for themselves by redirecting questions and modeling study, problem solving, and research techniques.

Module 3 - Group Tutoring

Group Tutors DO NOT: • • • •

Tell students what questions will be on the test. Put in a good word with the professor, or attempt to influence a student’s grades. Explain entire chapters right before an exam because students have been procrastinating. Give ear to criticism of instructors or their teaching style.

Leadership Qualities While tutors are still peer tutors when conducting group sessions, they also take on a certain amount of authority within the session. Sometimes finding the balance between being a supportive peer and a group leader can be difficult. Group tutors can expect students to look to them for direction and to provide an effective approach for the course material. This requires a conscious leadership role on their part–much more so than that required in individual tutoring. Understanding your level of authority How do you exert your authority? How do you know when you have “lost control” of the session? What do you do to regain control?

To be effective, group leaders act in a number of different roles: Role Supporter: Facilitator: Initiator: Goal Setter: Evaluator: Blocker:

Explanation To provide an atmosphere of trust. To promote effective communication and help students reach their goals. To gauge students’ knowledge and commitment and establish a pace to maximize their success. To help students select and clarify goals as individuals and as part of a group To promote self-awareness and to understand the group’s direction. To protect students from counter-productive behavior and enhance the flow of group progress.

Knowledge Check In pairs, identify at least one example of how one or more (depending on the number of pairs) of these roles might be exhibited by the tutor in a group session. Once you have written your example(s), explain to the rest of the group why you chose your example and how it is representative of that role.

Session Structure

Tips for Successful Group Tutoring • • • • • • • • •

Set Group Standards Early. All members should make a serious commitment to prepare for and show up to each session prepared to learn and participate. Inclusive Seating. Arrange seating in a circle to include everyone. Face the Blackboard. When using the blackboard, be sure everyone can see. Students Explain. Have students explain answers, concepts, and definition to each other. Equalize the Talk Time. Make sure everyone in the group gets a chance to participate. Control vocal students by ceding the floor to others. For example: “We’ve heard your thoughts on the previous point, Shawn, let’s see if someone else wants to suggest a different perspective.” Praise. Praise students who come prepared to work. Encourage Participation. Provide opportunities for quiet students to participate. For example: “We haven’t heard from you in a while, Ralph. What do you think of Shawn’s answer?” Summarize Everyone’s Contribution. Summarize the contributions of all students and integrate them into a whole. This reinforces learning and helps all to see their contribution and feel included. Have students take turns “teaching” each other the material. The person who “teaches” always learns more than the person being “taught.” If people have to teach a concept they really have to know that concept. Why do you want to use these tips in group tutoring? Can you think of any other tips not covered here that you should use in your group tutoring sessions?

Collaborative Learning Strategies Collaborative learning is essential for the effective functioning of large group tutoring sessions. It puts the responsibility for learning on the student by establishing a dialogue from student to student, not strictly student to tutor. The following are just a few of many collaborative learning activities. Group Discussion A group discussion is, more or less, just like it sounds: a general discussion of an issue or topic by the group. Individual members are free to contribute or not contribute. Hints This is the most common form of collaborative learning. It is also the form that requires the most skill to use successfully. Ideally, everyone is actively involved in the discussion and the discussion topic is of equal interest to all group members. When group discussion is successful, it may be difficult to determine who is actually leading the discussion.

Module 3 - Group Tutoring

Clusters In clusters, group participants are divided into smaller groups for discussion. They may also be allowed to self-select the small group they want to be in. After discussing the assigned topic the cluster may report their findings to the large group. Hints If possible, see that each group is provided a flip chart or a space on the blackboard to record the important points of their discussion. Allow time for each group to report back to the large group. Someone may have to be assigned from each group to report back. Assigned Discussion Leader One person in the group is asked to present on a topic or review material for the group and then lead the discussion for the group. This person should not be the regular group leader. Hints When assigning a discussion topic to individual members of the group, some extra time may be required to allow a little time for the person leading the discussion to prepare for the discussion. This technique works best when everyone or nearly everyone in the group is given an assignment to be the “expert” on. Turn to a Partner Group members work with a partner on an assignment or discussion topic. Hints This technique works best with group participants who have already been provided with enough background on a subject that they can immediately move to a discussion with their partner without previewing or reviewing concepts. Individual Presentation An individual presentation is an uninterrupted presentation by one person to the group. Group members present on a topic, question, or issue to the group. Unlike an “Assigned Discussion Leader,” this is a formal presentation delivered to a captive audience. Hints Individual presentations should typically be used sparingly and only when independent research is required.

Session Structure

JigSaw JigSaws, when used properly, make the group as a whole dependent upon all of the subgroups. Each group provides a piece of the puzzle. Group members are broken into smaller groups. Each small group works on some aspect of the same problem, question, or issue. They then share their part of the puzzle with the group. Hints When using JigSaws, make sure the limits of what each group will contribute to the topic that is being explored is clearly defined. Think/Pair/Share Group members work on an assignment or project individually and then share their results with a partner. Hints The goal of a “Think/Pair/Share” is to allow participants time to think BEFORE they discuss. Research shows that when people are given time to contemplate an answer to a question, their answers differ from those they would give if they responded immediately. When doing a “Think/Pair/Share” give participants a specific amount of time (30 seconds, 5 minutes, etc) for the “think” portion. Group Survey Each group member is surveyed to discover their position on an issue, problem, or topic. This process insures that each member of the group is allowed to offer or state their point of view. Hints A survey works best when opinions or views are briefly stated. Be sure to keep track of the results of the survey.

Knowledge Check You are meeting with a group of 5 students who all need help with the same class. On a blank piece of paper, come up with an example of a problem that might come up in your session. Then, determine a good collaborative learning strategy to use and defend your reason for picking that strategy. Once you have come up with your strategy, turn to a partner and explain your tutoring problem, strategy, and reasoning. With your partner, determine the answers to the following questions for his or her explanation: Why did he or she pick this collaborative learning activity? How would it facilitate learning and understanding for all group members? Which collaborative learning strategy did you just participate in?

Module 3 - Group Tutoring

Guidelines for Conducting Collaborative Learning Activities 1. If possible, tutors should make up the groups themselves. 2. Make the task challenging/fun. Almost everyone likes a good puzzle or a good mental challenge. If it’s challenging or fun, most will want to be involved. If it is only busy work, it will be harder to keep them involved and motivated. 3. Get everyone involved. Design group work so that every person in the group is involved. 4. Make the assignment very clear. The instructions can be on the board or on a sheet of paper. Don’t make them too complex. 5. Explain the task before separating into groups. If they are divided into groups before explaining the task, it will be hard to get their attention. 6. De-brief the task after they separate from their groups. It’s very difficult to “process” and discuss the assignment if they are still in groups.

Dealing with a Difficult Group Member Even though tutors will be working hard to make sure the group climate is cooperative, every now and then a group member may develop behavior patterns that interfere with the learning environment of the rest of the group. Here are some suggestions tutors can use to deal with this: • • • • • • • • •

Don’t tolerate disruptive behavior to uphold the illusion of harmony. Refuse to be goaded into a reciprocal pattern. Don’t counter abusive remarks with abusive remarks. To keep from becoming angry, tutors can remove themselves mentally from the conflict–listen as if they were an uninvolved third party. Don’t provide a soapbox for the troublemaker. Attempt to convert a disruption into a constructive contribution. Confront the person directly. Reserve the last 5 to 10 minutes of the session to review the behavior issue individually (and privately) with the tutee. Be as specific as possible. Discuss expectations with the tutee and how to work on this problem together. Remind the tutee that tutoring time is limited and valuable. Explain to the tutee that wasting time is a problem because it is unfair to other students who’d like to work with the tutor. If the issue escalates into something tutors cannot handle (or do not feel comfortable with), they should ask for assistance from staff. If all else fails, the disruptive student will be removed from the group. Be sure to mention the behavior issue to staff. Also, tutors should make note of it in their client report forms.

Types of Group Tutoring Sessions Group Tutoring It can be easy for tutors to want to focus on homework problems exclusively, but in doing so they would be ignoring a key component involved in truly understanding material: identifying and understanding the concepts underlying homework and/or exam questions. This is a great opportunity to tackle as a group.

Session Structure

Tutors probably won’t have time to cover all the assigned homework problems, so it is helpful for them to decide as a group how many and which of the homework problems they want to address. Group members should then attempt to work through the problems on their own. It is helpful for tutors to come up with some kind of structure for their sessions to help their group stay on track and to cover as much material as possible. Here are some suggestions: •

•

In the first 15 to 20 minutes, tutors could review and discuss the material covered in the last class period. This allows members a chance to voice any confusion, issues or problems they are having with the material, and allows tutors to share knowledge as a group. This is also an opportunity for group members to share their knowledge and understanding of the material and to gain clarification on what is due for homework. If needed, tutors could use the last 10 minutes to do a quick review/summary of the session and wrap up by identifying any tasks or responsibilities needing to be addressed prior to the next session. This would be a good time to remind students of any big projects that are due soon. How is group tutoring different from individual tutoring? What strategies from individual tutoring should be used in group tutoring sessions? Why? Which should not? Why?

Study Group Facilitator An effective study group ideally has 3-5 members. Groups should meet at least once a week during a time frame decided by all members if possible. Members must commit to show up and to do required preparation prior to each session. Unprepared members impact how effective that session is for the whole group, as well as themselves. Tutors serve as the primary ‘leader/facilitator’. They will assign tasks to group members, keep the group on track, and ensure the pace is suitable for all members. The leader also handles problems that arise with difficult or dominant group members and controls the content of sessions by preventing off-topic discussions or other irrelevant matters. Finally, leaders send reminders (text message or email) to all members about each session. Through working together as a group, members build relationships that can, and most often do, prove critical to the success of the group as a whole. In essence, the stronger the tutor/facilitator’s relationships with his or her fellow students, the more productive the sessions will be. What are the essential elements for a strong, productive relationship? As the leader, what specific things can you do to create and maintain these relationships?

Module 3 - Group Tutoring

Drop-in Tutoring If several students are waiting to be helped, it is more beneficial to help one student briefly, give the student a sample problem to work on, then move on to the next student. This is more efficient than helping each student with everything before helping someone else. By circulating to each one, tutors can often help those with fewer difficulties get unstuck, leaving more time for those with longer time needs. Eventually, everyone can be working independently, asking questions as they get stuck. The students learn this way to become more patient and self-directed, and each feels benefited in the time spent at the session. It is perfectly fine to leave students alone, working on a problem, if they know the tutor is close by and available. What are some of the unique challenges of working in a drop-in tutoring session? How can you overcome those challenges?

Conclusion Group tutoringâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;whether thatâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s regular group sessions, study group facilitating, or drop-in tutoringâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;offers unique challenges for the tutor/facilitator, but also unique benefits. The strategies and ideas discussed in this training should not be taken in isolation. Tutors are a tutor first and as such they should maintain good tutoring practices, including using learning styles, active listening principles, questioning techniques, positive reinforcement, and many other strategies they can employ as a tutor in their group sessions.

Session Structure

ACTIVITIES AT A GLANCE Summary This group role play activity is good for giving tutors a chance to practice how to handle difficult students and discuss possible solutions with their fellow tutors. Timing 10-15 min. per role play Requirements Role play scenarios (appendix I) Group size 5+

Disruptive Scenarios Activity Tutors should be set up in the room as if they are conducting a group tutoring session. Have one person exit the room to “prepare” for his or her tutoring session. It can be helpful to provide this tutor with a problem or other scenario for him or her to use in the scenario. With the remaining tutors in the room, randomly hand out 2-5 (depending on the size of the group) of the disruptive student descriptions in appendix I. The remaining students can play as “free agent” in which they determine their own role as a student in this role play. Once the tutors have had a chance to read their role play description and decide how they are going to act it (1-2 minutes), bring the tutor from the hall back in to conduct the tutoring session. The “students” should act out their disruptive roles with the tutor. After 5-10 minutes, stop the tutoring session and debrief.

Tutor: what disruptions did the “students” cause in this mock session? How could you handle these disruptions in your group tutoring sessions? Students: What were your roles? How was your behavior disruptive to the other students? Did the tutor handle your disruptive behavior well? What could the tutor have done differently to handle your or the other students’ behavior better? You can repeat this role play numerous times with a different tutor playing the role of “tutor” each time and using different random student disruptive roles.

Module 3 - Group Tutoring

Movers and Shakers Activity The following activity is highly recommended as an active learning tool to use with large (hundreds of participants) or small (as few as eight) groups. To prepare for the activity, create a handout that asks several questions. Put all of the questions on one side of your handout (Side A). Select one of the questions to put on the opposite side (Side B) of the handout. Each question should be equally represented. For example, if Side A has four questions, each question would appear on Side B on Âź of the handouts. Sample questions for the handouts can be found in appendix II. Procedure: this activity has three steps.

AT A GLANCE Summary This activity illustrates the effectiveness of collaborative learning activities on comprehension and understanding. It works well as an icebreaker. Timing 20-30 min. Requirements Handout of questions (appendix II), whiteboard, pen and paper

1. Seat students in two rows facing each other. One row will Group size be named the Movers and the other row will be the Shak8+ ers. The students receive a copy of the handout along with instructions to interview the person who is sitting across from them by asking the single question found on Side B of their handout. Both students interview each other. (5 to 10 minutes) â&#x20AC;˘ â&#x20AC;˘

After students have finished their interviews, Movers stand up and move to the left one place. Movers with no where to move go to the other end of the line. Shakers remain in their same seat, but stand up to shake hands with each new person. After Movers have moved, both Movers and Shakers again interview the person seated across from them by asking the same question they asked during the first interview. (This procedure can be repeated approximately four times with Movers moving after each interview and all interviewers continuing to ask the same question they originally asked.)

2. All Shakers (students who were asking the same question) form their own group or groups (depending on number of participants). That is, all interviewers who were asking Question 1, form a group, and all interviewers who were asking Question 2, form a group, etc. These groups can sit in a circle or around a table. Each group selects a facilitator to keep the group on task and a recorder. One by one, each group member shares with the group the responses received during the interviews. The group then chunks all of these responses into three general categories. 3. The recorders meet at the front of the room to share with the entire group the general responses that were received from the original interviews. What did you find difficult about collaborating in small groups to come up with one response to report back? Why? What did you find beneficial about it? Would it have been better or worse if everyone individually reported their answers to all the questions? How does this relate to how your students can learn and collaborate in group tutoring sessions?

Session Structure

BIBLIOGRAPHY & ADDITIONAL RESOURCES CRLA CERTIFICATION Level 1 Topics • Tutoring Guidelines / Tutoring Dos and Don’ts Level 3 Topics • Group management skills

Barkley, Elizabeth. “Collaborative Learning.” On Course Workshop. http://oncourseworkshop.com/interdependence/collaborative- learning/ (accessed July 25, 2014). Falletta, Eva. “Tips for Group Tutoring.” In Tutor Training Manual. Chandler, AZ: Chandler-Gilbert Community College. “Group Management Skills.” In Tutoring Training Material. : BYU Idaho, https://courses.byui.edu/Academic Support/tutoring center/tutor_training/Group%20Management.pdf, (Accessed July 22, 2014)

The Leader’s Guide to Supplemental Instruction . Kansas City, MO: University of Missouri-Kansas City, 2006. Walker, Lana, and Mary Lilly. Two (Or More) Heads Are Better Than One: Adventures in Leading Group Learning. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota, Twin Cities, 2010. Wilson, Wendy L., edited by Karen Agee, and Russ Hodges. “Dealing with Difficult Tutoring Situations” in Handbook for Training Peer Tutors and Mentors. Ohio: Cengage Learning, 2012. Wynia, Elizabeth. “Movers & Shakers.” On Course Workshop. http://oncourseworkshop.com/ interdependence/movers-shakers/ (accessed July 25, 2014). Zaritsky, Joyce, and Andi Toce. Academic Peer Instruction Reference and Training Manual. LaGuardia, NY: LaGuardia Community College, 2013.

Module 3 - Group Tutoring

APPENDIX I: DISRUPTIVE SCENARIOS HANDOUTS Blocking. In previous sessions you indicated that you were getting the material and went home to practice it more. Now, in this session, you have arrived indicating that you tried working on the material but are stuck and will never learn it. Confusion. You arrive at the tutoring session complaining that you have tried everything but nothing works. You say you study all the time but you are still not getting good grades on the test and made a D on the last exam. You comment that you are not sure you know what the professor wants. Miracle Seeking. You arrive at the tutoring session on time. You have a homework assignment that is due the next day. You tell the tutor that you are so glad that he is available because you didn’t know what to do before. Now you want the tutor to work through all the homework problems for you so that you can submit the homework tomorrow. Over-Enthusiasm. Two weeks remain in the semester when you finally speak up in the tutoring sessions. At the end of the session, you explain that you have failed the last two exams and need to make an A on the comprehensive final in order to pass the course. You would like to schedule extra time with the tutor every day for the next two weeks to get caught up on the assignments. You tell the tutor that you must pass this course to graduate, and you are already behind. You know that the tutor can help you pass the course. Resisting. In your first appointment with the tutor, the tutor began by having you explain the struggles you are facing in the course. The tutor then suggested several strategies that you can work on during the session, but after each option, you explained that you have already tried it and it doesn’t work. Passivity. You have arrived at this session without attempting any of the homework. You say that the tutor is very good at explaining the material and ask that the tutor talk through the major issues so that you can understand them better before you try doing any of the homework yourself. Evasion. You have met with the tutor a few times, and each session seems to get off track. In each session you start talking about unrelated topics. You keep trying to talk to the tutor about his personal life to get to know the tutor better. Distraction. You have already completed all of the homework and understand the problems really easily. Now you are bored and don’t feel like you need to listen to the tutor. You keep distracting your fellow students because you want to do something else. Over-Bearing. You have been coming to tutoring sessions regularly, but no matter what you try, you still don’t get the material. You have to ask a lot of question in order to understand the problems and you don’t let the tutor move on at all until everything is explained completely step-by-step. Disengaged. You are very quiet and never get up to explain any problems or answer any questions. You are having a hard time figuring out the material, but you don’t want to look stupid in front of your fellow students so you don’t say anything. Instead, your grade keeps dropping while you keep pretending you are understanding everything perfectly.

Session Structure

APPENDIX II: MOVERS & SHAKERS HANDOUT

Group tutoring can help students learn and retain information just as well or sometimes better than other types of learning. Why do you think this is? In this sense, what is the purpose of group tutoring?

Group tutors are leaders as well as peer tutors. What are some of the leadership qualities that group tutors need to exhibit to be successful? Why?

One reason group tutoring can be helpful is that it allows students to work through problems and questions together. In what ways can group tutors help foster collaboration? Why is this collaboration helpful?

Group tutoring can easily get off track if even just one student is disruptive. What are some ways that students can be disruptive in a group tutoring session? How can the tutor handle the disruptive behavior?

Tutoring Techniques

Tutoring Techniques Tutoring is an art as much as it is a science. Great tutors are ones who know how to ask good question, prompt students to talk, set clear goals, motivate students, give good explanations, use wait time, provide positive reinforcement, and many other common techniques. To simply answer questions with direct explanations misses much of the point of tutoring: to help students to become more self-directed learners who will, in time, no longer need tutoring. This section covers five training topics that each cover a different technique that can be employed by tutors in their sessions to be more effective at making their students more motivated and self-directed in their learning. Many of the core concepts and ideas covered in these trainings are repeated and reinforced across multiple modules. As such, these trainings are meant to build on each other over time and not designed to be delivered all at once or back to back. Tutors will learn in these modules how to create welcoming environments for their tutees, give feedback to motivate them, and use strategies to help students do more of the learning in tutoring sessions.

GETTING STUDENTS TO TALK

DIRECT TECHNIQUES

POSITIVE COMMUNICATION

ESTABLISHING RAPPORT

QUESTIONING TECHNIQUES

04 68

Tutoring Techniques

Module 4

Getting Students to Talk Any good tutoring session should involve more talking and participation from the student than from the tutor. However, students are not always willing to answer questions or attempt problems without some guidance and help from the tutor. This module covers some ways tutors can help encourage tutees to become more active participants in tutoring sessions. http://tinyurl.com/Riverland-GettingToTalk

TRAINING CONTENT

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

By the end of this training, tutors should be able to: 1. Identify and understand the different types of questions, and the advantages/ disadvantages of each, and when each are appropriate. 2. Understand the importance of listening skills, and be able to apply those skills in tutoring sessions.

