GARDENS OF KOREA: HARMONY WITH INTELLECT AND NATURE

Gardens of Korea Harmony with Intellect and Nature

Heo Kyun

Translated by Donald L Baker Photographs by Lee Gapcheol

Saffron Korea Library

Gardens of Korea Harmony with Intellect and Nature

This book by Heo Kyun, aka Huh Gyun, with stunning photographs by Lee Gapcheol aka Yi Gapcheol, originally published in Korean and translated into English by Donald L Baker, has been thoroughly edited and revised by Saffron Books for an international audience.

Available in hard cover and soft cover editions.

About Gardens of Korea Of the three great civilizations of East Asia, Korea attracted the least attention till recent years. Overshadowed by neighbours China and Japan, Koreans had trouble gaining recognition abroad for the many accomplishments of their ancestors in such fields as art and architecture, costume, cosmetics and fashion, literature, music and dance. Books about Korea likewise had difficulty gaining international audiences. The beauty of Korean gardens, largely hidden from the world outside the peninsula, is the focus of this extraordinary work by Heo Kyun / Huh Gyun Heo Kyun shows how the gardens of Korea were distinctive, reflecting the beliefs and values of the Korean scholars who designed them and enjoyed them. Korea’s traditional gardens, whether inside palace walls or in mountain valleys, manifest an age-old Korean desire to live in harmony with nature. The gardens worked with nature, fitting into their natural environment rather than drastically altering that environment to satisfy human whims. Moreover, gardens provided a sanctuary from the cares of everyday life. Koreans designed their gardens to invoke the realms of the immortals they worshipped When they entered their gardens, the Korean literati, political exiles and other recluses hoped to leave their worries behind them and seek comfort in the natural beauty that surrounded them. With his descriptions of the ideals behind Korea’s traditional gardens as well as depictions of many of the famous gardens, Heo takes us into the worlds those patrons of the spaces created, allowing us to summon, in our own minds, their extraordinary beauty, tranquillity and power Published in English by Saffron Books, London, 2005 160pp, more than 178 illustrations in colour and black and white Original translation by Don Baker | Additional Editing & Revisions Sajid Rizvi Saffron Korea Library Series | ISSN 1748-0477 | Series Commissioning Editor Sajid Rizvi, Founding Editor, Saffron Books Hard Cover Laminated, no Jacket, endpapers, 303mm (h) x 218mm (w) ISBN-13 9781872843841 / ISBN-10 1872843840

Soft Cover Laminated, 287mm (h) x 210mm (w) ISBN-13 9781872843858 / ISBN-10 1872843859

SAFNET www.SaffronBooksandArt.net

Contents Translator’s Preface Introduction

10-11 15-17

Part One —

The Symbolic World of Traditional Korean Gardens 1 | Korean Gardens and Their Distinctive Characteristics; Comparisons with China and Japan Water Fountains

18-29

2 | Traditional Gardens and Traditional Beliefs and Values Confucianism; Neo-Confucianism; Daoism; Belief in Mountain Immortals; Feng-shui

30-40

3 | Pavilions and Nature Gardens; Lotus Ponds and Lotus Flowers

41-44

4 | The Symbolic World of Korean Gardens; Three Mountain Homes for Immortals; The Twelve Peaks of Mt Wu; Rocks and Unusual Stones; Dizhu-type Rocks and Rock Inscriptions Saying that ‘Integrity Shines for Generations’; Wine-cup Canals; Carvings of Carp; Carvings of Toads and Hares; Gingko Trees; Pine Trees, Bamboo Trees, and Plum Trees; Bamboo

45-74 5 | Name Plaques and Names Carved on Stone: Gwallan (Observing Waves); Gwaneo (Observing Fish);Yeonggwi (Return Home Singing); Sesim (Cleansing the Mind); Tagyeong (Washing Hat-strings), Changnang (The Canglang River), Taksa (Washing Them); Cheonyeon (Heaven and the Deep Blue Sea); Unyeong (The Shadows of Clouds); Hujo (The Last to Lose their Leaves); Musong (Caressing a Pine Tree); Gwangpung (Refreshing Breeze) and Jewol (Clear Moon);Gyeonggeum (Noble Interior, Humble Exterior); Mangyang (Looking at the Ocean); Wallak (Enjoyable); Seobyeok (Staying on the Green Mountain); Hwayang (The Sunny Side of Mt Hua)

75-87 Part Two — A Walk Through Some of Korea’s Traditional Gardens 6 | Country Retreats: Soswaewon: Living among Mountains and Streams, Breathing in Fresh, Pure Air; Buyongdong Garden: A Space for Aesthetic Philosophy To Harmonise Poetry, Song, and Dance; Seoseokji Pond Garden: Enjoying the Natural World with Stones, Trees, and Flowers; The Thatch Cottage on the Tea Mountain— Where Dasan Went for Walks; The Old Mansion of Minister Yun Jeung: Savouring the Atmosphere of Mountain Life While Sitting in a Loft; Green Rock Pavilion: Mesmerising effects of a Large, Elegant Rock Foundation 88-111 7 | Garden Homes: Musan Sibibong Garden: Replicating the Realm of the Immortals with 12 Artificial Mountains; The Garden at Boat-bridge Hamlet: Plucking the Geomun’go and Engaging in Studies, I Forget Worldly Sorrows; The Myeong’okheon Pavilion Garden: Crape Myrtle Trees that Replicate the Realm of Immortals; The Garden at the Old Yeonjeong House: Feeling like You are Deep in a Mountain Forest; Mugi Yeondang Lotus Pond Garden: Why would Someone Trade a High Government Post for a Life of Ease?; Gwanghalluwon Garden: Here you can find the Moon Palace, the Dragon Palace, and the Realm of the Immortals 112-123 8 | Palace Gardens: The Secret Garden in Changdeok-gung Palace: Harmonising Nature and Art; Anapji Pond: Appreciating the Sight of the Moon’s Reflection in a Lotus Pond; Poseokjeongji Watercourse: Poems and Floating Wine Cups; Nongwoljeong Pavilion Garden: On a Night When the Moon is Full, the Shadow of the Moon Falls on Water Rushing over Rocks; Banghwa Suryujeong Pavilion: The Apex of Architectural Beauty, Looking as if it is Floating in the Air 124-135 9 | Mountains, Water, and Nature Gardens: Amseojae Hut: Building a Hut in an Opening in a Cliff Next to a Stream; Jukseoru Pavilion: Unadorned Beauty in the Midst of Grandeur; Choganjeong Pavilion: Studying at a Bend in a Stream; Chimsujeong Pavilion: A Place Where Crystal-clear Waters Change Direction and Head Downhill; Yeongmojeong Pavilion: The Filial Piety of a Son Hidden Among Magnificent Scenery; Yong’yeonjeong Pavilion: A Pavilion Surrounded by Scenery that Takes your Breath Away; Uisangdae Pavilion: Spending Time with the Crystal Clear Waters of the East Sea Stretching out to the Horizon; Geoyeonjeong Pavilion: Fall Colours Glittering on the Surface of Jadelike Waters of a Mountain Stream; Geumseonjeong Pavilion: Getting Rid of Stress by Relaxing Next to a Stream Running through a Mountain Valley; Dongnakdang Hall: Living with Nature as Your Only Companion

