European EcoCities Journal

EUROPEAN ECOCITIES

FRONT COVER _A JOURNAL EXPLORING DESIGN, REGENERATION, COMMUNITY, MOVEMENT + GREEN THINKING

HOW TO MAKE YOUR CITY GREEN AND SEEN

RAISING THE BAR with regeneration projects

+

THE ART OF MAKING PLACES FOR PEOPLE

OUT, BUT NOT DOWN the fringe can have benefits too RUST BELT TO CULTURAL CAPTIAL

BEYOND RAIL, ROADS & RIBBON CUTTING

The Eco-Cities Study Tour involved a group of 21 Australian built environment professionals visiting nine cities throughout Germany, The Netherlands, Denmark and Sweden in 2010.

This journal is a collection of the delegates’ research and thoughts over that time.

DESIGN _ Build It And They Will Come _ Streets Alive _ Strength In Diversity _ The Art Of Making Places For People

REGENERATION _ Raising The Bar _ Rust Belt To Cultural Capital _ Life After

COMMUNITY _ Out, But Not Down _ Imagining Affordability _ Communication And Culture

MOVEMENT _ Beyond Roads, Rail And Ribbon Cutting _ Walk The Walk _ On Ya Bike _ Moving The Masses

GREEN _ A Guide To Making Your City Green And Seen _ Yes In My Backyard

FOREWORD 2010 Eco-Cities Study Tour Organising Committee Benjamin Kent Emiko Watanabe Emma de Jager Lawrence Man Michele Payne Nicholas Temov Special mention goes to the following people who made significant contribution during the planning phases: Don Newman Felicity Palumbo Philip Elliott Ruth Durack Thomas Schneider Study Tour Participants Beryl Foster Cane Spaseski Chantal Caruso Craig Carpenter Daniel Arndt Doina Smadu George Brown Gianni Mucciarone Honor Putland Jason Bouwhuis Katrina Diegelman Matt Beer Nivia Giuffre Stacey Towne Valerie Humphrey

Professional development through visiting and observing international planning environments is not new. The merit of such initiatives has long been recognised as of immense value to town planners.

The father of town planning in Western Australia, W. E. Bold, the City of Perth’s relatively young town clerk, embarked on a council-sponsored 35,000 mile world tour in 1914 to bring back the best ideas for town planning in order to develop a ‘City Beautiful’ over Perth. His report is one of the seminal documents in the history of town planning in WA. His colleague and successor, architect Harold Boas followed this example in 1930 when, as the first chairman of the 1930 WA Town Planning Commission, he investigated town planning development in international locations around the world. His report gave the 1955 Stephenson & Hepburn report on Perth and Fremantle a strong foundation to build on.

Their report became the basis of the Metropolitan Region Scheme Act 1959. Therefore, the importance of understanding international planning and applying the knowledge acquired is a need of ongoing significance.

Our fundamental planning values have been derived from international models and developed for Western Australian conditions for nearly a century. One of the many benefits of study tours is an opportunity to make international connections with government and industry professionals who can impart new knowledge and ways of thinking.

Don Newman

Editorial Team Emma de Jager Nicholas Temov Benjamin Kent

DISCLAIMER The views and opinions in this magazine do not necessarily reflect those of the contributors’ employers.

Don Newman is Education Convenor for the Western Australian chapter of the Planning Institute of Australia. A well-respected figure in the planning fraternity with decades of service under his belt, the organising committee would like to thank Don for his wisdom, guidance and devotion to ensuring the 2010 Eco-Cities Study Tour came to fruition.

Travelleing by bike is a way of life in Utrecht’s city centre

From THE COMMITTEE

“ Once the mind has been stretched by a new idea, it will never again return to its original size. “

Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr. Following the success of the 2008 New Urbanism Planner Tour several of the participants decided to plan and organise a second study tour. After around 15 months of organising, on the 16th of May 2010, a group of 21 people comprising landuse and transport planners, urban designers and policy makers commenced a three week journey across Western Europe to stimulate planning thought and challenge conventional planning policy and practice in Australia.

The organising committee decided on the theme of Eco-Cities and devised an itinerary that sought to visit places, which espoused best practice principles in a number of areas.

Freiburg - a German city with a long history of environmental awareness and action renowned for its focus on solar energy and efforts to systematically address climate change since the 1980s.

The Ruhr Valley - once the industrial heart of Germany whose coal and steel industries powered the country during the postwar era. The legacy of pollution has been cleaned up and the industrial monuments have not only been preserved, but also restored into artistic venues, museums and community facilities.

The region was bestowed the title of European Capital of Culture in 2010.

Utrecht - a progressive and innovative Dutch city open to embracing new ideas and trends. Undergoing a revitalisation of its central train station and developing cutting-edge greenfields developments, Utrecht is being guided by a City Council with sustainability at its core. Even to the point of committing to becoming carbon neutral by 2012.

Groningen - a small university town in northern Holland that embraced a suite of carrot and stick measures to be able to now boast that 60 per cent of journeys are taken by bicycle, the highest rate in the world.

Copenhagen - recognised as one of the most environmentally friendly cities in the world with Denmark ranking second in the world in the 2010 Legatum Prosperity Index out of 110 countries.

Copenhagen has transformed its city centre from that dominated by car into a space frequented by families, seniors and tourists on bike and foot alike.

The organising committee was keen not only to explore the theme of Eco-Cities but also to walk the talk. Each hotel we stayed at espoused eco-friendly principles in their infrastructure and operation, such as the Victoria Hotel in Freiburg, which is powered by wind turbines and solar panels. Transport was also a major consideration with all intercity travel made by rail organised by helpful contacts at Deutsche Bahn. The vast majority of travel within each city was made by bike, foot or using up to six different modes of local public transport, including a hanging train in Dortmund.

Every delegate shared our passion for sustainability, with most choosing to offset their long-haul flights to the sum total of more than 40 tonnes of greenhouse gases. Their donations , as well as a contrubition made to offset this journal’s production, edit and printing will help grow the Gondwana Link project which aims to create a biodiversity corridor in WA’s South West (go to www.gondwanalink.org for more information).

Excitement about the tour continued even beyond arriving back home with most delegates sharing their personal insights and ideas to make this journal.

We hope you enjoy reading what they have to say.

Inspired?

Don Newman is looking into a potential Study Tour through the United States and Canada in 2013. If you want to talk to Don about any ideas or energy you could add to such a tour please send an email to donn@iinet.net.au.

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HOUTEN BIKE TOUR LEIDSCHE RIJN PRESENTATION+BIKE TOUR UTRECHT CENTRAAL STATION PRESENTATION+TOUR VNM MOBILITY MANAGEMENT MEETING AMERSFOORT MUNICIPALITY PRESENTATION VATHORST HOUSING DEVELOPMENT PRESENTATION+BIKE TOUR ALLIANTIE EEMVALLEI [SOCIAL HOUSING DEVELOPER] PRESENTATION FIETSBERAAD [CENTRE FOR BIKE POLICY] MEETING AEDES [DUTCH SOCIAL HOUSING PEAK BODY] MEETING+BIKE TOUR UTRECHT UNIVERSITY CAMPUS [DE UITHOF] ARCHITECTURE TOUR UTRECHT UNIVERSITY SUSTAINABLE FUTURES SHORTCOURSE

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02/06 02/06 02/06 03/06 04/06

GEHL ARCHITECTS MEETING VESTERBRO REGENERATION TOUR HEDEBYGADE BLOCK REFURBISHMENT TOUR MALMÖ Bo01 HARBOUR DEVELOPMENT TOUR CENTRAL CITY PODCAST ASSIGNMENT

CENTRAL CITY WALKING TOUR NHL HOGESCHOOL BIKE INFRASTRUCTURE TOUR EUROPAPARK STADIUM DEVELOPMENT BIKE TOUR GRONINGEN MUNICIPALITY PRESENTATION DUTCH PARKING POLICY PRESENTATION

COPENHAGEN / MALMÖ

GRONINGEN UTRECHT / AMERSFOORT RUHR VALLEY DUISBURG / ESSEN / DORTMUND 17/05 17/05 17/05 17/05 18/06 18/06 19/06

MOBILE [CENTRAL MOBILITY HUB] TOUR SOCIAL HOUSING GREEN REFURBISHMENT VAUBAN QUARTIER HOUSING DEVELOPMENT TOUR SONNENSCHIFF PLUS ENERGIE HOUSING DEVELOPMENT FREIBURG MUNICIPALITY PRESENTATION RIESELFELD GREENFIELDS DEVELOPMENT WALK FREIBURG HAUPTBAHNHOF [CENTRAL STATION] TOUR

FREIBURG

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DUISBURG INNENHAFEN REDEVELOPMENT AUTHORITY PRESENTATION+TOUR OBERHAUSEN GASOMETER CULTURAL REDEVELOPMENT EMSCHERGENOSSENSCHAFT [EMSCHER WATER CATCHMENT AUTHORITY] PRESENTATION JAHRHUNDERTHALLE INDUSTRIAL+CULTURAL REDEVELOPMENT HUB MARGARETENHÖHE GARDEN CITY DEVELOPMENT DORTMUND UNIVERSITY IBA EMSCHERPARK HISTORY+URBAN DESIGN LECTURE DORTMUND UNIVERSITY SPATIAL PLANNING+REGIONAL GOVERNANCE LECTURE AKADEMIE MONT-CENIS SUSTAINABLE ARCHITECTURE+COMMUNITY SPACE TOUR ZOLLVEREIN INDUSTRIAL POWER STATION+CUTURAL REDEVELOPMENT TOUR DUISBURG NORD LANDSCHAFTSPARK INDUSTRIAL+CULTURAL REGENERATION TOUR

21 DELEGATES 21 DAYS 4 COUNTRIES 9 CITIES 26 SITE TOURS 15 MEETINGS 38 LOCAL EXPERTS

ARTICLES BUILD IT AND THEY WILL COME DEVELOPING AN APPETITE FOR RISK AND INNOVATION IS AN INTEGRAL PART OF THE RECIPE TO A CITY’S SUCCESS, WRITES GIANNI MUCCIARONE STREETS ALIVE DECLUTTERING CAN DO AS MANY WONDERS FOR OUR STREETSCAPES AS IT CAN OUR HOMES, WRITES CRAIG CARPENTER STRENGTH IN DIVERSITY

BY APPROACHING REGENERATION ON A CASE-BY-CASE BASIS, COPENHAGEN IS REFRESHING ITS CORE WITHOUT LOSING ITS SOUL, WRITES MICHELE PAYNE THE ART OF MAKING PLACES FOR PEOPLE NIVIA GIUFFRE AND EMMA de JAGER AUDIT VAUBAN, FREIBURG AND Bo01, MALMÖ AGAINST THE DESIGN QUALITIES OF SUCCESSFUL PLACES

DESIGN

_DESIGN

BUILD IT AND THEY WILL COME DEVELOPING AN APPETITE FOR RISK AND INNOVATION IS AN INTEGRAL PART OF THE RECIPE TO A CITY’S SUCCESS, WRITES GIANNI MUCCIARONE A robust new main street in Vathorst, Netherlands. It is designed to change over time as the needs of the community do.

Even the local high school and childcare centre are housed in adaptable structures

The main streets of central Europe are going through a transformation. Hundreds of years of urban history are being allowed to find new avenues of expression through urban renewal and expansion without losing sight of the successes, and failures, of the past. Mixed use centres that have thrived on vibrant contrasts are reinterpreted for the modern day. But can change on such a grand scale work?

Amersfoort

is a city in central Holland with a strong and direct connection to its medieval roots, yet the new greenfields development at Vathorst shows wonderful examples of the potential richness of its future. Existing access to a public railway system set the basis for future growth. Looking ahead, 30,000 residential homes are planned and 5,000 places to work – providing the necessary catchment for the main street area. Bringing together five private companies (including a social housing corporation) to not only make the project financially viable but also allow for an instant feel of time-induced variety that is so prevalent in the 14 ECO-CITIES JOURNAL

old town centres of Holland, the masterplan involves a publicprivate partnership where government regulations are used to stimulate creativity and discussion rather than stifle it. Benchmarks of sustainability, housing quality, and green-space management can be more boldly put in place.

The development centre showcases that diversity, including shops, offices, medium to high density housing, schools, abundant public transport, trademark bike paths, tree lined streets and a moderate amount of on-street parking. All of this combined

makes the central area more than a token gesture where it is hoped people will gather and ‘stuff’ will happen. It’s all aimed at the social wellbeing and urban vibrancy that every new development needs and yet so often fails to provide.

In established centres change must be integrated into the existing urban framework. An example of this can be seen in the inner city area of Vesterbro in Copenhagen, Denmark, where one of the main streets has been transformed into an urban playground.

A disused train line has been converted into green spaces, basketball and futsal courts, among other things. In Freiburg, Germany, the tram lines are not only still in use but offering a vital link between main street services and commuter access.

Without the easy hop-on, hop-off nature of the light rail, the city would struggle to maintain such a cosmopolitan inner city buzz. Over in Utrecht, the Netherlands, the central station area redevelopment is incorporating such wide ranging features as cultural centres, entertainment precincts, shopping and commerce, bikes, trams, and even the rebirth of an old city canal from the ashes of a failed highway.

The common thread: shifting the priority away from the single-use development/car paradigm towards the multi-use/human scale.

Then there’s architectural design. Fighting the urge to build things quickly and cheaply, the modern European city realises it is in competition with its neighbours and therefore chooses to stand out in whatever practical ways it can. They know they need to offer something different and workable in order to attract inhabitants, workers, investors and tourists into their little speck of urban life amidst the dense conglomeration of cities throughout the continent.

Duisburg, in Germany’s northwest, and part of one of Europe’s largest urban megalopolises, found this point all too hard to ignore when contemplating their own Inner Harbour redevelopment; in attracting internationally-renowned Foster and Partners to help design their masterplan and key architectural forms they showed their hand early on. The planned iconic arching structure hugging the banks of the waters, to be known as Eurogate, will be a zero-emissions focal point. Curved to embrace the winter sun, it will provide a stepped environment where people can gather, connecting the city inhabitants directly with their harbour while acting as a visual focal point with its iconic presence.

too much? Are low-lying developments in Holland too threatened by predicted sea level rises as a rule? Are modern architectural design principles truly liveable and resistant to changing aesthetics over time? In trying to evoke the genuine port look and feel, are Duisburg’s new Inner Harbour avenues too wide and therefore all too often underpopulated and lifeless? With the arrival of the global financial crisis, it’s important to remember that Europeans were hit much harder than their Australian counterparts. Taking on risk is a sure way to incur criticism. Criticism that local media are all too happy to pounce upon.

So local northern European planners and architects have the option of succumbing to the fear of all these risks. But here’s where they look at things differently: change is seen as inevitable.

And wide-reaching. They accept change and allow themselves to be involved in guiding its course instead of vainly trying to resist it and thereby running the greater risk of having change thrust upon you when you are not ready to deal with its consequences.

To them, the status quo represents their descent into irrelevance; the continuation of their problems, whether great or small.

Ultimately, change is what it comes down to. In Western Australia, it often represents losing the great things of the past and present. Risking comforts to the untried and the unknown. But if a community can peer into the outlook of much of northern Europe it will see that managed change can be not only rewarding but vital. It can be a greater force for conserving the good things that need preserving. Using one’s own history to find a vibrant mix of the old and the new to help open up potential.

City and town centres are the focal points of urban life. They are places of sharing and diversity within wider communities. It is therefore here, more than anywhere else, that planning and design can effect the most positive change while entrenching the established qualities of one’s culture.

It always comes back to balance.

More humble buildings, such as the City’s planning office, also recognise the local environment with open glass ceilings and vast wooden beams that reflect the area’s mammoth industrial port warehouses; warehouses that have been renovated and are in use once again, albeit with improvised function. All of this helps evoke the mixed scale feel of any working port, managing to successfully marry the past with the present and the future.