Why Should You Get Tutees to Talk? In 1953 Benjamin Bloom conducted a study that showed that students listening to a lecture were thinking irrelevant thoughts over 30 percent of the class time. Students who participated in a discussion had fewer than half the amount of irrelevant thoughts and were thinking at a deeper lever. Why do you think the results were so much lower for those students who did not participate in active discussion? Do you think it makes a difference that the study was first conducted in the early 50s, well before laptops and texting on cell phones? Would the results be the same? Or more or less? Why?

What does this mean for tutors?

Tutors ask tutees different questions to not only gauge their level of comprehension but also try to help them do more thinking on a deeper level. Tutors are able to pinpoint an area of difficulty or misunderstanding when tutees explain their thought process on a problem. Also, tutees are able to develop a deeper level of thinking, not only what went wrong, but why or how it went wrong.

Module 4 - Gettings Students to Talk

Different Types of Questions Closed and Open-Ended Questions • •

Closed questions are factual and concrete: “What is a radius?” or “Is this the correct method?” Open-ended questions have multiple ways to answer; are more abstract than simple facts: “Why did you use that method?” or “What still seems unclear?”

What are some advantages to closed questions? What are some disadvantages? What are some advantages to open-ended questions? What are some disadvantages? Topic • • •

Affective questions are about tutees’ emotions: “How are you?” History questions look at the tutees’ history with the topic; used to see prior knowledge: “Have you seen this topic before in calculus?” Content questions are about concepts and ideas: “Tell me what is happening in this graph.” Knowledge Check Categorize the following questions into affective, history, or content; tell if they are closed or openended questions. “What is the past participle of this verb?” _________________________/_________________________________ “How’s your week going?” __________________________________/_______________________________________ “Did you take physics in high school?” ______________________________/_______________________________ “What is the subject of the sentence?” ____________________________/_________________________________ “Have you used formulas like this before?” ___________________________/______________________________ “How did you feel about the test?” _______________________________/_________________________________ “How could you use Newton’s Second Law to explain the motion of this problem?” _______________________________________________/____________________________________________________

Questions can also be categorized in many other ways. Two other common categories include: • •

Study habit questions which could incorporate any questions that look at how the student is using class time, studying time, notes, books, and other materials. Metacognitive questions. That sounds like a really big, scary category, but really it’s a pretty simple concept. Metacognition literally means “beyond thinking.” In other words, it refers to thinking about how one thinks, learns, and understands. Being able to understand how one thinks is associated with higher academic performance. Thus, asking questions that help students understand better how they think will help them develop as self-directed learners.

Tutoring Techniques

Knowledge Check List five questions you have asked a tutee during a tutoring session. One for each category of questions discussed. Categorize each question as done in the last knowledge check. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

___________________________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________________

Active Listening Of course, asking good questions is not enough; tutors need to know how to ask them in an effective way and listen appropriately. Active listening is more than just hearing; it’s responding in a specific way—both verbally and nonverbally. Important things to remember: • • •

Actively listening shows tutees they have been heard, which is often the most important part of listening. Tutors are able to effectively check for understanding. Tutors want to validate tutees’ feelings by actively listening.

Three Main Ways to Actively Listen: • • •

Reflect the content of the tutee’s message (verbal). Reflect the feelings behind the tutee’s message (nonverbal). Ask questions (verbal). Knowledge Check Consider a student who says the following: “I studied a whole week for this test and I still just got a C.” How would you respond? When you’re done, compare your response with others. An active listener might respond to the tutee by saying, “You sound really frustrated about the grade you got on this test, which you studied so hard for” with a head nod and compassionate look.

Nonverbal Signals Nonverbal signals are a big part of active listening when tutoring. These signals given by a tutor are very important, because they can reinforce a verbal message; however, they can also replace or contradict what tutors are trying to say, so be careful with these signals. Also be aware of cultural differences, like eye con-

Module 4 - Gettings Students to Talk

tact, “thumbs up” (which is the equivalent to the middle finger in other cultures), and other gestures. Examples of nonverbal signals include: • • • • • •

Body movement (posture, hand & body movements) Facial expressions (movements made by mouth, nose, eyebrows) Eye contact/eye avoidance Touch (handshakes, arm touch while talking) Paralanguage (rate, volume, & rhythm of speech) Silence

Nonverbal signals given by a tutee are also important, because they can contradict what the tutee is saying. For example, if tutors ask a question such as “Do you understand?” and the tutee says “Yes,” but the nonverbal signals say otherwise, the tutor might need to use open-ended questions to ensure comprehension. Are the following common responses to the statement in the last knowledge check appropriate? Why? 1. 2. 3. 4.

Well, it’s a hard course; lots of people got Cs.” Don’t worry; you’ll do better next time.” Well, I guess you should have studied more.” You should be pleased with a C. I saw another student who got a D.”

Conclusion Getting the students to talk is the tutor’s most useful tool. Only then can the tutor understand where the student’s difficulty lies. There are many techniques for getting students to talk but no matter which techniques tutors use (active listening, open vs. closed questions, etc.) their primary focus in a tutoring session should always be on getting students to engage and talk more. The more students talks, the more they will get out of tutoring sessions. When tutors get students to verbalize, however, they also have to be sure to listen carefully. Being a mindful listener who pays attention to all nonverbal signals and leaves plenty of wait time will ensure that students feel supported and engaged in tutoring sessions.

Tutoring Techniques

ACTIVITIES AT A GLANCE

Active Listening Hand Raising Activity

Summary This activity is played in pairs, with one member telling a story and the other demonstrating a lack of direct interest in it. It is a simple, quick exercise to run, and then to talk with the group about the power of active listening afterwards.

Split the Tutors into pairs, ‘A’ & ‘B’.

Timing 10-15 min.

Ask them to do this for the entire conversation—‘A’s are not allowed to interact with ‘B’s, ask questions, affirm understanding, etc. ‘A’s remain silent, just raising their hand every time their inner voice kicks in.

Requirements None Group size Any size, even number

Take ‘B’s out of the room and ask them to wait outside. Inform the ‘A’s that while they are listening to their partner, every time their partner says something that evokes their “inner voice” (i.e. they want to ask a question, they think about something else, etc.), they put their hand up for five seconds then put it back down.

Next, inform the ‘B’s outside that they are to speak to ‘A’s about something of interest (an experience, their last holiday, anything positive that has happened to them in the last six months, etc.). They have three minutes to talk.

Ask ‘B’s back into the room, then allow three minutes of talking from ‘B’s. At the end of the three minutes ask the ‘B’s how they felt while talking to ‘A’s. Common answers include “didn’t feel listened too, didn’t understand why they were putting their hand up, lost my train of thought because they obviously weren’t listening,” etc. For more, you can also ask the ‘A’s to not only raise their hand, but also lose focus (i.e. start staring out the window, become transfixed with the detail on their partner’s jacket, etc.). ‘B’ Group: Did you feel listened to? Did you want to keep telling your story? How did it make you feel? What would have made you feel more engaged? ‘A’ Group: Did you have a hard time paying attention to what your partner was saying? Why or why not?

Module 4 - Gettings Students to Talk

Vacation Planner Listening Activity Break the tutors into pairs: listener and talker. The talkers have to describe what they want from a holiday, but without mentioning a destination. The listeners have to practice active listening skills: listening attentively to what is being said and what is not quite being said, and demonstrating their listening to the talker by their behavior. After 3-4 mins., the listener has to summarize the three or four main issues or criteria that they have heard the talker express and then make a tentative sale of a suitable destination. Then one minute to review how close the listener was to what the talker said and needed. Plus one minute to review how well they demonstrated active listening behaviors. You can have tutors swap roles and repeat if needed for more demonstration. Take some time at the end to review, pulling out key learning points. If you can substitute a work-related equivalent to replace the holiday scenario, that works as well.

AT A GLANCE Summary This activity is a way to demonstrate the importance of active listening in partners. It may be valuable as a warm up activity, or to reinforce that listening isnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t easy, but to change behavior requires a different approach. Timing 5-10 min. Requirements None Group size Any size

Did you listen correctly? How close were you to the ideal vacation for the taker? Did you want to keep explaining your vacation to the listener? Why? What did the listeners do to give you the impression they were engaged and interested?

Guess the Question Type Activity 1. Draw 2 vertical lines on the board (creating 3 columns for the different question types). Do not label the columns. 2. Break tutors into groups and have them list as many different questions they have asked (or would ask) as possible. Give them 5-10 minutes to discuss and create questions 3. Come back together and ask each group for a question one at a time as a round robin. As the facilitator, put each question up in the appropriate column, but still without labeling the column.

AT A GLANCE Summary Before the training, you can lead an activity that demonstrates the different question types. This activity works well dividing tutors by subjects tutored. Timing 10-15 min.

4. Keep going around until you have several questions in every column. If you have one column with fewer or no questions, try to get the tutors to figure out a question that would fit in that column.

Requirements Whiteboard and marker; Pen and paper

5. After you have a few questions in each column, ask tutors if they see themes in the questions and can label each column.

Group size 6+ (at least 2 groups of 3)

Tutoring Techniques

BIBLIOGRAPHY & ADDITIONAL RESOURCES CRLA CERTIFICATION Level 1 Topics • Communication skills • Active listening and paraphrasing Level 2 Topics • Using probing questions

Gough, Verity. “Trainers’ Tips: Active listening exercises.” Training Zone.co.uk. http://www.trainingzone.co.uk/topic/trainers-tips active-listening-exercises/143120 (accessed May 13, 2014). Mindtools. “Active Listening: Hear What People are Really Saying.” Active Listening. http://www.mindtools.com/CommSkll/Active Listening.htm (accessed July 2, 2014). Norgate, Michelle . “Using Open and Closed Questions.” Training Zone.co.uk. http://www.trainingzone.co.uk/anyanswers/does anyone-have-any-good-training-games-using-open-closed questions (accessed May 13, 2014).

Richardson, John V. . “Open versus Closed Ended Questions.” Open versus Closed Ended Questions. http://polaris.gseis.ucla.edu/jrichardson/dis220/openclosed.htm (accessed July 2, 2014). Stanford University Teaching Commons. “How to Get Students to Talk in Class.” Stanford. https://teach ingcommons.stanford.edu/resources/teaching/small-groups-and-discussions/how-get-students talk-class (accessed May 13, 2014). Toms, Marcia. “Chapter 5: Getting Students to Talk.” in Put the Pencil Down. Raleigh: NC State University Undergraduate Tutorial Center, 2011. Tucker, Glen. “Communication and Listening exercises.” Trainers Warehouse Blog Communication and Listening exercises Comments. http://blog.trainerswarehouse.com/communication-and-listening exercises/ (accessed May 13, 2014). University of Colorado, Boulder. “Active Listening.” Active Listening. http://www.colorado.edu/conflict/peace/ treatment/activel.htm (accessed July 2, 2014).

Module 5 - Direct Techniques

Module 5

Direct Techniques Direct techniques are the cornerstone of any tutoring session. While tutors should always try to use indirect techniques as much as possible, if students didn’t need some support and explanation of how to do problems, there would be no need for tutoring. This module covers how and when to use direct techniques as well as how to be assertive and deal with tutoring problems. http://tinyurl.com/Riverland-DirectTechniques

TRAINING CONTENT What are Direct Techniques?

Direct techniques are any that do not elicit responses or ideas from the tutee, and is the most common teaching technique. Tutors should always try to limit the use of direct techniques in favor of having students do more of the work and learning; however, at times tutors must step in and provide an explanation or show an example to help their tutees along. As a result, direct techniques can be useful in addressing specific issues of misunderstanding. They are also helpful in addressing tutees’ problems with course content, process, study habits, or behavior.

How to Use Direct Techniques Effectively Use the student’s prior knowledge Prior knowledge (also known as schema) is what someone knows about a topic. It’s how people see the world. When exposed to new information people assimilate that into their schema.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

By the end of this section, tutors should be able to: 1. Identify and understand direct techniques, as well as the advantages/disadvantages, and when to use them. 2. Identify and understand assertiveness and how to apply assertiveness techniques to difficult tutoring scenarios.

Anytime tutors can relate something to prior knowledge is helpful. Focus on the big picture Learners organize information into their schema in different ways. Tutoring can help tutees build links in their schema that might not have otherwise been done. Tutors can do this by articulating the connections and generalizations behind a problem. This “big picture focus” can help tutees learn the theory and then apply it to future problems.

Tutoring Techniques

Keep it relevant People benefit most from explanations when they are directly related to the problems they need to solve; therefore, tutors should try to stick to the topic without getting too “off course.” Keep it short Most people know what it’s like to sit through a lecture and have their attention span drop significantly as time goes on. Tutors should use direct techniques as little as they can, only explaining what is necessary to get tutees moving again. Relate it to real-world experiences People aren’t always interested in learning something new if it has nothing to do with their lives or past experiences, or is not something they will be able to apply in real life. Relating information to something tutees already know can help them understand and remember it. Pause for processing Tutees need time to think about the material (especially difficult material) before moving on to the next item or asking a question. Pausing and wait time is an important, if sometimes uncomfortable, part of any tutors repertoire of tutoring techniques Use visual aids if appropriate Many people benefit from having a visual representation of a topic they are learning. Some subjects are easier than others to have visual aids, but when possible tutors should use visual aids with their tutees. Check for understanding It is obviously extremely important that tutors know if their tutees understand. Rather than using closed questions, tutors should ask open-ended questions to ensure comprehension and gauge the level of understanding. What are some advantages of using direct techniques? What are some disadvantages of using direct techniques? When have you used direct techniques successfully?

Dealing with Tutoring Problems Tutors generally sign up to be a tutor to help students with academic challenges, but there will be times when other issues come up.

Module 5 - Direct Techniques

Knowledge Check Identify each of the following statements made by a tutor as either a direct or indirect technique. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

What will you do next? Let’s go back to the last example. As you said, the net force is the sum of all these forces. The first step is to draw a picture of the physical situation. Look at the graph on page 248 and see how concentration varies with time. Just remember: oxidation at anode, reduction at cathode. This reduction in moment of inertia and increase in angular velocity is like how a skater spins faster when she brings her arms in closer to her body That’s a good idea. It’s r2, not r.

Just like everything in life, balance is key when resolving a problem. On one hand, tutors do not want to be so passive that the problem continues to happen, but on the other hand, tutors also don’t want to be so aggressive that they scare tutees away. The balance? Be assertive. What are some problems you have experienced while tutoring? How did you handle it? Was it successful? What would you do differently next time?

Assertiveness is standing up for oneself, but doing so in a respectful way. Ideally, tutors want to be right in the middle of the assertiveness continuum, because there are drawbacks to having too much or too little assertiveness. Where do you think you fall on the continuum from passive to aggressive? Passive people • • • • • •

Have trouble saying no. Do whatever others ask, even if it’s very inconvenient. Get “stepped on” a lot. Talk softly and don’t stand up for their rights. Do anything to avoid conflict. Are taken advantage of. They get resentful but don’t tell anyone.

Think of some specific times when you were over- or under-assertive. How could you have responded differently?

Tutoring Techniques

Assertive people • • • • • • •

Are firm and direct. Don’t blame others but take full responsibility for their own feelings. Concentrate on the present. Can express their needs and feelings calmly and easily. Are confident about who they are. Speak firmly and make eye contact. Respect others’ rights and expect the same in return.

Aggressive people • • • • • •

Are loud, bossy and pushy. Get their way, no matter what. React instantly. Like to get even. Don’t care about feelings. Believe that winning is everything. Where do you think you fall on the continuum now? Did your answer about where you fall on the continuum from passive to aggressive change after seeing the differences? Does this change depending on the situation? Look at Figure 5.1. Is it still the same?

Whose Problem is it? Before tutors can know how to solve a problem, they have to identify what type of problem it is. Is it the tutor’s problem? Is it the students’ problem? What is causing the problem? Student’s Problem: Emotional Content If there is emotional content in the message, tutors should use active listening skills. This is useful because it not only validates the student’s feelings, but also keeps the ownership of those feelings with the student, where it belongs. Of course, if the student is struggling emotionally, angry, depressed, or frustrated, tutors should not try to take on a role other than the tutor. Students can always be referred to an advisor, counselor, or family member for more support as appropriate. Student’s Problem: Process or Course Content Process or course content are probably the most common type of problem tutors will encounter. Tutors should use indirect techniques to help students learn and overcome their process or content issues.

Module 5 - Direct Techniques

figure 5.1

Read the questions and keep track of how many times you answer yes.

How many times did you answer yes?

Student’s Problem: Study Habit or Behavior When a student is behaving in a manner that is disruptive or inappropriate, it is important to address that behavior directly and clearly. Waiting for it to go away on its own does not work. If the issue continues after addressing it, either in one session or over multiple sessions, then tutors can escalate their assertions. Remember to always: • • • •

Stick with the facts of a situation; do not exaggerate. Speak with confidence Avoid qualifying words like “sort of” or “maybe.” Get to the point; don’t hedge around the topic or behavior issue.

Tutoring Techniques

Knowledge Check For each of the following statements, identify whether you should use active listening, indirect/direct techniques, or escalating assertions. 1. 2. 3. 4.

“I don’t even know where to start with this sentence diagram. I just gave up before even trying it.” “I didn’t start the homework yet because I was up all night with my crying infant.” “I need to cancel our appointment today. I just don’t feel like studying right now.” “How do you find the area of a sphere again? I can’t figure it out.”

figure 5.2

Tutoring Situation

Whose Problem is it? Student What kind of problem? Emotional Content

Monitor Situation

Tutor

Is “I”message Appropriate?

Yes

Tutoring Situation

Process or Course Content

Study Habit or Behavior

Knowledge Check Complete figure 5.2. Fill in the blank spaces for how to address each type of problem that might occur in a tutoring session. Why did you put the options where you did? Would use always use the same technique for these three types of problems Why or why not?

Module 5 - Direct Techniques

Tutor’s Problem: is “I” Message Appropriate? If a student’s behavior is bothering the tutor, then it may be appropriate for the tutor to address the behavior. Using an “I” message is the best way to address the behavior without criticizing the student or putting him or her on the defensive. Other times, however, an “I” message is not appropriate. For example, if the tutor is stressed about an upcoming test and didn’t get much sleep the night before, that is the tutor’s issue alone and not the result of their tutee’s behavior. In this case, the tutor should monitor his or her own feelings and reactions and adjust accordingly. Tutor’s Problem: “I” Message Appropriate If an “I” message is appropriate to address a behavior that is bothering the tutor, then it is important to frame the message with their own feelings. For example, instead of saying “You’re always late,” tutors would frame it in terms of “I.” The tutor could say “I’m frustrated when you don’t arrive on time. Remember to always: • • • •

Speak with confidence and avoid qualifying words like “maybe” Use the “I” message to avoid blame Listen to the other person; tutors should not assume they know tutees’ motivations, thoughts, or feelings As with positive reinforcement, critique the behavior (the process), not the person.

Tutor’s Problem: “I” Message Not Appropriate If an “I” message is not appropriate because the problem is something that is in the tutor’s own life and not the result of a tutee’s behavior, then the tutor needs to monitor the situation. The tutor’s job is to make sure the problem—lack of sleep, hungry, just fought with their friend—does not affect the tutoring session.

Escalating Assertions One of the main reasons to be assertive is so that tutors can address problems right as they begin instead of waiting for them to become worse. However, sometimes a simple assertion is not enough. That is when escalating assertions are appropriate. For example: Problem: Tutee is not coming prepared First response: “If you attempt to do your homework before our sessions, we can make better use of the time we have together.” This statement is clear and process-oriented. The tutor is not frustrated so an “I” message is not appropriate here. If the student changes the behavior to address this problem, the tutor can follow up with positive reinforcement to show his appreciation. If the student does not change, however, the tutor can escalate his assertion. Second response (student’s problem): “According to our policies, you are to come prepared to the sessions. This

Tutoring Techniques

includes having attempted your homework. If you don’t come prepared next time, you will lose your tutoring privileges.” Second response (tutor’s problem): “I feel frustrated when you don’t come prepared because I don’t know how to help you succeed. According to our policies, you are to come prepared to the sessions. This includes having attempted your homework. If you don’t come prepared next time, you will lose your tutoring privileges.” Knowledge Check Create your own escalating assertions: 1. 2. 3.