136-152 Bibliography Primary Sources Chinese Classics Korean Secondary Sources Japanese Secondary Sources Chinese Secondary Sources

Index

153 153 154 154 154 155-159

Gardens of Korea Harmony with Intellect and Nature

Gardens of Korea Harmony with Intellect and Nature

Heo Kyun

Translated by Donald L Baker Photographs by Lee Gapcheol

GARDENS OF KOREA Harmony with Intellect and Nature Heo Kyun Translated by Donald L Baker ISBN 1 872843 84 0 Hard cover ISBN 1 872843 85 9 Soft cover Saffron Korea Library • Number Five ISSN 1748 0477 Published by Saffron Books, Eastern Art Publishing (EAP), with the support of the Korea Literature Translation Institute [LTI], Seoul, in commemoration of Korea’s designation as the Guest of Honour at the Frankfurt Book Fair, 2005.

Cover created by Prizmatone Design Consultancy, a division of EAP Photograph by Lee Gapcheol This edition is developed by EAP from Donald L Baker’s translation of Heo Kyun’s Korean Gardens: Where Literati Noblemen Strolled, published in 2002 by DDWorld Publishing, Seoul, Korea Copyright © 2005. No part of this publication may be reproduced or used in any form (graphic, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, taping or information storage and retrieval systems) without permission of the publisher. Additional copyright information appears as follows: Published by Saffron Books, an imprint of Eastern Art Publishing

Managing Editor Sajid Rizvi

Executive Editor Shirley Rizvi

Eastern Art Publishing

P O Box 13666

London SW14 8WF

United Kingdom Telephone Facsimile

+44-[0]20 8392 1122 +44-[0]20 8392 1422

E-mail saffronbooks@eapgroup.com Web www.eapgroup.com

www.saffronbooks.com

Designed by Prizmatone Design Consultancy [EAP] Printed and bound in the United Kingdom British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record of this book is available from the British Library

Translator’s Preface

10

Introduction

15

Part One —

The Symbolic World of Traditional Korean Gardens

19

1 | Korean Gardens and Their Distinctive Characteristics Comparisons with China and Japan Water Fountains

22 27 28

2 | Traditional Gardens and Traditional Beliefs and Values Confucianism Neo-Confucianism Daoism Belief in Mountain Immortals Feng-shui

30 30 32 33 34 38

3 | Pavilions and Nature Gardens Lotus Ponds and Lotus Flowers

41 45

4 | The Symbolic World of Korean Gardens 45 Three Mountain Homes for Immortals 50 The Twelve Peaks of Mt Wu 52 Rocks and Unusual Stones 54 Dizhu-type Rocks and Rock Inscriptions Saying that ‘Integrity Shines for 100 Generations” 55 Wine-cup Canals 58 Carvings of Carp 62 • GARDENS OF KOREA Harmony with Intellect and Nature

Table of Contents

Carvings of Toads and Hares Gingko Trees Pine Trees, Bamboo Trees, and Plum Trees Bamboo

63 67 68 69

5 | Name Plaques and Names Carved on Stone 75 Gwallan (Observing Waves) 75 Gwaneo (Observing Fish) 76 Yeonggwi (Return Home Singing) 76 Sesim (Cleansing the Mind) 76 Tagyeong (Washing Hat-strings), Changnang (The Canglang River), Taksa (Washing Them) 78 Cheonyeon (Heaven and the Deep Blue Sea) 80 Unyeong (The Shadows of Clouds) 81 Hujo (The Last to Lose their Leaves) 81 Musong (Caressing a Pine Tree) 82 Gwangpung (Refreshing Breeze) and Jewol (Clear Moon) 82 Gyeonggeum (Noble Interior, Humble Exterior) 83 Mangyang (Looking at the Ocean) 83 Wallak (Enjoyable) 84 Seobyeok (Staying on the Green Mountain) 84 Hwayang (The Sunny Side of Mt Hua) 84

Table of Contents •

Part Two —

A Walk Through Some of Korea’s Traditional Gardens

89

6 | Country Retreats 91 Soswaewon: Living among Mountains and Streams, Breathing in Fresh, Pure Air 91 Buyongdong Garden: A Space for Aesthetic Philosophy To Harmonise Poetry, Song, and Dance 94 Seoseokji Pond Garden: Enjoying the Natural World with Stones, Trees, and Flowers 100 The Thatch Cottage on the Tea Mountain— Where Dasan Went for Walks 103 The Old Mansion of Minister Yun Jeung: Savouring the Atmosphere of Mountain Life While Sitting in a Loft 106 Green Rock Pavilion: Mesmerising effects of a Large, Elegant Rock Foundation 107 7 | Garden Homes 113 Musan Sibibong Garden: Replicating the Realm of the Immortals with 12 Artificial Mountains 113 The Garden at Boat-bridge Hamlet: Plucking the Geomun’go and Engaging in Studies, I Forget Worldly Sorrows 114 The Myeong’okheon Pavilion Garden: Crape Myrtle Trees that Replicate the Realm of Immortals 114 The Garden at the Old Yeonjeong House: Feeling like You are Deep in a Mountain Forest 117 Mugi Yeondang Lotus Pond Garden: Why would Someone Trade a High Government Post for a Life of Ease?

118 Gwanghalluwon Garden: Here you can find the Moon Palace, the Dragon Palace, and the Realm of the Immortals 119 8 | Palace Gardens 125 The Secret Garden in Changdeok-gung Palace: Harmonising Nature and Art 125 Anapji Pond: Appreciating the Sight of the Moon’s Reflection in a Lotus Pond 131 Poseokjeongji Watercourse: Poems and Floating Wine Cups 132 Nongwoljeong Pavilion Garden: On a Night When the Moon is Full, the Shadow of the Moon Falls on Water Rushing over Rocks 137 Banghwa Suryujeong Pavilion: The Apex of Architectural Beauty, Looking as if it is Floating in the Air 137 9 | Mountains, Water, and Nature Gardens 137 Amseojae Hut: Building a Hut in an Opening in a Cliff Next to a Stream 139 Jukseoru Pavilion: Unadorned Beauty in the Midst of Grandeur 140 • GARDENS OF KOREA Harmony with Intellect and Nature

Choganjeong Pavilion: Studying at a Bend in a Stream 141 Chimsujeong Pavilion: A Place Where Crystal-clear Waters Change Direction and Head Downhill 143 Yeongmojeong Pavilion: The Filial Piety of a Son Hidden Among Magnificent Scenery 144 Yong’yeonjeong Pavilion: A Pavilion Surrounded by Scenery that Takes your Breath Away 144 Uisangdae Pavilion: Spending Time with the Crystal Clear Waters of the East Sea Stretching out to the Horizon 146 Geoyeonjeong Pavilion: Fall Colours Glittering on the Surface of Jade-like Waters of a Mountain Stream 146 Geumseonjeong Pavilion: Getting Rid of Stress by Relaxing Next to a Stream Running through a Mountain Valley 150 Dongnakdang Hall: Living with Nature as Your Only Companion 150

Bibliography

Primary Sources Chinese Classics Korean Secondary Sources Japanese Secondary Sources Chinese Secondary Sources

153 153 154 154 154

Index

155

Table of Contents •

Translator’s Preface

A

s all translators know, translating is a frustrating task. The books we choose to translate appeal to us not only for what they say but for how they say it. Unfortunately, it is much easier to convey information across language barriers than it is to reproduce in one language the way that information was presented in another language.