But what of the issue of risk? This is an area that Western Australians are all too conscious of. Innovation always requires some degree of risk, but have these European designers taken on

A good game plan. No median strip is too small to think creatively in Copenhagen

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_DESIGN

STREETS ALIVE DECLUTTERING CAN DO AS MANY WONDERS FOR OUR STREETSCAPES AS IT CAN OUR HOMES, WRITES CRAIG CARPENTER

Fly yer flag! Utrecht’s residents take over the street as if it is an extension of the living room

A boom in car ownership during the post-war era led to the rapid expansion of road infrastructure within the existing urban fabric of our cities. Recently, ‘radical’ ideas on urban form have begun to take hold and are rallying against the typical engineering-based traffic solutions.

The principles of ‘Shared Streets’ were only recently devised by

British architect, civil engineer and planner, Sir Colin Buchanan.

As head of the team that produced ‘Traffic in Towns’, a 1963 report on British urban and transport planning policy, Buchanan realised the potential for damage caused by cars and suggested various ways of mitigating it. Among the influential ideas was not only to separate modes of transport to reduce fatal accidents and increase efficiency but to also allow for areas to mix modes of transport. Separating transport modes may lead to a reduced interaction between pedestrian and vehicle movements but it also results in faster speeds, thereby actually reducing safety.

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Not surprisingly, the British government was not keen on the idea of traffic integration, which seemingly ran counter to the traffic policy and construction currently under way. If these ideas were largely ignored within the Britain Isles, they were enthusiastically adopted by continental neighbours, taken up independently by the Dutchman, Hans Monderman, a road traffic engineer and driving instructor.

Monderman found that stripping back traditional traffic regulatory control measures actually led to improved traffic conditions by encouraging each individual to negotiate the space through cooperative means. These spaces became known as Woonerven,

literally ‘residential yards’. In 1969, the Municipality of Delft unofficially adopted these ideas and with the participation of the residents, set about implementing the first Woonerf in lowerincome neighbourhoods where the lack of available play space had become a critical issue.

The success of the Delft experience led to the introduction of guidelines and regulations for the creation of Woonerven being adopted by the Dutch government in 1976. The concept has since been expanded to include commercial areas, so called Winkelerf.

Actual Woonerven, however, were expensive to construct in order to create the true feeling of a residential yard so the government investigated alternate and cheaper alternatives whilst maintaining the principles. Before long, the principles of the Woonerven were adopted by neighbouring countries with Wohnstraßen (living street) introduced into Germany in 1976, shared street or home zones introduced into England, similar schemes in Sweden and Denmark in 1977, community Doro (community street) in Japan and France in 1979, Rehov Meshulav (integrated streets) in Israel in 1981 and Switzerland in 1982. Australia first introduced a set of standardised national road rules in December 1999 with the release of Australian Road Rules and included within this publication are details of Shared Zones, zones within the road network where vehicular speed is limited and right of way is afforded to pedestrians.

There has been limited implementation of these principles with perhaps one the key Perth examples being centred on the Subiaco train station. In 2010, the Australian Institute of Public Works Engineering released Complete Streets, a design based set of guidelines which seeks to differentiate between roads, paved surfaces designed and reserved specifically for vehicular transportation, and streets, those areas in which vehicle movement enjoys a considerably lower position in the hierarchy of users and are intended as extensions of public space.

Secondly, straight roads only reinforce vehicular priority. The introduction of curves within the streetscape breaks up site lines thereby reducing car speeds.

Thirdly, car parks, urban furniture, trees and the like should be seen as traffic calming opportunities. Instead of a stop sign, why not place a tree in the middle of the road? Both serve to draw the driver attention to the need to stop but only one adds value to the streetscape. It also provides the opportunity to add greenery to streets that were previously too narrow to accommodate vegetation.

Sharing is caring. A German sign reminds residents they are entering a shared space

Current Theory The term Woonerf, not surprisingly, wasn’t enthusiastically taken up by other countries and the term Shared Space was coined by Englishman Ben Hamilton-Baillie to represent current theory and practice. It implies the equitable use of our urban and suburban spaces.

Key Principles Donald Appleyard, in his 1989 book Liveable Streets, detailed five key components required to successfully implement a Shared Space scheme. Firstly, and perhaps most importantly, is the need to establishing a ‘gateway’ into the shared zone. This is important so that vehicles understand that they are ‘guests’ within this space.

This is not to be viewed as an anti-car stance but instead as an egalitarian approach. It is equally important to draw attention to when a different type of public space is encountered through clever use of obstacles, paving, signage and so on.

Fourthly, the removal of traditional traffic signage and kerbs is integral. The more that you try to control the situation through signage, kerbing, speed humps, and traffic lights, the less the driver needs to engage in the journey. This creates a rolling army of mindless zombies. Remove these devices and the onus of responsibility weighs more heavily upon the driver, requiring eye contact between users of the space in order for all to successfully negotiate the space. The removal of kerbing also serves to increase the permeability and accessibility of the space, however, it is important to consider the needs of disability groups. For the members of Guide Dogs UK, for instance, the ideals of Woonerven leads to a decreased sense of safety and mobility as kerbing is the main method by which blind people negotiate a space. It is still imperative that attention is drawn to key entrances, intersections and crossings.

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_DESIGN The fifth requirement requires the breaking up of car parking spaces along the street front to prevent the formation of a steel wall of cars reducing permeability and passive surveillance. This generally forces drivers to weave through the space, slowing traffic.

Implementation

just out of Freiburg, has seen car usage drop significantly through the integration of public transport deep into the development.

When implemented successfully and appropriately, the ability of Shared Spaces to integrate conflicting modes of transport within once space allows for greater efficiency when designing and planning our existing and future traffic networks.

The introduction of Shared Space principles has both hurdles that need to be considered and a range of benefits.

Hurdles

• Shared Spaces are not for busy arterial streets where vehicular priority is a must.

• While increased security can be achieved, the success of • • • • • • •

such a scheme relies heavily upon appropriate (i.e. medium to high) densities.

Local authorities need to understand the process and principles in order not to counteract through standard engineering responses.

The concept is counterintuitive as it requires relinquishing control in favour of apparent chaos.

Disability associations need inclusion in the process to ensure that the end result is equitable.

Education of the public and their acceptance of moving vehicles and children at play engaging in the same space is important.

Increased maintenance and capital costs can be incurred.

It requires built form that has an open frontage to the street.

Positive involvement of residents is imperative to making the scheme successful.

Benefits

• Urban renewal occurs as the street is treated as a flexible community space, extending what may be in limited supply.

• Drivers are more alert, attentive and tend not to speed, which creates a safer environment with fewer injuries.

• Adults and children are encouraged into the street through • • • •

increased patronage and improved lighting, thereby creating community and increasing public interaction.

The space creates a garden for people who may have otherwise little yard space.

Vehicle flow is improved which can reduce travel times.

More residents choose active modes of transport, which leads to a healthier population.

Property values increase through improved streetscaping.

Conclusion During the Eco-Cities Tour, many examples of successful implementations of Shared Spaces were encountered. Examples of these schemes were found in Freiburg, Germany, where the city streets were equally shared by all modes of transport. Vauban,

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1976 Dutch Traffic Regulations for the Woonerf Pedestrians may use the full width of the highway “within an area defined as a woonerf; playing on the roadway is also permitted. Drivers within a woonerf may not drive faster than at a walking pace. They must make allowance for the possible presence of pedestrians, including children at play, unmarked objects and irregularities in the road surface, and the alignment of the roadway.

”

A Utrecht street comes to life Vauban’s streets are simple yet inviting

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_DESIGN

STRENGTH IN DIVERSITY

BY APPROACHING REGENERATION ON A CASE-BY-CASE BASIS, COPENHAGEN IS REFRESHING ITS CORE WITHOUT LOSING ITS SOUL, WRITES MICHELE PAYNE Vesterbro is a 35-hectare district close to central Copenhagen, •

which emerged as a working class area during the late 19th Century packed with 5-6 storey tenement buildings with minimal access to open space. Units were mostly two bedroom without private bathrooms, central heating, hot water or sometimes even toilets.

Its tiny flats were inadequate for families in the late 20th century and the poor quality of the buildings and building layout resulted in an unstable local community of low-income occupants who lacked the means to reinvest in upgrading and improving their homes. Rather than carrying out wholesale slum clearance to permit new construction, urban renewal projects involved retention and adaptation – although thinning out – of existing buildings as a municipal initiative underpinned by national funding. 500 flats were reduced to approximately 300. In many instances, flats were amalgamated to create larger dwellings and diversify the range of housing.

In 1994, a block of these tenement buildings – called Hedebygade – was selected from within the area subject to a renewal plan as a demonstration for developing best ecological building and retrofitting practices. Broadly it involved 12 different projects, mostly applied to different buildings within the block, both active and passive technologies and design. It is the contrast of having all projects in the one place, plus the ‘social engineering’ side aimed at stabilising the neighbourhood to retain long stay residents and keep schools open which fascinates visitors.

Some such innovate project elements include the following: • Prism – sunlight is reflected into the core of the building by a mirror (heliostat) mounted on the roof. Construction also included the addition of insulation inside and on the outer façade.

• Flora – recirculation of interior air through plants and reed-beds in order to clean the air and save energy.

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• • • • • •

Green Kitchen – use of environmentally sound furniture, and vertical hotbeds for growing food.

Sunwall – heat recovery by means of a heat exchanger, use of passive solar energy, low emission glazing and air collectors on the roof.

Flexible Façades – use of glazing integrated with solar cells.

Sun – Ventilated sunwalls with solar panels integrated with transparent insulation, apartments modified to allow more sunlight to penetrate.

Waste sorting – Eight types of waste separation in sheltered areas.

House end project – different kinds of insulation combined with solar cells and plant trellises to make use of a sunny façade.

Measurement of consumption – a goal was set for residents to live in a manner that reduced consumption by 25%.

The Danish Ministry of Housing spent approximately $49 million on the project overall, which now comprises 281 flats or apartments.

One feature of the project is the particular emphasis on ‘green accounting’ to identify water and energy consumption efficiencies as a measure of the success of the project. It is estimated that demand for heating has reduced by 20-25% (although still higher than predicted), and water consumption is also 20% lower.

From a social stability point of view, rents have increased, although in Denmark there is rent support – and a degree of rent control in terms of permissible annual rental increases - for such housing. In short, there is a more diverse population living in the locality and better indoor climates have purportedly led to improvements in resident health.

Bottoms up! Elements of community-led design can be seen in the redevelopment of the Copenhagen’s Hedebygade neighbourhood

A comparison between housing policies in Perth and Copenhagen In Perth, the Western Australian State Government Department administering public housing projects initiated the ‘New Living’ project in the mid-1990s. That involved large investment in areas with a high level of social disadvantage and large proportions of public housing, in areas including Balga, Coolbelup, Kwinana, Lockridge, Midland, Midvale and Westminster.

For example, Lockridge was dominated by public housing estimated at the time to be around 54% – and this proportion was reduced over 5 years to something much closer to the goal of 12% through the Pepperwood estate project. Some 550 refurbished former public housing homes and units were sold on the open market, and in addition 120 lots were created on land previously occupied by large blocks of flats .

In many instances, like Hedebygade, the interior layout of the public housing units was retained but modified to a significant extent to diversify and upgrade the housing type. Research indicates this has been effective in changing the range of residents and hence, the social mix of the suburbs – they are no longer regarded as islands of disadvantage. However, the issue remains as to whether the price of this also results in the kind of ‘gentrification’ that public housing agencies are also

trying to avoid. Research shows, for example, that the indigenous population in ten suburbs fell by 19.3% relative to an increase in the number of indigenous people in the metropolitan area of 16.4% over the period 1996-2001.

‘New Living’ targeted a maintenance backlog and produced materially better housing and improved living conditions. A 1998 evaluation of Homeswest’s ‘New Living’ program in Kwinana and Lockridge concluded that: • Redevelopment improved the urban environment quality of life through regeneration practices.

• There was increased pride in the suburb and reduced the stigma previously associated with each locality.

• There is a perceived increase in the safety of the area for residents (although many still do not feel safe).

• The goal of 12% reduction of public housing was not achieved.

• A financial return on the public investment is expected in the long run due to an increase in housing value attributable to the program.

Comment Overall, the concern with energy and water efficiency standards in housing (including public housing) is of a more recent vintage in WA, and is being channelled through annual amendments ECO-CITIES JOURNAL 21

_DESIGN to the Building Code of Australia. Demonstration ‘sustainability houses’ such as those originally built at Subi Centro and currently in Mandurah as well as the goals of the Seville Grove subdivision function to educate the community about the latest energy innovations for individual new housing, but don’t function to show how our older housing stock can be adapted for the future in the inspirational way that the ‘lived-in and constantly adjusting’ projects in the Hedebygade block demonstrate.

REFERENCES The Green Accounts tool – measuring performance, not just prediction - is available from the Danish Building Research Institute www.dbri.dk www.greenglobal21.com/pdf/art_05.pdf www.petus.eu.com/graphics/case_42.pdf www.worldhabitatawards.org/winners-and-finalists/projectdetails.cfm?lang=00&theProjectID=153 www.cardiff.ac.uk/archi/programmes/cost8/case/holistic/ denmark-block PDF www.forum-quartiers-durables.com/forum-quartiers-durables/ res/christensen_vesterbro.pdf Copenhagen planning overview and Hedebygade www.cityedge.org.au/images/download/presentations/bruel. pdf www.europeangreencities.com/demoprojects/denmark_ copenhagen/denmark_copenhagen.asp www.heathdevelopment.com/pages/past-projects.php www.shelterwa.org.au/publications/resandproj/OP2003-3.pdf - New Living – Urban Renewal in Public Housing in Perth; www. shelterwa.org.au/publications/resandproj/review_psnlp.pdf Mitchell McCotter, “Evaluation of Homeswest’s New Living Program in Kwinana and Lockridge”, ERM, 1998 www.sustainablemandurah.com.au/ www.landcorp.com.au/project/sevillegrove/ feature/?nid=3&type=70

Architect Kurt Christensen gives an insight into the sustainable measures built into the Hedebygade housing block refurbishment

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Keeping current. The Danes aren’t afraid to try new PV-integrated materials in the refit of this housing block

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_DESIGN

THE ART OF MAKING PLACES FOR PEOPLE NIVIA GIUFFRE AND EMMA de JAGER AUDIT VAUBAN, FREIBURG AND Bo01, MALMÖ AGAINST THE DESIGN QUALITIES OF SUCCESSFUL PLACES “Urban design is the art of making places for people. It includes the way places work and matters such as community safety, as well as how they look. It concerns the connections between people and places, movement and urban form, nature and the built fabric, and the processes for ensuring successful villages, towns and cities.” (CABE, 2000)

Urban design is an essential contributor to creating sustainable developments, requiring the integration of environmental issues, social equity and economic viability. Urban design has implications for planning and development at every scale affecting aspects of the built environment, streets, neighbourhoods, regions and cities. It also involves weaving together planning, transportation, architectural design, development economics, landscape architecture, and engineering disciplines.

Essentially urban design is the art of integrating the above considerations to make places for people. This involves a thorough and caring understanding and response to the unique qualities of the place and context, and thinking about how places function, not just how they look.

Urban Initiatives’ 2003 Guide to Urban Design outlines the following qualities of successful places: •

Character: A place with its own identity, responding to and reinforcing locally distinctive patterns of development, landscape and culture.

•

Continuity and enclosure: A place with continuity of street frontages and the enclosure of space by development which clearly defines private and public areas.

•

Quality of the public realm: A place with public spaces and routes that are attractive, safe, uncluttered and work effectively for all in society, including disabled and elderly people.

•

Ease of movement: A place that promotes accessibility and local permeability that is easy to get to and move through, putting people before traffic and integrating land uses and transport.

•

Legibility: A place that has a clear image and is easy to understand with recognisable routes, intersections and landmarks to help people find their way around.