When you use indirect techniques, your student says, “Just tell me what to do.” Your student arrives ten to fifteen minutes late. Other tutoring situations you have encountered.

Conclusion Using direct techniques is easy, and often easier than indirect techniques as they require tutors to do more of the direct work and the tutee to do less. However, the ultimate goal for a tutor is to help the student learn how to be independent as a student. When tutors find themselves explaining or lecturing to the student, they should consider whether their direct explanations are needed or whether the student can do more of the work in learning. Paying attention to non-verbal signals from tutees and addressing any issues or problems as they arise by being assertive can keep the tutoring session on track. But also, tutors should know when to back off and let the tutee learn. Ultimately, using direct techniques is an important skill and hopefully one tutors have developed in this training, but knowing how and when to apply direct techniques is just as important as a tutor as simply knowing how to be assertive. Only tutors can judge in their tutoring sessions when it is appropriate and when not.

Module 5 - Direct Techniques

ACTIVITIES Peanut Butter Sandwich Activity Show the tutors the materials you have brought and ask them to quietly write down the directions for making a peanut butter sandwich. When they are done, ask for a volunteer who thinks his or her directions are clear. Have the volunteer read the directions aloud while you “follow” them. Find places where the directions are not explicitly clear. For instance: Direction Open the bag Take out two pieces of bread Spread peanut butter on the first piece of bread

Action Rip open the bag Rip off two pieces from slices Cover the entire piece (front, back, and sides) with peanut butter

When you are done, discuss what happened with the tutors. For extra discussion, you can repeat with another person’s directions who thinks could do better.

AT A GLANCE Summary This funny activity demonstrates the difficulties of direct techniques in teaching a subject. It is a good way to show the pitfalls of relying too heavily on direct techniques. Timing 5-10 min. Requirements Plate, table knife, loaf of sliced bread, jar of peanut butter. Group size Any size

Did I follow your directions the way you thought I would? Why not? How could the directions have been better? Whose responsibility is it--yours or mine--to make those directions clearer? How does this same principle apply to tutoring?

Building Blocks Activity Assign tutors to groups of two or three. Each team member is assigned a role: builder, direction giver, or observer (optional). Give each team a set of wooden blocks (some square, some unusual shapes). The goal is to build the highest tower within the time limit (four to seven minutes), but • • •

The builder must wear a blindfold and use only his or her non-dominant hand. The direction giver assists the builder only with verbal directions The observer watches the interactions silently and takes notes about the way the other two work together and the effectiveness of the directions.

AT A GLANCE Summary This activity allows the tutors to practice direct techniques and understand the difficulty of understanding just using directions. Timing 15-30 min. Requirements Sets of toy building blocks and blindfolds for each group Group size 4+ (at least two groups)

Tutoring Techniques

For more engagement, have everyone rotate roles and start again to experience the each different role first hand. What was hardest about building? About giving directions? What would have made it easier? Why? For the observer: what did you notice that maybe the builder and/or direction giver did not? If switched roles: Which role did you prefer? Why? Did anything change with the group over time?

AT A GLANCE Summary This activity is good for demonstrating the shortfallings of using direct techniques without any input back from the listener. It can be performed quickly multiple times or just once. Timing 15-20 min. Requirements Paper and pencil Group size Any size

Drawing Bugs Activity Give these directions: “I am going to describe a drawing I have made of a bug. (see appendix I) Without seeing the drawing, you are to draw the bug that I describe. You may not ask questions or talk to each other.” Describe the bug. 1. The bug is round. 2. The bug has eight legs, grouped in pairs with four legs on the left and four legs on the right. In the pairs, one leg is longer than the other. 3. The bug has two eyes on top of the body. 4. The bug has two squiggly antenna. 5. The bug has two pea-pod shaped wings. 6. The bug has a spot next to each wing. 7. The bug has a triangular stinger on the bottom of the body 8. The bug has two feelers on each foot - one longer than the other, both coming from the same side of the leg. 9. The bug has a round mouth, placed between the two eyes. 10. The bug laid five square eggs to the left of the stinger.

After everyone is finished... Hold up your bug so others in your group can see. Note some of the similarities and differences. Show the drawing to the entire group. Why don’t all the bugs look like mine? (Interpretation: everyone has a different interpretation, based on his or her experiences.) What did you think of first when you were told to draw a bug? What did you see in your mind? What could we have done differently so that your drawings and mine would have looked more alike? What would have been the advantages of allowing questions to be asked? How many of you wanted questions to be asked?

Module 5 - Direct Techniques

BIBLIOGRAPHY & ADDITIONAL RESOURCES Mind Tools. “Assertiveness: Getting What You Want or Need By Working With People, Not Against Them.” Assertiveness. http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/Assertiveness. htm (accessed May 27, 2014). Sparks, Buffy. “Assertiveness Warm-up/Energiser.” TrainingZone. co.uk.http://www.trainingzone.co.uk/comment/ 71018#comment-71018 (accessed May 27, 2014).

CRLA CERTIFICATION Level 1 Topics • Assertiveness and Handling difficult students

The Ohio State University. “Communication #6: Drawing Bugs.” Communication Activities - Building Dynamic Groups, OSU Extension. http://hostedweb.cfaes.ohio-state.edu/bdg/pdf_docs/g/G06.pdf (accessed July 2, 2014). Toms, Marcia. “Chapter 9: Direct Techniques” In Put the Pencil Down. Raleigh: NC State University Undergraduate Tutorial Center, 2011. Toms, Marcia. “Chapter 6: Giving Feedback” In Put the Pencil Down. Raleigh: NC State University Undergraduate Tutorial Center, 2011. Wilson, Wendy L., edited by Karen Agee, and Russ Hodges. “Dealing with Difficult Tutoring Situations” in Handbook for Training Peer Tutors and Mentors. Ohio: Cengage Learning, 2012.

Tutoring Techniques

APPENDIX I: BUG DRAWING

Module 6 - Positive Communication

Module 6

Positive Communication Positive communication is a powerful motivator for students to get on track and stay on track. This training module covers the basic importance of positive reinforcement and types of reinforcement as well as Gibb’s model of communication which emphasizes the need to use positive and supportive communication patterns. http://tinyurl.com/Riverland-Communication

TRAINING CONTENT

A tutor’s job is to help students learn information that is new or dif- LEARNING OBJECTIVES ficult for them to understand. This struggle often creates a level of frustration and a lack of self-esteem for students who experience By the end of this section, tuit. Similarly, tutors can experience internal conflict when working tors should be able to: to support students, assisting them to learn and feel capable of succeeding in this class and in college in general, but also to not 1. Identify different simply provide answers. The way to do this is by providing positive types of positive reinfeedback and using positive communication patterns that encourforcement. ages students to continue to work hard and learn new information. 2. Appreciate the importance of positive feedPositive Reinforcement (feedback) back on motivating students. Positive reinforcement, or feedback, can be extremely powerful when working with tutees because it can: • • •

3. Apply the techniques learned to real tutoring situations.

Increase the time a student is willing to spend on a difficult task. Increase a student’s sense of self-worth. Help students develop the courage to be imperfect and the willingness to try.

Think about a time when you received positive reinforcement or feedback for doing something you really didn’t want to do; how did it make you feel? Did it change your outlook on that particular thing? Why is it important in a tutoring context for students to want to try and have a strong sense of selfworth and capability?

Tutoring Techniques

Types of Reinforcement •

Verbal—what is usually thought of first: saying, “Good job” or “Right!” Tutors should try to vary what they say so their tutee isn’t hearing the same word(s) over and over Nonverbal—using bodies or facial expressions to encourage tutees, like nodding a head and smiling. Tutors should make sure this isn’t their only form of feedback. Qualified positive reinforcement—praising the specific part of a tutee’s response that the tutor wants to encourage, while also acknowledging part(s) that need more work. Delayed positive reinforcement—emphasizing the positive aspect of a tutee’s response that happened earlier

• • •

Knowledge Check Identify the following tutor statements as verbal (v), nonverbal (n), qualified (q), delayed (d), or not reinforcing (nr). 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

“I can tell you’ve really been studying the material.” “That was a good question.” “You’ve got the one-half part right; what comes next?” “That answer has nothing to do with our discussion.” “A little while ago you said that molarity was moles per liter. How can you get the number of moles if you know the molarity?” “Uh hmm.”

Using Positive Reinforcement While positive reinforcement has the capability of providing a great deal of support to students who are struggling, studies have increasingly shown that blind positive reinforcement has serious limitations and even sometimes negative consequences. One way to encourage positive reinforcement in a way that supports students is whether the praise is directed at the person or the process. Praise for a person has the effect of creating a view of intelligence that is “fixed,” meaning one either has it or doesn’t. This can be dangerous because it does not encourage students to work hard and try hard and can cause students to avoid challenging situations. Process praise, on the other hand, encourages a view that intelligence is something that can grow. Just as weight lifting increases muscle strength, solving challenging problems increases intelligence.

Knowledge Check Change the following person praise statements into process praise. 1. 2. 3.

“You got a B on the test? You must be so smart!” “You take such good notes!” “It’s great you finished your homework in 30 minutes.”

Module 6 - Positive Communication

• •

Person praise is about the student, such as, “You’re so smart” or “Wow, you’re a math genius,” Process praise is about the behavior the tutee engages in, such as, “You’re really working hard” or “You’re using so many strategies that are super useful.”

How do you know when to use it? • • •

If the tutee appears to be frustrated, tutors should use some positive reinforcement: “This material is really tough, but you’re getting a little further with each problem.” If the tutee is working on material that he/she knows how to do, tutors should ease up on the positive reinforcement: “I think you can finish the problem now, and I’ll look it over when you’re done.” If the tutee is needing constant reassurance every step, again, tutors should back off. If asked, “Is this right?” one could answer, “What do you think?”

Positive and Supportive Communication One model of communication that is particularly useful in the tutoring context is Gibb’s Communication Model in which destructive patterns serve as a negative force and supportive patterns serve as a positive force. The key in this model is to move away from the destructive patterns and toward the supportive patterns. Destructive Patterns (Negative Force) Evaluate

Supportive Patterns (Positive Force) Describe

“Look at this sentence. Your argument is wrong.” You “I see a comma error in this sentence, but we can talk connected these two sentences with a comma, making about how to correct it easily. See these two main a comma splice error.” clauses connected with just a comma? That’s the issue. Why did you decide to use this form of punctuation?” The destructive language of evaluation has two problems: (1) the tutor makes a judgment about the The tutor points out that the problem resides in the student’s product, making a value judgment within text, not in the person; assures the student that the the student and not the writing; and (2) indicating problems can be solved; and tries to find the probthat the grammar is wrong, quashing the student’s lem’s source. The tutor focuses on solving the probinclination to respond and engage in attempting to lem with the student, not for the student. fix the problem. Control Assist “The problem is that the tangent of pi over 4 is 1. It is “There are several ways of solving this problem. We important for you to memorize that in order to work can break down tangent into sine over cosine and refer the problems effectively.” back to definitions in your book to come to our conclusion. Should we start there? Ownership of this problem has shifted to the tutor. This can create a situation in which the student is Here, the tutor lets the student retain ownership reliant on the tutor for answers. over the problem. Instead of solving the problem, the tutor shows the student where to find the resources to solve the problem and future problems.

Tutoring Techniques

Destructive Patterns (Negative Force) Manipulate

Supportive Patterns (Positive Force) Facilitate

“So, let’s get started—what is presented first, a condi- “At this point, can you say in your own words what an tioned stimulus or an unconditioned stimulus? unconditioned stimulus is?” This manipulative approach makes assumptions about the student’s knowledge and forces the student in to progressing in a certain way with a particular agenda. Superior

Using facilitative language, the tutor can set the agenda by asking the student about his or her knowledge. This strategy ensures that the student controls the pace and content of the session. Equal

“So, in class, you talked about the PC movement, and what you are saying is that forcing people to use politically correct terminology creates resentment. I remember when I used to think like that, too.”

“So in class you talked about the PC movement, and you are saying that forcing people to use politically correct terminology creates resentment. Can you tell me what ideas you will use to support your position?”

While the tutor here tries to be supportive and create a connection with the tutee by relating back to shared experience, by using language of superiority the tutor implies a higher level knowledge and understanding. This level of superiority can prevent collaboration from the tutor who does not feel equal to the task of contributing to the tutoring session. Certain

The tutor begins here the same way, but then encourages the student to support an opinion. This leaves room for the tutor to assert the opposing side without making the student feel uncomfortable or inferior.

“I don’t think you meant to say that our justice system always makes fair and ethical decisions, right? I can assure you that the professor will count that wrong on the test.”

“You just made an interesting comment about the judicial system that is different from the way it is presented in the text. How does the word ‘always’ impact the meaning of your statement?”

Here, both the student and tutor may feel satisfied about the session: there is certainty about the instructor’s expectations, and the student, whose ultimate goal is a good grade, accepts this. But in asserting this certainty, the tutor encourages the “banking model” of education: depositing information to be retrieved later. However, this does not allow the student to understand the reason for the correct answer which creates a deeper level of understanding and helps develops a transferable skill of immeasurable worth: the ability to critically think.

Here, the tutor does not force a certain answer onto a student who may very well have important contributions to make. Instead, the tutor thinks of ways to help the student effectively communicate ideas and learning and inspire inquiry and critical thinking.

Possible

Module 6 - Positive Communication

Destructive Patterns (Negative Force)

Supportive Patterns (Positive Force)

Indifference

Empathy

“Dr. Gradelow typically asks questions that she didn’t cover in class. To get a better grade next time, you need to pay more attention to what we cover here and study the questions at the end of the chapter more carefully.”

“I don’t blame you for being upset and frustrated about your test grade. Now that you know the way Dr. Gradelow creates her exams, how do you think we can better prepare for the next exam?”

While this may be true, the student can read this as indifference to his or her plight. Instead, if tutors use the language of empathy, students know their emotions are understood and can move on.

This language of empathy acknowledges to the student that the tutor understands his or her frustration and knows how to think ahead, using that testing experience as a learning experience. Tutors working with multiple students a day can feel drained, yet it is important that they always come to each session with renewed energy and enthusiasm for each student.

Did you notice that the supportive communication typically includes a question while the destructive patterns do not? Why do you think that is? What is the importance of questions in positive and supportive communication?

Knowledge Check Tutors are divided into groups. Each group is given one or more of the dimensions of Gibb’s model of communication. For each of the examples of destructive communication below (see appendix I), revise the language into supportive communication. Evaluate Control Manipulate Superior

Certain Indifference

“You calculated the area of a square and not the area of a triangle. You need to use the equation for the triangle: ½b*h” “Christopher Columbus discovered the new world in 1492 when he sailed across from Spain. This is a date you should memorize for your test.” “Let’s start by talking about supply and demand. If supply goes up, what happens to demand in a normal marketplace?” “You made a really common mistake here with ‘effect’ and ‘affect.’ I used to make this mistake all the time too when I first started learning grammar. I know I don’t anymore!” “You really can’t make the argument that the introduction of small pox was the only reason the Aztec’s were defeated. I know your teacher will expect you to give multiple reasons for their downfall.” “If you don’t turn in your homework assignments, then you can’t get a good grade in the class. You have to at least attempt the work in order to pass.”

Tutoring Techniques

Conclusion By looking at positive communication patterns, it is possible to see that there is a direct correlation between encouraging students to participate in a tutoring session more and the level of positive support and feedback students feel. This, in turn, will cause students to have a greater sense of self-worth, capability to learn new concepts, and think critically in all of their classes. In this way, one of the most powerful tools in any tutorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s arsenal is the ability to encourage students to believe in their own ability to succeed in college, which in turn will cause them to try harder and work harder toward that goal. Tutors can encourage this behavior with the positive communication and feedback techniques discussed in this training. Knowing what you now know about giving feedback, think back on a tutoring experience you have had that involved giving direct feedback to a student to solve a problem. Describe that experience. How did you provide feedback then? How would you provide feedback differently now?

Module 6 - Positive Communication

ACTIVITIES Positive vs. Negative Task Feedback Activity

AT A GLANCE

Ask for two volunteers and send them out of the room. Then, with the rest of the group, create a simple physical task in the room. For example, you could have them write something on the board with a particular color of marker or pull down the projector screen. One easy variation would have you hide an object like a golf ball somewhere in the room and have the volunteers have to find the ball.

Summary This activity is good for a large group of people to demonstrate the effect of different types of feedback—positive and negative—on the interest and engagement of volunteers.

Tell the remaining students: “Each volunteer will have to comTiming plete the same task, but we can’t tell them what it is. Instead, 15-20 min. we are going to give feedback about how they are doing. For the first volunteer, we are only going to give negative feedRequirements back; for the second, only positive. With the first volunteer, if None he is moving in the right direction, we’re not going to say anything, but if he moves in the wrong direction, or does nothing, Group size we’re going to tell him he’s wrong. With the second volunteer, 10+ people we are only going to giver her positive feedback. If she is going in the right direction, we’re going to tell her ‘good job,’ but if she’s going in the wrong direction, or doing nothing, we’re going to be silent.” It is also a good idea to go over what is acceptable negative feedback and what is not. For example, we don’t want to insult the person directly, but tell them their actions are wrong. Time each volunteer as they complete these tasks. As a facilitator, know when someone is getting too frustrated and help them along with some helpful guided reinforcement, such as: “you were close when you were on the left side of the room.” The activity shouldn’t take more than 5-10 minutes for each volunteer to complete. Bring the first volunteer into the room, and say, “we have a task that we need you to do in this room, but we can’t tell you what it is. We will give you feedback about how you’re doing, however. So I recommend trying things out and seeing how it goes.” After the first person has completed the task, bring in the second person and set up the activity in the same way. After both are done, compare the times, and also get feedback from the volunteers and the rest of the group about what they noticed.

Volunteers: How did you feel during this activity? What were you thinking? Observers: How did you feel during this activity? What were you thinking? Did you notice a significant difference between the two volunteers? Did they complete the task quicker or slower? Were they more or less frustrated?

Tutoring Techniques

AT A GLANCE

Feedback Role Play Drawing Activity

Summary This activity is good for a smaller group of people to demonstrate the effect of different types of feedback—positive and negative—on the interest and engagement of volunteers. Timing 10-15 min. Requirements Paper and pencils Group size <10 people

Ask for four volunteers. Have each volunteer to do a simple drawing that doesn’t take longer than 1-2 minutes. For example, they might draw a house. Collect the drawings and examine each drawing in turn Show the drawing to the other tutors/volunteers and give each a different type of feedback in turn: 1. 2. 3. 4.

One volunteer should receive positive feedback; One should receive very negative feedback; One should receive very positive but irrelevant feedback; The fourth volunteer is ignored and therefore doesn’t receive any feedback.

It is often a good idea to privately warn the person who is going to get very negative feedback and no feedback at all. They need some inkling of how you will behave towards them so they don’t get upset. You can do this by giving them a brief note which they can’t show their fellow tutors or volunteers.

Have the group then discuss the effects and implications of the four types of feedback. The types of feedback can be changed so that they are aligned to the course content and learning outcomes. How did you feel getting feedback after this activity? What were you thinking? Do you feel good about your drawing? Do you feel like you would want to do more drawings in the future? How do the different types of feedback affect your engagement? Is there a difference?

Module 6 - Positive Communication

Drawing Teams Activity

AT A GLANCE

This training game is played in pairs. It is played in two rounds. The seating for this training game are pairs of chairs are placed around the room giving the participants the room to spread out. The chairs have their back to each other, so when participants are seated they will have their backs to each other. figure 6.1

In the pairs, one of the participants is assigned the letter name A and the other is assigned the letter name B. All the ‘A’s in this training game are given figure 6.1.