For that reason, I found translating Heo Kyun’s Korean Garden particularly challenging. First of all, he decorates his text with Hansi, poetry written by Koreans in Chinese characters. I am not a poet and found it impossible to translate the poems as poems. Rather than try to maintain the rhythm of the originals, I have instead settled for translating what the poems mean in plain prose sentences. I apologise for being unable to provide readers with the aesthetic experience those who read the poems in the original text enjoyed.

A second problem I encountered was how to deal with the many Chinese terms in this text. Though Korea has maintained a distinctive cultural identity throughout its long history, it was heavily influenced by Chinese culture. That influences shows up in the poems Koreans read in pre-modern times as well as the philosophers they respected and the names they gave to pavilions and other objects in their gardens. That influence has been so profound, and continued over such a long period of time, that for Korean readers Chinese culture is a part of their own native culture.

Just as North Americans claim Dante and Descartes as part of their own cultural heritage, so do Koreans claim Confucius and Zhu Xi as part of their cultural heritage. To convey that sense of a close connection between traditional Chinese culture and traditional Korean culture, I could have done as Heo did in the original version. I could have romanised the Chinese terms in this book according to their Korean pronunciation. However, I wanted readers familiar with Chinese culture to recognise the names and terms Heo uses. Therefore I have romanised the names of books, essays, and poems written by Chinese as well as the Chinese place names and the names of Chinese authors and even Chinese mythical figures according to their Chinese pronunciation (using the pinyin system of Romanisation). I apologise if the appearance of so many Chinese terms in this book about Korean culture gives the mistaken impression that Korean culture lacked originality and creativity.

Romanisation of Korean presented a third dilemma. There is no one correct way to write Korean words in the Roman alphabet, since there is no one-to-one correspondence between Korean sounds and the sounds of languages written with the Roman alphabet. Therefore, however I romanised Korean words, it would be misleading for those who want an accurate and precise guide to pronouncing the Korean terms in this book.

For most of my professional life, I have romanised Korean terms according to the McCune10 • GARDENS OF KOREA Harmony with Intellect and Nature

Reischauer system. That is still the most popular method in Europe and North America. However, in the year 2000, the government of the Republic of Korea promulgated an alternative Romanisation system. Since this translation of Korean Gardens was sponsored by a Korean government organ, the Korea Literature Translation Institute, I used that new system in this translation. However, I am aware that many of the readers of this book will be more accustomed to the old system. Therefore I thought it appropriate that I present a few simple suggestions for translating between the old system and the new.

At the beginning of a word, g, d, b, and j are the equivalent of k, t, p, and ch under the old system.

K, t, p, and ch at the beginning of a word under the new system are the equivalent of k’, t’, p’, and ch’ under the old system. For example, Gim in the new system is Kim in the old system, Dan’gun is Tan’gun, Bak is Pak, and Jeong is Chŏng. Chungcheong in the new system is the equivalent of Ch’ungch’ŏng under the old system.

That brings us to the vowels. There is not much difference in how the new system and the old system represent vowels, except in two cases. The new system does away with the old breve. The new system writes ‘eo’ instead of ‘ŏ,’ and ‘eu’ instead of ‘ŭ.’

For the convenience of those who are more familiar with McCune-Reischauer Romanisation than with the new South Korean government system, in the index at the back of the book I have provided the McCune-Reischauer Romanisation for all terms that are romanised differently in the two systems.

It is customary for authors to thank those who made it possible for them to write and publish their book. Translators should do the same. I want to thank the Korea Literature Translation Institute for supporting the translation of Korean Gardens, and thank Heo Kyun for selecting me as his translator. I learned a lot about Korean gardens in the course of translating his book. I don’t want to forget Sajid Rizvi of Saffron Books. Without his help, this translation would never have seen the light of day. And, finally, I also want to thank Javier Joohang Cha, my research associate and a graduate student in the Department of Asian Studies at the University of British Columbia. He was a tremendous help, not only in tracking down references for the various proper names that fill the pages of this book but also in suggesting translations for many of the passages in this work. I could not have completed this translation this quickly without his assistance.

Don Baker Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada Summer, 2005

1 Overleaf The scenery in front of the Cheonyeondae boulder near Dosan Seowon Confucian Academy, Andong, northern Gyeongsangbuk-do Province.

The foundation for all forms of life is one and the same. When you see a bird flying above a river, you are awakened to the foundations of human existence, that is to say, to the fundamental principles of the universe and of the harmonious interaction that fills heaven and earth

Translator’s Preface • 11

14 • GARDENS OF KOREA Harmony with Intellect and Nature

Introduction

F

or the last ten years or so, I have been studying the meaning of, and symbolism in, objects from Korea’s past in such fields of art as traditional painting, architecture, handicraft and Buddhist art. I have been particularly interested in the aesthetic philosophy and worldview that were behind the creation of such works of art and, while doing that, I have developed an interest in gardens even though gardens were not usually considered to be objects of art. I discovered that gardens, as much as any plastic art, are manifestations of the Korean view of nature and the traditional Korean worldview.

An examination of traditional gardens today will reveal that members of the upper class designed a vast majority of gardens. They are a legacy left for us to enjoy by Confucian scholars, royalty, high officials, and nobles from the past. Of course, there were some gardens built for the homes of commoners but few such gardens have survived for us to view today. Of the gardens built by the upper class, a large number are gardens for rural villas that were built by scholars who had returned to their hometowns after being forced out of public office. However, there are also many nature gardens, too many in fact for all to be counted, that were centred on pavilions and similar structures. And there are the royal gardens. We can get a glimpse of what royal gardens were like if we explore the Secret Garden of Changdeok-gung Palace or Gyeonghoeru and Hyangwonjeong Pavilions in Gyeongbok-gung Palace.

There have been many studies of Korea’s old gardens which give such information as the kinds of plants and trees that grow in the gardens as well as their locations. There also have been brief histories of the construction of the gardens and descriptions of their overall appearance. Some studies have also provided brief discussion on the cultural significance of gardens and their design, but many of these tend to be too superficial and too general to be of any use in trying to understand or appreciate the true character of traditional Korean gardens.