•

Adaptability: A place that can change easily and respond to changing social, technological and economic conditions.

•

Diversity: A place with variety and choice through a mix of compatible developments and uses that work together to create viable places that respond to local needs.

•

Sustainability: environmental, social and economic integration.

•

Soft infrastructure: events, activities and cultural infrastructure.

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This place rocks! A play area in Freiburg invites the intrigued and adventurous

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_DESIGN KEY FACTS - VAUBAN, FREIBURG Location

Vauban, Freiburg, south west Germany

Development type

New planned suburb that was developed to house more than 5000 inhabitants and 600 jobs

Site area

38 hectares

Timeframe

Planning for the district started in 1993 and was completed in 2006

Vision

The main goal of the project was to create a city district in a co-operative and participatory way, meeting ecological, social, economic and cultural requirements. The masterplan was commissioned with the objective of creating a new neighbourhood for 5000 people based on car free, low energy principles

Investment

The City of Freiburg bought the whole development area from the Federal Authorities for € 20,000,000. The overall estimated investment in Vauban has totalled more than $486 million

Number and type of dwellings

45 student housing units and 596 student dormitory rooms. In phase one, there were 422 housing units of which 233 were privately built (with 185 of the 233 in Baugruppen co-housing groups), 36 by Genova Housing Association, and 153 by development companies. In phase two there were approximately 645 housing units built and phase three approximately 85 housing units built

Design process

The City of Freiburg formed an in-house project team to manage the project and coordination of community infrastructure. The City of Freiburg adopted a ‘learning while planning’ principle, allowing flexibility in reacting to developments and incorporating new proposals at later stages.

The planning process also included competitions for urban design as well as implementation

Community involvement

The City started and funded a process of extended citizen participation that went beyond legal requirements and enabled citizens to participate in the planning process. Namely a citizens association was established known as Forum Vauban, which consisted of a small team of fulltime professionals as well as an honorary executive board and several working groups. It was founded as an NGO and funded through membership fees, donations and public grants. It functioned as a coordinating body to facilitate the public participation process and its legal status was established by the City of Freiburg. The City also established a committee with representatives from all stakeholders

Character

• A water management system has been set up aiming to

Vauban has an ‘ecological’ identity: • All houses were built at least with improved low energy standard (65 kWh/m2a plus at least 100 units with ‘passive house’ (15 kWh/m2a) and at least 100 units with ‘plus energy’ standard (houses which produce more energy than they need) • A highly efficient co-generation plant (CHP) operating on wood-chips and natural gas has operated since 2002 and connected to the district’s heating grid providing hot water and 65% of the electricity for the district • Solar collectors (approximately 450 m2 in 2000) and photovoltaic panels (approximately 1200 m2 in 2000) are common features on the roofs in the district.

• Vauban is estimated to be one of the largest solar districts in Europe. The Students’ Organisation built Vauban’s largest single solar installation (143m2) on one of their refurbished old buildings. A solar power installation is also on the roof of the community car park

• An ecological traffic and mobility concept has been

increase the rainwater infiltration and reduce run-off

26 ECO-CITIES JOURNAL

implemented with a reduced number of private cars to be parked in the periphery (about 40% of the households agreed to live without their own car). Good public transport and a car sharing system is in place.

Continuity and enclosure

Ease of movement

Source: (http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/85/VaubanTraficNetwork-Schematic.png)

Vauban has continuous ‘car-free or car-reduced’ and ‘parking free’ street frontages. These landscaped streets with footpaths connect clearly defined pockets of public open spaces between lots which feature playgrounds and spaces where people can interact.

The concepts of 'car-reduced' and 'parking-free' living have been applied to the development. A reduced number of private cars are parked at the periphery of the site, and large parts of the development prohibit building parking spaces on private property.

Quality of the public realm

Approximately 50% of households are 'car-free'. These households are encouraged by good public transport provision and a car sharing system. Residents who join the car sharing program receive a one year free pass for all public transport within Freiburg. Two bus routes connect Vauban to the city centre and the main railway station. The bus and tram services provide fast and high frequency links to the city centre.

Car-less streets are public spaces for social activities and interaction. The attractive green streets or corridors connect playgrounds for children, sun bathing areas, barbeque areas, water basins and seating. Most of the old trees, and existing greenery were saved and form the ‘jewels’ of the development.

These attractive public spaces have been created between plots, and there is a strong sense of shared space and social interaction. The spaces are well used by the community, which may be attributed to the fact that the design of the public green spaces, streets and the neighbourhood centre were developed during meetings and workshops with residents.

The movement network favours active modes of transport and selectively filters out the car. This is accomplished by reducing the number of streets that run through the neighbourhood. Local traffic has been discouraged and the area provides very few parking facilities. Most local streets are crescents and cul-desacs (as shown in the map above), while they are discontinuous for cars, they connect to a network of pedestrian and cycle paths which permeate the entire neighbourhood. The image above is a diagrammatic depiction of the transportation network in Vauban. It shows the departure from the traditional simple grid and the adoption of a complex combination grid. The drawing shows the three types of connectors: roads in red, local streets in orange and pedestrian bicycle paths in green.

Two multi-storey car parks have been developed at the edge of the district. This has freed many of the streets from cars allowing pedestrians and cyclists to move through the area easily and safely. However, in practice, some residents have reported problems with the enforcement of car free living and with visitor parking.

ECO-CITIES JOURNAL 27

_DESIGN Legibility

While the average German household consumes approximately 3000 kilowatt hours (kWh) of electricity per year, Sonnenschiff’s plus-energy houses produce up to 7000 kWh annually.

The excess electricity can be sold off and fed into the power grid, which means that families living in the plus-energy houses can generate additional income and not pay increasingly high prices for oil, gas and electricity.

Diversity

Legibility was planned for through the masterplanning of the district with the creation of a distinct market place and neighbourhood centre. A district centre includes shops, a primary school, kindergartens and public green spaces that create abundant opportunities for residents to cross paths Vauban has been designed to create a 'district of short distances' where the schools, farmer's market, businesses, shopping centre, recreation areas and approximately 600 jobs will be within walking and cycling distance of residents.

Adaptability and sustainability

Sonnenschiff. Directly translated, this steel structured construction is called the ‘Sun Ship’ as its profile resembles a freight ship. The ground floor is used for retail and commercial space. The next three floors are used as office and commercial space, while nine penthouses on its rooftop offer residential space (112-300 m2).

This is a unique integration of retail, commercial and residential space, all with a carbon-free footprint.

Variety and distinctiveness have been encouraged throughout the development. Buildings exceeding four storeys, and detached housing were prohibited, leading to a compact urban building structure. A diversity of building shapes has been created through the division of land into small plots. Another means to achieve diversity was the preferential allocation of land to private builders and co-operative building projects to build their own homes instead of using volume house builders.

The variety and distinctiveness is illustrated by the individually designed façades creating a unique character.

The incorporation of renewable energy, water management, and lower dependence on cars with a centre including all shops required for day to day shopping, a nursery and an elementary school limit the need to travel to the city centre, and encourage increased local walking and cycling. The incorporation of these elements into the design allows the development and residents to more easily adapt to changing environmental (e.g. climate change), economic (e.g. fuel price increases) and social (e.g. healthy living) conditions.

Housing was also created for different social categories.

However the development’s demographic balance is not particularly diverse. The objective of family and children friendliness has led to an issue with the demographic balance, adding pressure for a third public kindergarten and the need for the primary school to be enlarged. It is very positive to see many kids occupying and playing in the streets, however the district's social workers already face potential conflicts arising from the one sided age structure.

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It is difficult to critique Vauban as so many of its traits are extremely desirable and the ‘utopian’ ideal of successful urban places. Its own website, www.vauban.de, notes that there is an unbalanced age distribution as the youth are already requiring further educational facilities as its population is greater than anticipated or planned. The self reflexive criticism noted on the website appears substantial since Vauban was originally envisioned as an aggregate of social classes. Whether this has been accomplished remains unclear.

KEY FACTS - Bo01 MALMÖ, SWEDEN Location

Malmö is the third biggest city in Sweden and is located in the middle of the Öresund region

Development type

Bo01was planned as part of an international housing competition that took place in 2001. Bo01 represented the first development stage of the larger redevelopment of Västra Hamnen (The Western Harbour). While the area was a redundant industrial land affected by contamination and environmental issues, its location has many positive aspects, such as being adjacent to the sea and close to the city centre

Site area

The Bo01 area covers 9 hectares and provides ~600 dwellings for around 1000 inhabitants

Timeframe

10 years

Vision

The two main objectives of Bo01involved the development of self-sufficient housing units in terms of energy and to greatly diminish greenhouse gas emissions. The aim was to create a debate around how we live today and how we will live in the future. Bo01 shows imaginative visions of future living, where high demands on aesthetics, ecology and high technology are combined.

Bo01 was a pilot project to test which technologies and solutions can and should be applied on a wider scale

Investment

The City of Malmö received financial contribution from the state government through a local investment program for the environmental measures taken in the Bo01area. The money was mainly used for physical investments, covering some of the extra costs the developers incurred in order to meet the high goals set. Part of the money was invested in technical systems, soil decontamination and infrastructure. Funds have even been used for information and educational projects. The Government has allocated SEK 250 million (~$37 million) in contributions to various environmental projects in the district. The European Union also gave some monetary support for the energy measures taken

Character Bo01 is defined by a street grid distorted to gain shelter from wind. Five-storey blocks front the sea, further protecting inner buildings while reinforcing the character of the seafront promenade. Varied forms of vegetation such as green walls and roofs reduce surface water and create identifiable locations within the development. An advanced sustainable urban drainage system creates an ecological, recreational and visual resource. Together these emphasise the varying hierarchical character of streets and public open spaces in Bo01.

ECO-CITIES JOURNAL 29

_DESIGN Continuity and Enclosure It is noted, however, that although there are many cycle tracks and special bus routes, the largest transport-related problem is the shortage of parking spaces. A multi-storey car park has been built as a result.

Adaptability/Sustainability

A 100% local renewable energy approach was orginally envisaged for the development. Orientation of building faรงades and roof forms maximise solar gain. In addition, solar thermal panels, wind turbines and photovoltaics help minimise energy use while maintaining the overall integrity of the architectural and urban form. Bo01 residents are encouraged to regularly monitor their energy consumption using information technology installed in their homes.

The massing of the built form assists in defining the public realm.

Despite several of the buildings being five storeys the height to width enclosure ratios incorporated into the design process ensures they complement the public spaces at the pedestrian level.

Ease of Movement

Pedestrians and bicycles have priority. Bus stops are within 300 metres if each apartment. The bus service which connects with several of the main central points in town run in seven minute intervals. There is a strict 0.7 parking spaces per household policy and a car pool of electric vehicles is made available for residents.

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Sustainability in Bo01 also centres on interaction between the people who live in the area, and objectives have been laid down regarding different forms of ownership in order to reduce the formation of ghettos of one particular social class.

Furthermore, design and architecture create aesthetically pleasing urban spaces and attractive places where residents can get together. This is manifest in such details as protection against the wind and pleasant outdoor areas with a good view and proportions to which residents can relate. In order to ensure sustainable resource management and recreational and aesthetic values, water in the district flows through an ingenious system of ponds, open channels and moss-covered roofs.

Diversity

Social Infrastructure

The design parameters for Bo01 required the construction companies to use different architects for different parcels of land, resulting in an interesting and stimulating, diverse city district which encourages walking and spending time in the area. Bo01 contains various public open space areas each offering a different experience and a variety of built form and architectural styles.

Despite Bo01's ambition of creating mixed forms of ownership, the residents of Bo01 constitute a homogenous group. The district has been criticised because it is only home to the middle to upper class despite the fact that 40% of Malmรถ's population was born outside Sweden. The lack of diversity is due to the high price of homes in the district costing more than twice the national average price.

Quality of the Public Realm

Bo01 provides many opportunities for engaging people via public performance. Whilst visting Bo01, the group saw street performance by the seaside and a public stakepark and BMX area which was popular with the local youth.

REFERENCES CABE, 2000 http://www.cabe.org.uk/files/by-design-urbandesign-in-the-planning-system.pdf, http://www.cabe.org.uk/ case-studies/vauban/evaluation www.vauban.de/info/abstract4.html www.pps.org/blog/car-free-german-town-captures-americanimagination/ en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_Settlement English Partnerships, (2nd), Delievering Quality Places: Urban Design Compendium 2 Bo01 offers a comfortable and stimulating public realm and ensures the various nodes of activity capatilise on the microclimate aspects. Residents and visitors to Bo01 are able to enjoy more formalised activities i.e. enjoying a coffee at one of the many cafes and restaurants or opportunities to utilise the spaces and street furniture which provide quiet zones for rest and people-watching.

Roger Evans Associates Ltdenergy-cities.eu/MG/pdf/BOO1_ EN.pdf (Bo01 City of tomorrow (Malmo - SE)

ECO-CITIES JOURNAL 31

ARTICLES RAISING THE BAR NIC TEMOV EXPLORES THE IDEA THAT WORLD-CLASS REGENERATION CAN ONLY BE ACHIEVED WHEN INNOVATIVE GOVERNANCE STRUCTURES ARE PART OF THE MIX RUST BELT TO CULTURE CAPITAL VALERIE HUMPHREY PAINTS A PICTURE OF HOW THE RUHR’S RENEWAL EXISTS AS A RAY OF HOPE FOR ANY REGION WONDERING “WHAT NOW?” LIFE AFTER REGENERATING THE RUHR HAS BEEN AN INSPIRING PROJECT OF COORDINATION AND PLANNING, WRITES CANE SPASESKI ACTING THE PART JASON BOUWHUIS EXPLAINS THE INS AND OUTS OF PLANNING GOVERNANCE – THE EUROPEAN WAY

REGENERATION

_REGENERATION

RAISING THE BAR NIC TEMOV EXPLORES THE IDEA THAT WORLD-CLASS REGENERATION CAN ONLY BE ACHIEVED WHEN INNOVATIVE GOVERNANCE STRUCTURES ARE PART OF THE MIX As

planners and designers we often marvel at regeneration projects that have been developed in European cities because of their progressive approach to quality design, and attention to long-term social and environmental outcomes. The Eco Cities Tour visited a number of large project development sites that raised the bar in this respect, achieving some innovative objectives whilst working in an economic and political setting that is as complex as we experience in Western Australia.

So how do these projects achieve their goals in an environment where economic rationalism and reactive political decisions are just as able to water down the lofty objectives set out in the initial stages of a project vision? What governance ideas are used and can we learn anything from them?

Three large redevelopment projects that offer some governance ideas are: Leidsche Rijn - a major greenfields residential and commercial development five kilometres from Utrecht that will cater for 80,000 people. It has aimed for ambitious housing diversity goals, forward infrastructure planning and land-use control, and is currently under development, with most stages complete.

Vathorst - another major greenfields site developed under the Federal government’s growth area program, with an estimated population for 20,000 people, which is currently under development, with most stages complete. Development has been based on a commitment to quality housing design and high affordable housing targets. The project has a strong commitment to sustainability with some measures such as a cogeneration power and heating supply already constructed.

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Utrecht Centraal - a major redevelopment initiative that will transform Utrecht’s core, untangling the difficult to navigate central train station and adjoining retail environments that most residents and visitors to the city use daily. This project has been particularly successful in negotiation with many large stakeholders and landowners to unlock the location’s potential. It is currently under development, with the first stages of construction commencing.

These redevelopment projects are of similar scale, being of national importance in the Netherlands. The country is experiencing increases in population growth which is expected to continue for the foreseeable future, so national and municipal governments have ensured each project is appropriately resourced and funded for a long period of time to make sure the objectives of redevelopment are met.

Some unique project elements used to govern these projects could be beneficial if applied to the Western Australian context.