Summary This feedback activity is used to demonstrate the value of checking whether you heard correctly. Timing 15-20 min Requirements Paper, pencils, handout of drawings. Group size Any size, even number

The ‘B’s in this training game are given an empty sheet of paper and a pen or a pencil. This is the first round. The ‘A’s are expected to communicate to ‘B’ the figure in their hands so that the ‘B’s are able to draw an exact replica on the sheet given to them. In this round of the feedback game a constraint is introduced. The ‘B’s are told not to speak while playing this round of the training game. They just have to listen and draw according to the instructions by ‘A’. After everybody has finished playing the round the ‘B’s share their version of the figure with the ‘A’s. Very rarely does anybody get the figure right. In the next round of this feedback game the ‘A’s are given figure 6.2. This time the ‘B’s are given the opportunity to speak and check with the ‘A’s about any instructions that they did not understand. After, they have finished, the ‘B’ show their figures. In this step of the listening game they discover that except for a couple of mistakes all the reproductions are similar to the figure.

figure 6.2

Have the group reflect on how their ‘listening’ was better when they sought feedback from the speakers. Drive home the fact that to work effectively in groups feedback is essential. See Appendix II for drawings.

How did you feel during this activity? Did you feel more or less engaged during the second round? Were you more frustrated? Why or why not?

Tutoring Techniques

BIBLIOGRAPHY & ADDITIONAL RESOURCES CRLA CERTIFICATION Level 1 Topics • Communication skills

Bell, Diana Calhoun, edited by Karen Agee, and Russ Hodges. “Positive and Supportive Communication” in Handbook for Training Peer Tutors and Mentors. Ohio: Cengage Learning, 2012. “Faculty Development.” How to Give Feedback. http://www.fac ulty.londondeanery.ac.uk/e-learning/feedback (accessed May 8, 2014).

First Steps Training and Development. “Free Trainer Activities: Find the Ball FeedBack Exercise.” Free Trainer Activities: Find the Ball FeedBack Exercise. http://www.firststepstraining.com/resources/activities/ archive/activity_findballfeedback.htm (accessed May 12, 2014). Gibb, J.R. (1961). Defensive communication. Journal of Communication, 11, 141-148. Haimovitz, Kyla, and Jennifer Henderlong Corpus. “Effects of Person versus Process Praise on Motivation in Emerging Adulthood.” . http://academic.reed.edu/motivation/docs/Haimovitz_Corpus_AERA.pdf (accessed July 9, 2014). Kamins, Melissa, and Carol Dweck. “Person Versus Process Praise and Criticism: Implications for Contingent Self Worth.” Developmental Psychology 35: 835-847. Sift Media Publication. “Giving feedback - training exercise.” TrainingZone.co.uk. http://www.trainingzone. co.uk/anyanswers/giving-feedback-training-exercise (accessed May 12, 2014). Toms, Marcia. “Chapter 6: Giving Feedback.” in Put the Pencil Down. Raleigh: NC State University Undergraduate Tutorial Center, 2011. Zakel. “Gibb’s Supportive and Defensive Climates.” Lecture, Interpersonal Communication Course, Sinclair Community College, June 27, 2011.

Module 6 - Positive Communication

APPENDIX I: SUPPORTIVE COMMUNICATION Evaluate

Supportive Pattern: ____________________________________

“You calculated the area of a square and not the area of a triangle. You need to use the equation for the triangle: ½b*h” ______________________________________________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Control

Supportive Pattern: ____________________________________

“Christopher Columbus discovered the new world in 1492 when he sailed across from Spain. This is a date you should memorize for your test.” ______________________________________________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Manipulate

Supportive Pattern: ____________________________________

“Let’s start by talking about supply and demand. If supply goes up, what happens to demand in a normal marketplace?” ______________________________________________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Superior

Supportive Pattern: ____________________________________

“You made a really common mistake here with ‘effect’ and ‘affect.’ I used to make this mistake all the time too when I first started learning grammar. I know I don’t anymore!” ______________________________________________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Certain

Supportive Pattern: ____________________________________

“You really can’t make the argument that the introduction of small pox was the only reason the Aztec’s were defeated. I know your teacher will expect you to give multiple reasons for their downfall.” ______________________________________________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Indifference

Supportive Pattern: ____________________________________

“If you don’t turn in your homework assignments, then you can’t get a good grade in the class. You have to at least attempt the work in order to pass.” ______________________________________________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Tutoring Techniques

APPENDIX II: DRAWING TEAMS ACTIVITY HANDOUT figure 6.1

figure 6.2

Module 7 - Establishing Rapport

Module 7

Establishing Rapport Students are often apprehensive about receiving tutoring and this can prevent them from being able to relax and learn from their tutors. This training module covers techniques for how to establish rapport to fulfil students’ basic needs and how to provide constructive criticism and feedback to students without destroying the rapport between the student and tutor. http://tinyurl.com/Riverland-Rapport

TRAINING CONTENT

“Rapport is the ability to enter someone else’s world, to make him feel LEARNING OBJECTIVES that you understand him, that you have a strong common bond.” By the end of this section, tu – Motivational speaker Tony Robbins. tors should be able to: The ability to establish rapport with tutees is critical to their success as learners. Rapport sets the stage and serves as an essential foundation for learning to occur. Within the tutoring relationship, building rapport can involve everything from tutors introducing themselves and establish credibility in the subjects they tutor, to communicating respectfully and politely, thereby showing empathy. While it is important to never allow a tutoring session to turn into a counseling session, when tutors show they care by emotionally supporting their tutees, this can lead to more productive shortand long-term tutoring relationships.

Establishing Rapport Typically, a student’s basic psychological needs must be fulfilled before he or she can focus on learning and processing higher level curriculum required in college level courses. Good interpersonal skills can establish trust, friendship, community, and self-worth— attributes that students in tutoring sessions need in order to continue learning and developing.

1. Recognize the need to build and maintain rapport with their student tutees. 2. Identify specific strategies to greet students and establish rapport. 3. Understand the possible barriers to communication. 4. Understand “face” theory and the importance of “saving face.” 5. Use active listening and politeness to overcome communication barriers and to save face.

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Tutoring Techniques

Have you ever been stressed about a problem in your personal life, unable to concentrate on anything else until it gets resolved? Why? How did you move on and get productive?

Hierarchy of Needs It is helpful to consider rapport in terms of Abraham Maslow’s “Hierarchy of Needs.” His theory states that humans have basic needs that must first be met before they are able to progress to the next level. When a person’s needs are satisfied at one level, he can move up to the next, continuing until finally reaching the top level, “Self Actualization.” This is visualized in figure 7.1. figure 7.1

Significantly for tutoring, learning and processing complex knowledge are considered a component of selfactualization. At least to some degree, all other needs must be met before self-actualization in learning can occur. When tutoring, tutors need to ensure that their students’ more basic needs are met: physiological (comfortable environment, nourishment, rest, etc.), safety (trust, confidentiality, etc.), belonging (friendship, support, kindness, etc.), and self-esteem (positive reinforcement, feedback, goals, etc.). Many students feel stupid, humiliated, and maybe even hopeless in their first tutoring session. Whatever they have been trying to learn has made them feel like they are in the dark. First time visitors assume that the subject is easy for the tutor, heightening feelings of intimidation and confirming their worst fear: they don’t belong in college.

Module 7 - Establishing Rapport

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Knowledge Check What level(s) of Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs does this desire to feel like you are not “in the dark” fall under? How might tutees feel like they are “in the dark” in tutoring sessions? What can you do to alleviate this unmet need or discomfort? These feelings require tutors to address their students’ basic needs for safety, belonging, and self-esteem before attempting to work through higher level course—related concepts that fall under self-actualization.

Barriers to Communication Tutors often experience barriers during their best efforts to communicate. Anything that prevents understanding of a message is a barrier; many physiological and psychological barriers exist. What are some barriers you commonly think of or have experienced when communicating? How would you get around this barrier in your tutoring sessions?

There are eight main types of barriers to communication that can be useful in a tutoring context: Noise – External: Both sender and receiver have to concentrate/focus on their messages to one another, tune out other voices or try to drown them out by talking louder. Ourselves, or Internal Noise: “I can’t do this; this is too hard; my partner is not guiding me well; I’m afraid;” Perception: Preconceived attitudes affect peoples’ ability to listen. If people perceive a person as not intelligent or educated, they might dismiss the person and not listen at all. On the other hand, they might listen uncritically to those they perceive as high status. Message: Distractions can occur by the message itself. Someone might use a word incorrectly or differently than others prefer. Environmental (other than noise): Bright lights, other people, unusual sights, wind, scents, air temperature. Culture and background: Past experiences are helpful when they allow people to understand and learn something new. However, they can interfere with communication when they change the meaning of the message. Smothering or Suppressing: Providing too much information or things already known. Or withholding information, believing certain information has no value or the other person already knows it. Stress: Psychological frames of reference—beliefs, values, knowledge, experiences, and goals—influence what people see and believe in a given moment. People do not see or hear things the same way when under stress.

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Knowledge Check Provide 2-3 examples for each of the barriers to communication that have or might come up in your tutoring sessions. How have you experienced these barriers? How would you deal with overcoming the barrier examples you provided? Barrier to Communication Examples External Noise Ourselves, or Internal Noise Perception Message Environment Culture and Background Smothering or Suppressing Stress

Creating a Trusting Relationship To overcome many of these barriers, tutors need to create a trusting relationship with their students. Creating a trusting relationship with their tutees is a foundational building block of effective tutoring. Without that trust and bond between tutor and tutee, learning and higher-level thinking from the hierarchy of needs can never be achieved. Space Space is the most basic requirement in Maslowâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s hierarchy. Without a comfortable and safe tutoring environment that minimizes noise and other distractions, students will not progress to higher levels where they can learn and develop. Side-by-side seating is best for individual tutoring; circles are most conducive for group tutoring. Any necessary materials such as books, pens, and paper should be readily available, along with plenty of space to work. Greeting Every student should feel welcomed and affirmed from the moment they arrive at a tutoring session. Even when students arrive during a busy drop-in session, tutors should always make eye contact, smile, and greet each new participant. Their intentional welcoming attitude and demeanor helps to fulfill the studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; need for safety and belonging.

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Control Without allowing sessions to veer off track, tutors should let students feel as if they are driving the conversation as often as possible. This practice not only allows students to play to their learning style strengths, but also increases their comfort level within the tutoring session. At the same time, their needs for safety and belonging are fulfilled. Respect Showing respect for students’ levels of learning contributes to building their self-esteem. If tutors hear their own voice more often than that of their tutees, they should take heed; rather than actively listening to their tutees, they are most likely lecturing. Tutoring should mainly consist of a dialogue between collaborative equals, not monologues based on a hierarchical system of assumed superiority. Knowledge Check Match the following strategies for creating a trusting relationship with the level(s) of Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs that it helps fulfill. Space

Greeting

Control

Respect

Tutors can also use Active Listening and Body Language to ensure they are creating trusting relationships. Active Listening Hearing is involuntary and simply refers to the reception of aural stimuli. Listening is a selective activity that requires both reception and interpretation of aural stimuli. It involves decoding the sound into meaning. Listening is typically divided into 2 main categories – passive and active. • • •

Passive is little more than hearing. It is what we do when listening to music, television, or merely being polite. People speak at 100 to 175 words per minute (WPM) but can listen intelligently at 600 to 800 WPM. When listening passively to another person speak, it is easy to drift off, thinking of other things.

Active listening takes the same amount or more energy than speaking. An active listener ATTENDS to the WORDS and FEELINGS of the speaker. The listener (receiver) must hear the message, understand the meaning, and verify meaning by offering feedback. Body Language If a tutor says to a student “tell me more,” but then glance at the clock, the tutee might perceive that the tutor has better things to do. Behavioral cues strongly impact messages that tutees receive and believe. At all times, body language should be used to actively engage with tutees. Intentional, inclusive action contributes to fulfilling tutees’ need for belonging and self-esteem.

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Politeness (Positive and Negative) Tutors can expect to experience times when they need to correct their students’ understanding or offer constructive feedback. How can this be done without destroying rapport and regressing down the hierarchy of needs? One particularly constructive way to handle this situation is the concept of “face” or “saving face.” Most people have at some point acted in a certain way at a party or told a white lie so that others would not judge them or view them in a certain way. This is to save face. In social interactions, people tend to “perform” in ways they think will present their preferred image, to create a particular impression on others. Two people in conversation mutually understand and acknowledge— whether consciously or unconsciously—the vulnerability of face and the need to maintain one another’s face. For these reasons, “face is something that is emotionally invested and can be lost, maintained, or enhanced; it must be constantly attended in interactions.” (Brown and Levinson) Although this mutual interest to save face exists in conversation, during tutoring in particular, some actions occur that might threaten face. Tutors can use positive and negative politeness to acknowledge and support their tutees’ desire for approval and acceptance. Strategies:

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Positive Politeness Noticing and attending to the wants of others. Exaggerating interest, approval, or sympathy (“I absolutely love those shoes!”) Seeking agreement (“That movie was sad, wasn’t it?”) Using humor and joking, especially in selfdeprecation. Using the inclusive “we” (“We should get some lunch.”) Showing optimism (“You won’t mind if I borrow this pen.”)

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Negative politeness Being conventionally indirect, hedging (“I think, maybe you should put it there.”) Showing pessimism (“I know you’re busy but if you have a little time later, could you read over this paper?”) Minimizing imposition (“I just want to ask you if I can borrow one sheet of paper.”) Questioning (“What do you think?”) Using modals (“You may want to think about that some more.”) Apologizing (“I’m sorry to bother you, but may I ask a question?”)

For example Dave: When you come over Friday, I can show you these videos of our last vacation. Sue: Oh, I really look forward to seeing them. It’s so wonderful when we get to spend time like that with our families. I’ll bring the popcorn! Here, Sue demonstrates positive politeness in a variety of ways. First, she exaggerates interest by saying that she really looks forward to the show. She shows optimism about spending time with family and she

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uses the inclusive we. Finally, she uses humor and joking to further indicate that she understands Dave’s desire to show her the video. Dave: Sue:

I’m thinking of giving up my job in sales and training to become an astronaut! You know, Dave, I think you need to have some kind of scientific qualifications and aeronautical experience, but your background is in retail. I’m just not sure you should do that. You may want to check this idea out before you give up your job. What do you think?

In this exchange, several examples of negative politeness are at work. Because Sue does not want to impose her potentially hurtful suggestion on her friend Dave, she mitigates what could be a crushing response to his dream of becoming an astronaut; she softens her comments, using conventionally indirect language. Dave’s confession is a face-threatening act. Sue is sensitive about preserving Dave’s face and begins to imply his idea is unsound by hedging: I think you need to have some kind of qualifications, which she knows Dave does not have. She then uses a minimizer (just), a hedge (not sure), and a modal (may) in order to avoid issuing a direct suggestion. Finally, she hands the ultimate decision back to Dave by asking what he thinks.

Face-Threatening Situations Tutoring conversations, like many other kinds of conversations, are face-threatening situations mediated through politeness. At least two types of face threats occur in the tutoring context: 1. By working with tutors, students make themselves vulnerable to imposition by allowing tutors to help determine the direction of their learning. 2. Students leave themselves open to criticism of their work and, by extension, their academic competence. Think of an example of a specific face-threatening situation you have faced or think you will face as a tutor. What is the situation? What makes it a face-threatening situation? How could you use politeness to mitigate the situation and provide constructive feedback to your tutees?

Viewing tutoring sessions through the lens of politeness sheds light on ways to build rapport and address students’ hierarchy of needs, even when tutors must be critical of their work. Use of politeness during tutoring interactions will either help or hinder the work that gets accomplished. As with any type of feedback or reinforcement, too much politeness, whether positive or negative, can compromise the tutoring session. However, negative politeness is an important communicative tool within peer tutoring. By using negative politeness, tutors can get across two important tenets of the peer tutoring model: (1) tutees are ultimately responsible for the end results of their tutoring sessions, and (2) the goal in each session is to engage students in learning and study strategies that equip them to become more self-directed learners. Positive politeness is another crucial component of rapport-building. Use of laughter, inclusive language, and praise facilitates a bond with tutees that establishes a positive learning environment. In an optimal learning environment, students’ basic needs are not only satisfied, but also their higher-level needs for learning and processing complex material.

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Conclusion Much of the time, students become a tutor because they know the subject or subjects that they tutor very well and want to pass that knowledge on. This is a great reason to tutor! But to be an effective tutor, tutors have to also think of themselves as a mentor to some extent to the students they help. Naturally, by being in the authority role as a peer tutor, students will look up to tutors for help and support. When tutors establish rapport with their tutees by using the strategies discussed in this module, they are addressing their tuteesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; underlying perception of them as a mentor academically. This role, in turn, allows tutees to trust their tutors more and move up in the hierarchy of needs to achieve the ultimate goal of any tutoring: to help students become more self-directed learners.

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ACTIVITIES Drawing in the Dark Activity Divide the room into two groups. One person from each group chooses a partner from the opposite group. At the whiteboard (or on paper at a desk), inform tutors from group A that they are required to draw a simple shape (a star, a truck, a boat, a house, a football, etc.), but they will be blindfolded while drawing the object. Each partner from group B has to guess what the object is. The first team to guess correctly wins. This activity can be played multiple times, switching off the person drawing. The facilitator should underscore that many students feel stupid, humiliated, and maybe even hopeless in their first tutoring session. Whatever they have been trying to learn has made them feel like they are in the dark. First time visitors assume that the subject is easy for the tutor, heightening feelings of intimidation and confirming their worst fear: they don’t belong in college.

AT A GLANCE Summary This activity illustrates that in order to establish rapport with students, tutors must first be able to empathize with them. Timing 10-20 min. Requirements Whiteboard and pens or pen and paper; blindfolds Group size Any size

How did you feel while drawing in the dark? How does this experience parallel the mind set of many of your students at their first tutoring session? What level(s) of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs does this fall under? What can you do to alleviate the unmet need or discomfort?

Minefield Activity

AT A GLANCE

Set up ahead of time Create a playing area. Generally this area should be at least 10ft x 10ft and could be larger for larger groups. Establish a start line and a finish line, creating a “door” to exit the playing area on the finish line.

Summary This is a good activity to demonstrate and debrief about the barriers to communication.

Create obstacles (land mines) in the playing area by filling the playing area with tennis balls, pieces of paper, cones, etc. The more obstacles added, the harder the activity. Spread out the obstacles so that there are no straight pathways through the minefield from the start line to the exit door. NOTE: if participants find an easy path, you may need to move obstacles around to make it more difficult. See figure 7.2 for a diagram of the set up.

Timing 10-25 min. (without debrief) Requirements Rope or tape to create playing area; minefield obstacles; blindfolds Group size 2-50

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figure 7.2

Start Line Minefield (with obstacles)

Exit Door

Present the activity Choose a partner. You will work in teams of two. The goal is to travel successfully through the playing area to the other side. You must enter and leave the field through the door at the end. One of you will travel through the course and your partner will verbally coach you from the sidelines. The partner traveling through the minefield will be blindfolded. The partner who is couching may not enter the playing area. Rules: 1. 2. 3. 4.

No running Partners inside the field are blindfolded Moving partners must enter and leave the field through the door at end. If anyone touches a land mine or the outside perimeter, they must return to starting position and try again

With an uneven number, you can have one team of 3 with 2 coaches: coach A and B. Coach A would instructor Coach B who then coaches the person in the minefield. If time permits, have partners switch roles and redo the activity. How did it feel to be a participant in this activity? To have to trust someone else for directions? To provide directions? What did you have to do to be successful? What worked? What didnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t?

Debrief This activity works well to debrief with the barriers to communication. If you do this, you can present the barriers to communication as you debrief: As this activity illustrates, we face obstacles as we navigate life. To make matters more challenging, we often experience barriers during our best efforts to communicate. Anything that prevents understanding of a message is a barrier; many physical and psychological barriers exist. Noise â&#x20AC;&#x201C; External: What kind of noise did you experience? How did it affect your performance? What did you do to overcome it?