The various plants and trees and other scenic features used in designing a traditional Korean garden are so incorporated in the landscape because of the beliefs and ideals of the person who constructed that garden. Therefore, if we want to know the true character of the gardens from the past and enhance our understanding of them, we need to examine each and every element used to construct the gardens, identify what they meant to those who put them there, and ascertain the specific philosophies and beliefs behind the symbolic meaning imparted to those objects.

It is important to keep in mind that our traditional gardens were not intended to be merely Introduction • 15

16 • GARDENS OF KOREA Harmony with Intellect and Nature

1 Bo Yi and Shu Qi were reputedly virtuous recluses around the time of Wen Wang, the so called Literary King (believed to have died c1073 BCE), who took to the mountains during conflict and apparently died of starvation.

Bo Yi is said to have written a Gathering Thornferns melody, which is mentioned in the anthology, Yuefu Shiji.

See Alan Berkowitz 2000: Patterns of Disengagement: The Practice and Portrayal of Reclusion in Early Medieval China. Stanford, Ca: Stanford University Press. — SR

Confucian scholar from the Song Dynasty (960-1279) who, along with contemporary scholars of his period, is credited with codifying the Confucian canon of classics, including the Analects, and the Five Classics, namely the Classic of Poetry, the Classic of History, the Book of Changes (I Ching), the Classic of Rites and the Spring and Autumn Annals. —SR 2

Variously hailed as the father of Chinese poetry and a great patriot and statesman, Qu Yuan was chief minister to King Huai of the Chu state twice during the Warring States period (c476 BCE-221 BCE). He took his own life by drowning in righteous frustration over the defeat of his king by the Qin forces. The Dragon Boat Festival commemorates his death. — SR 3

objects of aesthetic appreciation. It would not be an exaggeration to say that they were created as a space in which symbols were manipulated to create concrete manifestations of the desires of those who constructed them and to actualise a realm they dreamed of. Their desires and dreams appeared symbolically in the elements used in constructing the gardens and are manifest in the name plaques and rock inscriptions for pavilions and natural features in the gardens. For example, ‘three island-mountains for immortals’ in a garden are a manifestation of a desire for a very long life. Rocks with inscriptions that tell us that they are dizhu rocks pay homage to the integrity and righteousness of Bo Yi and Shu Qi.1 Stone carvings of a tortoise, representing the Dragon Palace, or a hare, representing the Moon Palace, are expressions in an earthly garden of a desire to enter one of those otherworldly utopian realms. Not just man-made objects but natural objects as well take on symbolic significance in a traditional Korean garden. A gingko tree, for example, stands for the Apricot Altar of Confucius. Pine trees, bamboo, and plum trees and other such flowering flora are symbolic representations of a steadfast moral character and a withdrawal from the world in order to cultivate virtue. It’s not just living natural objects that add symbolic value to a garden.

Inert rocks can do so as well when they have such inscriptions on them such as ‘The Heaven and the Deep Blue Sea Terrace’ or ‘Washing Hat-strings Rock.’ Such rocks are manifestations of admiration for the words, deeds, and ideals of such great sages as Zhu Xi (1130-1200)2 and Qu Yuan (340 BCE? –278 BCE?).3 In this way, through the use of various symbolic objects, gardens were transformed into a living space in a new dimension.

This book pursues such symbolic elements in traditional gardens found throughout Korea.

My goal is to provide concrete examples of the use of such symbolic elements. Identifying the symbolic significance of the various natural objects, man-made objects, or natural scenery in Korea’s traditional gardens will allow me to provide a comprehensive explanation of the symbolic world of Korean gardens. I will pay special attention to gardens, such as Soswaewon Garden, Buyongdong Garden, and Seoseokji Garden, which have a special place in the history of Korean gardens. Putting aside for now the nature gardens that can be said to have been particularly representative of our traditional gardens but which have been destroyed by ruthless economic development and therefore have lost all value as gardens, I have chosen to concentrate on twelve gardens that are well known among the general public and also have preserved their original look, relatively speaking.

Finally, I would like to thank Jin Seongmin, the president of the Daleun Sesang publishing house in Korea, for making it possible to publish the original Korean version of this book. I would also like to thank Lee Gapcheol for the wonderful photographs he supplied for this book. And I don’t want to forget the many people who worked hard in editing and publishing this book.

Heo Kyun April, 2002 In Sugwangjae Study in Hambakkol alley in Tanbeol-ri village in Gwangju city in Gyeonggi Province.

2 [Left] Yeongji Pond in the Munsuwon Garden, ChunCheon City, Gangwon Province, built during the Goryeo dynasty

Introduction • 17

18 • GARDENS OF KOREA Harmony with Intellect and Nature

Part One The Symbolic World of Traditional Korean Gardens

Gardens of Korea • 19

20 • GARDENS OF KOREA Harmony with Intellect and Nature

Gardens of Korea • 21

1 | Korean Gardens and Their Distinctive Characteristics

T

he Korean people have been blessed with a natural environment that has allowed them to live comfortably from the very beginning. They have not had to overcome major environmental challenges or engage in horrendous struggles with nature. They have not had to worry about extreme weather conditions such as the life-threatening cold of the Arctic or the almost unbearable heat of the tropics. Nor have they had to worry about deserts that would give them parched throats. Instead, Koreans enjoy four distinct seasons, and are blessed with clear, clean ocean waters lapping against the shores of their peninsula. Moreover, the streams that flow through the many valleys of this mountainous land supply potable water, and fields and mountains provide medicinal herbs. Since they have been fortunate enough to live in such a congenial environment, Koreans have come to live in tune with nature. Deep in their hearts, all Koreans recognise that they are surrounded by the beauty of nature, and that the environment has made their very existence and creativity possible.

Since Koreans have been blessed with such a beautiful and bountiful natural environment, they know that when they build a garden they do not need to make any great effort to bring in trees or other vegetation onto the garden site. Although there are times where a natural setting has to be complemented by a certain degree of human intervention, in general Koreans try to build gardens, which adapt to nature as it is rather than try to transform it. We can see this tendency to stick as close to the natural environment as possible in nature gardens and country retreats of rural scholars as well as in palace gardens and gardens built for the homes of rural aristocrats.