Long-term municipal government-led development offices A key to the success of all three projects has been long-term management and development of sites through a municipal

Casting a critical eye. High quality waterfront housing at Vathorst in the Netherlands. All development is supervised by an urban designer who sits on the project’s ‘quality control team’ to ensure built form outcomes are maintained

government-led development office that controls each project from inception to the last package of development. Each office is involved in planning and delivery and benefits from powers to act like a corporate entity that attracts funding from the sale of land for infrastructure delivery. These offices can also tap into funding streams provided through the municipal and national government, usually for infrastructure delivery. Each project office reports back to a representative figure or board at the highest level within the municipality allowing for an effective decision making process.

Long-term upfront capital funding - the Vathorst and Leidsche Rijn approach As a general theme noticed throughout these projects and in other countries visited on the tour, funding capital works or land purchase to assemble for redevelopment areas has been arranged upfront (in some instances by government) to catalyse development. The Leidsche Rijn and Vathorst developments areas fell within large parcels of rural farmland before plans for urban expansion were known. As standard practice the government or land development agency (an entity usually controlled by a government agency) will purchase private land parcels to ensure

master planning can take place without the complications of negotiating with private landowners.

This approach simplifies project staging and has led to well considered planning of each site without the complication or pressure to locate infrastructure, open space or dense urban development in places coinciding with certain cadastral boundaries. Large infrastructure upgrades are usually prefunded in the same way, with the government or development agency understanding the full catalytic benefits of prefunding new rail lines, stations and in one case covering 1.5km of a major highway to preserve a vital development and ecological link between Leidsche Rijn and the Utrecht town centre.

Stakeholder contracts - Utrecht Centraal Station The Utrecht Centraal train station project’s level of success hinges on the redevelopment of a large shopping centre that is used as a through route to access the central station from the old town.

The shopping centre was built in the 1970’s and has been widely criticised by planners for its poor design that runs over multiple levels and is not legible to the pedestrian. Working with shopping centre owners (Corrio) has proven difficult for the project office ECO-CITIES JOURNAL 35

_REGENERATION to move forward with an appropriate design that works from an urban design and commercial perspective. The project management team decided to issue legally binding contracts with Corrio to ensure minimum outcomes would be delivered through the project. Being charged with the power of approving developments through the municipality it was in a position to do this, with both parties agreeing it would increase certainty of development and reduce risk.

Contracting with partners starts through a broad ‘letter of intent’ and then filters down to the more detailed ‘project contracts’ that will outline conditions of development for certain sections of the shopping centre. These contracts are flexible enough to allow for changes to development, but are legally binding on some aspects such as access to and from the central station through a ‘public street’, parking requirements and land-use mix within the development. The contracts are checked by design, financial and legal teams before being finalised and have worked well, resulting in agreement to commence stage one of redevelopment as they provide certainty to the project and the developer.

and steering groups. In Vathorst this team sits independent to the rest of the project, consisting of four experts in urban design, housing quality, sustainability and park management. All progressions of the master planning process require a ‘permit’ from the team to progress the project, ensuring the project delivers what was originally intended. During implementation responsibility is given to the urban designer member of the team who also acts as a supervisor of all housing approvals to ensure development is in keeping with the guidelines set.

The approaches used by these three projects offer some ideas to consider when urban regeneration projects are undertaken in Western Australia. Overall the experience in the Netherlands focuses heavily on ‘thinking long term’ by setting up the appropriate offices with the powers required to redevelop on a corporate level, whilst prefunding what is necessary to ensure good development. Maintaining quality of design, ecology and social aspects within a neighbourhood is also important and the use of quality control teams should also be considered in projects closer to home.

Quality Control Teams - The Vathorst approach To ensure the objectives of each project are being met through to delivery, all projects have employed a quality control team to provide feedback on decisions made by the project management

1. UNILATERAL LETTER OF INTENT 2. BILATERAL CONTRACT OF INTENT 3. BILATERAL DEVELOPMENT CONTRACT 4. BILATERAL PROJECT CONTRACTS The different levels of stakeholder contracts that are arranged between the Utrecht Centraal Station development office (on behalf of the municipal government) and the larger stakeholders

36 ECO-CITIES JOURNAL

Steering Group Management Group Project Team

Quality Team

The quality control team has all stages of masterplan development referred to it, where a ‘permit’ is required for the project team to progress to the next stage of the project. The Vathorst quality control team is made up of four independent experts in urban design, housing quality, sustainability and park management

“

WHAT ABOUT PERTH? DEVELOPING AT THE LOCAL GOVERNMENT LEVEL

”

It is clear that Perth is entering a new phase of urban development, where regeneration projects are taking centre stage in Government strategy to tackle population growth, transport, infrastructure and affordability issues.

The large scale of the regeneration projects visited in the Netherlands requires each project to run a dedicated office to deliver what is usually a long and complicated process from planning to implementation - with the power to run like a corporate entity, but benefit from government funding and expertise.

Closer to home our major regeneration projects are usually led by a private developer or the State through organisations such as Landcorp or redevelopment authorities.

In 2007 the then Department for Planning and Infrastructure commissioned an investigation of options to improve local government involvement in urban regeneration and renewal. The initial work identified that there could be a much broader role for local government in the development sector, beyond its traditional role as a planning authority.

The Western Australian Local Government Association is working to progress these findings, which may investigate the potential for local governments to provide a comprehensive suite of measures to permit the establishment of Local Government corporate enterprises within defined limits - similar to what is seen in the projects in the Netherlands.

Changing Tracks. Utrecht Centraal Station, the hub of Holland’s rail network, is being redeveloped

A small-scale model to large-scale sucess. Leidsche Rijn’s dedicated project office links developers, government agencies and communities to its vision

ECO-CITIES JOURNAL 37

WE’RE ONLY AT THE FIRST CHAPTER Westpark on Bochum’s city edge reminds us of its industrial past.

The vision to regenerate the place is strong involving a number of interventions that will grow as the site does. The jewel in the crown is Jahrhunderthalle, an old power station that’s been transformed into a world class theatre space. Around the back, contaminated lands are being cleaned with plantings and swales. The future of this site will change as the next generation re-interprets its story >

ADAPTABLE AND GOOD LOOKIN’

Leidsche Rijn shows off its cutting-edge Dutch development.

You are looking at adaptable houses. Add a temporary storey to your place as your family grows, remove it when the kids move out... all without the need for planning approval >

NEW KID ON THE BLOCK

Vathorst shows what can be done when partnerships are nurtured.

Three private developers and one social housing developer have created something very different for fringe development. A rail line was upgraded before everything began, new main streets are robust enough to adapt over time, cogen is the standard, and 30 per cent of the houses you see here are affordable into perpetuity. Nice one! >

[JARHUNDERTHALLE AND WESTPARK IN BOCHUM, GERMANY]

[LEIDSCHE RIJN IN UTRECHT, NETHERLANDS]

[VATHORST IN AMERSFOORT, NETHERLANDS]

_REGENERATION

RUST BELT TO CULTURE CAPITAL VALERIE HUMPHREY PAINTS A PICTURE OF HOW THE RUHR’S RENEWAL EXISTS AS A RAY OF HOPE FOR ANY REGION WONDERING “WHAT NOW?” Since

1987, a string of innovative projects, including Yellow Balloons pictured across, have been generated to invigorate the Ruhr Valley region. Events like this are now set against a backdrop of culture and tourism that has been growing in strength since the mid-1990s when a new economic model was adopted for the region – ‘Change without Growth’.

A major agent of change was the IBA (Internationale Bauausstellung - International Building Exhibition) Emscher Park set up to steer the implementation of projects that would boost socio-economic and environmental recovery. It was created to overcome established procedures that would likely slow the process. With 17 cities in the region, and no dedicated budgets to do it, the usual way of doing things was seen as restrictive and comprising too many competing stakeholders. The IBA ran from 1989-99; it nurtured a number of major urban developments and ecological renewal projects in the highly contaminated former industrial area. Predominantly directed at architectural structures, the program also funded projects aimed at landscape and pollution remediation. It now attracts interest as a model for other post-industrial economies facing a similar fate, notably Japan.

Big, contaminated and expensive to move The Lippe, Emscher and the Ruhr rivers all run into the great industrial highway of Europe - the Rhine River. Newly available riverside land is usually a sought after commodity but land in the Ruhr Valley had been profoundly polluted by industry and deemed too difficult and costly to remediate in the short term.

Long-term solutions are underway with the installation of deep sewerage and treatment ponds.

Demolition of industrial buildings to expose highly polluted land was seen as an uneconomical exercise that would result in longterm vacant sites across the whole valley. Investment of the cost 40 ECO-CITIES JOURNAL

of removal into the reuse of the existing structures was considered a better option.

Route der Industriekultur (Industrial Heritage Trail) Approximately 120 projects have been implemented as part of this initiative and promoted under three headings – Leisure & Relaxation, Industry & Heritage, and Arts & Culture.

In their heyday the mighty industrial sites were connected to the world by a great inland waterway and the workers came and went to their houses nearby. Today public transport is generally good although some sites are served better than others.

The Industrial Heritage Trail is a new thematic bicycle route that links heritage sites, workers’ housing estates, and look-out points and increases accessibility of IBA projects from Duisburg to Hamm. The route totals 700km and incorporates existing bike paths, disused rail beds, canals (that were previously open sewers), forest paths and quiet roads. The route is also strongly promoted to football fans.

RevierRad offers a bicycle rental service with 22 stations for the hire and return of bicycles. Fahrradstationen, a State program, ensures Radstationen (Bike stations) are incorporated into train station renewal works and urban renewal projects, some of which were also IBA projects. These services are well patronised and poised for expansion.

Sites along the Industrial Heritage Trail have all been redeveloped with strong individual points of difference, yet because of their shared past there are recurring themes.

Many of the sites offer a broad range of attractions. Most cover acres of polluted land, so have a water treatment plant, with series of pollution traps as part of the rolling revegetated

A yellow balloon is visible from the roof of the Oberhausen Gasometer. It is one of 31 marking the locations of former coal mines and part of a campaign to win the title of ‘European Capital of Culture for 2010’ for the Ruhr Valley

ECO-CITIES JOURNAL 41

_REGENERATION

100 Schlösse r-Route

Rad-Route DortmundEms- Kanal

Chemiepark Marl

Römer-Lippe-Route

12 Römer-Lippe-Route

R

LVR-Industriemuseum Schaupl atz Oberhausen

R 10

Ruhr Valley scenic route R 27

Connector routes Ruhrtal bike route Connections to regional tourist routes

9

RevierRad bike hire stations

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Rhein radweg

Museum der Deutschen Binnenschifffahrt, Duisbu rg

Innenhafen Duisbu rg

6 1

23 Aquarius Wassermuseum, Mülheim a.d. Ruhr

24 P 16

Welterbe Zollverein, Essen

10 8

9

P6

P2

19

P5

20 Jahrhunderthalle Bochum Eisenbahnmuseum Bochum-Dahlhausen

P9

LW L-Industriemuseum Zeche Nachtigall und das Muttental, Witten

LW L-Industriemuseum Henrichshütte, Hattingen

35

Kaise r-Route

P7

Fortsetzung Ruhrtal Radweg

P8

Villa Hügel, Essen

Kaise r-Route

R

Lindenbrauerei, 16 Unna Fahr radroute Hell weg

11 Dortmund DASA – Arbeitswelt Ausstellung, Dortmund

17 15

Kokerei Hansa,

P4

Deutsches Be rgbauMuseum Bochum

Maximilianpark Hamm

18

P3

P1

R 25

5

21

Emscher Park bike route

4

P 12

P 11

Industrial Heritage Trail by bike

7

3

Nordsternpark, Gelsenkirchen

ba h n

2

P 10

22

AG - B a h n HO

P 13 P 14

Er z

Gasometer Oberhausen

S 13

P 15

25

Zeche Umspan nwerk Ewald, Recklinghausen – 14 13 Herten Museum Strom 1 3 und Leben R LW L-Industriemuseum 22 26 Zeche Zollern , Dortmund

R 31

Landschaftspark Duisburg-Nord

LW L-Industriemuseum Schiffshebewerk Henrichenbu rg, Waltrop

27

R 33

Lenneroute

Hohenhof, Hagen LW L-Freilichtmuseum Hagen

landscape; all sites intersect with the Industrial Heritage Trail with some wordy interpretive panels; most have fabulous views; food and drink, performance spaces, merchandise, and some recreational aspects which would make an Australian OH&S officer’s hair curl – these are intrinsically dangerous places. Most have derelict industrial plant and structures – a notable exception being the Slag Heap Tetrahedron in Bottrop. The heap, built up 1963–80, is too hard to move and too high to ignore, so it has been transformed into a regional landmark, with an illuminated lookout structure that appears to float.

Landschaftspark (Landscape Park) The Park, situated to the north of the industrial city of Duisburg, was a coal mine and smelter until 1985. It was the first site to be reopened in the public domain as part of the IBA. Silver birch trees, (a good species for colonising polluted sites), planted fifteen years ago, are becoming pleasant woodland.

New recreation and tourist amenities include an events venue, visitor centre, sports hall, diving centre, climbing walls, heritage railway, youth hostel and restaurant. A coloured light show that comes on over a period of 90 minutes as night falls, transforms it into a place of beauty and wonder after dark. Night tours are available to tourists while locals and people staying at the hostel roam freely over the site. Visitors can use some exciting playground features such as the pipe slide and have access to the top of the smelter for fabulous views. All-hours access to a site with many seemingly high-risk features is an exciting element.

There is little attempt to interpret its past, yet its still filthy walls offer an aspect of the industrial past not so available at other cleaned sites, notably Zeche Zollverein.

Oberhausen’s Gasometer Almost all of the Ruhr’s gasometers, common in the industrial era, have been taken down. One was kept as a visual anchor point and has been converted into a temporary exhibition centre. The gas pressure plate has been fixed at 4m to create an exhibition floor. Inside the gasometer a glass lift to the top is a worthwhile experience regardless of the exhibition. The view from the roof provides great orientation. Close proximity to the refurbished Oberhausen train station, adjacent to a new shopping and dining centre, it is well positioned as an arts venue. A succession of noteworthy installations has given the Gasometer a reputation as ‘world class’.

Zeche Zollverein At their peak the Zollverein coalmine and coking plant complex boasted being the largest and the best designed in the world.

The monumental buildings house the new Ruhr Museum and a multitude of other attractions, including seasonal swimming and skating.

The museum is embellished with clever audiovisual interpretation to bring ‘dead’ machinery to life and well-produced interpretive scripts. A smorgasbord of guided tours is on offer with some sections, such as Shaft XII, available to the public with a tour guide only, in acknowledgement of the danger inherent in the site. UNESCO awarded Zeche Zollverein World Heritage status in 2001.

Above: A playful way to bridge the gap in Bochum, Germany Top left: Taking the pressure down. Oberhausen’s gasometer has been spared from demolition and transformed into a world-class exhbition and performance space Left: The Industrial Heritage Trail in the Ruhr is a cycle route that takes riders past the restored relics of the region’s past

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Taking heritage to new heights.

Once the Ruhr’s symbol of its coal mining past, Zollverein has been protected and restored into an interactive museum which now boasts a UNESCO World Heriage site listing

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A miniture steel model of the Zollverein coal mine Above: A long ride up a stunning escalator delivers visitors to the starting point of frequent, interactive tours

Reinventing the past

REFERENCES

In 1991, when the structure plans were new, the Duisburg Museum was redeveloped on the Inner Harbour foreshore. It focussed strongly on the major changes across time, so preparing the ground for big changes happening outside in the Inner Harbour and beyond in the Ruhr Valley, helping people to grasp how change need not be a calamity but an opportunity.

“International Building Exhibition Emscher Park – The projects 10 years later”, Fakultat Raumplanung, TU Dortmund, Essen 2008. www.eaue.de/winuwd/137.HTM - for more information on International Building Exhibition (IBA) Emscher Park www.zollverein.de.