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Possible answers- external noise: both sender and receiver have to concentrate/focus on their messages to one another, tune out other voices or try to drown them out by talking louder. Ourselves, or Internal Noise: “I can’t do this; this is too hard; my partner is not guiding me well; I’m afraid; I must look like an idiot; this activity is stupid; how can it possibly help me?” What kinds of internal noise did you experience? Did you have a hard time trusting your partner to guide you? Was it easy to relinquish control of your actions to the guidance of another? How did you feel about it? Perception: Preconceived attitudes affect peoples’ ability to listen. If people perceive a person as not intelligent or educated, they might dismiss the person and not listen at all. On the other hand, they might listen uncritically to those they perceive as high status. Going into this activity, how did you perceive your partner’s ability to direct you? How did that affect your performance? How did your perception change during or after the activity? Message: Distractions can occur by the message itself. Someone might use a word incorrectly or differently than others prefer. Did you understand the directions your partner gave you? How effective were your partner’s directions to you? How about your directions? Did your partner do what you thought you were telling him/her to do? Environmental: (other than noise) bright lights, other people, unusual sights, wind, scents, air temperature. How did being in this classroom space affect your communication? What if this activity had been conducted outdoors? Culture and background: Past experiences are helpful when they allow people to understand and learn something new. However, they can interfere with communication when they change the meaning of the message. Did any past experience affect you during this activity? Can you imagine how a person’s culture might play a role in this activity? Smothering or Suppressing: Providing too much information or things already known. Or withholding information, believing certain information has no value or the other person already knows it. Did your partner provide too much or too little information? How do you know and how did that make you feel? Stress: Psychological frames of reference—beliefs, values, knowledge, experiences, and goals—influence what people see and believe in a given moment. People do not see or hear things the same way when under stress. What stresses did you experience during this activity? How did they impact your performance?

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AT A GLANCE

One Up, One Down Activity

Summary To help participants become aware of the effect of physical position on interpersonal communication.

Have participants find a partner. Read the following directions to the group:

Requirements None

Think of two experiences you have had recently which were important to you and you would like to share with someone else. After each of you have thought of two experiences, one of you should stand and the other should be seated on the floor directly in front of the other. While in this position, share your experience with each other. Then change positions and share the other experience with each other.

Group size 2+

After a few minutes, stop and share with your partner how it feels to communicate in this position.

Timing 10-15 min.

Did either of you feel uncomfortable? Did you find yourself trying to do things to compensate for the differences in height? What might you do to help open communication in this situation? Relate this experience to what it must be like to be a student who feels at a disadvantage (not an equal partner) when communicating. What do you feel it could do to your communication (being a person in need, and having to be at a disadvantage when communicating)? Is it any wonder that some people feel little all of their lives? Again in the position of the above exercise, look around and see what one sees from that perspective. How about the furniture? Does it appear bigger? How about all the people who are standing? Are knees and legs more important than faces, which are relatively far away?

Variation (Problem Solving): This time instead of exchanging experiences, try to solve a problem or conflict between you and your partner. You can think of a problem yourselves or you may use a problem such as one of you wants ice cream and the other wants pizza. Is it harder to resolve problems in this position? Does the person standing feel more in control of the situation? Does the person seated on the floor feel intimidated?

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BIBLIOGRAPHY & ADDITIONAL RESOURCES Bell, Diana Calhoun, Holly Arnold Laue, and Rebekah Haddock, edited by Karen Agee, and Russ Hodges. “Politeness Theory and Effective Tutoring and Mentoring” in Handbook for Training Peer Tutors and Mentors. Ohio: Cengage Learning, 2012. Brown, and Levinson. “Politeness.” Situated Gaming. http://www. situatedgaming.com/CISTheoryPrimary/politeness.html (accessed July 15, 2014).

CRLA CERTIFICATION Level 1 Topics • Active listening and paraphrasing • Communication skills

City College Coventry. “Positive and negative politeness.” Positive and negative politeness. http://learning. covcollege.ac.uk/content/NLN/Area_Studies,_Cultural_Studies,_Languages,_Literature/Languages/ epic_FK2_Spoken_language_Conversation_analysis/html/pr_en0203_050.htm (accessed July 15, 2014). Heck, Tom. “Top 4 High Impact Team & Leadership Development Activities.” In Transformational Exercises Every Teamwork Facilitator Must Know. International Association of Teamwork Facilitators. Johnson, Richard George, edited by Karen Agee, and Russ Hodges. “Active Listening in Different Contexts” in Handbook for Training Peer Tutors and Mentors. Ohio: Cengage Learning, 2012. Learning-Theories.com. “Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs.” Learning Theories RSS. http://www.learning theories.com/maslows-hierarchy-of-needs.html (accessed July 15, 2014). McLeod, Saul. “Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs.” Simply Psychology. http://www.simplypsychology.org/maslow. html (accessed July 15, 2014). McWilliams, M.E., edited by Karen Agee, and Russ Hodges. “The Woo-Hoo Welcome: Creating Rapport with Students” in Handbook for Training Peer Tutors and Mentors. Ohio: Cengage Learning, 2012. Mindtools. “Active Listening: Hear What People are Really Saying.” Active Listening. http://www.mindtools. com/CommSkll/ActiveListening.htm (accessed July 2, 2014). Shearer, Anne Vermont, edited by Karen Agee, and Russ Hodges. “Active Listening Training for Multimodal Learners” in Handbook for Training Peer Tutors and Mentors. Ohio: Cengage Learning, 2012. The University of the West Indies. “Department of Language, Linguistics and Philosophy - UWI.” Department of Language, Linguistics and Philosophy - UWI. http://www.mona.uwi.edu/dllp/linguistics/ politeness.htm (accessed July 15, 2014). Weertz, Sara, edited by Karen Agee, and Russ Hodges. “Creating Rapport With Neurolinguistic Programming” in Handbook for Training Peer Tutors and Mentors. Ohio: Cengage Learning, 2012.

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Module 8

Questioning Techniques Any good tutoring session should involve more talking and participation from the student than from the tutor. However, students are not always willing to answer questions or attempt problems without some guidance and help from the tutor. This module covers some ways to help encourage the tutees to become a more active participant in the tutoring session by using questioning. http://tinyurl.com/Riverland-Questioning

TRAINING CONTENT

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

By the end of this section, tutors should be able to: 1. Understand the importance of questioning techniques to tutoring.

2. Identify and understand different types of questions included on Bloom’s taxonomy. 3. Understand the core principles of socratic questioning and how to apply it to tutoring. 4. Use questioning techniques effectively to advance their students’ understanding and ability.

Ask Good Questions: How and when do tutors ask questions? What types of questions should tutors ask and what should they avoid asking? When do tutors refuse to answer questions by redirecting them? These are all probably questions that have gone through tutors’ minds, or will go through their minds. The answer is not always obvious, nor is it always what’s easiest or most comfortable. While tutors always want to create a welcoming environment for their students, they also have to know when it’s appropriate to create awkward silence to push students to try problems for themselves.

Bloom’s Taxonomy- Cognitive Domain Revised Bloom’s taxonomy is a method of classifying educational activities based on their level of difficulty. There are 6 levels ranging from the simplest to the most complex. This pyramid can be used to ensure that when tutors create questions for practice quizzes or group discussion, they engage their students in thinking that ranges from the simplest to the most difficult. • •

Remembering—define, repeat, record, list, recall, name, relate, underline Understanding—translate, restate, discuss, describe, explain, express, identify, report, review, tell

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Applying—interpret, ally, employ, use, demonstrate, dramatize, practice, illustrate, operate, schedule, sketch Analyzing—distinguish, differentiate, calculate, experiment, test, categorize, compare, contrast, diagram, inspect, debate, relate, solve, examine Evaluating—judge, appraise, evaluate, rate, compare, value, revise, score, select, choose, assess, estimate, measure Creating—compose, plan, propose, design, formulate, arrange, assemble, collect, create, synthesize, construct, set up, organize, prepare

• • •

Knowledge Check Classify each of the following question based on the passage about Dr. Uri Triesman (appendix I) using Bloom’s Taxonomy. • • • • • •

Name the mathematician who is the focus of this article. What is his position? (Remembering) Explain why you think that the students in `study gangs’ performed so much better than those who studied alone? (Evaluating) What did the author do to improve the disparity he found? (Analyzing) How are Dr. Treisman’s mathematical workshops similar to study sessions? (Creating) Explain what this mathematician discovered about the students in his calculus classes? (Understanding) What did Dr. Treisman do to explore the reasons for what he found? (Applying)

Questioning Techniques Socratic Questioning “Can it be, Ischomachus, that asking questions is teaching? I am just beginning to see what is behind all your questions. You lead me on by means of things I know, point to things that resemble them, and persuade me that I know things that I thought I had no knowledge of.” - Socrates (Quoted in Xenophon’s “Economics”) Named for Socrates (ca. 470-399 B. C.), the early Greek philosopher/teacher, a Socratic approach to tutoring is based on the practice of disciplined, rigorously thoughtful dialogue. The tutor professes ignorance of the topic under discussion in order to elicit engaged dialogue with students. Socrates was convinced that disciplined practice of thoughtful questioning enables the scholar/student to examine ideas logically and to be able to determine the validity of those ideas. Also known as the dialectical approach, this type of questioning can correct misconceptions and lead to reliable knowledge construction. Although “Socratic questioning” appears simple, it is in fact intensely rigorous. As described in the writings of Plato, a student of Socrates, the teacher (or tutor) feigns ignorance about a given subject in order to acquire another person’s fullest possible knowledge of the topic. Individuals have the capacity to recognize contradictions, so Socrates assumed that incomplete or inaccurate ideas would be corrected during the process of disciplined questioning, and hence would lead to progressively greater truth and accuracy.

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Tutors often use Socratic questioning to lead a student through a problem. Socratic questioning is a methodical process in which the questions build on each other to lead the student to the answer. It is useful because it guides the student while building on his or her ideas instead of lecturing. Types of Socratic Questions 1. Questions for clarification:

Examples • Why do you say that? • How does this relate to our discussion? • “Are you going to include diffusion in your mole balance equations?” 2. Questions that probe assumptions: • What could we assume instead? • How can you verify or disprove that assumption? • “Why are you neglecting radial diffusion and including only axial diffusion?” 3. Questions that probe reasons and • What would be an example? evidence: • What is _____ analogous to? • What do you think causes _____ to happen? Why? • “Do you think that diffusion is responsible for the lower conversion?” 4. Questions about Viewpoints and • What would be an alternative? Perspectives: • What is another way to look at it? • Would you explain why it is necessary or beneficial, and who benefits? • Why is ____ the best? • What are the strengths and weaknesses of _____? • How are ______and ______similar? • What is a counterargument for _____? • “With all the bends in the pipe, from an industrial/practical standpoint, do you think diffusion will affect the conversion?” 5. Questions that probe implications • What generalizations can you make? and consequences: • What are the consequences of that assumption? • What are you implying? • How does _____ affect _____? • How does _____tie in with what we learned before? • “How would our results be affected if we neglected diffusion?” 6. Questions about the question: • What was the point of this question? • Why do you think I asked this question? • What does _____mean? • How does _____ apply to everyday life? • “Why do you think diffusion is important?” How can you use these socratic questions in your tutoring sessions? Are there times you have used these types of questions without realizing they were socratic questions? Why did you use them?

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The Spirit and Principles of Socratic Questioning While there are numerous ways to effectively execute Socratic Questioning in a tutoring session, a set of principles guide Socratic dialogue. In this section, these principles are laid out in the form of directives: • • • • • •

Respond to all answers with a further question that calls upon the respondent to develop his/her thinking in a fuller and deeper way. Seek to understand–where possible–the ultimate foundations for what is said or believed and follow the implications of those foundations through further questions. Treat all assertions as a connecting point to further thoughts. Treat all thoughts as in need of development. Recognize that any thought can only fully exist within a network of connected thoughts. Stimulate students—through your questions—to pursue those connections. Recognize that all questions presuppose prior questions and all thinking presupposes prior thinking. When raising questions, be open to the questions they presuppose.

Knowledge Check In groups of 2-3, continue the following socratic dialogue, adding several additional hypothetical questions and responses. Classify each new question based on the type of socratic question like done below. There is no “correct” end to this dialogue as long as you use socratic questions/techniques. T: Imagine that it has been raining for 2 days in an area on the outskirts of Denver, Colorado, during July. Total rainfall for the event is 2 inches. The nearly level terrain is covered with wheat fields. What happens to the rain? (Implications & Consequences) S: It soaks into the ground. T: What are you assuming if you say that 2 inches of rain soaks into a wheat field? (Assumptions) S: That the ground is permeable. T: Okay, if you are assuming that the ground is permeable, would all 2 inches soak into the ground, even if it is permeable? (Clarification) S: Yes. T: Okay, what happens if you set a bowl of water on a picnic table and let it sit outside for several hours on a warm, sunny afternoon? (Implications & Consequences) S: It evaporates. T: Okay, do you think that any of the 2 inches of rainfall would evaporate before it soaks into the ground? (Implications & Consequences) S: I guess it must...

Redirecting Questions Redirecting is a technique that encourages active learning by requiring tutors to refuse to answer questions that can be answered by students in the session.

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Redirecting questions help the tutor ‘give up ownership’ to help students take ownership of their own learning. Students often know more than they give themselves credit for and need to increase self-confidence. Redirecting questions can take the form of turning an entire question back to the student. “What do you think?” “Can you show me?” However, often tutors might redirect only part of the original question back to the student. By breaking the original question into simpler pieces, sometimes tutees are able to work through more complex problems than they realized. For example, • •

Student: “How do I translate this sentence?” Tutor: “Well, where is the sentence’s verb?” Have you used redirecting questions in your tutoring sessions before? Why did you use them? Were they effective? Why or why not?

Students might resist by asking, “Why won’t you just give me the answer?” When this happens, tutors can explain that they want the students to practice working problems on their own to be sure they know how to do them on a test. When a student says, “I know it but I can’t explain it,” what does that really mean? Tutors should ask students if they would get credit for that response on a test, or what they would think if their doctor responded to their questions that way. Once students understand the tutor’s purpose in redirecting questions, they typically become more willing to try to answer their own and other students’ questions. Knowledge Check Write a question that redirects the following hypothetical questions asked by a tutee back to him or her to answer. 1. 2. 3.

What would be a good conclusion for my essay? How do you find the area of a rectangle? What is the law of supply and demand?

Questioning Skills Asking good questions is half the battle—or possibly even more—but it is not the whole battle. When great questions are asked in an ineffective manner or at an inappropriate time, those great questions fall flat. Nonverbal signals As with all communication, nonverbal signals are an essential part of how people communicate questions. Tutors’ nonverbal signals can replace, reinforce, or contradict what is actually said.

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In tutoring, it is important that tutors pay attention to their own nonverbal signals when asking questions, as well as to how their tutee responds. For example, if a tutor asks, “Did you understand that?” the tutee might say “yes,” but her body language says otherwise. Paralanguage Paralanguage refers to the manner in which something is said. It is the rate, volume, and rhythm of speech. For instance “I want to go to the movies tonight” could be said in multiple ways: • • •

I want to go to the movies tonight (but the other person doesn’t) I want to go to the movies tonight (not to the party) I want to go to the movies tonight (not tomorrow)

Think about the fact that if this statement were shouted, it would be considered aggressive, but if it is whispered, it would be considered passive. Prompting Another tool tutors can use to get students to take more initiative during a tutoring session is to prompt them to do that work. It may sound obvious, but when tutors are sitting across the table from their tutee who is asking them to explain a problem, sometimes the idea of turning that around to prompt the student to do some or all of the work for him or herself is not as easy or intuitive. To prompt students to do the work, tutors can say things like: • • •

Summarize the main ideas of what we have covered Draw the graph for this function Explain Gauss’s law What purpose does silence play in a conversation? In tutoring? Have you ever continued a conversation you thought was over because you wanted to fill the silence? Why? How can you use this idea to your advantage in tutoring?

Wait Time Some of the hardest time spent tutoring can occur during periods when tutors don’t say anything. It is all too easy for tutors to jump in and offer an explanation or ask another question without giving sufficient time for their tutee to formulate a response. Instead, tutors should embrace the silence sometimes by following these guidelines: •

Wait for students to develop their questions. Tutors will likely know many of the questions that tend to arise from students. However, not all students have the same questions, so they should wait for them to formulate the questions. The act of coming up with questions is a valuable learning process in itself. As one common saying asserts, “knowing how to ask the right questions is half the battle.”

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Wait for a student’s response after asking a question. Tutors should expect some awkward silence after they ask a question, particularly a hard question. If they immediately follow up one question with another question to fill the void, they will often confuse a tutee even more. Instead, they should embrace the silence and let their tutees struggle for the answer. Increasing wait time can actually increase academic achievement. It may not seem productive for tutors to sit in silence with their tutee, but waiting is very important. In one study of expert and novice learners, the experts took longer to complete an organizational task. This is not because they did not know the material well, but because they were thinking more deeply about the task. In this case, interrupting the thought would be detrimental to the task.

•

Do not interrupt the student. Even if a student is obviously wrong in an answer, tutors should wait for the student to completely finish his or her thought before correcting the mistake. Letting students complete the full thought will give them more ownership over the concept and their ability to fully answer the questions. Students will often catch their own mistakes when given room to work through thoughts on their own.

•

Waiting after a student stops talking. One of the first things any freshman journalist is taught is to always pause at the end of every response before asking another question. When given an opportunity and a bit of awkward silence, the subject will often fill the space with more and better responses to the original question. The same principle holds true here. Tutors should give students a chance to work ahead in their own thoughts or to provide additional details to a previous question before moving on. This pause allows students time to develop critical understanding of their own responses, reinforce learning, and correct their own mistakes—key steps on the path to becoming a more self-directed learner.

Conclusion Questions are a big part of learning and living in general, but people often ask questions without ever thinking about why or how. All of the techniques and skills covered in this module for asking good questions will help tutors direct more of the learning back to their students in their tutoring sessions. Tutors should now be well equipped to get their students to do all of the heavy lifting in the tutoring session by asking them the right questions. In the process, their students will become more self-directed learners.

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ACTIVITIES Increasing Wait Time Activity Without allowing tutor to look at a timepiece, ask him or her to respond to a question. Further instruct him or her that he must wait 5 seconds before responding. Now ask another tutor the same question, but instruct him her to wait 10 seconds to respond. Finally, ask a third tutor, instructing him or her to wait 15 seconds to respond. Record the actual wait time that each tutor used. Typically, tutors wait less time than the instructed wait time, with the gap between expected and actual wait time increasing the more time is offered.

AT A GLANCE Summary This activity illustrates how hard it is to judge the amount of time that has passed and can help tutors understand how to increase wait time. Timing 5-10 min. Requirements Stopwatch or timer Group size Any size; Good with small groups

Did you wait as long as you thought you did? What were you thinking while you waited to respond? Did you come up with a better response after waiting longer?

Teaching versus Tutoring Activity Part One: The lecture hall

figure 8.1

Divide tutors into pairs and ask one to be the “lecturer” and one to be the “student”. Arrange seating back to back; lectures face forward, students face the back of the room. Tell students that the lectures have a lot of material to cover, so they aren’t able to answer questions. The students will have to do the best they can with what they hear. Put figure 8.1 (appendix II) on the screen or board where the lecturers (but not the students) can see it. The lecturers must verbally describe the picture to the students, and the students must draw it. Time’s up: After 2-5 minutes, call “Time”. Students should turn in their work, and lecturers will give a grade.

AT A GLANCE Summary This fun activity can be used to demonstrate the importance of questioning and dialogue for learning. It emphasizes the difference between lecturing and tutoring. Timing 5-10 min. Requirements Pen and paper Group size 4+, even number better

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What were some of the difficulties encountered? How are these similar to the difficulties students encounter in a lecture class? • •

Possible answers from students: Lecturer moved to fast, miscommunication. Possible answers from lecturer: Couldn’t tell if the student was understanding directions.

Part Two: The tutoring center The tutors now change roles, but instead of a “lecturer,” we have a “tutor.” The seats will now be arranged side by side, but still facing alternately front and back. The tutor will face forward, and the student will face backward, but the tutor is able to see the student’s work.