Among the documents that can give us some insight into the guiding principles of traditional Korean landscape architecture is something written by the Goryeo Dynasty author Yi Gyubo (1168-1241) called ‘a note on the cold spring pavilion of Secretary Son’ (Sonbiseo naengcheonjeong-gi). In that note, Yi describes how impressed he was when he went to the home of his friend Son and noticed the rocks and the clear spring water in Son’s garden, as well as the winding watercourse from which the water from that spring flowed. Here is an except from that essay: I have visited a lot of homes of the rich and powerful, and have noticed that they like their gardens to have a lot of twists and turns in them. They also like to dig holes in the ground and then pile up the dirt they dug up on top of some rocks they have gathered and create the appearance that their garden is spotted with natural hills with various strange shapes. However, no matter how much effort they put into altering the landscape, the product of their labours will not even come close to the sort of beauty nature itself provides. It’s not that they don’t realise that an imitation is never as good

22 • GARDENS OF KOREA Harmony with Intellect and Nature

3 [Preceding pages] Autumn arriving at the Aeryeonjeong Pavilion in the Secret Garden of the Changdeok-gung Palace. The trees in this garden are not evergreens. Instead, they are deciduous trees, sprouting green leaves in the Spring that turn red and yellow in the Fall before they fall to the ground, in accordance with the natural rhythm of the alternation of seasons. This reflects the desire of those who built that garden to live in harmony with nature 4 [Above] Though most trees lose their leaves in the Autumn and Winter, the pine tree stays green. Confucian scholars delighted in pine trees as symbols of righteousness and moral obligations and planted them in their gardens

as the real thing. The problem is deeper than that. They don’t understand that, no matter how many rare flowers, unusual trees, priceless birds, and strange animals they collect for their garden, the sort of power they wield can never create a scene which can awe a viewer as much as a large tall boulder can.

If they want to bring such a boulder into their garden, they would have to attack it with a chisel and knife, breaking it into pieces small enough to fit into a cart that a horse could then pull. If they did that, then all that would be left of that awe-inspiring boulder would be some pebbles and broken pieces of rock. If they took what they could fit in that cart and piled them up in their garden, instead of an impressive boulder, all they would have would be the same sort of artificial mound made up of a bunch of strange rocks like those mentioned in the previous paragraph. They would not be able to duplicate the impressive appearance of that bounder in its natural state.’

We can see from this brief statement by Yi Gyubo that the royalty and nobility of his day liked artificial gardens that were constructed and arranged by human hands. However, that was the preference of only the few who lived in luxury. We can assume that most scholars and ordinary people preferred to appreciate nature in its natural state.

Korean Gardens and their Distinctive Characteristics • 23

5 [Left] Things are not just what they appear to be on the surface. The moon and trees reflected on the surface of a pond, the sound of water flowing downhill in a mountain stream, the sound of wind blowing through the leaves on the trees: all of these are both the elements out of which a garden is constructed as well as being objects for aesthetic appreciation

6 Winter in the Buyongji Pond area of the Secret Garden of Changdeok-gung Palace

Today it is hard to find Goryeo-era gardens looking the same way they did when they were built, but that preference for minimal interference with nature continued into the Joseon dynasty.

For example, take Soswaewon, in Damyang in the South Jeolla Province. The stream that runs through the Gate of Five Twists and Turns, an opening beneath the mud wall of that garden, is a mountain stream that has been flowing down from the Jangwon Peak since well before this garden was built. Similarly, the waterfall in that stream as it flows below the Pleasant Breeze Pavilion has been there ever since that mountain stream began flowing along that streambed. Moreover, human hands did not plant the trees and the bamboo in the valley through which that stream flows. And, of course, Yeong Peak of Mt Mudeung, which can be seen in the distance, has been in that exact same spot since time immemorial. The man who built that garden, Yang Sanbo (1503-1557), simply wrapped a fence around a spot which nature had already rendered beautiful and then made everything within that fence his garden. All he added were the Pleasant Breeze Pavilion, the Clear Moon Hall, and the flower terraces.

When Yang Sanbo made the decision to make his home in this spot and build a garden there as well, he made sure that he would be able to appreciate the beauty of the mountain stream, the waterfall, the rocks, and the trees which were already there. He also was determined that Mt Mudeung’s Yeong Peak would remain a part of the scenery. Therefore we can say that rather than being a garden constructed by man, Soswaewon is actually a piece of nature dressed up as a garden.

Buyongdong Garden on Bogil-do Island in Wando county in South Jeolla province is even more natural and open than Soswaewon is. A stream originating from within the thick forest of trees on Bogil-do Island’s Gyeokjabong Peak runs through Buyongdong Garden. Here and there big and small stones are scattered throughout the garden. Yun Seondo built the Purifying Pond (Seyeon-ji) and the Mountain Water Pool (Gyedam) to catch the water flowing down from that mountain and make Buyongdong a garden. He didn’t surround that area with a wall or add any major enhancements to the natural scenery. As a result, the garden blends so well into its surroundings that it’s hard to tell what is a part of his garden and what is outside it.

Traditional Korean Gardens stay as close to nature as possible, incorporating the lay of the Korean Gardens and their Distinctive Characteristics • 25

26 • GARDENS OF KOREA Harmony with Intellect and Nature

7 [Left] Both the direction a stream flows as well as the rate at which it flows are important in selecting an auspicious site on which to built a home. Whether you are a success or a failure is determined by how that water flows past your home, even if that stream has its headwaters in an auspicious location 8 [Above] Spring in the Secret Garden of Changdeok-gung Palace

land, the existing paths of mountain streams, and the natural placement of rocks and trees. The only major changes we see in them come from the judicious positioning of a few rocks and trees as well as the construction in a spot with a particularly good view of a structure on which visitors can sit and rest for a while. Otherwise nature is left largely undisturbed. That makes it difficult to distinguish a garden from a natural environment. Even though we speak of gardens, implying human modification of the landscape, the real value of these places is that they preserve the natural scenery. When we visit the gardens, we can tell that Koreans in times past thought that nature could be enjoyed just as it is.

Comparisons with China and Japan If we compare Korean gardens with the gardens of China or Japan, we can’t help but notice that Korean gardens are closer to nature. Chinese gardens are often manufactured landscapes. They tend to be rock gardens, in which scenery is constructed by stacking white perforated limestone from Lake Tai in Jiangsu province to create artificial mountains. If you look at such representative Chinese gardens as the Humble Administrator’s Garden in Suzhou or the Thatch Cottage of Du Fu in Chengdu, you can’t help but notice that most of them are designed to reproduce nature in miniature. They are also quite dense, with internal walls breaking them up into various large and small spaces to provide a number of different scenic views. You can’t see much of the garden when you first enter. You have to walk through various openings in the walls of the garden to see the landscapes created by the limestone of Lake Tai, the man-made hills, the lotus pond, the pavilions, and the lagoons.

The Lake Tai limestone and the artificial hills that are so important in Chinese gardens, can be said to form an artificial scenery that is an imitation of the way rock appears in nature. It is a distinguishing characteristic of Chinese gardens that such artificial landscapes are found in gardens Korean Gardens and their Distinctive Characteristics • 27

and in regions that lack much natural scenic beauty. One of the reasons landscape architecture developed to such an extent in China is that it lacks many places people can go to enjoy nature as it is in itself. Over the centuries China has developed a number of different approaches to designing gardens. For example, one typical Chinese approach to garden design is called ‘obstructing the view’ (yi-jing). Such a design keeps you from seeing the interior of the garden when you first enter but then, as you walk further into the garden, you will discover that the scenery has suddenly come into view. The Humble Administrator’s Garden in Suzhou is a good example of this sort of design.