Change over time is depicted in a sequence of four major different relief maps that can be selected for view on an elevator system: particularly emphasising how, in the 13th century, the river moved, away from old city creating the need to move. There is poignant relevance here to current projects to restore walled canals into living waterways.

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LIFE AFTER REGENERATING THE RUHR HAS BEEN AN INSPIRING PROJECT OF COORDINATION AND PLANNING, WRITES CANE SPASESKI “This year hundreds of thousands streamed into a disused freight-train yard in Duisburg, in Germany’s Ruhr region — or tried to. The Love Parade was part of the Ruhr’s post-industrial coming-out party. The region had been the soot-coated centre of Germany’s coal and steel industries, but mining is being wound down and steel can be forged with many fewer workers. The Ruhr has therefore been reinventing itself as a hub for research, energy and logistics. The recovery is incomplete: Duisburg’s unemployment rate is 13.3%, double western Germany’s average. This year the Ruhr’s 53 municipalities are, collectively, Europe’s ‘cultural capital’. They are offering a torrent of exhibitions, concerts and other events to rebrand themselves as centres of creativity. The Love Parade added a jolt of Dionysian exuberance.” (The Economist, 10 July 2010)

The Ruhr Valley in the North Rhine-Westphalia region represents

the largest urban conurbation in Germany and one of the biggest in Europe. The region stretches over 116 km from east to west and 67 km from north to south and is flanked by the rivers Ruhr and Rhine. The region has more than 600km of motorway, 1470km of railway infrastructure with 70 stations and 4 airports that provide access to a region with approximately 300,000 businesses and 5.4 million people situated in an area of 4400 km². There are 165,000 students that study in 16 universities and vocational colleges and 20% of Germany’s largest businesses are based there. Being one of the world’s oldest industrial zones, the Ruhr comprises 11 cities and four counties with 42 more municipalities.

Today regeneration in the Ruhr means the transformation of an urban landscape whose form was shaped by industrial needs over a period of more than 100 years. The IBA (Internationale Bauausstellung - International Building Exhibition) Emscher Park was founded as a land development company and its aim was to make the old industrial centres of the Ruhr along the river Emscher, alive (‘fit’) for the 21st century.

The Ruhr’s Past Over the past 150 years the region experienced a lot of changes.

From a rural area with only 250,000 inhabitants in 1840 to a densely built up conglomeration today. Industrialisation in the Ruhr started in the mid 1800s and continued through to the beginning of the 20th century. During this time, the Ruhr became one of the most important centres of coal and steel production in Europe. Consequently, the population grew in an explosive manner, leading to urban sprawl in many of the cities along the valley.

At the turn of the 19th century, the Ruhr underwent an explosive period of growth as people from across Germany and Eastern

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Europe moved to the area to work in the mining, iron and steel industries. At the time three million people lived in the Ruhr’s cities and most of the workers were employed in heavy industry around the coal that was mined from 1000 metres or more underground.

By 1950 the population had swelled to six million, but started to decline after the post-war rebuilding of Germany. In the 1960s the Ruhr area had become known as the ‘soot bowl’ of Germany, with a mix of people, nations and cultures. At that time Willi Brandt, later to become West German Chancellor, demanded ‘Blue Skies over the Ruhr’ in his election campaign. He lost that election but this period was the turning point for economic, structural and social reforms, and eventually the beginning of Brandt’s ‘blue skies’.

With the end of industrialisation, the growth and advancement of the region slowed down, leading to a depression that necessitated ongoing structural change. Unemployment increased from about 12,500 in 1970 to approximately 280,000 people today, which is higher than Germany’s average of 10.8%. By the 1980s it became clear that social welfare systems wouldn’t be enough to cushion the effects of industrial decline. The combination of wastelands, slag heaps, empty industrial buildings, a dense and efficient transport network and an urban landscape, worked like a magnet to attract all the industrial processes that were unwelcome elsewhere in Germany - logistic centres, waste disposal parks and warehouses - the valuable yet dirtiest aspect of industrial production.

Since the 1980s, planners have no longer had to deal with industrial growth and expansion but with reduction and pollution.

Forecasts predict a further loss of population to 4.5 million in 2015. In addition, aside from population, the Ruhr has too much of everything, such as industrial wastelands, derelict buildings, industrial infrastructure, residential housing, children’s nurseries, schools, hospitals and streets.

Once in a century opportunity.

Westpark in Bochum is constantly evolving as industrial relics are carefully restored into new uses. The main feature of the park, Jahrhunderhalle (Century Hall), is a fully-functioning performance space in the shell of an old gas power generator

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_REGENERATION IBA Emscher Park – the ten year project

The Ruhr today

Emscher Park is located in the Emscher Valley, which snakes its way between Dortmund and Duisburg.

After 20 years of planning and implementation, the Emscher Landscape Park has gone from a vision to a reality that has inspired new urban development. The project has achieved major improvements in the living and working environment of the Ruhr’s towns by upgrading the ecological and aesthetic quality of their nearby countryside. The Ruhr, through reuse and preservation, has been able to keep its unique industrial identity and brand itself as an ‘ancient monument of industrial society’.

The IBA was initiated in 1989 and now many of the region’s rundown industrial landmarks have been transformed to serve new recreational uses whilst still preserving the area’s rich history. The redevelopment has given the region a greener image, created a more cohesive community and maintained its identity. After the IBA expired in 1999, a successor plan to promote redevelopment called Project Ruhr took over the task of management and currently the entire project is in its final phase. Project Ruhr focuses on cleaning up the Emscher River by 2014.

The Emscher Landscape Park is designed to act as a ‘green connector’ between the settlements of the Ruhr, following the path of the Emscher River and using the abandoned industrial areas along it as a unique form of green space. It now connects 17 towns and this new east-west corridor joins seven existing but expanded north-south greenbelts. The park is composed of regenerated brownfields, reclaimed forests and existing recreational areas that provide a cohesive set of green infrastructure for the entire region. The specific projects that created the park system ranged from the development of large fallow land areas and small-scale construction schemes to installations of biotopes and the simple planting of trees.

The program was set up with public funds of 1.5 billion Euros and a further 1 billion Euros were generated through private investment. Different mechanisms were used to undertake the work required, including new organisational structures to reduce bureaucracy; financial incentives for design innovation; new planning guidelines; flexibility of tendering arrangements; advice and guidance on specific land portfolios and the availability of grant assistance to specific developers in line with the above.

By the time the IBA ended, it was able to turn the area’s image from a grey industrial landscape into one that is refreshed, green and has the promise of new potential. Industrial culture and the industrial natural landscape have been given a good name after all.

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Today the Masterplan for Ruhr continues to improve the many brownfield sites with many old buildings that represent the Ruhr’s industrial heritage. By turning these sites into attractive locations for commercial, leisure and residential development, the Ruhr aims to integrate its heritage into a modern landscape. Once active mega collieries, factories, plants and steel works are now filled with art, culture, housing, commerce and offices. One of the most famous projects, Zeche Zollverein in Essen has been listed by UNESCO as a World Cultural Heritage site since 2001.

The location now houses the Centre for Design of North Rhine Westphalia, a cutting-edge museum, modern exhibition space and restaurant facilities. Concerts are staged in the aging steel frames of former factories. Grassy recreational areas complete with hiking trails and climbing walls, have been sculpted from the old hills of coal pilings. Paths through rows of trees linking the many different components of the Emscher Park follow the former industrial roads and rail lines.

Recently Germans threw an enormous party on one of the busiest stretches of the country’s famous Autobahn (motorway) network.

It was reported that “as many as three million people turned up for a giant banquet with picnic tables along 60km of motorway between Duisburg and Dortmund”. A radio traffic report quipped that the A40/B1 had been closed due to “the longest table in the world”. The Still-Life event was meant to celebrate the Ruhr region (BBC 18 July 2010).

Ideas for Perth Major land use policy change requires a vision and a champion with passion and the power and resources to take the vision forward. The Emscher Valley demonstrates this vision including the need for flexibility and the accommodation of changes over time, all set within the creation of ‘an environment for industrial change’.

De-industrialisation on a grand scale has challenged the assumptions that have underpinned the very existence of many industrial centres around the world and Emscher Valley has demonstrated that there can be life after industry.

Partnership projects was an important consideration for the IBA, which is focused on major land holdings, including major post-

industrial complexes either at the heart of or at the edges of cities, including coal mines, steel works, factories and ports and docklands.

The IBA increased the locals’ awareness of the historical significance of their surroundings and Ruhr’s image has improved dramatically, while creating new jobs and opportunities.

The Emscher Valley has become a symbol for innovation and is a great example of how unique opportunities can be identified in a place full of challenges. The entire project serves as a model to areas with a similar industrial history. The IBA can help us expand our own sense of what is possible and suggests new concepts of ‘parks’.

Westphalian locals kick out the cars and enjoy a picnic on the A40 Autobahn [Image: Rolf Vennenbern] Above: Jahrhunderthalle, a multifunctional performance space [Image: @Very_Quiet]

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ACTING THE PART JASON BOUWHUIS EXPLAINS THE INS AND OUTS OF PLANNING GOVERNANCE – THE EUROPEAN WAY German Federal Regional Planning Act 1997

In Germany, the Framework Act on Spatial Planning governs the regulations for municipal planning. The Federal government prepares a comprehensive framework for the spatial development of all of Germany with each of the 16 states preparing their own spatial development plan, design guidance and building codes.

Municipalities then prepare both draft and legally binding land use plans that define the zones, density and building bulk and are also responsible for development control and assessing building licences within their jurisdiction.

No planning review system, such as WA’s State Administrative Tribunal, exists in Freiburg or Duisburg and any negotiation is administered between the developer and each municipality.

Dutch Spatial Planning Act 1965 The Netherlands comprises four tiers of government: Central, Provincial, Regional and Municipal, all of which are governed by the National Ministry of Housing, Spatial Planning and the Environment.

The development of a zoning plan within the Netherlands begins with a framework memorandum being drafted, usually in the form of an explanatory note comprising a goal, the reason, the boundaries of the site and the main principles listed by the Council. Once this is formalised, consultation occurs for six weeks for stakeholders to express their views (which is voluntary) on the Internet and the local newspaper.

The preparation of a zoning plan is a lengthy process with the advertising and consultation also involving coordination between the policies of different servicing authorities. The mayor and 52 ECO-CITIES JOURNAL

council ultimately decide on the outcome and processing of public participation. Finally, before a council may adopt a zoning plan, the draft is advertised for six weeks for public inspection either verbally or in writing. A new zoning scheme may take as long as five years to eventuate.

There is an appeal process within The Netherlands with any person able to appeal against a variety of decisions such as objecting to trees being cut trees along the street, objecting to solar panels being rejected on your roof, and the municipal government proposing to move the location of a house boat, along with planning approvals and building licences.

Michael Wagner from Dortmund University explains the various governance challenges Europeans face as they transform their cities for the future

The Planning Act of Denmark 2005 The planning legislation in Denmark is based on the principle of framework management and control with four tiers: national, regional, municipal and local planning. The planning that occurs at one level must be in agreement with the framework established at the next level above.

The Minister for Environment and Energy and anyone else with a legal interest in the outcome of the case has the right to appeal a decision of the Ministry of Environment and Energy, which shall be submitted within 28 days after the ruling. The same time period applies in Western Australia to lodge an appeal with the State Administrative Tribunal.

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ARTICLES OUT, BUT NOT DOWN EUROPEAN FRINGE DWELLERS DON’T HAVE TO PUT UP WITH SERVICES BELOW PAR AND NOR SHOULD AUSTRALIANS, ARGUES STACEY TOWNE IMAGINING AFFORDABILITY AFFORDABLE, HIGH-QUALITY HOUSING CAN BE DELIVERED EN MASSE. IT JUST TAKES SOME INGENUITY, THE RIGHT PARTNERSHIPS AND SOME BOLD POLICY MEASURES, WRITES CHANTAL CARUSO COMMUNICATION AND CULTURE COMPARING AUSTRALIANS TO THE DANES, GERMANS AND DUTCH CAN COME UP WITH FASCINATING INSIGHTS, WRITES BERYL FOSTER

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OUT, BUT NOT DOWN EUROPEAN FRINGE DWELLERS DON’T HAVE TO PUT UP WITH SERVICES BELOW PAR AND NOR SHOULD AUSTRALIANS, ARGUES STACEY TOWNE Think

of greenfield development in Perth, indeed most major Australian cities, and the sorts of images that come to mind are of communities on the outskirts with generally low rise and low density housing construction, low levels of varying activity, low energy efficiency and low public transport provision and use.

Contemporary development in Germany and the Netherlands juxtapose such mental pictures and demonstrate just how greenfield development can be ‘out’ (i.e. on the edge), but not ‘down’ (i.e. higher in density, physical height, general efficiency, cycling and public transport activity).

Rieselfeld, Leidsche Rjin, and Vathorst, outer suburbs of Freiburg, Utrecht and Amersfoort respectively, are three such examples of high quality Western European greenfield development.

Rieselfeld is literally on the edge of Freiburg’s urban limits with open agricultural and forest space lying beyond. There is sharp distinction between ‘city’ and ‘country’ with the urban area being well defined and contained. In spite of its youth as an urban entity, Rieselfeld was well equipped right from the start with public services and social infrastructure to make suburban life more attractive, affordable and easy. One of the first of these vital concept constructions was the extension of the city’s tramline network to connect people and places of work, shopping and leisure throughout the wider city area. To paraphrase Wulf Daseking from the City of Freiburg, “…the infrastructure was developed first in order to create the condition being sought”.

Other community buildings such as kindergartens, primary and secondary schools, cultural and community centres, and churches were also provided early in the development phase rather than waiting for population thresholds to be reached, which is often the case in Perth. Yet much thought has gone into such provision in terms of efficiency. For example, the church is cleverly designed to accommodate two different denominations (Catholic and Protestant) with sliding concrete tilt up internal walls that can be opened and closed to redistribute space when more or less is required.

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These community buildings, together with small shops and eateries are located along the length of the central axis tramline.

Because the tramline is grassed and the roadways on either side have speed restrictions of 30 kilometres an hour, the area also gives the impression of parkland space, reducing the impact of the five storey higher density residential form that exists in the immediate vicinity. Other common green spaces are not planned by the municipality, but rather ‘organised’ by the residents living close by. Density is more intense close to the tramline and decreases with distance, so a variety of housing forms is present.

Private and social housing exist side by side and it is impossible to distinguish between the two.

Groups of citizens purchase land plots from the City and work together with architects to come up with a design to suit each of their residential needs in a single development. There is far less developer-driven housing. Where enterprises do develop housing blocks, they have access to central funding to ensure that a percentage of the proposal includes affordable or social housing.

Architecture is simple with energy saving features such as solar panels and rooftop gardens incorporated into the design rather being ‘add on’ afterthoughts. Energy is gained or use is lowered by all possible sources through passive design and use of materials (mostly locally produced and/or the best available technology) and heating and power is generated locally using renewable energy sources.

Multi-storey car parks do not exist here and even private garages are not visible. Private cars as a means of transport are far less dominant but where they are present, parking is hidden below ground. Whilst the tram provides for some journeys within the suburb, general movement throughout the area is safe, easy, enjoyable and available to anyone in any age group who can walk or ride a bicycle, especially in some of the car free streets designated for play.

Put your money where your mouth is.

Rieselfeld, a fringe development in Freiburg, features a central public transport spine that was built before the first building foundation was laid. Now development responds to the tram

Leidsche Rijn is a major greenfield development project extending west of the traditional city confines that will ultimately double the size of Utrecht. This is an amazing example of ‘out, but not down’ in every urban aspect.

Housing is available in many forms from bungalow style, to multi storey apartments, to houseboats on the canals. Broad housing needs are assessed and analysed so that things like car parking spaces can be required, discouraged or prohibited according to different circumstances.