Put figure 8.2 (appendix II) on the screen or board. The tutors should help the student draw the picture. Time’s up: After 4-7 minutes, call “Time”. Compare the accuracy of the students’ drawings to the master drawing. What were some of the differences in the two situations? In what ways does this second method mimic a tutoring session? Why? Possible answers: • •

The second situation took more time (which may be frustrating to some tutors). The second drawings were more accurate.

figure 8.2

Because this is a tutoring session, the tutor and the student can have open communication, with each person asking questions and offering comments. (Tutors, don’t use your hands!)

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BIBLIOGRAPHY & ADDITIONAL RESOURCES Foundation for Critical Thinking. “The Role of Socratic Questioning CRLA CERTIFICATION in Thinking, Teaching, and Learning.” The Role of Socratic Questioning in Thinking, Teac. http://www.criticalthinking. Level 1 Topics org/pages/the-role-of-socratic-questioning-in-thinking• Communication skills teaching-learning/522 (accessed June 5, 2014). • Critical thinking skills Iowa State University. “Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy.” Center for Level 2 Topics Excellence in Learning and Teaching. http://www.celt.ia state.edu/teaching-resources/effective-practice/revised• Use of probing questions blooms-taxonomy/ (accessed July 21, 2014). Overbaugh, Richard, and Lynn Shultz. “Bloom’s Taxonomy.” Old Dominion University. http://ww2.odu.edu/ educ/roverbau/Bloom/blooms_taxonomy.htm (accessed July 21, 2014). Science Eduation Resource Center at Carleton College. “What is Socratic Questioning.” What is Socratic Questioning. http://serc.carleton.edu/introgeo/socratic/second.html (accessed June 5, 2014). Toms, Marcia. “Chapter 5: Getting Students to Talk.” in Put the Pencil Down. Raleigh: NC State University Undergraduate Tutorial Center, 2011. University of Michigan. “6 types of Socratic Questions.” 6 types of Socratic Questions. http://www.umich. edu/~elements/probsolv/strategy/cthinking.htm (accessed June 5, 2014).

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APPENDIX I: DR. URI TRIESMAN PASSAGE Uri Treisman, a professor of mathematics who taught calculus at University of California, Berkeley, demonstrated that he could greatly improve the success rate of his Black students by teaching them to work in groups - he called them workshops. He developed these group workshops for his calculus classes after discovering that his Chinese students were excelling and his Black students were doing very poorly, many failing. He decided to research how his students studied by actually visiting them and watching how they studied. He found that although both groups were dedicated and good students, having done well in mathematics in high school, his Chinese students had formed groups, they called `study gangs,’ in which they studied together helping each other to improve their calculus knowledge. In contrast, his Black students, for the most part, studied alone. When asked why, they responded that they had always studied alone and it had worked for them in high school. What Treisman then did, was develop mathematics workshops based on his Chinese students’ `study gangs.’ In these workshops, students worked corroboratively in small groups with more expert leaders usually graduate students. The workshop leader facilitated problem solving by providing hints and clues but not doing the work for the students. Treisman’s results? Very shortly, his Black students who attended these workshops were performing as well, if not better, than his Chinese students. Treisman had demonstrated that it is not innate ability but group study that can make a huge difference in success in learning a difficult subject such as calculus.

Classify each of the following question based on the passage about Dr. Uri Triesman (appendix I) using Bloom’s Taxonomy. • • • • • •

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APPENDIX II: TEACHING VS. TUTORING ACTIVITY figure 8.1

figure 8.2

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Student Populations Community Colleges in particular have a very diverse population of students, teachers, and tutors. Some students come from low socioeconomic backgrounds; others are high school students trying to get ahead before graduating. Some students are returning to the classroom after years away; others are getting their first two years of college done straight out of high school before transferring. All of these unique variations can pose difficulties for tutors who are working with students from different backgrounds, interests, age groups, genders, sexual orientations, and cultures. The trainings in this section are focused on specific techniques and strategies that can be used by tutors to communicate effectively across various differences in student populations. These trainings build well on the other topics covered in the session structure and tutoring techniques sections. They should not be taken on their own, but in conjunction with everything else tutors already know and will learn about how to be effective tutors and communicators from other trainings. The trainings in this section treat each topic with a certain degree of stereotyping and simplification as a necessity in order to portray the information in a more easilydigestable format. Trainings on culture and diversity could easily be many times longer than the ones here. These training modules are meant as an overview and an introduction to the topics of culture and diversity. Many more trainings could easily be developed that would expand on the topics introduced here.

CROSS-CULTURAL COMMUNICATION

GENDERED COMMUNICATION STYLES

Module 9

Module 9 - Cross-Cultural Communication

Cross-Cultural Communication When people grow up within a homogenous culture, they often assume that their culture’s way is the “normal” or “right” way to do things. As an old saying goes, “I don’t know who discovered water, but I’m pretty sure it wasn’t a fish.” This training module will explore how to understand and communicate across cultural boundaries that tutors face in tutoring sessions. http://tinyurl.com/Riverland-Cross-Cultural

TRAINING CONTENT

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When people are immersed in something from the beginning LEARNING OBJECTIVES of their lives, they often are not aware of it until they are either out of it or interact with someone who is not from it. Just as By the end of this section, tua fish probably never thinks that it is possible to gather oxytors should be able to: gen anywhere other than the lake in which it lives, people may not think about different world views until they are exposed to 1. Become aware of culthem. Tutors can prevent that suffocating feeling that fish feel ture as nuanced and out of the water by learning more about their environment and layered others. 2. Explain basic interpersonal communication Understanding Cultural Differences and become aware of assumptions Cultural difference can be ingrained very deeply. So deep, in fact, that often people are not even aware that certain things they do, say, or believe are influenced by their culture. Put another way, some cultural differences are visible and obvious, like dance, food, and language, but the majority of culture is hidden beneath the surface much like the majority of an iceberg is below the water. For this reason, an iceberg like the one in figure 9.1 can help us understand the myriad ways one culture is different from others, both obviously and not so obviously.

3. Equip themselves with ways of examining and developing intercultural communication in a tutoring context.

Does anything that is below the surface surprise you? Why? Can you think of any examples for how some of the ideas below the surface are culturally driven? Can you think of anything that is missing?

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figure 9.1

Individualistic vs. Collectivistic Values There are numerous ways of looking at cultures and understanding how different cultures understand the world and interact with it. All of these ways are inherently simplistic to some extent and it is important to remember that culture is as fluid a concept and as unique and ever-changing as every individual. However, one simple way to begin to understand how to communicate across different cultures is by thinking of them as being either more individualistic or more collectivistic. Individualistic cultures like to point out their differences, claim uniqueness, look each other in the eye, and come straight to the point. Speech is often more direct, which can create communication challenges with collectivistic cultures. Collectivistic cultures, on the other hand, prize group harmony and interdependent achievement. Collectivistics emphasize group goals, and value the promotion and success of the group as a whole over the individual. In collectivistic cultures, communication is more likely to be understood as highly contextualized: words are no more important than tone, pauses, and body language. Examples of Value Differences Western education has typically favored verbal and quantitative skills (which we can see through the IQ tests, achievement tests, and general education programs that it creates). Other cultures, however, value other skills and practices. For example:

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Speed is valued as a sign of intelligence in a Westernized community (individualistic), but a more reflective, deliberate practice is valued in others like Uganda and Navajo communities (collectivistic). Eye contact and physical space are two nonverbal cultural traits that people respond to differently based on their culture. For example, in the United States it is considered a sign of respect to look at someone directly in the eyes (individualistic); however, avoiding eye contact with authority figures is a sign of respect in many Asian, Latin American, and Caribbean cultures (collectivistic). In tests, as in many Western schools, reliance on a companion for help may be considered cheating (individualistic), whereas in many cultural settings, not to employ a companion’s assistance may be regarded as folly or egoism (collectivistic). Culture also affects how we communicate. In Western culture we value linear, bluntly clear writing of academics in English (individualistic) to those of other cultures who might value surprise, creativity, and depth of linearity (collectivistic). Are you more individualistic or collectivistic? What would you find difficult about working with the other culture?

Print vs. Oral Culture Another way to look at cultural differences in communication in particular is by examining the difference between print vs. oral cultures. This method of reflection is particularly useful when thinking about the differences in culture that are created by different socioeconomic status. Oral culture (orality) is a natural state that relies heavily on the senses (touch, smell, sight, sound, and taste). Orality focuses on the communication and the interaction between different people and places greater emphasis on relationships and the meaning of relationships. Characteristics of oral culture include: • • • • •

Relationships are at the heart of everything and are the first priority. Spontaneous interactions and an ability to “go with the flow.” Able to jump from one topic to the next easily. Repetitive storytelling and learning is essential for maintaining knowledge. Emotional comfort, showing emotions easily and generally willing to disclose private details. Present-oriented outlook on life. Focused on the here-and-now.

Print culture (literacy), unlike orality, is a learned skill based on the knowledge of how to process and analyze information. Styles of reasoning are developed by reading, and greater emphasis and importance is placed on physical objects, including, but not limited to books. Characteristics of print culture include: • • • •

Linear organization of thoughts and actions. Time is at the heart of everything and has a high priority in organizing the day. Focused on what is happening while shutting out everything else. One idea at a time. Strategic at planning ahead and setting goals. Able to break things into parts.

Are you more print or oral culture? What would you find difficult about working with the other culture?

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Jahori’s Window Jahori’s Window is a model of communication that was created by Joseph Luft and Harry Ingham in 1955. It is a model that emphasizes open and honest disclosure of information to overcoming barriers that prohibit open dialogue, including cultural differences. As a practice in tutoring, Jahori’s Window can help tutors communicate more effectively with their tutees by have open dialogue with them. Jahori’s Window is called that because it is based on a four quadrant grid, much like a window with four panes. Each of the panes of the window—or quadrants of the grid—represent an area of understanding that exists between a tutor and tutee. It is depicted in figure 9.2. figure 9.2

The first quadrant is the “open area.” This area includes everything that tutors know about their tutee and what he or she knows about them. This area typically includes all of the areas of culture that are above the surface in the iceberg conception of culture, like clothing and language. Using Jahori’s Window, the tutors’ goal is to increase this first open area in all directions so as to increase the level of understanding they have about their tutee and vice versa. In other words, the tutors want more of the iceberg to be visible. By doing so, they reduce the number of situations or occasions by which they might experience confusion or distrust based on a cultural norm they did not know about their tutee or that their tutee did not know about them. The second quadrant is the “blind area.” This area includes things which are known about the tutors by others but which tutors might not be aware of themselves. This could include simple things like mannerisms and body language, or more complex things like the ability to communicate concepts.

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Tutors can reduce the size of the blind area by soliciting feedback. For example, in a tutoring context, tutors can ask their tutees if their explanation of a concept or their directions make sense. This gives their tutees a chance to give them feedback about the quality of their tutoring, and provides tutors with some insight into where their communication is confusing to their tutees. The third quadrant is the “hidden area.” This area includes anything that tutors know about themselves but is not known by others. This would include things from their own culture and background that are below the surface on the iceberg conception of culture. Tutors can reduce the size of the hidden area through self-disclosure. Tutors want to reveal information about themselves that might affect their tutoring sessions or that would lead to further disclosure from their tutees. However, tutors also have to maintain their professional integrity and should use their discretion in what information to disclose. Tutors should not reveal anything that is too personal or off topic from tutoring. Finally, the fourth quadrant is the “unknown area.” These are things that are unknown by both tutors and their tutees. This area is reduced through the process of self discovery which can result from the other processes of feedback and self-disclosure in Jahori’s Window. Often what can be discovered here are hidden talents, enjoyment, or cultural biases. Like self-disclosure, self discovery should be done mindful of information that is too personal or off topic to tutoring, for either tutors or tutees. Knowledge Check With a partner, pick five or six common adjectives that describe your own personality as per your own assessment. Then, pick five or six adjectives that describe your fellow tutors. Map these adjectives onto the Jahori Window. Make sure to map the adjectives for yourself that you think your partner would know into the open area and those you think are unknown to your partner into the hidden area. Together, go over the adjectives you selected for each other. Any adjectives that do not overlap with those you picked for yourself should go in the blind area. Create an action plan for how you could increase your respective open areas. What are you willing to share from your hidden area? What feedback would you like to get? What feedback would you be willing to give? What would you share differently with your tutees? Why?

If done well, this process of increasing the open area in Jahori’s Window can lead to greater communication across cultural norms and boundaries, but it doesn’t happen immediately. It has to be approached as an ongoing process of discovery and self-disclosure. Over time, tutors relationships and their understanding of their tutees will grow just as their tutees’ understanding of their tutors will grow. This process can be done using some basic strategies and guidelines for communicating across cultures.

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Communicating Across Cultures Specific communication behaviors that facilitate learning can uncover and address problems as they arise. These include probing, paraphrasing, clarifying, reflecting, interpreting, and questioning as well as validating feelings and making cultural comparisons. For example, a tutor may say, “I know in some cultures students are encouraged to learn by listening rather than speaking. Here we are quiet and direct. And for me to figure out what’s going to work best, it will help if we have more of a conversation than a lesson. You can ask questions or explain things to me. If we each speak freely, it will be easier for me to know where you have strong understanding.” One should: • • • • •

Not assume that one understands or has been understood because the interpretation of meaning based on body language as well as vocabulary can vary greatly between cultures. Avoid criticizing in any way a student’s country of origin, customs, culture, or religion. Show sensitivity to cultural dictates regarding gender and age Respect students’ right not to disclose personal information Be prepared for students in culture shock to exhibit some animosity toward mainstream North American culture

Conclusion Every student and every tutor has cultural biases they bring to their tutoring sessions. Often, these biases are not visible to those around them. Sometimes, they are not visible to the person with the bias either. To be effective, tutors need to understand and recognize these cultural biases and learn to navigate their communication across these cultural boundaries. In opening up about their own experiences and learning more about their tutees, tutors will learn more about the underlying causes of intercultural miscommunications. They will become more informed about the background their tutees bring to their sessions and their own biases as well. Ultimately, this will make them more likely to view their tutees as rich and diverse individuals with whom they can have fulfilling and productive tutoring relationships. Now that you know more about cultural differences and how to communicate across those cultural difference, how will you adapt future tutoring sessions to reflect what you now know about cross-cultural communication?

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ACTIVITIES Step Forward Activity

AT A GLANCE

In this activity, all tutors should line up along a line in the center of the room. Tutors are then asked to step forward or backward depending on whether they agree with the statements below as they are read by the facilitator. Once all the statements are read, the tutors should look around and discuss where they ended up with the rest of the group.

Summary This activity is to help us consider how our culture has affected our education. Its purpose is to reflect about your situation, but also notice the group as a whole.

You choose whether or not to identify yourself. For instance, if you do not wish to identify yourself, you do not have to “take a step.” Don’t think too much about the prompt, just go with your first reaction.

Timing 15-20 min.

• • • • • • • • • • • •

Requirements If your residence contained more than fifty books when Open area, tape for a line you were growing up, step forward. If it was always assumed you would go to college, step Group size forward. 3+ people; larger is better If you need to work at least twenty hours a week, step backward. If you have been the only person from your racial or ethnic group in a class, step backward. If you are often expected to attend class on your major religious holidays, step backward. If you have never had to worry about requesting academic accommodations for your classes, step forward. If at least one of your parents has a college degree, step forward. If you feel uncomfortable questioning a professor about a grade, step backward. If you believe education improves one’s economic status, step forward. If you have ever been mocked for the way you speak (either accent or different linguistic codes), step backward. If you are the primary caregiver of a family member, step backward. If you believe a “C” is a below-average grade, step forward.

Tutors, take note of where you ended up. Ask for volunteers from each extreme and the middle (note: this is based on the extremes present. Even if all tutors ended “forward” ask for volunteers from the least forward and from the most forward). How did this activity make you feel? Are you surprised? Why or why not? Do you think this group represents our campus as a whole? How is it the same? Different?

132 AT A GLANCE Summary This case study-style activity is great for helping tutors apply the generic knowledge presented in this module to realistic scenarios. Timing 5-10 min. Requirements Paper, pencils, handout of scenarios (appendix I). Group size 4+

Student Populations

Value Differences Problem Scenario Activity This activity should not be done until after some information is delivered about value differences across different cultures. For this activity, tutors should be broken into groups of 2-5 members. Each group will be given one of the following problem scenarios (handouts in appendix I). Scenario 1 An English Language Learner needs help on their paper. It has no citations at all. However, as you try to explain the importance of citations to the student, they refuse to look you in the eye. Additionally, when you explain how to do MLA citations, the student nods their head, as if they understand the material completely. However, when you have the student work on their citations independently, it becomes clear they do not know how to do the citations. Scenario 2 A student has a question about the text but is unable to articulate them sufficiently for the tutor to understand the request.

Scenario 3 A student asks for help with math but appears to have difficulty with the math symbols in the text and in the homework assignment. Scenario 4 A student presents for review a completed assignment that does not address the parameters of the instructorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s directions. The student insists that this is how such an assignment would be done in his or her country. Within their groups, tutors should read the scenario given to them and discuss these questions: What are some cultural differences that are present in this scenario? What evidence do you have to support your answer? How would you handle this situation? After 5-10 minutes of discussion, each group should present their scenario to the rest of the tutors and their answers to the question. Other tutors could provide other insights at this point that the initial group might have missed. This is a good chance as a facilitator to push students to think of less obvious answers depending on the ease of the activity for the tutors present. What are some cultural differences that are present in this scenario? What evidence do you have to support your answer? How would you handle this situation?

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What Do You Think? Activity

AT A GLANCE

This activity is best done with a group of tutors who are comfortable with each other. Before conducting this activity, it is important to tell everyone that it is not meant to judge anyone and that this room is a safe environment. Tutors should not make fun of anyone elseâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s responses just as they would not want their responses made fun of by someone else.

Summary This activity demonstrates how bias can be culturally based and can help illustrate the ways that we each have different perceptions of others and ourselves.

Have the tutors complete each of the following sentences (handout in appendix II). Try not to spend time rationalizing or thinking, simply complete each sentence as quickly as possible.

Timing 15-20 min.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19.

Women who prefer jobs usually performed by men probably... Members of religious hierarchies... Teenagers... People in poverty... Police officers... African Americans... Men who perform jobs usually performed by women probably... Native Americans... People who work in factories... People over 40... Hispanic men... People with disabilities... Gay men... People who work in organizations serving youth... Tall people... People with a college degree... Immigrants in the US who donâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t know English... Lesbians... I...

Requirements Paper and pencil, handout (appendix II) Group size 6+ people

Once all of the tutors have finished these sentences, have them get together in small groups (2-4 people) and discuss what they all said. How are your responses different? How are they similar? Are there any responses that you had that surprised you? That others have? Why or why not?

After discussing in small groups for 5-10 minutes, ask for volunteers to share with the group as a whole. Did you find any similarities in your group? Why do you think they were similar? What surprised you in your group? Why?

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AT A GLANCE Summary This activity demonstrates the difference visually and physically between people of seemingly-similar backgrounds on common questions of diversity. Timing 15-20 min. Requirements Open space Group size Any size

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18.

Crossing the Line Activity In this exercise, have participants stand up in an open space. Divide the space in half with an imaginary line, or create an imaginary long line (AB) to represent a continuum: A

Make the following statements, one at a time, clearly designating one side of the space to represent one half of the statement and the other side of the space to represent the other. Have participants move individually to the side that best represents their beliefs or desires. If you have a continuum from A to B, participants can decide where along the line they want to stand, suggesting how strongly they support the one statement or the other. Otherwise, you can make them choose one side or the other (the tougher option). You can pick and choose which statements are appropriate for your group members, and add additional ones as is appropriate. Phrase the statements in a way that does not judge either side.