When you step through the entrance, you will find that a man-made rise in the land blocks your view of the rest of the garden. Such a ‘mountain’ blocking the view is called ‘mountain obstruction’ (shan-yi). If a large tree is used instead of a hill, then this type of garden design is called ‘tree obstruction’ (shu-yi). If the garden is entered through a winding corridor, then this design is called ‘obstruction through twists and turns’ (qu-yi). In another example of the Chinese obstruction of views, if the scenery in the background outside the garden is not particularly good or if it doesn’t go well with the scenery in the garden, then the Chinese block off that view with a wall or with some trees.

As we have seen, Chinese landscape architects draw on a variety of techniques to maximise a viewer’s appreciation of the beauty of a garden. However, all such techniques direct the gaze of that viewer towards one particular specific location at a time. A Chinese garden is like a stage on which the owner of that garden directs a play. Trees and other features of the scenery are like props selected and arranged by the director of that play. In other words, Chinese gardeners let human beings determine which features of the natural scenery are worth paying attention to. This is quite different from the Korean approach, which lets nature present itself on its own terms. Korean landscape architects take advantage of the natural scenery both in and beyond the garden itself in order to provide an infinite range of views for visitors.

As for Japan, there are two terms that are both translated by the English term ‘garden.’ A niwa is a palace garden laid out according to strict guidelines in a rectangular courtyard. Sono, on the other hand, refers to a space similar to the parks and horticultural gardens of China. The walls that surround them identify both types of Japanese gardens, making it convenient to use the space within the walls as a garden. You will find in Japanese gardens miniature mountains, rivers, seas, and forests, all created by human hands. Since such gardens are created with human beings rather than nature in mind, viewers cannot help but be struck by how artificial they are.

The specific techniques used in laying out a Japanese garden are to create several small islands in a lotus pond, plant some pine trees, and then use smoke rising from salt being roasted, around the edge of that pond to create the appearance of fog. When the Japanese build their garden around natural stones, they try to arrange them in exactly the same way they might appear in a painting.

One representative Japanese garden can be seen in Ryoan-ji temple. It is like most temple gardens in that it uses sand and rocks to create a picture of a realm of the immortals out on the high seas. Such a type of garden is called a kare sansui (dry) garden. It takes into account the appearance and size of the rocks it uses, as well as how they appear relative to one another, in order to create an aesthetic balance in the scene the garden presents to those who view it. The result is a garden scene that is just like a painting in a frame.

Because they contain such manmade artefact s as stone sculptures, lotus ponds, and bridges, and even because of the way natural objects such as trees are used in the gardens, the beauty in them appears forced. In order to maintain over time the proper aesthetic distance between the various rocks and trees, they plant slow growing broad-leaved evergreen trees among them. They then alter the garden further to make it better fit either the size of the garden or the personal preferences of the garden’s owner. If a tree grows too high, or if they don’t like the way it looks, they cut away at it with clippers and reshape it. This is to beautify the shape of the trees in a garden to make the size of the trees fit the size of the particular garden. They also want to make sure that other trees or flowers do not obscure the flowering trees in that garden. This tradition of garden design is the reason floriculture and bonsai have become such well-developed industries in Japan today.

Water Fountains As we’ve seen, Korean gardens are different from the gardens of Japan and China. Moreover, another interesting distinctive aspect of Korea’s traditional gardens is that you won’t find features like water fountains, so common in the gardens of other places, such as in Europe. You will 28 • GARDENS OF KOREA Harmony with Intellect and Nature

not be able to find any traces of water fountains in the gardens of the country villas of Korea’s Confucian literati or even in the gardens in Korea’s palaces. There is a water fountain in front of the Seokjojeon Hall in Deoksu-gung Palace, but that’s because British architects who built it in a British style built that hall in the final years of the Joseon Dynasty. It is not an example of traditional Korean garden design.

It is a principle of nature that water flows from a higher level to a lower level. Therefore Koreans have felt that it goes against nature to have water shooting up towards the sky and they could not accept such a rebellion against the natural order of things. When they wanted to appreciate water in motion, they much preferred to look at a waterfall rather than a water fountain.

We can see examples of this Korean aesthetic in the waterfall in Ongnyucheon stream in the Huwon (Secret Garden) of Changdeok-gung Palace and in the way water spouts are positioned above water level so that water can fall as in a waterfall on its way into such lotus ponds as Buyongji pond and Aeryeonji pond in the same garden. So even in royal palace gardens we can find vivid evidence that the character of the Korean people is such that they do not want to see in their gardens any man-made devices which violate the natural order of things, or have the gardens in other ways appear unnatural.

We get quite a different impression from such European gardens as the famous garden of Versailles, which was designed to serve as a stage on which those who lived there could flaunt their power. China’s Summer Palace (the Yiheyuan, Garden of Good Health and Harmony) and the Summer Mountain Villa of Emperor Gangxi, as well as Japan’s Nagasaki Castle and Kumamoto Castle, serve the same purpose of impressing viewers with the power of the rulers who made those places their homes. However, we cannot see any signs of such attempts to parade power and authority in the Secret Garden of Changdeok-gung, the typical Korean royal garden we discussed earlier. In fact, if you look at the overall lay-out of that Secret Garden of Changdeok-gung Palace, you will note that most of the 200,000 or so square metres of that garden are low rolling hills and gentle slopes. The roughly forty or so pavilions which human effort has added to that landscape only occupy a little than 2,000 square meters, around one per cent of the entire area of that garden. Moreover, with the exception of the Juhamnu Pavilion and the Yeonghwadang Hall, the buildings are so small that they look as if they almost disappear into the thick groves of trees that surround them.

Rather than advertising the power and majesty of a ruler, the Secret Garden of Changdeok-gung Palace, with its buildings and trees, not only provide an example of the harmonious interaction of nature and humanity, it goes one step farther and actually shows the natural world and the human world merging into one. We see this same fusing of human endeavour and nature in such other palaces as Gyeongbok-gung and Changgyeong-gung as well.

Most of the trees in Korea’s royal gardens are broad-leaf trees rather than evergreens. This feature of Korea’s gardens is not to be taken lightly. Evergreen trees stay green even in winter, which means the trees are insensitive to changes in the seasons. That’s why Chinese and Japanese enjoy evergreens and plant them in their gardens. However, it is a perfectly natural phenomenon that flowers bloom when spring comes and leaves fall off of trees in fall. Such seasonal variations are the way nature has arranged things. Korean ancestors did not want trees in their gardens which did not show the influence of the seasons since Koreans in times past wanted to live their lives in accordance with the regular changes in the seasons and in accordance with the arrangements nature had made for them. They knew that no human being could disrupt the rhythms of the season and therefore human beings had to stay in step with them. That is why most of the trees in Korean gardens are broad-leaf trees, with only a few pine trees and Chinese juniper trees in their midst to enhance the efffect.