The 2100 hectare area has a global plan, however, there is no strongly defined blueprint. Instead, plans evolve for each neighbourhood as they come to development stage allowing for distinct identity and flexible solutions to localised problems, needs, and circumstances. The municipality chooses an initial pool of architects and developers and they bid for one-off projects as well as whole neighbourhood developments.

As with Rieselfeld, one major difference to the Perth experience is that developers not only deal with land, but also construct most of the housing. By employing a mix of different developers and architects, housing is distinguishable between neighbourhoods, creating a sense of variety and uniqueness and providing a range of living choices. Developers are predominantly housing cooperatives whereby profits can only be used to create more

communities and residential development must include a standard 30% affordable housing mix.

A sense of space is enabled by the clever supply of common small pocket parks within and between housing complexes, together with expansive linear open spaces that create vistas to adjacent waterways and agricultural land. The smaller spaces are safely placed in view of adjoining housing and children are free to enjoy them even without the presence of adults. The open spaces often act as connectors between neighbourhoods and include pedestrian and bicycle pathways, which means it is much easier to move around on foot or bicycle than by car.

Innovation and invention is apparent when it comes to use of space. For example, a small site proved to be no problem for a local primary school. When it came to finding an area for an outdoor playground it made use of the roof of its double storey building complex.

A high degree of innovation and effort is also demonstrated in ensuring that the new development is well connected to the old city and to other nearby centres. Leidsche Rijn is separated from old Utrecht by regional rail lines and extensive autobahn reservations and in the planning, these major physical barriers were tackled head on. Detailed thought went into providing links through use of wide, landscaped, park-like roadways (including ECO-CITIES JOURNAL 57

_COMMUNITY purpose-built cycle paths) under multiple rail bridges. Two new railway stations are being built and a high-speed bus service is planned to move people between the old and the new areas as well as the Randstad conurbation. But the pièce de résistance is the relocation and partial covering of the A2 motorway seemingly making it disappear!

Much thought has gone into the provision of local and regional employment due to the extensive ultimate population forecasts for the area as well as the easy access from other nearby population centres. Commercial uses requiring larger sites have been grouped together to form a single complex which is positioned close to the autobahn for easy access for servicing and regional traffic, but also acts as a buffer between the noise of the freeway offering protection to residential land uses. Small mixed-use commercial activity is strategically located in neighbourhood clusters for daily residential needs.

Common elements of these greenfield developments include:

• Contained urban development and distinction between • • • • • • • •

• • • Vathorst is a suburb of Amersfoort in the Netherlands and is a • fantastic example of ‘out, but not down’ in terms of vertical space.

Vathorst has an extremely diverse mix of housing stock, which includes single housing in a rural-like setting to the occasional high residential tower. Using space vertically gives the feeling of more space horizontally which in the case of Vathorst is used to provide great expanses of green parklands and canals.

Design guidelines for corner block developments ensure that buildings are designed to address both street frontage and break the monotony of kerbside linear style medium density.

Street level land use activity in neighbourhoods also includes a mix of community and local level retail to meet the needs of the residents.

Variety of living choice is mainly a product of the area having seven distinct parts, each defined by its landscape. A masterplan was developed in collaboration between the City and a group of architects to integrate existing villages and features in an overall urban structure that also included use of contaminated land and existing canals.

As with Leidsche Rijn, 30% social/affordable housing stock is provided with 5-10% allocated for groups such as the aged and disabled. Developers have the choice of a variety of sustainability options to keep energy use low, including connections to underground source heat generators for homes and natural gas district heating systems.

Bikes and cars are separated from each other wherever possible, or clear priority is given to cyclists in local areas where speed limits are strict and drivers are aware. Pedestrians are also aware of cyclists and keep well away from the bike paths and vice versa. Internal traffic is restricted in speed and is kept to the periphery. Vathorst has regional connections via two motorways and a new railway station on the line to Amsterdam and much space has been allocated for commercial and industrial land use activities.

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• •

‘town’ and ‘country’ Upfront social and physical infrastructure Strong internal and external access and connections Reduced car dependence Reduced car visibility in housing design and horizontal space usage Generally more efficient use of land, large and small areas of public open space Diverse living choices More localised activity and job opportunities Standard design and building for energy efficiency and water capture including the widespread use of district level heating systems Slow traffic speed limits Standard affordable and social housing requirements Land and housing predominantly purchased as a package Multiple partnerships from planning stage to on-the-ground development Higher level direction on strategic planning and provision of funding opportunities but local decision making in plan formulation and delivery An attitude that constraints such as contaminated soils and motorways are not ‘show stopping’ barriers but rather things that need to be addressed and overcome to produce a satisfying and innovative outcome

So why are things so different to Perth? Generally speaking there are a number of cultural differences which have enabled greenfield development to occur so effectively. For example, the people of Germany and Holland have had past experience with limited resources in terms of space and non-renewable energy, they have had a long history with bicycle travel, many cities have been almost totally rebuilt after WWII and people are used to tackling problems on a large scale. In additon, design solutions are more accepted as people do not seek the same high level protection of personal privacy and space and personal responsibly (rather than public responsibility) is taken for personal risk as well as no stigma attached to social or affordable housing.

Whilst Perth is definitely heading the right direction, we could all take example from the German and Dutch experience so that before long our greenfield development may be ‘out’ on the edges whilst our level of services, efficient use of space and resources, and innovative thinking is anything but ‘down’.

PLANNED POPULATION RIESELFELD (GERMANY) Old sewage farm. Suburb of Freiburg – Green 10-12,000 local government, anti nuclear, high use of renewable materials and energy technology/ design, knowledge centre, comparably higher solar access than other German centres LEIDSCHE RIJN (NETHERLANDS) Previous agricultural land. Roman archaeological 80,000 finds on site. Suburb of Utrecht – central Holland, regional transport axis, one of the 4 major Randstad centres (together with Amsterdam, Rotterdam and De Haag), knowledge centre VATHORST (NETHERLANDS) Suburb of Amersfort – a medium Randstad centre; 50km from Utrecht, international acclaim as a sustainable city, policy of no separation between richer/poorer households

30,000

PLANNED DWELLINGS

SITE

4,200

70ha

30,000

2,100ha

10-13,000

562ha

Featured European greenfields development details

Designed to keep a sense of adventure.

You won’t find a sterile plastic playground in Vauban’s well-designed public spaces

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IMAGINING AFFORDABILITY AFFORDABLE, HIGH-QUALITY HOUSING CAN BE DELIVERED EN MASSE. IT JUST TAKES SOME INGENUITY, THE RIGHT PARTNERSHIPS AND SOME BOLD POLICY MEASURES, WRITES CHANTAL CARUSO

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Imagine if every major development in WA included a 30 per cent target for affordable housing. If our State government insisted developers had to build a village for 10,000 people in the same amount of space they would usually deliver 100 McMansions. Imagine our local Mayor announced the goal to create 5,000 affordable houses in the next five years and set up a non-profit company with the role of reducing prices for new houses. These things are all happening right now and this article showcases three examples where affordable housing is being delivered at a scale and level of sustainability and quality unimaginable in Perth.

Housing ‘unaffordability’ in Australia now defines our generation.

Median income earners can no longer afford a median priced home, there is a gap of nearly 500,000 private rental dwellings that are affordable and available to lower to medium income households, there are 230,000 families currently on social housing waiting lists across Australia, and 105,000 people are homeless.

It is our nation’s shame to be building the largest homes in the world, to the poorest efficiency standards, at the edges of nowhere, and calling them ‘affordable’. This practice serves developers’ ledgers well but fails us all. Problems outlined in a recent briefing paper provided to the State Government of Western Australia by the Australian Housing and Urban Research Institute included the fact that Australia is yet to develop a robust policy and institutional framework to attract and direct public and commercial funds towards the provision of additional affordable housing and that encouraging investment into supply of affordable housing in Australia is a major challenge for government and industry.

There are also significant structural and cultural aspects at play in our housing market that impact on housing affordability. For example, the emphasis on home ownership is far greater in Australia (69% owner-occupied) than in any of the three countries we visited, such as Germany (43%). Correspondingly a far greater amount of State and Federal funding has been devoted to facilitating home ownership ($13 billion spent on the First Home Ownership Grant to date, $50 billion per year provided in tax breaks to home owners and investors) than to providing affordable rental properties ($1 billion allocated over five years to the National Rental Affordability Scheme). The percentage of social housing provided in Australia (5% of total stock) compared with Denmark (19%) and the Netherlands (35%) is also very low.

Federal funding for social housing beyond 2014 is uncertain and is likely to be significantly less than the record amount of $5.6 billion allocated under the 2009 stimulus package.

These random pools of funding and the conspicuous lack of a Federal affordable housing or planning strategy contrast wildly to the very high level of joined-up government strategies and large-scale government-led urban renewal in European cities.

The Netherlands and Germany enjoy strong governance and planning models, which deliver affordable housing as a core activity.

How is affordable housing being delivered in European EcoCities?

In the Netherlands the Federal Ministry of Housing, Spatial Planning and the Environment (‘VROM’) has a policy called “Vinex” which identifies suitable locations for greenfield developments based on the principles of strategic importance and sustainability, and it includes mandatory targets of at least 30% for affordable housing in all new developments. The Federal government’s housing policy memorandum also includes the ‘Iron Triangle’ of policy aims, which are to provide adequate housing, maintain a minimum quality of housing and living environment (physical and social), and ensure enough affordable housing. Ten percent of government spending is linked to these programs.

A remarkable 35% of the country’s housing is social housing, where over 400 community housing organisations own 98% of such stock (2.4 million dwellings) and are able to build, buy and sell them freely. Affordable home ownership is provided through government schemes including mortgage tax deductions, mortgage insurance, and shared ownership schemes to first-time

Table 2: Summary of Exemplary Housing Developments Visited A typical street in the Vauban quarter, showing diversity of housing and materials, and human-scale streets. A new district is being built in Shanghai to copy these characteristics. Why not Perth?

ECO-CITIES Left: A fresh face. A refurbished social housing blockJOURNAL in Freiburg

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_COMMUNITY buyers where homes are purchased at below market prices (up to 30% discount) in return for a share in future house price appreciation. In both Germany and the Netherlands, it is common for the government to lease the land rather than to allow its outright purchase. New houses also come with a contract that the buyer must live in the house (rather than use it as an investment) and if they sell it in the first five years the government has first option to buy it back.

Three case studies of affordable housing delivered through major projects Across five cities we visited a total of 24 housing developments, all of which included affordable housing targets of at least 25%. This article explores three of the best, which have been summarised in the table 2.

Case Study One: Centrum Vathorst - Amersfoort’s second future city of connected villages and waterways The Centrum Vathorst development shows what is possible under a completely innovative partnership model. The City of Amersfoort itself is a 50% shareholder and plays a developer role in a consortium of five private developers including a social housing corporation. Vinex also plays a major role, overseeing the entire development with the operating financial model based on a timeframe of over 50 years.

One of the most inspiring aspects of this development was that the City of Amersfoort steers the project through a strict Quality Control process. The ‘Q Team’ (as the team is affectionately known) is responsible for drawing up the masterplan together with shareholders including two internationally renowned Dutch urban designers. It also measures and enforces strict urban design, housing quality, sustainability and park management targets as the development progresses.

A number of unique aspects in this model contribute to the delivery of affordable housing in this development. Perhaps most significantly is that a social housing company, Alliante Housing

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Association, is included as one of the five consortium partners and acts as a developer. It has already built 1900 dwellings itself of which 900 are for social housing while 1000 have been sold to the private market. To achieve this ratio it absorbs a financial deficit of around $60,000 per social housing dwelling over 50 years. This is offset by the sale of private dwellings and the low land prices, due to the City leasing rather than outright sale of the land. As a housing association it also manages to provide 30% of affordable housing on the site, with about 80% going to low income earners as social rental, about 10% provided as shared equity housing to purchase, and 5-10% as high quality dwellings suitable for elderly accommodation and those in care.

The conditions placed on consortium members, and the expectations of each developer are also radically different than those in Australia. For example, each developer is required to provide a set target of social housing, at a ratio of 6000 houses to the private market, and 1000 social rental properties. The developers generally expect a 5-15% profit margin depending on the risk and type of housing, compared with Australian developers and lending institutions, which generally demand a 20% return. Conditions are also placed on the sale of housing that have been provided by community housing associations, so as to keep them affordable over time. If they are sold before five years, profits must be split with the housing association.

Case Study Two: The Rieselfeld housing development Germany’s version of ‘fringe’ development.

The Rieselfeld project has particular significance to Perth because it is considered a housing project on ‘the fringe’ of the city, but unlike developments on our fringe its location is one of its biggest drawcards. The development literally buts up against a beautiful green protected wilderness area that expands to the mountains in the distance. Signs and maps with information about the wildlife in the area and why it’s so important to protect it are abundantly dotted along the paths. Access to and from, and within the neighbourhood is guaranteed, with every resident having access to walking paths and a bicycle network weaving through the entire district. Light rail was provided to this new

A family friendly suburb that thinks beyond the 4x2. This street in Rieselfeld features family homes, aged care and apartments for those without kids. Some houses have a dedicated car park, or one can be purchased a short walk from the front door

housing development before one house even hit the ground.

These features are of course in addition to the attractive, diverse, high quality housing, the main street running through the neighbourhood with cafes, a church, library and shops, and the green spaces, playgrounds, and kindergartens dotted throughout the neighbourhood. Internal streets are narrow and traffic-calmed, and children are out in force on the streets on their bikes, skateboards, and playing impromptu soccer games.

This reflects an urban development concept that has attached great importance to sustainability and community.

Social housing makes up about 25% of the total number of dwellings within Rieselfeld. Social housing units are fully Country and cities

Population

Land Mass (km2)

integrated with non-social housing units, and are indistinguishable from other housing to ensure equity and social diversity within the community. The social housing dwellings are owned by companies with 20-year caveats.

Case Study Three: The Vauban Quarter - one of the most exemplary neighbourhoods in the world When walking around the Vauban Quarter, it’s abundantly clear to see why it’s widely regarded one of the most attractive, liveable and sustainable neighbourhoods in the world. The concept of affordable living is exemplified in Vauban, and international best practice standards were achieved in energy, car usage reduction, Housing Tenure (%)

Owner Occupied

Urban Characteristics

Private Rental Social Rental

Avg. Household size

Density (people/ km2)

Australia Perth

22 mil 1.66 mil

7,600,000 5386

69

22

5 4

2.6

3 310

Denmark Copenhagen (urban)

5.4 mil 1.18 mil

43,098 456

53

18

19

2.2

125 2592

Netherlands Utrecht Amersfoort

16.2 mil 300,000 143,235

18,130 96 63

53

12

35

2.3

391 3068 2211

Germany Freiburg

82.5 mil 222,000

357,021 153

43

51

6

2.2

231 1450

Selected urban and housing characteristics in Australia and European Eco-Cities

Type of Development Greenfield

Brownfield

Name & Location

Size (area)

Vathorst Amersfoort, Netherlands

500 hectares

Rieselfeld Freiburg, Germany

70 hectares

Vauban Quarter Freiburg, Germany

70 hectares

Size (population)

Affordable Housing Target

30,000 residents 30% 11,000 dwellings 5000 new workplaces in a 46 hectare commercial zone 12,000 residents 25% 4200 dwellings

5000 residents

33%

Description

The future second city of Amersfoort, a Vinex project based on a medieval city design around restored waterways The State’s largest housing project on a converted sewage farm at the edge of the green belt with light rail at the door Conversion of former army barracks (38 hectare) in 2006 into an exemplar sustainable community

Case study development details

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_COMMUNITY public transport, mobility, cooperative building, water, and social participation. For example, in 2006, three kilometres of new light rail track was built right to the doorstep of the Vauban district, and the development itself is based on the principle of ‘a district of short distances’ with a school, kindergartens, farmers’ market, businesses, shopping centre, food co-op, recreation areas and about 600 jobs all within walking and cycling distance.