Generally, I am comfortable with my body/Generally, I am not comfortable with my body Generally, I like being with other people/ Generally I like being alone In my spare time, Iâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;m often socializing/doing activities by myself I tend to gravitate to those similar to me/I tend to gravitate to those different than me I seek out cultural experiences that challenge my beliefs/ I prefer cultural experiences that support my beliefs I feel comfortable sharing meals with those who have different customs or restrictions/ I donâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t feel comfortable... I feel comfortable around those who served in the armed forces/ I feel less comfortable around those who... I feel comfortable around people with disabilities/ I feel less comfortable around with people w/ disabilities I feel comfortable around those of a different race/I feel less comfortable around those of the same race I feel comfortable around those of a different sexuality/ I feel less comfortable around those of a different sexuality I feel comfortable around those with very different political beliefs/ I feel less comfortable around those... I feel comfortable around those much older than me/ I feel less comfortable around those much older I feel comfortable around those much younger than me/ I donâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t feel comfortable around those much younger Most of my friends are the same race as me/ I have friends of many races I have friends of different races/ generally, my friends are the same race as me I have friends with different sexualities/ generally, my friends share the same sexuality as I have My friends are a range of ages/ generally, my friends are the same age as me I was completely honest in this exercise/I adjusted my position based on what I thought others would think.

How did this activity make you feel? Which of the statements, if any, hurt? Why? What went through your mind as you went from one side of the line to the other?

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BIBLIOGRAPHY & ADDITIONAL RESOURCES Barr, Linda T., Karen Agee, and Russ Hodges. “Effective Cross Cultural Communication” in Handbook for Training Peer Tutors and Mentors. Ohio: Cengage Learning, 2012. Chapman, Alan. “Johari Window.” . https://www.usc.edu/hsc/ebnet/ Cc/awareness/Johari%20windowexplain.pdf (accessed July 28, 2014).

CRLA CERTIFICATION Level 2 Topics • Inter-cultural tion

communica-

Communication Across Barriers. “Communication Styles.” http://www.combarriers.com/Communication Styles (accessed May 19, 2014). Ens, Anita H., Karen Agee, and Russ Hodges. “Communicating Across Cultures.” in Handbook for Training Peer Tutors and Mentors. Ohio: Cengage Learning, 2012. Knowles, M. S., Holton, E. F., & Swanson, R. A. The adult learner: The Definitive classic in adult education and human resource development (5th ed.). Houston, TX: Gulf, 1998 Mindtools. “Johari Window: Using Self-Discovery and Communication to Build Trust” http://www.mindtools. com/CommSkll/JohariWindow.htm (accessed July 28, 2014). Stockton College Committee for Diversity, Equity and Affirmative Action. “A Booklet of Interactive Exercises to Explore our Differences.” http://intraweb.stockton.edu/eyos/affirmative_action/content/docs/ Interactive%20Diversity%20Booklet%2010-14-2011.pdf (accessed May 19, 2014). Toms, Marcia. “Chapter 3: Cultural Differences” In Put the Pencil Down. Raleigh: NC State University Undergraduate Tutorial Center, 2011.

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APPENDIX I: PROBLEM SCENARIOS HANDOUTS Scenario 1 An English Language Learner needs help on their paper. It has no citations at all. However, as you try to explain the importance of citations to the student, they refuse to look you in the eye. Additionally, when you explain how to do MLA citations, the student nods their head, as if they understand the material completely. However, when you have the student work on their citations independently, it becomes clear they do not know how to do the citations. 1. 2.

What are some cultural differences that are present in this scenario? What evidence do you have to support your answer? How would you handle this situation?

Scenario 2 A student has a question about the text but is unable to articulate them sufficiently for the tutor to understand the request. 1. 2.

What are some cultural differences that are present in this scenario? What evidence do you have to support your answer? How would you handle this situation?

Scenario 3 A student asks for help with math but appears to have difficulty with the math symbols in the text and in the homework assignment. 1. 2.

What are some cultural differences that are present in this scenario? What evidence do you have to support your answer? How would you handle this situation?

Scenario 4 A student presents for review a completed assignment that does not address the parameters of the instructorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s directions. The student insists that this is how such an assignment would be done in his or her country. 1. 2.

What are some cultural differences that are present in this scenario? What evidence do you have to support your answer? How would you handle this situation?

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APPENDIX II: WHAT DO YOU THINK? HANDOUT Complete each of the following sentences. Try not to spend time rationalizing or thinking, simply complete each sentence as quickly as possible. 1.

Women who prefer jobs usually performed by men probably... _______________________________________

Members of religious hierarchies... __________________________________________________________________

Teenagers... ________________________________________________________________________________________

People in poverty... _________________________________________________________________________________

Police officers... _____________________________________________________________________________________

African Americans... ________________________________________________________________________________

Men who perform jobs usually performed by women probably... _____________________________________

Native Americans... _________________________________________________________________________________

People who work in factories... ______________________________________________________________________

10. People over 40... ____________________________________________________________________________________ 11. Hispanic men... _____________________________________________________________________________________ 12. People with disabilities... ___________________________________________________________________________ 13. Asians... ____________________________________________________________________________________________ 14. Gay men... __________________________________________________________________________________________ 15. People who work in organizations serving youth... ___________________________________________________ 16. Tall people... _______________________________________________________________________________________ 17. People with a college degree... ______________________________________________________________________ 18. Immigrants in the US who donâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t know English... _____________________________________________________ 19. Short people... _____________________________________________________________________________________ 20. Lesbians... _________________________________________________________________________________________ 21. I... _________________________________________________________________________________________________

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Module 10

Gendered Communication Styles Gender can play a large role in the way humans communicate, interact with others, learn new information, and approach tutoring session. This training introduces tutors to the common ways in which different genders communicate and approach tutoring and offers strategies for how to communicate with tutees of the same and opposite genders. http://tinyurl.com/Riverland-Gendered

TRAINING CONTENT

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

By the end of this training, tutors should be able to: 1. Recognize that men and women may approach tutoring with different objectives, perceptions, and expectations.

2. Understand and appreciate the differences exhibited by men and women in tutoring. 3. Demonstrate specific strategies to communicate across gendered communication style differences.

Masculine

This training introduces tutors to the different communication styles and preferences exhibited by males and females and equips them with strategies for working with students of the opposite gender, who may approach tutoring with differing objectives, perceptions, and expectations. Although the information presented in this training are generalizations, studies show that differences rooted in socially-constructed gender norms do exist between males and females in terms of how they approach tutoring.

Gender Expression Gender can be a complicated concept and a very personal one for many people. It is not, for example, true that all males act the same way or all females act the same. There are many expressions of gender, many of which do not fit into one box or the other. In other words, people can be male but have many expressions of that identity which are more traditionally considered female and vice versa. It is helpful, in this sense, to think of gender expression as a continuum like figure 10.1.

Gender Expression (Communication of Gender) Androgynous

figure 10.1

Feminine

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This continuum of gender expression refers to everything people do to express their gender to others. This can be separate from gender identity and biological gender. For example, “Metrosexual” is a term often used to describe men who exhibit more feminine characteristics, including dress, tone, or mannerisms. In mass media, gender expression and sexual orientation are often conflated. Stereotypes depict gay men as particularly effeminate and lesbians as more masculine or “butch.” In truth, gay men and women can express their gender in many ways just as straight men and women can. Some people also consider gender identity as a separate concept. Some believe that gender (male, female, or other) as a concept can be separate from the biological characteristics that have more traditionally defined gender as either male or female. Regardless of whether this is true makes no difference for how tutors should approach their tutoring sessions. For the purposes of this training, gender expression and how those expressions can affect tutoring is the important concept. It is important to understand these expressions of gender in order to begin to understand how communication is affected by gender. For the rest of this training, gender will be treated as either male or female for the purpose of illustrating common differences that exist in the way men and women communicate and approach tutoring. While this strict dichotomy is useful for illustrating these common differences, it is important to keep the continuum of gender expression in mind. For example, someone who identifies as female, may not exhibit many of the common characteristics of women described in this training. However, these characteristics are useful in that they depict common traits—as in traits that tend to be exhibited by a majority of men and women.

Are we the same? Brain research says no. Cultural influences are everywhere—from the dolls people play with as children to the education kids receive in school. These influences affect the way people perceive their place in society, which can impact the way they communicate and view the world. However, culture and upbringing does not account for everything; male and female brains actually process different information differently. For example: • •

The female brain processes both language and feelings at the same time far more efficiently than the male brain. Male and female brains are hard-wired differently: the male brain for doing—one thing at a time—and the female for talking and doing.

Males vs. Females While these dichotomies are by their very nature generalizations, they can help to show some of the many ways in which men and women approach tutoring differently. Here are some common differences: Men Particularly in western cultures, men tend to see the world as hierarchical and to position themselves as either one up or one down from others

Women Women are often taught to think of communication as part of a community and not as one over the other. They tend to be less confrontational.

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Men Male students often see seeking help as being “less than” or one down in the educational social hierarchy For men, independence is key; many men establish status by telling others what to do. Finding their own way is essential for male clients; telling others how to do something sends a message of superiority. The tutor is one-up on the client. Men want to preserve independence and avoid feeling put down; therefore, they resist the lower status they perceive in asking for help.

Women Women are comfortable seeking help and often even feel honor-bound to seek it and to show gratitude for having received it. For women, intimacy is more important than status. Sharing information builds intimacy. Women do not gain power or validation by having all the answers; rather, they feel their power is enhanced when helping others. Women expect their problems to be answered with matching troubles, thereby creating intimacy and connections.

Can you think of any situations (in tutoring or not) in which these gender characteristics have been exhibited? How? What other characteristics can you think of for men and women not shown here? How could they affect tutoring sessions?

Tutoring Male Students When working with male students, tutors need to remember that men may view the world as hierarchical. They may feel the need to assert themselves and remain independent to maintain their status within that world. Some ways to work with students who exhibit this need include: • • • •

Consider beginning a session with a male student by asking him about himself. Ask him to share an interest he expresses about which the tutor is less informed. Avoid one-up phrases (“Do it this way”; “I’ll show you”). Instead, offer multiple choice questions (“Would you think it’s this, or that?”) followed by an inquiry expressing interest (“Why?”). Try to understand and affirm an aspect of this reasoning, even when his solution is wrong. Look for ways to allow male students to maintain status. Do not position them as one-down.

Tutoring Female Students Female students often seek connection and intimacy and may want more collaboration and discussion. Some ways to work with female students who exhibit this need include: • • • • •

Begin with a “get to know you” question just as with male students, but share comments on similarities rather than ask for information. Use phrases that strengthen similarities and form a bond like, “I enjoy that too!” and “I never liked working these problems either.” Avoid phrases that highlight differences like,“I’m glad you like doing these problems because I never did.” Briefly share personal experiences concerning the subject, instructor-student interactions, or mutual interests. Look for ways to connect. Allow occasional brief tangential conversations.

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Knowledge Check Turn to a partner, preferably of the opposite gender, and discuss your answers to the following questions: 1. 2.

Think of an experience you have had working with a student of the same gender. Which of these qualities were exhibited? How would you communicate with him/her? Think of an experience you have had working with a student of the opposite gender. Which of these qualities were exhibited? How would you communicate with him/her?

Making Referrals Tutors are not mentors, advisors, or counselors to their tutees; however, they are often a trusted peer and academic support. This role can sometimes be conflated with that of mentor or counselor, but it is important to know where the line between the two is. Gender expression, identity, and sexual orientation are often very personal and difficult topics for people to talk about, particularly if they fall outside of the societal â&#x20AC;&#x153;normal.â&#x20AC;? Tutors need to be aware of, and respectful toward, this difficulty and of these differences in identity, expression, and orientation just as they should with any type of cultural, racial, or other type of diversity. However, this also does not mean they need to, or should be, the trusted confidant for their tutees who are struggling with these intensely personal issues. While they should be friendly and supportive, they should also keep their tutoring sessions focused and on track. Tutors can always refer students to the appropriate staff member or counselor.

Conclusion Gender plays a critical role in how people communicate and interact with others. Often, people donâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t think about how their ways of communicating might be more or less effective depending on whether they are speaking with males or females. It is important for tutors to understand this difference and to apply strategies that facilitate learning across gender differences. As with any type of diversity like culture, age, sexual orientation, or gender, it is important for tutors to remember that each person is unique. All males and females do not communicate in the same way. The suggestions and guidelines in this training should be used as just that: suggestions and guidelines. These are not hard and fast rules, but ideas to provide insight for working with students of any gender. Using these strategies will help tutors be able to understand the ways in which men and women may approach tutoring differently and how best to communicate with their tutees based on these gender differences.

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ACTIVITIES AT A GLANCE Summary This gender-bending role play activity is a great way to get tutors to step outside of their comfort zone and experience tutoring from the perspective of someone who is not their gender. Timing 25-35 min. Requirements Whigs, costumes, etc. (optional) Group size Any size

Gender Role Play Activity For this role play, tutors have to play the role of the opposite gender and help “students” (played by another tutor also of the opposite gender). Role plays can be prepared in advance (appendix I). Gendered “costumes” may be provided by the trainer for added effect and to remind trainees of the communication role they will play. These can be elaborate or simple (i.e. actual full costumes or simply hats). After discussing the common differences exhibited between men and women and the tips for tutoring male and female students, you can ask for two volunteers. The pair should get one role play card (appendix I). These pairs should step out of the room to get into costume and character. With the remaining tutors in the room, discuss what they should be looking for from the training in the role play. When the costumed pair returns, they should act out their tutoring session.

After 5-10 minutes, or a logical stopping point, have the tutors discuss what happened in the role play session. What characteristics of males and females were exhibited? How did they affect the tutoring session? What could the tutor from the role play have done to communicate across the genders better? In what ways did you tailor your explanations because you were helping a male/female student? How might you have responded differently to a male student?

This role play can be repeated with new volunteers multiple times as desired based on length of time available, number of tutors, and usefulness of the role play for the group.

Module 10 - Gendered Communication Styles

Battle of the Sexes This fun icebreaker activity is in two stages and requires a group with mixed men and women. Each stage of this activity is a brief game which challenges men and women to complete the same task to see how they perform the task differently—better? Part 1: Fewest Words Ask for two volunteers from the men and two from the women. Explain the game to everyone first. The objective of this game is to guess the title of common books using as few words as possible. Each team will have one person giving clues and the other guessing the title. Whichever team can guess the title with as few words as possible spoken wins. You cannot say any words that are part of the title when giving the clues. Ask either the male or female team to go first; the other team should leave the room and go out of earshot so they can’t hear or see how the other team does.

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AT A GLANCE Summary This game-based activity is a great icebreaker and can be used to illustrate some common differences in communication between the different genders. Timing 15-20 min. Requirements Game cards (appendix II & III) Group size At least 2 men and 2 women

For the team remaining, hand the clue giver the three book title cards from appendix II. Record how many words are used to guess each title and total them up for that team’s score. Repeat these steps with the other team, recording their score separately. As a whole group, discuss the differences in scores. Typically, the men are able to complete this game with fewer words spoken. Which team won? Why do you think that is? What does this tell you about how men and women communicate differently? How could you use this information in your tutoring sessions?

Part 2: Guessing Game Just as with part 1, ask for two volunteers from the men and two from the women. They could be the same or different volunteers. Explain the game to everyone first. The objective of this game is to guess as many of the words as possible in one minute. You can use body language, sounds, or talking to portray the word, but you cannot say the word or any part of the word. Like with part 1, one person will be the clue giver and one person the guesser. The team that guesses the most number of words in one minute will win. Ask either the male or female team to go first; the other team should leave the room and go out of earshot so they can’t hear or see how the other team does. For the team remaining, hand the clue giver the stack of word cards from appendix III. Time the participants and record how many words are guessed correctly.

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Repeat these steps with the other team, recording their score separately. As a whole group, discuss the differences in scores. Typically, the women are able to complete this game with more words guessed. Which team won? Why do you think that is? What does this tell you about how men and women communicate differently? How could you use this information in your tutoring sessions?

You could repeat each activity with multiple teams of men and women before debriefing with the larger group. This gives more people a chance to be involved and compete for the title of the better sex!

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BIBLIOGRAPHY & ADDITIONAL RESOURCES Baker, Barbara. “GENDER INTERACTION IN THE CLASSROOM.” Teaching Development Program/Excellence in Teaching, 2000. Accessed August 7, 2014. http://www.academia.edu/1667818/Gender_Interaction_ in_the_Classroom.

CRLA CERTIFICATION Level 3 Topics • How to tutor/deal with Target Populations

“Brain Games: Episode 15 - Battle of the Sexes.” National Geographic Channel. Accessed August 7, 2014. http://brain games.nationalgeographic.com/episode/15/. “Diagram of Sex and Gender.” Center for Gender Sanity. Accessed August 7, 2014. http://www.gendersanity. com/diagram.html. Lauter, J.L. (2008). How is your brain like a zebra? A new human Neurotypology. Bloomington, IN:Xlibris. Wright, Robin Redmon, edited by Karen Agee, and Russ Hodges. “What Everyone Needs to Know About Sex: Gendered Communication Styles.” in Handbook for Training Peer Tutors and Mentors. Ohio: Cengage Learning, 2012.

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APPENDIX I: ROLE PLAY SCENARIOS The role play requires that a female tutor trainee play the “male” role and that a male tutor trainee play the “female” role and vice versa. Male Tutor; Female Tutee Help the math-phobic tutee understand how to use factoring to solve the quadratic equation x2 - 3x - 10 = 0.

Explain the cultural significance of ESPN (or another pastime popular with the men in the group) and its importance to the development of lasting romantic relationships

Help the students learn the definitions of 3 or 4 of the following: blitz, quarterback sneak, illegal formation, Hail Mary play, bump and run, hurry-up offense, offensive pass interference, and hook-and-ladder play.

Female Tutor; Male Tutee Help the tutee understand the need for accurate comma placement (or use of semicolons or appropriate citation style). The student thinks of punctuation as confetti to be sprinkled liberally in writing. Encourage him to come up with examples for each comma rule.

Describe a variety of bargain-shopping strategies, including the need for—as well as techniques for development of—an affordable, high-quality, yet expansive shoe wardrobe (or other pastime popular with female tutors).

The tutee has been asked to interpret a poem for a sophomore literature survey course. (An appropriate piece—for example, a poem by feminist poet Marge Piercy—should be attached to the card.) The tutee is resistant.

Module 10 - Gendered Communication Styles

APPENDIX II: BATTLE OF THE SEXES: PART 1

Moby Dick

Hunger Games

Harry Potter

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APPENDIX II: BATTLE OF THE SEXES: PART 2

Mouse

Broom

Calculator

Shopping

Giraffe

Sword

Tusk

Stairs

Pudding

Picnic

Headache

Shoes

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Section 3

Subject/Content Tutoring TUTORING WRITING TUTORING MATH

W 150

Subject Tutoring

Tutoring Writing Tutoring writing can provide its own unique challenges because of the variation in types of writing as well as variations in style and ability of the writers. This training module is intended to expand tutors’ expertise in addressing the underlying process difficulties that may be the root of their writing client’s errors. http://tinyurl.com/Riverland-Writing

TRAINING CONTENT

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

By the end of this training, tutors should be able to: 1. Understand and define the writing process. 2. Know the difference between Higher Order Concerns (HOCs) and Lower Order Concerns (LOCs). 3. Employ tutoring strategies to focus on the writing process with their tutees.

Many a student rushes into the writing center to have an essay fixed. The student wants the paper to earn an “A.” An untrained tutor could simply focus on grammar or surface issues and work with the student to clean up the paper. Doing this, however, would ignore the primary goal of tutoring: to help students become better writers. Grammar rules and style directives may improve student writing, but becoming a better writer involves learning how to write productively.

The Writing Process

The writing process has 3 stages: Prewriting • • • •

Is everything that takes place before the first draft. Prewriting is usually the longest stage In prewriting, the writer focuses on that subject, spots an audience, and chooses a paper style which will convey their subject to the audience. Prewriting may include research and daydreaming, notemaking and outlining, title-writing and lead-writing.

Writing • • •

Is the act of producing the first draft. This stage takes the least time. However, it can sometimes be the most intimidating!

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Rewriting • •

Is researching, rethinking, redesigning, rewriting, and finally, line-by-line editing. This stage can take the remaining time spent on the project.

How can you identify what stage of the writing process a tutee is in? Why is it important to do so when tutoring writing?