In conclusion, it should be noted that traditional Korean gardens make natural scenery the master and ensure that human intervention in the landscape supports rather than usurps that natural scenery. Koreans recognise instinctively that human beings do not rule as lords over nature but instead live in harmony with nature. They dislike excessive displays of human ingenuity and prefer the real to the counterfeit. This is because Koreans have quietly absorbed the natural rhythms of life while living in this beautiful natural environment which nature has provided and, as a result, have come to feel very close to nature.

Gardens of Korea • 29

2 | Traditional Gardens and Traditional Beliefs and Values

I

f we classify traditional Korean gardens according to whom they were built for, we can divide them into palace gardens and commoners’ gardens. If, on the other hand, we classify them according to the reasons they were created or by type of garden, we can divide them into country retreats, landscape gardens, and garden pavilions. Of these, country retreats and landscape gardens are the most important for understanding the history of landscape architecture in Korea.

If we analyse the reasons such gardens are laid out the way they are, we will have taken a first step towards understanding the distinctive characteristics of Korean gardens.

First of all, we should note the important role Confucianism and Daoism have played in the design of Korea’s traditional gardens. However, we can’t ignore the influence that belief in mountain immortals and in geomancy has also had on garden layouts. We can see direct or indirect influence from the four traditional ways of thinking throughout the palace gardens and garden pavilions of Korea. Let’s now look in detail at how these four different types of beliefs and values have influenced Korean garden design.

Confucianism.

The country retreats that are still standing today have one thing in common: ex-officials who had either retired from public office or were living in exile built them. For example, Buyongdong Garden on Bogil-do Island was built by Yun Seondo (1587-1675) to escape from the world of officialdom because he objected to King Injo (r1623-49) going to the Samjeondo Island in 1636 to kowtow before the leader of the new Qing Dynasty. Soswaewon in Damyang was built by Yang Sanbo (1503-77) after his mentor Jo Gwangjo (1482-1519) was forced out of Seoul into exile in Nongju in Hwasun county by Nam Gon (1471-1527) and other merit subjects. Yang built his garden after he joined Jo Gwangjo in giving up all dreams for an official life and settled instead for a quiet life in the countryside.

Seoseokji in Yeongyang was built by Jeong Yeongbang (1577-1650) when he returned to his hometown after he abandoned his dreams of public service when Gwanghaegun (r1608-23) was on the throne. The Thatch Cottage of Dasan in Gangjin was built by Jeong Yagyong (1762-1836) after he 30 • GARDENS OF KOREA Harmony with Intellect and Nature

9 A plaque in the Pungsongnu Pavilion in Mugi Yeongdang lotus pond. There is one Chinese character on this plaque, the character for ‘mindfulness.’ The Chinese philosopher Zhu Xi took mindfulness as both the starting point and the end result of his Neo-Confucian philosophy. We can find evidence of such Neo-Confucian ideas throughout the traditional gardens of Korea

Of the three great civilisations of East Asia, Korea used to attract the least attention.

Overshadowed by their neighbours in China and Japan, Koreans had trouble gaining recognition abroad for the many accomplishments of their ancestors in such fields as architecture, music, dance, and the arts. That has begun to change in recent decades. As South Korea has gained economic power, people outside of Korea have begun to notice that Korea’s past is at least as distinguished as its present. It is now possible to find good English-language introductions to many aspects of Korea’s ancient culture. However, one area of Korea’s culture has remained relatively unknown outside of Korea, and the beauty and extraordinary store of Korean gardens has remained largely unexplored. This book by Heo Kyun fills that gap.

Heo shows in this book how the gardens of Korea were distinctively Korean, reflecting the beliefs and values of the Korean scholars who designed them and enjoyed them. Korea’s traditional gardens, whether inside palace walls or in mountain valleys, manifest the Korean desire to live in harmony with nature. The gardens worked with nature, fitting into their natural environment rather than drastically altering that environment to satisfy human whims. Moreover, gardens provided a sanctuary from the cares of everyday life. Koreans designed their gardens to invoke the utopian realms of the immortals they worshipped. When they entered their gardens, the Korean literati, political exiles and other recluses hoped to leave their worries behind them and seek comfort in the natural beauty that surrounded them. With his descriptions of the ideals behind Korea’s traditional gardens as well as depictions of many of the famous gardens, Heo Kyun takes us into the worlds those scholars created, allowing us to summon, in our own minds, their extraordinary beauty, tranquillity and power The Author Heo Kyun (‘Huh Gyun’) has spent most of his adult life studying Korean aesthetics as seen in traditional paintings, architecture, handicraft, and Buddhist art, paying special attention to the symbols used in those art forms as well as the ideas Koreans read into them. Over the course of the many years he spent immersed in Korean aesthetics, he began to grow interested in Korean gardens as well, recognising that gardens, too, are an art form. He realised that Korea’s gardens, no less than other traditional art forms, reveal much about the Korean view of nature and the Korean philosophy of life. Heo studied the history of Korean art at both the undergraduate and the graduate level at Hongik University. He has worked for the Ministry of Culture and Tourism as a specialist in identifying and appraising cultural properties and has also served as the director of a Centre for Research on Korean Culture.

Currently, he is an editor for the Academy of Korean Studies, where he continues to research attitudes and philosophies behind Korea’s traditional culture. His publications in Korean include a number of books on Korea’s traditional culture, including A Stroll around Korea’s Old Palaces, Explaining the Ideas behind Korea’s Old Paintings, and The World of Symbols in the Art Decorating Korea’s Temples.

The Photographer Lee Gapcheol (‘Yi Gapcheol’) has travelled to virtually every corner of South Korea, capturing the dynamic spirit of the Korean people in his photographs. Among the published collections (in Korean) of his photographs is Challenge and Response.

The Translator Donald L Baker taught English as a Peace Corps Volunteer in Gwangju in the early 1970s and obtained his PhD in Korean history from the University of Washington in 1983. Since 1987, he has been teaching Korean cultural history at the University of British Columbia, where he is the director of the Centre for Korean Research. He has published numerous articles on Korean religion, philosophy and traditional science, and was one of the editors of the Sourcebook of Korean Civilisation. He is currently working on a survey of religion in modern Korea as well as a study of the Joseon dynasty scholar, Dasan Jeong Yagyong. He was assisted in this translation by Javier Joohang Cha, a Korean Studies graduate student at UBC. GARDENS OF KOREA Harmony with Intellect and Nature Heo Kyun Translated by Donald L Baker Photographs by Lee Gapcheol Saffron Korea Library Series ISSN 1748-0477 160pp | 287 x 210 mm ISBN 1 872843 84 0 | Hard cover ISBN 1 872843 85 9 | Soft cover Saffron Books, an imprint of Eastern Art Publishing (EAP) P O Box 13666, London SW14 8WF, UK E saffronbooks@eapgroup.com W www.eapgroup.com W www.saffronbooks.com

Gardens of Korea Harmony with Intellect and Nature

This book by Heo Kyun, aka Huh Gyun, with stunning photographs by Lee Gapcheol aka Yi Gapcheol, originally published in Korean and translated into English by Donald L Baker, has been thoroughly edited and revised by Saffron Books for an international audience.