Roads are also designed to be spaces for play with 30 kilometre an hour speed limits and a car park just outside the community encouraging most to walk into the neighbourhood.

Correspondingly, the residents of Vauban have extremely low car ownership rates of only 160 per 1000 people, compared with the German average of 350. By contrast in WA the figure is 777 - the highest in Australia and the second highest in the world, after Houston.

There are no single houses or high rises in Vauban, instead the apartments are generally four storeys high by three dwellings wide – noting that one ‘house’ is two storeys high, with about six households living in each block. The size of apartments is about 115m2, with an average occupancy of four people. This contrasts to the size of the average Australian home, which is now 245m2, 40% bigger than 1985, with an average occupancy of 2.6 people.

Conclusions Hardly a week goes by in Perth without the housing and development industries laying the blame for housing crisis squarely on the shortage of land or the prohibitive expense of building higher densities or infill. Yet these constraints are the norm in Europe and developers are still able to deliver 30% affordable, high quality, sustainable housing with public transport and social infrastructure at the doorstep - and built at the town and city scale.

Rahm Emmanuel once said of the overwhelming levels of debt and unemployment President Obama inherited from the former administration, that “you never want a serious crisis to go to waste, and what I mean by that is it’s an opportunity to do things you did not think you could do”. In this spirit the time is absolutely right for our local, State and Federal governments to turn to the policies, planning and funding models being used across European EcoCities to deliver affordable housing at the scale and standard we so urgently need, to foster a way of life until now we may not have thought was possible.

The delivery of affordable housing in the Vauban district is guaranteed through the development formula of one third private ownership, one third private rental properties, and one third social housing. Student and social housing are integrated in Vauban to a 30% target. A number of factors driven by the City of Freiburg also ensures affordable living and housing. The City formed its own in-house project team to manage the entire project and coordinate community infrastructure, facilitated an extensive public participation process and established a committee with representatives from all stakeholders. It also introduced planning policies to maintain affordability of owner-occupied housing, mandating new houses come with a contract that the buyer must give the first option to sell it back to the government in the first five years, which keeps prices stable and removes the chance for speculation. Owners are also required to live in the houses and not use them as investments. Finally, the City also owns the land and leases it back to the owner, which again removes the inflationary impact of speculation on land prices over time.

Perhaps one of the most groundbreaking aspects of the Vauban district was its inclusion of a Baugruppen (‘groups of building owners’) or cooperative model of housing where 6-12 people are able to work directly with each other to design and build their own housing, using land donated by the local government.

The City of Freiburg made plots available for this model and literally advertised the opportunity in the local paper along with information about how to apply and how to form a cooperative.

From design to completion each Baugruppe took a year and was estimated to cost 25% less than a similar sized development because it didn’t involve private investors or developers. It also included many sustainability initiatives such as passive houses as standard, as well as ‘parking free’ housing, green roofs, and rainwater harvesting.

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Understanding the true cost. Affordable housing must include regard for ‘affordable living’ or ‘sustainable communities’ such as transport, energy costs, employment and social opportunities. Rieselfeld’s masterplan included light rail to the door, and daily needs within the comminuty’s reach - a library, church, school, childcare centre, and a main street featuring shops and a cafe strip

Images above:A sense of identity. The scale of Centrum Vathorst is based on a masterplan incorporating six distinct neighbourhoods, charmingly described as ‘living in a meadow’, ‘modern canals’, ‘villas in a park’, and ‘like living in a village’. Detached, single housing is also available, and the whole neighbourhood is interlinked with cycle paths.

Images below: Livin’ on the edge. Ever wanted to know what the edge of an urban growth boundary looks like? The sign below marks the spot, describing the importance of protecting the biodiversity in the area and also providing a map of the walking and cycle paths around the new development

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COMMUNICATION AND CULTURE COMPARING AUSTRALIANS TO THE DANES, GERMANS AND DUTCH CAN COME UP WITH FASCINATING INSIGHTS, WRITES BERYL FOSTER

Delegates listen to Hans-Jörg Schwander explain the features of the Vauban neighbourhood in Freiburg

In considering communication styles between European countries

and Australia the research conducted by Professor Geert Hofstede has been used as a basis for evaluation. The reason for this choice is because this research measures how values in the workplace are influenced by culture. This evaluation is a useful tool for informing town planning outcomes in a cultural context.

Hofstede has established a ranking and profiling system for the cultural dimensions for various countries. He states that Scandinavian countries have a similar profile and as such, the data available for Scandinavian countries has been compared to Australia’s.

Power Distance Index (PDI) is the extent to which the less powerful members of organisations and institutions (like the family) accept 68 ECO-CITIES JOURNAL

and expect that power be distributed unequally. This represents inequality (more versus less), but defined from below, not from above. It suggests that a society’s level of inequality is endorsed by the followers as much as by the leaders. Power and inequality, of course, are extremely fundamental facts of any society and anybody with some international experience will be aware that ‘all societies are unequal, but some are more unequal than others’.

Power Distance (PDI) is relatively low for Scandinavian countries and Australia, with an index of 36 for Australia and 38 for Scandinavian countries, compared to the world average of 55.

This is indicative of a greater equality between societal levels, including government, organizations, and even within families.

This orientation reinforces a cooperative interaction across power levels and creates a more stable cultural environment.

Are Australians ‘individualistic’?

Individualism (IDV) is on the one side versus its opposite collectivism, the degree to which individuals are integrated into groups. On the individualist side we find societies in which the ties between individuals are loose: everyone is expected to look after themselves and their immediate family. On the collectivist side, we find societies in which people from birth onwards are integrated into strong, cohesive in-groups, often extended families, which continue protecting them in exchange for unquestioning loyalty.

The word ‘collectivism’ in this sense has no political meaning: it refers to the group, not to the state. Again, the issue addressed by this dimension is an extremely fundamental one, regarding all societies in the world.

The Hofstede analysis for Australia reflects a high level of individuality. The Individualism (IDV) index for Australia is 90, the second highest score of any country in Hofstede’s survey, behind the United States’ ranking of 91. The Scandinavian countries ranked at 80, and are considered to have a high Individualism (IDV) ranking indicative of a society with more individualistic attitudes and relatively loose bonds with others. The populace is more self-reliant and looks out for themselves and their close family members.

unstructured situations. Unstructured situations are novel, unknown, surprising and different from usual. Uncertainty avoiding cultures try to minimize the possibility of such situations by strict laws and rules, safety and security measures, and on the philosophical and religious level by a belief in absolute truth; ‘there can only be one truth and we have it’.

People in uncertainty-avoiding countries are also more emotional, and motivated by inner nervous energy. The opposite type, uncertainty-accepting cultures, are more tolerant of opinions different from what they are used to; they try to have as few rules as possible, and on the philosophical and religious level they are relativist and allow many currents to flow side by side. People within these cultures are more phlegmatic and contemplative, and not expected by their environment to express emotions.

The Hofstede ranking for the Scandinavian countries in Uncertainty Avoidance (UAI) is 53, compared to a World average of 64. A moderate UAI score may indicate a cultural tenancy to minimize or reduce the level of uncertainty within the population by enacting rules, laws, policies, and regulations to cover most situations or circumstances. Australia ranked at 48.

Are Scandinavians ‘masculine’?

What does all this mean?

Masculinity (MAS) versus its opposite, femininity, refers to the distribution of roles between the genders, which is another fundamental issue for any society to which a range of solutions are found. The studies revealed that (a) women’s values differ less among societies than men’s values; (b) men’s values from one country to another contain a dimension from very assertive and competitive and maximally different from women’s values on the one side, to modest and caring and similar to women’s values on the other. The assertive pole has been called ‘masculine’ and the modest, caring pole ‘feminine’. The women in feminine countries have the same modest, caring values as the men; in the masculine countries they are somewhat assertive and competitive, but not as much as the men, so that these countries show a gap between men’s values and women’s values.

In considering communication and cultural differences between Australia and Scandinavia, it appears that the similarities include:

• an orientation towards cooperative interaction across power levels;

• individualistic attitudes and relatively loose bonds with •

others; and a cultural tenancy to minimize or reduce the level of uncertainty within the population by enacting rules, laws, policies, and regulations to cover most situations or circumstances.

The fundamental difference between the subject countries is that the Scandinavian nations are considered to be of a more openly nurturing society than Australia.

The lowest Hofstede Dimension for Scandinavian countries is Masculinity (MAS) at 14. This relatively low MAS Index value may be indicative of a low level of differentiation and discrimination between genders. In this culture, females are treated more equally to males in all aspects of society. This low Masculinity ranking may also be displayed as a more openly nurturing society.

In the town planning and development arena these observations are considered useful tools for informing the communication and consultation process. It can be argued that the planning outcomes and innovations achieved in the European countries mentioned are possible in Australia given our cultural similarities.

Who has a higher tolerance for uncertainty?

REFERENCES

Uncertainty Avoidance Index (UAI) deals with a society’s tolerance for uncertainty and ambiguity; it ultimately refers to man’s search for truth. It indicates to what extent a culture programs its members to feel either uncomfortable or comfortable in

Geert Hofstede™ Cultural Dimensions

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ARTICLES ARTICLES

WALK THE WALK GETTING OUT AND ABOUT CAN DO WONDERS FOR YOUR CITY, NOT JUST YOUR BEYOND WAIST LINE, WRITES DOINA SMADU CUTTING ROADS, RAIL AND RIBBON TRAVEL DEMAND MANAGEMENT IS FAST BEING RECOGNISED AS AN INTEGRAL PART OF ANY FUNCTIONING TRANSPORT SYSTEM, WRITE HONOR PUTLAND AND BEN KENT WALK THE WALK GETTING OUT AND ABOUT CAN DO WONDERS FOR YOUR CITY, NOT JUST YOUR WAIST LINE, WRITES DOINA SMADU ON YA BIKE JASON BOUWHUIS GIVES AN INSIGHT INTO WHY SO MANY EUROPEANS ARE CHOOSING TWO WHEELS OVER FOUR MOVING THE MASSES MANY EUROPEAN CITIES ARE BREAKING FREE OF THEIR OBSESSION WITH CARS AND MOVING ONTO GREENER PASTURES, WRITES LAWRENCE MAN

MOVEMENT

_MOVEMENT

BEYOND ROADS, RAIL AND RIBBON CUTTING TRAVEL DEMAND MANAGEMENT IS FAST BEING RECOGNISED AS AN INTEGRAL PART OF ANY FUNCTIONING TRANSPORT SYSTEM, WRITE HONOR PUTLAND AND BEN KENT

Ahead of its time: Premier Jack Lang official opens the Sydney Harbour Bridge in 1932 [State Library of New South Wales]

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Listen to any Australian returning from a jaunt around Western

Europe and they’ll mention one thing time and time again – just how easy is it to get around by train, tram, bike or foot. More often than not, the conversation will lead to a discussion about our own transport system and end with everyone nodding away that there are some things we can learn from our European counterparts.

Trying to compare European cities to Perth is often fraught with difficulties. Firstly, the fact that European cities have enjoyed a long history of development before the car became king will often be used to explain why their cities are much less car-dependent than ours. Their urban fabric wasn’t as easily torn up in the 50’s to make way for freeways, car parks and wide tracts of asphalt to cope with the public’s new-found love of the car.

However, what becomes clear upon visiting these cities is that it’s not just the abundance of light rail or bike paths that makes their transport systems superior. Indeed, it’s not as if Europeans are much less obsessed with car ownership than Australians.

Rather, these cities’ transport engineers, land-use planners and bureaucrats have understood for many decades that simply laying down hard infrastructure won’t deliver a high-quality, balanced transport system used readily by the average Joe. These cities’ decision makers have embraced the need to develop a comprehensive and interconnected suite of policies, strategies and projects that not only persuade people from out behind the wheel but also create a culture in which driving is almost seen as more of a nuisance than a necessity. Their enthusiasm stems from a common vision that more people enjoying active and sustainable forms of transport leads to a healthier, more productive populace and a cleaner, more attractive environment.

Referred to as travel demand management (TDM), this concept is now being seriously considered all over the globe. Things have gone so far that those who spruik these transport solutions you can’t necessarily touch or feel are no longer receiving the blank stares they used to. Even key decision makers are getting used to the idea of supporting projects that may not end with a media pack and ribbon-cutting ceremony.

Nowadays, the question for Perth isn’t if or even when we’ll embrace these suggestions, but whether we have the conviction and tenacity to implement them quickly enough to avoid a transport system in gridlock far worse than that of today.

This isn’t to say the ideas behind TDM are new to Australia.

Indeed, Perth has been implementing various TDM approaches for over 10 years. However, there are a number of European cities who have embraced TDM with much more vigour and have more integrated and people-friendly transport systems to show for it.

What is TDM apart from another acronym?

TDM refers to strategies, policies or initiatives that encourage the more efficient use of transport resources . It can be defined as a set of tools to offer people better travel information and opportunities to help them choose the best travel option for each trip . In a city like Perth, TDM’s primary aim is to reduce the demand for single occupant car trips. It aims to redistribute that demand in space, mode or time to produce more sustainable transport outcomes.

TDM is a growing area of public policy and covers a wide-range of tools and techniques from land use planning, regulation and pricing mechanisms to social marketing campaigns that often directly engage the public to communicate alternative transport options effectively.

Politicians and policy makers the world over are now viewing TDM in a more favourable light. This is often because it can deliver similar results much more cost-effectively than built solutions.

Once other benefits are considered, such as its potential to bring about better environmental and public health outcome, as well as safer and more liveable cities, TDM is often greeted with open arms. What are the Europeans doing in the field of TDM? Groningen – a city obsessed with bikes, not cars Something immediately noticeable upon arriving in Groningen is how frustrating it must be to get around by car. When contrasted with what a pleasure it is to jump on a bike, walk around or catch some of the abundant public transport, it’s easy to see what Groningen’s decision makers’ priorities are.

Road infrastructure has been downgraded all over the city to make way for sustainable travel alternatives. Public transport and bikes dominate major transport corridors and many times the car is simply banned from places of high civic importance. In fact, almost the entire city centre is car-free.

A high proportion of Groningen’s streets have been ‘traffic calmed’ by narrowed sections, chicanes, street level footpaths.

The policy must be working as shown by the masses of pedestrians who no longer wait for a break in the traffic to scurry across the road but meander out in front of slow-moving cars as if to prove the street is no longer just the driver’s terrain.

Groningen’s most radical attempt to limit car use was when, back in the 1970’s, a newly-elected government decided to split the city into four quarters. The basic premise was that a car couldn’t travel from one quarter to another without first going back onto the outer ring road to find one of a limited number of ‘entry points’. This major change in accessibility was literally achieved overnight by local authorities blocking off streets with concrete barriers. Whilst the concept was met with anger and frustration from local business owners and the city’s growing population of

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_MOVEMENT car users, it is now heralded as one of the major moves that’s made Groningen famous in world of transport.

Due in large part to this change in network design, 48% of trips in Groningen are made today by bike and public officials are often elected on their ideas to increase this share further. Even roundabouts are designed in a way that cars are required to give priority to bikes whenever they’re in close proximity – no matter which way they intend to go.

Not surprisingly, Groningen’s major transport issue today is bike infrastructure. Not the network itself – the 200-kilometre long network is considered one of the world’s most impressive – but bicycle parking. Bikes litter many civic spaces, footpaths and streetscapes to the point that traversing the city in a wheelchair or with a pram is a real challenge. The government is tackling this issue as best it can with proactive attempts to remove abandoned bikes and build impressive bike parking stations – the latest of which holds 4,500 bikes and was bursting at the seams after the first week.

What a joy it must be to live in a city whose major transport issue is increasing bike parking to keep up with demand!

Whilst the government provides some funding support, the Mobile is fast becoming a profitable stand-alone entity. The innovative and artistic solar array even provides an additional income stream, meaning the government can step back sooner than imagined.

It’s no wonder the Mobile is the golden child of Freiburg’s transport system. Perth should seriously consider building one of these gems in the near future.