Higher Order Concerns vs. Lower Order Concerns All tutees will be at a different stage in the writing process. That is why it is important to learn how to quickly identify Higher Order Concerns (HOCs) and Lower Order Concerns (LOCs). HOC’s are parts of the paper that need the tutee’s attention most. Some of the most common HOC’s are: • • •

Audience and Purpose Organization Development (areas that need more detail, examples, or specifics)

The majority of tutoring sessions should focus on HOC’s. LOCs are parts of the paper that do not interfere with the reader’s understanding of the paper, but may be frequent errors. Some of the most common LOCs are: • • • •

Sentence structure Punctuation Word choice Spelling

Knowledge Check For each of the questions that follow, identify whether it is dealing with Higher Order Concerns or Lower Order Concerns. If it is dealing with HOCs, identify which of the 3 types of HOCs it is dealing with. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Do you have a clear purpose for the paper? What is it intended to do or accomplish? Does the paper progress in an organized, logical way? Are there a few problems that frequently occur? Do any paragraphs seem much shorter and in need of more material than others? Are there places in the paper where more examples are needed? Does the purpose match the assignment? Why did the writer put a comma there? Should parts of the paper be moved to another part?

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While the majority of tutoring session should focus on HOCs, if tutors see an error several times, they should work on it with their tutees. Additionally, if their tutees’ papers are well written, they should go ahead and work on LOCs. This will help their tutees become better writers. HOCs and LOCs can be identified by asking questions about the paper as the tutor is reading it. Sometimes, HOCs can’t be determined until reading the whole paper and seeing the overall organization and development. Knowledge Check Identify each of the following bolded sections of this text that are a Higher Order Concern and why. Then, discuss your reasoning and how you would tutor this excerpt with a partner. The average amount of commercials a thirty minute program airs is something like eight minutes long. That leaves 22 minutes of programming, shorter if there are more commercials to air. The reality is that without commercials there would be no program. That includes your local news station as well. Advertisers pay big bucks to air their commercials, their money is what allows you to view the days important events on your television. They control how much news will be given on any given day. That however is not the only thing they control. They also control what goes on the news. News stations are careful as not to offend their advertisers with any of their stories in fear that they may revoke their commercials and with it take a huge sum of money. Commercial television regulates what we watch more than we think. It is nearly impossible to believe what we see on the news. First, the news is edited beyond belief. How are we supposed to form opinions off of a two and a half minute (the average amount of minutes) story? Take the presidential campaign’s for example, we are given only ten seconds of each of the candidates debate speech…

Encouraging Students to think of Writing as a Process At the end of the day, there are some tutees who simply want to get the assignment “done!” However, by using good tutoring strategies, tutors can get their tutees to think of writing as process without their knowledge. Be Quiet and Patient When the tutor is talking, their tutees aren’t writing. Tutees don’t learn a process by talking about it, but by doing it. Tutors need to be patient and provide enough wait time to allow their tutees to share their ideas about the paper, even if the tutor doesn’t agree. Write down tutees’ ideas As tutees are talking, tutors can write down what they say and give them their notes at the end of the session. Even if it may not seem important, the “light bulb” can go off at any time. An idea or connection tutees had earlier in the day that is in the tutor’s notes, may make writing their paper easier.

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Use the Sandwiching Method Tutors should let their tutees know what they did well first. For example, “I really liked how you organized your paper. It was very easy to follow and helped me understand how the topics were related.” Once the tutors have provided their tutees with some positive feedback, they can start providing constructive criticism. “I am not sure if I understand what you mean by this sentence. Can you tell me more?” Ask open-ended questions “What do you want to say in this paper?” “How do you think your first and second paragraphs are related?” “Who is your audience?” “What kind of paper is this?” “Tell me what you were thinking when you wrote this paragraph?” are all examples of open-ended questions. How could you use these tips in your writing tutoring to focus on higher order concerns? Can you think of other tutoring strategies that you could use in writing tutoring? How?

Conclusion Tutoring writing is much like tutoring any other subject but it can have its unique challenges due to the wide range of writing styles, types, requirements, and abilities. However, if tutors focus on Higher Order Concerns and use good tutoring techniques to help their tutees do most of the learning in the tutoring session, they will go a long way in helping them become self-directed writers. Knowledge Check Deborah Tannen’s Asymmetries: Women and Men Talking at Cross-Purposes was an informative article about her study, but was easily comprehended by a popular audience. I believe this because every human can relate to this article. We all have been in similar situations where for some reason we misinterpret what a male or female says about our situations. With this topic of familiarity, many people are curious as to why such misunderstandings occur. Tannen, knowing her field of study opens some insight into the elusive phenomena, uses a more simplistic way of stating her thesis and interpreting the information she received. The gist of the article was clearly defined with out complicating terminology and sentence structure. It is not as intimidating as some academic writings are. Tannen’s article is approachable by the general public because she is more organized and straight forward in her explanations of the topic she studies. What part of the writing process is this tutee in? Why? What specific HOCs would you choose to focus on with this student? Why?

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BIBLIOGRAPHY & ADDITIONAL RESOURCES CRLA CERTIFICATION Level 3 Topics • Subject/Content Tutoring

Hopp, Timothy A., edited by Karen Agee, and Russ Hodges. “Tutoring and the Writing Process.” in Handbook for Training Peer Tutors and Mentors. Ohio: Cengage Learning, 2012. Murray, Donald, and Victor Villaneuva. “Teaching Writing as a Process Not Product.” In Cross-Talk in Comp Theory: A Reader, 3-6. Vol. 2nd. USA: National Council of Teachers of English, 2003.

“Online Writing Lab.” The Purdue OWL: The Writing Process. January 1, 2014. Accessed August 6, 2014. Ponicsan, Suzanne, edited by Karen Agee, and Russ Hodges. “Tutoring Writing With Formulas.” in Handbook for Training Peer Tutors and Mentors. Ohio: Cengage Learning, 2012. “Resources for Writers: The Writing Process - MIT Comparative Media Studies/Writing.” MIT Comparative Media Studies Writing. Accessed August 6, 2014. http://cmsw.mit.edu/writing-and-communication center/resources/writers/writing-process/.

Tutoring Math

Tutoring Math Students studying math often struggle as much with their own perception of the subject as they do with the actual concepts. Math tutors need to be subject experts, but also capable tutors at motivating students to believe in their own ability to learn math. This training provides strategies for tutors to increase their students comprehension and motivation to learn math. http://tinyurl.com/Riverland-Math

TRAINING CONTENT

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Many individuals hold strong beliefs about their abilities when it LEARNING OBJECTIVES comes to math. Often, these beliefs are informed by prior experiences—or, perhaps more significantly—by a lack of prior positive By the end of this section, tuexperiences with math. These beliefs can hinder students from attors should be able to: tempting to learn math at the college level, particularly when they have already decided whether they can or cannot “do math.” To be 1. Understand the iman effective math tutor, tutors not only need to possess math comportance of motivapetence, but also the ability to help students recognize and overtion in math tutoring. come crippling beliefs, understand their own learning potential, 2. Recognize and adand develop motivation to learn and master new math concepts. dress counterproductive beliefs Tutoring Math (Specifically) Learning mathematics requires understanding basic concepts and how they relate to various other concepts, as well as the ability to apply this understanding to solve problems. Students must do more than simply recite facts and figures or repetitively solve practice problems. Developing true math competence is a building process; students must first learn and firmly grasp foundational material before additional levels of complexity are added.

3. Know the five components of math proficiency and possess strategies to develop each one.

How is mathematics taught and learned differently compared to other subjects? How does the approach to teaching math affect how people learn math, both positively and negatively?

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Math can vary from other subjects, particularly social studies and humanities, in a number of significant ways. For example, math—especially at a basic lower level—often requires solving for one correct answer. As such, teaching math often focuses on memorizing facts, terms, and equations, as well as on practicing concepts through drills and repetition. As a result, many students might say that learning math is “busy work” and not useful or relevant to their everyday lives. It is not the math tutors’ role to introduce or teach new information. Instead, their role is to support tutees by providing examples of the interconnectedness of math concepts, clarifying understanding of complex problems or concepts, and helping them to connect learning to real life through practical applications. Although tutors must have knowledge and mastery of math content to serve as tutors, an ability to recognize different types of learners and their math-anxiety levels is imperative. One of math tutors’ most critical tasks is to build their tutees’ confidence in their ability to learn math. As they support students by modeling methods for managing anxiety and working through challenges, students will build confidence in their own learning process. Tutors can help their students learn math by supporting their development in the five components of mathematical proficiency established by Kilpatrick, Swafford, and Findell: (1) conceptual understanding, (2) procedural fluency, (3) strategic competence, (4) adaptive reasoning, and (5) a productive disposition. Each topic is discussed in greater detail in the subsequent sections, including strategies for supporting their development.

Conceptual Understanding Often, the greatest barrier for tutees to overcome is their limited understanding of math as a rigid set of facts, rules, equations, and procedures. Conceptual understanding refers, therefore, to comprehending the underlying basis for mathematical concepts, including mathematical relationships and applications. Beginning math learners often perceive the subject as a set of rules that must be followed in order to arrive at predetermined answers. This perception establishes a rigid hierarchy of ability based on those who know and follow all the rules (teachers) and those who don’t (students). Furthermore, when students feel penalized for not following a teacher’s rigid procedures and frustrated by arriving at wrong answers, it precludes the possibility for them to deepen their understanding and appreciation for mathematics as a whole. Tutors can encourage their tutees to think of math more conceptually by pushing them to understand the underlying reasons for facts, rules, and procedures. This is best done using metacognitive questions. Metacognitive Questions Metacognition refers to an understanding about one’s own knowledge. Though it might sound like a complicated concept, it is quite simple. In the tutoring context, metacognition refers to questions that ask why or how. For example, in math tutoring, tutors could ask “Why does this equation work?” or “How could you find the answer without using this equation?” These types of questions force tutees to pause and consider the individual elements of a math problem, helping them to understand how they relate to the whole. In so doing, they can begin to conceptualize the process that goes into the facts and rules of mathematics.

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Knowledge Check Which of the following questions are metacognitive questions? 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Why can’t this problem be simplified? Did you remember to factor? What is the reason for your different answer this time? Why didn’t that equation balance? Where does the variable go in this equation? Why did you choose that as your next step?

Can you think of other metacognitive questions you could use in your math tutoring sessions?

Procedural Fluency Procedural fluency is defined as “skill in carrying out procedures flexibly, accurately, efficiently, and appropriately” (Kilpatrick). For tutees, this means an ability to solve problems accurately and repeatedly, even when a problem involves multiple steps. This is a primary reason teachers require students to practice math problems over and over again until they get the right answer every time. Scaffolding Scaffolding is the most effective method for helping tutees to attain procedural fluency. A foundational concept in teaching and learning, the term “scaffolding” is derived from the physical scaffolding used for constructing buildings and other projects. To build scaffolding, one level must be built and verified as sturdy before another level is added. Each level of the scaffold should be tested before another level is added. Similarly, students must understand each component (or level) of math learning before solving more complex problem that require prior knowledge. Students have problems with procedural fluency when they do not understand how problems are complex. Tutors can help identify their tutees’ source of difficulty in solving particular problems or understanding concepts. They can then instruct students how to perform the smaller tasks needed to scaffold up to the next level, enabling them to understand and solve the overall complex problem. Over time, tutors should slowly phase out most preliminary support so that their tutees become more self-directed in their learning.

Strategic Competence Knowledge Check Can you identify each component of the scaffold for solving the following quadratic equation? 3x2 – 10x + 0 = 10 What directions would you give tutees to solve each level of the scaffold to explain this problem?

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Although strategic competence is closely related to procedural fluency, it more specifically pertains to the ability to form connections between different concepts. As in procedural fluency, developing strategic competence requires learners to understand a problemâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s component parts and how they relate to one another in order to solve complex problems. Tutors can help their tutees understand interrelationships, and thus develop their strategic competence, by Knowledge Check How many discrete math concepts do you need to use in order to solve the following math problem? Simplify: - 2x2 - 5y2 - 5y2 + 4y - 3x + 5x + 2 What independent math concepts are involved? showing the similarities and differences between different concepts. For example, tutors could compare textbook unit examples and then ask their tutees to do the same. Making these connections will help their tutees more fully understand how concepts they are currently learning will help them to comprehend new concepts and solve future problems.

Adaptive Reasoning Adaptive reasoning is described as the â&#x20AC;&#x153;ability to think logically about the relationships among concepts and situationsâ&#x20AC;? (Kilpatrick). Unlike strategic competence, this term does not refer to the interrelations of concepts for solving problems within mathematics; rather, it denotes the connection of math concepts for their use in other situations. When students believe they have no innate ability to answer math questions or that mathematics is not useful or relevant, they struggle to become motivated or to think strategically about math concepts. In other words, students who perceive math as a matter of following set rules and procedures to arrive at predetermined solutions (and show them on paper) will have little motivation to learn the concepts or practice the problems. Tutors can help their tutees by make connections between what they are learning and how to apply it in their lives. For example, tutors might explain the concept of negative exponents in a decreasing exponential function by applying it to the price of a specific car over time. Just as the exponential function decreases as the value of the negative exponent increases, the value of the car decreases as the amount of time (age of the car) increases. Ultimately, tutors want to help students connect mathematical concepts to their lives for two important How can you relate the following mathematical concept to something in real life? What would you relate it to? Why/how is this helpful for explaining the concept? Calculating the length of the hypotenuse of a triangle

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reasons: (1) to provide motivation for learning the concept, and (2) to help them see that understanding math is not an innate ability—one that some people have and others do not. (This understanding, of course, helps to further motivate students.) Clearly, students who think that some people easily understand math while others cannot will not be as motivated to learn math. However, by embedding math concepts in tasks students already do and think, without presenting them as actual math concepts that they must “do,” tutors will illustrate how their students are indeed capable of understand and “doing” math.

Productive Disposition Finally, productive disposition refers to a habitual inclination to view mathematics as sensible, useful, and worthwhile, coupled with a belief in one’s own ability to learn and understand mathematics. In other words, people with a productive disposition toward math not only value math for its own sake, but also believe they are capable of learning and understanding it. Achieving a productive disposition is the ultimate goal of math tutoring. When tutees possess a productive disposition, they will want to learn math and will be willing to exert effort to understand it, even when learning difficult new concepts. Counterproductive Beliefs One particularly useful concept for developing a productive disposition is to help students recognize their counterproductive beliefs. In so doing, students will move toward more constructive, proactive beliefs. Counterproductive Belief

What does the student believe?

Omniscient Authority (All-knowing)

Knowledge comes only from experts. It is the teacher’s job to see that I learn.

Certain Knowledge (Unchangeable)

Fixed Ability (Born smart or dumb)

What problems are created by the belief?

What activities encourage more proactive beliefs? Active learning Problem Solving tasks Collaborative learning Independent learning

Lack of critical thinking. Reliance on teachers, not own reasoning. Sees no value in finding answers independently. Knowledge does not Frustration with com- Exposure to varied view change. Every question plex problems. Not open points has a right answer. to new knowledge Structured controversy Arguing for the opposite view point. The ability to learn is View effort and use of Seek role models of stuinnate. It cannot be ac- strategies as futile. Avoid dents or famous people. quired. academic obstacles. Provide reinforcement Concern for grades, not and positive feedback. learning.

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Knowledge Check (Provide the above table, but leave the final column blank.) What are some strategies you can use in your tutoring sessions to move students from counterproductive beliefs to more proactive beliefs? Tutors should use positive reinforcement and feedback to help their tutees see how counterproductive beliefs can cripple them. Tutors can remind their tutees that developing mathematics proficiency is a gradual process that takes time. Sharing their own experiences in developing math skills can help tutees see how they, too, can become more proficient in math over time. As students learn to reject counterproductive beliefs, they will develop a more productive disposition toward learning. This change alone will further motivate them to invest effort in learning, viewing their own knowledge and ability as entities that will grow and develop. As a result, tutees will learn to direct themselves within the process of learning.

Conclusion These five aspects for understanding mathematics are not mutually exclusive. In fact, they are highly interrelated and build on one another. Becoming better at learning mathematics procedurally and strategically will build self-confidence. Having a better conceptual understanding will help to develop an appreciation for a conceptâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s relevance and usefulness. Ultimately, math tutors should have a game plan for their tutoring sessions. Tutors and their tutees need to determine where to begin their sessions by diagnosing sources of difficulty and deciding where help is needed. They must intentionally engage their tutees by requiring that they show, tell, and do within their sessions, ensuring their active participation and practice. Finally, they need to provide feedback on their tuteesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; performance and positive reinforcement on their progress. By taking these actions, tutors will help their tutees develop all five components of math competency and set them on the path to becoming self-directed math learners.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY & ADDITIONAL RESOURCES Kilpatrick, J., Swafford, J., & Findell, B. (Eds.). Additing it up: Helping Children Learn Mathematics. Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 2001. Steiner, Lorraine, edited by Karen Agee, and Russ Hodges. “Effective Mathematics Tutoring Strategies.” in Handbook for Training Peer Tutors and Mentors. Ohio: Cengage Learning, 2012.

CRLA CERTIFICATION Level 3 Topics • Subject/Content Tutoring

Vega-Rhodes, Nathalie, edited by Karen Agee, and Russ Hodges. “Tutoring Mathematics.” in Handbook for Training Peer Tutors and Mentors. Ohio: Cengage Learning, 2012.

Index

INDEX A

Active Learning 53–54, 115–116 Active Listening 61, 70–73, 78, 80, 103 Adult Learners 30–35, 35 Agenda, Setting the 2–4 Assertiveness 77–79, 82 Auditory Learners. See Learning Styles

Gender 12, 130, 138–141, 142. See also Diversity Gibb’s Communication Model 89–91. See also Positive Communication Goal Orientation 41–42

Hierarchy of Needs 100–102 Higher Order Concerns 151–152. See also The Writing Process

Bloom’s Taxonomy 112–113 Body Language 9, 18, 103–104, 126, 128–129. See also Nonverbal Signals

C Confidentiality 14, 23–24, 100 Counterproductive Beliefs 159–160 Culture 12–13, 71, 101–102, 109, 125–130, 139. See also Diversity

I Iceberg Concept of Culture 125. See also Culture Indirect Techniques 21, 33–34, 78, 82

J Jahori’s Window 128–129

Disabilities 14–16 Diversity 12, 141. See also Culture Drop-in Tutoring 5, 61, 102

Kinesthetic Learners. See Learning Styles

Learning, Collaborative 56–59 Learning Continuums 30–31. See also Adult Learners; See also Expert Learners The Learning Pyramid 53–54. See also Active Learning Learning Styles 9–11, 15, 21 Long-Term Goals 35, 36, 45

Empathy 8, 91, 99. See also Rapport Escalating Assertions 80, 82 Expert Learners 29–30

F Face (saving face, face-threatening) 104–105 Feedback. See Reinforcement

M Maslow. See Hierarchy of Needs Metacognitive Questions 69, 156–157 Motivation 40, 44–45, 80. See also Reinforcement Multimodal. See Learning Styles

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Socratic Questions 113–115 Study Groups 60 Study Habits 6, 8, 9–11, 41–45, 69, 75, 79–80

Nonverbal Signals 70–71, 88, 116–117, 127. See also Body Language

Time Management 43–44. See also Study Habits Tutor

Open-Ended Questions 69, 71, 76, 153

Code of Ethics 7 What is a tutor? 6

Tutor Support 32

Paralanguage 71, 117 Politeness 104–105 Positive Communication. See Reinforcement; See also Politeness Praise. See Reinforcement Probing Questions 114, 130 Professionalism 6–8 Prompting 117

V VARKs. See Learning Styles Visual Learners. See Learning Styles

W Wait Time 71, 76, 117–118, 119, 152 The Writing Process 150–151

Q Questioning. See Probing Questions; See also Socratic Questions; See also Bloom’s Taxonomy; See also Redirecting Questions; See also Open-Ended Questions; See also Metacognitive Questions

R Rapport 3, 99–106. See also Empathy Read/Write Learners. See Learning Styles Redirecting Questions 54, 115–116 Referrals 5, 15, 16, 20, 78, 141 Reinforcement 5, 8, 18, 44, 80–81, 87–89, 92, 93, 94, 95, 100, 103–105, 160

S Sandwiching 153. See also Reinforcement Scaffolding 157 Schema 75–76 Self-Efficacy. See Goal Orientation; See also Motivation Session Direction 32 S.M.A.R.T. Goals 42–44 163

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