Available in hard cover and soft cover editions.

About Gardens of Korea Of the three great civilizations of East Asia, Korea attracted the least attention till recent years. Overshadowed by neighbours China and Japan, Koreans had trouble gaining recognition abroad for the many accomplishments of their ancestors in such fields as art and architecture, costume, cosmetics and fashion, literature, music and dance. Books about Korea likewise had difficulty gaining international audiences. The beauty of Korean gardens, largely hidden from the world outside the peninsula, is the focus of this extraordinary work by Heo Kyun / Huh Gyun Heo Kyun shows how the gardens of Korea were distinctive, reflecting the beliefs and values of the Korean scholars who designed them and enjoyed them. Korea’s traditional gardens, whether inside palace walls or in mountain valleys, manifest an age-old Korean desire to live in harmony with nature. The gardens worked with nature, fitting into their natural environment rather than drastically altering that environment to satisfy human whims. Moreover, gardens provided a sanctuary from the cares of everyday life. Koreans designed their gardens to invoke the realms of the immortals they worshipped When they entered their gardens, the Korean literati, political exiles and other recluses hoped to leave their worries behind them and seek comfort in the natural beauty that surrounded them. With his descriptions of the ideals behind Korea’s traditional gardens as well as depictions of many of the famous gardens, Heo takes us into the worlds those patrons of the spaces created, allowing us to summon, in our own minds, their extraordinary beauty, tranquillity and power Published in English by Saffron Books, London, 2005 160pp, more than 178 illustrations in colour and black and white Original translation by Don Baker | Additional Editing & Revisions Sajid Rizvi Saffron Korea Library Series | ISSN 1748-0477 | Series Commissioning Editor Sajid Rizvi, Founding Editor, Saffron Books Hard Cover Laminated, no Jacket, endpapers, 303mm (h) x 218mm (w) ISBN-13 9781872843841 / ISBN-10 1872843840

Soft Cover Laminated, 287mm (h) x 210mm (w) ISBN-13 9781872843858 / ISBN-10 1872843859

SAFNET www.SaffronBooksandArt.net

Contents Translator’s Preface Introduction

10-11 15-17

Part One —

The Symbolic World of Traditional Korean Gardens 1 | Korean Gardens and Their Distinctive Characteristics; Comparisons with China and Japan Water Fountains

18-29

2 | Traditional Gardens and Traditional Beliefs and Values Confucianism; Neo-Confucianism; Daoism; Belief in Mountain Immortals; Feng-shui

30-40

3 | Pavilions and Nature Gardens; Lotus Ponds and Lotus Flowers

41-44

4 | The Symbolic World of Korean Gardens; Three Mountain Homes for Immortals; The Twelve Peaks of Mt Wu; Rocks and Unusual Stones; Dizhu-type Rocks and Rock Inscriptions Saying that ‘Integrity Shines for Generations’; Wine-cup Canals; Carvings of Carp; Carvings of Toads and Hares; Gingko Trees; Pine Trees, Bamboo Trees, and Plum Trees; Bamboo

45-74 5 | Name Plaques and Names Carved on Stone: Gwallan (Observing Waves); Gwaneo (Observing Fish);Yeonggwi (Return Home Singing); Sesim (Cleansing the Mind); Tagyeong (Washing Hat-strings), Changnang (The Canglang River), Taksa (Washing Them); Cheonyeon (Heaven and the Deep Blue Sea); Unyeong (The Shadows of Clouds); Hujo (The Last to Lose their Leaves); Musong (Caressing a Pine Tree); Gwangpung (Refreshing Breeze) and Jewol (Clear Moon);Gyeonggeum (Noble Interior, Humble Exterior); Mangyang (Looking at the Ocean); Wallak (Enjoyable); Seobyeok (Staying on the Green Mountain); Hwayang (The Sunny Side of Mt Hua)

75-87 Part Two — A Walk Through Some of Korea’s Traditional Gardens 6 | Country Retreats: Soswaewon: Living among Mountains and Streams, Breathing in Fresh, Pure Air; Buyongdong Garden: A Space for Aesthetic Philosophy To Harmonise Poetry, Song, and Dance; Seoseokji Pond Garden: Enjoying the Natural World with Stones, Trees, and Flowers; The Thatch Cottage on the Tea Mountain— Where Dasan Went for Walks; The Old Mansion of Minister Yun Jeung: Savouring the Atmosphere of Mountain Life While Sitting in a Loft; Green Rock Pavilion: Mesmerising effects of a Large, Elegant Rock Foundation 88-111 7 | Garden Homes: Musan Sibibong Garden: Replicating the Realm of the Immortals with 12 Artificial Mountains; The Garden at Boat-bridge Hamlet: Plucking the Geomun’go and Engaging in Studies, I Forget Worldly Sorrows; The Myeong’okheon Pavilion Garden: Crape Myrtle Trees that Replicate the Realm of Immortals; The Garden at the Old Yeonjeong House: Feeling like You are Deep in a Mountain Forest; Mugi Yeondang Lotus Pond Garden: Why would Someone Trade a High Government Post for a Life of Ease?; Gwanghalluwon Garden: Here you can find the Moon Palace, the Dragon Palace, and the Realm of the Immortals 112-123 8 | Palace Gardens: The Secret Garden in Changdeok-gung Palace: Harmonising Nature and Art; Anapji Pond: Appreciating the Sight of the Moon’s Reflection in a Lotus Pond; Poseokjeongji Watercourse: Poems and Floating Wine Cups; Nongwoljeong Pavilion Garden: On a Night When the Moon is Full, the Shadow of the Moon Falls on Water Rushing over Rocks; Banghwa Suryujeong Pavilion: The Apex of Architectural Beauty, Looking as if it is Floating in the Air 124-135 9 | Mountains, Water, and Nature Gardens: Amseojae Hut: Building a Hut in an Opening in a Cliff Next to a Stream; Jukseoru Pavilion: Unadorned Beauty in the Midst of Grandeur; Choganjeong Pavilion: Studying at a Bend in a Stream; Chimsujeong Pavilion: A Place Where Crystal-clear Waters Change Direction and Head Downhill; Yeongmojeong Pavilion: The Filial Piety of a Son Hidden Among Magnificent Scenery; Yong’yeonjeong Pavilion: A Pavilion Surrounded by Scenery that Takes your Breath Away; Uisangdae Pavilion: Spending Time with the Crystal Clear Waters of the East Sea Stretching out to the Horizon; Geoyeonjeong Pavilion: Fall Colours Glittering on the Surface of Jadelike Waters of a Mountain Stream; Geumseonjeong Pavilion: Getting Rid of Stress by Relaxing Next to a Stream Running through a Mountain Valley; Dongnakdang Hall: Living with Nature as Your Only Companion

136-152 Bibliography Primary Sources Chinese Classics Korean Secondary Sources Japanese Secondary Sources Chinese Secondary Sources

Index

153 153 154 154 154 155-159