VNM – managing mobility in Utrecht VNM is a local government-funded NGO based in Utrecht. It’s charged with the goal of reducing Utrecht’s peak hour traffic by five percent by promoting, supporting and advocating for ‘mobility management’, or workplace travel planning. Similar to Perth’s TravelSmart Workplace program, VNM works with major employers to develop comprehensive travel plans for employees in order to achieve sustainable mobility for the organisation.

VNM encourages organisations to participate in the program by employing a corporate sales-based approach. It essentially packages and sells program benefits by asking high-level

Freiburg’s Mobile – an integrated transport hub for almost anything The city of Freiburg provides a gold standard and very functional example of an integrated transport hub. Known as, The Mobile, it is a purpose-built bicycle station and mobility centre located directly beside the central railway station. Its attractive design includes a round shell, impressive solar array and two distinct levels.

On the lower level a bicycle rental service and repair shop complement a guarded parking station for 1001 bikes. On the upper level a café allows commuters to get their daily caffeine fix while a mobility centre provides access to information and tickets for travel by train, bus and bike. Freiburg Aktiv occupies a small space in which it organises bicycle tours of the city and local surrounds.

Wanneer zat jij voor het laatst in de trein?

Mobility within the city is managed through integrating access across all transport systems and the Mobile is seen as the centrepiece for city transport access. Not only does it lie a short walk from the primary train, light rail and bus interchange, a small car share facility is located next door in which registered participants can hire a hybrid vehicle for trips in which the car is essential – this means tasks like moving heavy gear not picking up the daily paper.

It provides a range of seamless transport options for moving people, supports the commercially viable, high-density city centre and contributes to positive community health and environmental outcomes.

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Ik nam vanochtend nog de trein. Sinds een paar maanden laat ik – als het maar even kan – mijn auto thuis staan en reis met de trein naar kantoor. Het is prettig om niet aan te hoeven sluiten in de file.

Met mijn laptop kan ik in de trein gewoon doorwerken. Dat weegt voor mij op tegen die paar keren dat ik eens vertraging heb. Wat mij als financiële man opvalt, is dat mijn treinreizen goedkoper uit-

Naam

func tie

pakken dan mijn eerdere dagelijkse autoritten. Ik zie eigenlijk alleen maar voordelen.

Make it count. Copenhagen does a solid job of counting bike trips. On a bridge similar to this, more than 10 million bike rides were tallied during 12 months by a wheelactuated counter. That’s 37,000 bike riders every day Left: Dutch mobility managers ask ‘when did you last sit on a train? [Image: VNM]

executives to consider the question: ‘How can VNM help you address your company goals?’ VNM then tailors a suite of methods to improve the participating company’s triple bottom line by addressing the following five areas:

• Talent – attracting and retaining talented personnel; • Green – improving an organisation’s eco-footprint; • Accessibility – making the workplace more accessible for • •

employees and customers; Space – achieving a more efficient use of space such as bike parking; and Vitality – promoting a healthier workforce.

VNM provides a range of free behaviour change tools for participating workplaces and focuses on building the capacity of organisations to deliver a number of supporting services.

Networking, mentoring and information sharing between organisations is a major focus of the program, with localised ‘platforms’ developed to address mobility challenges in certain city localities. To date, 175 companies have participated in the program, with a very low drop out rate over time.

VNM retains its independence from government through sustainable funding streams sourced from road toll incomes. This means VNM is well placed to act as an advocacy body and mediator between government authorities and organisations when addressing complex and contentious issues.

Due to the similarities in program design between VNM and WA’s TravelSmart Workplace program, both programs have indicated their desire to share information and results. Given TravelSmart Workplace’s impressive achievements and results to date, VNM has been very keen to keep in touch. What a feather in WA’s cap!

On a roll - cycling policy and programs It’s not by sheer luck that the percentage of people across much of Western Europe choosing to jump on their bike instead of in their car is much larger than in Perth. A long history of wideranging policy approaches sympathetic to cyclists’ needs has helped to forge a supportive culture that generally values two wheels over four.

While one can argue that an ingrained cycling culture has ‘driven’ public policy for centuries in Holland – various members of the Dutch royal family have been spotted rolling down the street since bikes were invented – this claim holds no water when looking at the bike-friendly cities of Copenhagen and the Ruhr Valley.

These are cities and regions that were ravaged by WWII and were largely rebuilt in the auto-centric 50s and 60s with much of the medieval urban fabric torn up to make way for wide boulevards, car parks and highways. In fact, cars dominated Copenhagen’s centre right up until the 1990’s and still do to some degree in the Ruhr.

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Above: The Mobile is the pièce de résistance of Freiburg’s integrated transport system [Image: Badische Zeitung] Below right: Sleeping beauty. A tram awaits its turn to embark on its journey along a green carpet from the highly-acclaimed fringe development of Rieselfeld to Freiburg’s city centre

So how has Copenhagen managed to get its citizens to embrace the bike to the point where 36% of trips are taken on two wheels?

What on Earth has caused cycling to double in the past 10 years?

Firstly, bike lanes are thought of and built differently. Instead of merely painting a line on the side of a street and expecting cyclists to ride shoulder-to-shoulder with 4WDs, bike lanes are inserted between on-street parking and the footpath, thereby giving a cyclist a semi-permanent physical barrier between any passing cars. They’re now so synonymous with the city, they’re known the world over as ‘Copenhagen lanes’.

Traffic signals on various routes in and out of the city have been rewired to turn green to give a cyclist travelling between 17 and 20 km/h an uninterrupted long-distance journey. If a cyclist gets stuck at a red light, they’re given a three-second head start on a car idling next to them, which infuriates car drivers to the point they often end up choosing to cycle themselves. If you can’t beat ‘em, join ‘em.

It’s easy for the ever-growing number of summer tourists to join in the fun and grab one of the 2,500 free City Bikes found in any of the 110 docking stations dotted around the centre. This is the jewel in the crown of cycling culture in Copenhagen. Set up in 1995, it was the world’s first bike sharing scheme and has been growing in popularity ever since.

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A bike-friendly culture in Copenhagen has developed to the point that the question floating around in the average Dane’s head is rarely ‘how do I get there?’ The bike is almost always a given. It’s now commonplace to see stylish women in high heels, men in business suits and groups of high school kids riding around all parts of the city. Cycling at night is the norm with young partygoers seen dinking their friends home from local establishments. So relaxed is the approach to cycling that they’re often finishing off ‘one for the road’ in the front box of their mate’s bike!

The barriers Sandgropers face before jumping on a bike aren’t an issue the Danes have to deal with. This must do wonders for encouraging spontaneous, local trips and persuading even the most car loving person to give the treadly a shot.

Turning from the Danes to the Dutch, many cities in Holland have taken cycling policy to the next level.

The Dutch place a significant value on cycling over car travel and take great steps to address the issue of bike safety. Several pieces of legislation have recently been passed with government policy developed in support of cycling safety and awareness.

For the last ten years, Dutch cyclists have had the right of way over drivers in almost all situations. To hammer this point home

further, it’s recently been mandated that in order to pass a driving test, all learners must take time to check for cyclists before each manoeuvre.

Federal legislation now stipulates that in the case of an accident between a motor vehicle and a cyclist, the driver of the car is always deemed at fault as they are in charge of a ‘machine that can kill’. This is regardless of the cyclist’s behaviour and the circumstances surrounding the accident.

Bike lanes are seen as sacred turf in Holland. A two-year trial to allow scooter drivers to share the space alongside cyclists is about to be drawn to an end. Unsurprisingly, they’re being kicked back onto the road as they were deemed too noisy and too fast on what cyclists consider their home ground.

Dutch policy makers are all too familiar with claims that turning a valuable strip of streetscape into a bike lane will not provide a good return on investment. Holland’s Centre of Expertise on Bicycle Policy – Fietsberaad – refutes this by pointing out that cities that have seen a positive return in the dollars sunk into cycling infrastructure have been committed to it for years. There’s simply no point tinkering around the edges; long term visioning and commitment is a necessity.

Fietsberaad put the benefit of ‘cycling cities’ into perspective when they made the case that if every bike was replaced with a car in Utrecht, the whole city would come to a grinding halt.

However, in its current form, Utrecht is a bustling city with a huge population and few transport issues. Green travel policies with a huge focus on future plans for cycling are now at the heart of most politician’s election platforms.

beatification initiative has been implemented. Hundreds of gardeners are employed to cover tram tracks and power poles with greenery to make the infrastructure far easier on the eye and address any noise-related complaints through this living and breathing sound insulation.

Perth has had experience with beautifying its public transport infrastructure when sky blue electricity poles were installed along Kwinana Freeway in South Perth as part of the Southern Suburbs Railway line. Why not take it a step further with some living art that will create a more pleasant journey and a point of interest at very least?

What does all this mean for little ol’ Perth?

The opportunities for Perth to include TDM approaches in the way it reforms and expands its transport network are numerous.

However, some important lessons learnt from our European colleagues should be kept in mind when considering whichever route we march down in the future.

Firstly, a supportive culture is essential. We need leaders at all levels of government to be advocating for a sustainable transport system and stand by a bold, progressive vision of how they see Perth evolving in 10, 20 and 50 years from now.

Going public An essential element of the seamless integrated transport network across much of Western Europe is public transport. In cities like Freiburg, a suite of initiatives to encourage increased public transport patronage has been implemented. Multi-mode electronic transport cards (similar to Perth’s SmartRider) have been developed to allow easy access to services throughout the city and its surrounding regional networks. They’re an increasingly popular way to travel at a cost of 470€ ($660) a year.

A flat monthly or annual fare means any cost barriers for spontaneous trips outside of the daily commute don’t exist and people are far more likely to choose public transport. To promote this further, the card permits free travel for family members (two adults and four children) on Sundays to encourage regional day trips out of the city.

Freiburg also places huge value on ensuring public transport services are readily accessible - a new tramline was up and running to Freiburg’s newest suburb Rieselfeld, even before the first brick was laid. But apart from just providing an incredibly efficient service, Freiburg is keen to make it an attractive and positive addition to the city’s streetscapes. To this end, a ECO-CITIES JOURNAL 77

_MOVEMENT We need to employ a truly balanced approach when tackling transport issues. Even a small proportion of funds ear-marked for road infrastructure projects could go a long way into supporting alternative approaches. We need the resolve to defend a change in thinking and encourage the public to look past the likely implementation headaches towards the promise of a more efficient and integrated transport system.

Bipartisan support for long term transport projects and an agreed vision Perth’s transport system would help the city gain traction in the quest for a more sustainable future. This would help new leaders to resist the urge to discard progress made by the administrations they replace. Repetitive changes in direction and priority serve only as a setback when time is of the essence if we’re to future proof our city from the issues of peak oil and energy shortages.

All of this needs to be supported by communities capable of ignoring any NIMBY impulses and allow for a different type of city to be built. One that supports alternative forms of transport through medium to high-density hubs where the population can work, rest and play.

The recent publication of Directions 2031 and Perth Public Transport Plan are steps in the right direction. Considering the public’s positive reaction to policies like these, there’s now a real opportunity for our decision makers to take a leap of faith and propose something even bolder and more cutting-edge.

So, what do you suggest, wise guy?

Many of these gold standard examples of sustainable transport systems have taken decades to come to life in Europe. And while we have no wand to wave around and make them magically appear in Perth, there are many initiatives, strategies and solutions that can be implemented without a huge deal of fuss. It won’t happen overnight, but it can happen.

Stay Mobile, Stay Active The first item on our transport wish list is Perth’s own version of Freiburg’s purpose-built bicycle station and mobility centre, The Mobile.

Perth’s Mobile could stand as the ‘go to’ place for anyone wanting to know how to traverse our city in anything but a car. It could offer a range of seamless transport options for moving people, while supporting the central city’s economy and contributing to positive environmental and health outcomes.

Evidence shows that Perthites are very willing to change their daily transport behaviours once they learn that leaving their car in the garage isn’t the end of the world. People are often unaware of the public transport services available in their neighbourhood or the potential for a daily commute by bike to change a stressful

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peak-hour journey into a chance to burn off the morning’s bacon and eggs.

There are various natural champions of a Mobile with the City of Perth taking sustainable transport very seriously and the Department of Planning’s Capital City Planning Framework standing as a critical opportunity to promote such a concept.

With such a large parcel of land central to Perth’s transport system currently undergoing redevelopment, the opportunity to create a well-serviced and successful Mobile within the Perth City Link is too good to be overlooked. In the meantime, a temporary Mobile could be created elsewhere in the CBD, such as the 140 William Street complex.

From Lycra to leisure – cycling for everyone The Perth Bicycle Network set Perth decades ahead of any other Australian city when it was first conceived. Over the past few years, other cities have come to realise the true value of cycling and have surged ahead in terms of cycling promotion and infrastructure. In WA, we need a raft of support and education to increase public acceptance and uptake of cycling. This coupled with a boost in dedicated bike infrastructure with help solidify in people’s minds that paint on a road no longer constitutes a bike lane and sharing the road with a cyclist is a legitimate part of driving.

As shown by our European counterparts, for more people to get on a two-wheeler and not feel the pressure to don Lycra, a well-connected web of bike lanes and high-quality end-of-trip facilities at major employment nodes in the inner city is essential.

A redesign of intersections to give cyclists priority via bikefriendly signals and adequate space would also go a long way to seeing more than two percent of trips in Perth being made by bike.

Smart ideas – Smart programs There is scope in Perth to reconsider how we invest in our transport system and bring about a truly balanced funding approach. The benefits of behaviour change initiatives and other ‘soft’ options should be acknowledged in terms of their contribution to providing a more integrated, efficient and sustainable transport system.

From encouraging employees to catch the bus to work, to getting kids to walk to school, travel behaviour change programs, such as those under the TravelSmart banner, regularly have better cost benefit ratios than contracting cranes and compactors to provide a built solution.

We’ve been a world leader in this field for more than 10 years so let’s take the time to celebrate our many successful and innovative behaviour change initiatives. And let’s imagine for a second the type of city we’d create if we engaged an armada of changemakers to build a societal shift in how Perth people consider getting from A to B.

TO-D or not TO-D? That is the question.

Transit Oriented Development is the term given to the concept of creating vibrant, compact and walkable communities centred around train systems. Such nodes make it possible to live a higher quality life without complete dependence on a car for mobility and survival.

TODs have been catching on in Perth lately, with areas such as Subi Centro, Maylands and Cockburn Central being designed to make better use of their train stations.

As supported in Directions 2031 and Beyond, we need more high-density centres within stone’s throw of public transport to not only get more cars off our roads, but to demonstrate that living in walkable communities isn’t just a concept for Europeans.

being channelled into the State Integrated Transport Plan are a great start. Let’s just hope we’re at the start of a wave of longterm and bold visioning for our city.

Be a champ It’s remarkable what a community champion can do to change public perception of an issue. The power of celebrity has been used to sell us products for decades and has recently spread to the realm of TDM. There are many well known Perth identities who widely advocate for a more sustainable transport system and are able to garner much support for action.

However change does not always come from those who have made a name for themselves. It can start with regular people making a difference by voting with their feet and walking the talk.

Look to the horizon For big steps to be taken towards a more sustainable and coordinated transport system in Western Australia, several pieces of the ‘transport puzzle’ need to come together. Perth needs major investments in sustainable infrastructure, long term visioning and commitment and coordination between relevant stakeholders if it is going to surmount the challenges lurking around the corner.

We could help this along by empowering those with a passion for a more sustainable future to provide feedback on transport proposals and put their hands up to take part in community consultation sessions. Imagine if we could get everyone to take a leap into the unknown and leave their cars at home once in a while. Once they get out and enjoy this great city of ours, we’re sure to see a shift in the right direction.

This isn’t to say we aren’t making progress in the right direction.

Perth’s Public Transport Masterplan and the significant resources

In the words of Ghandi, ‘we must be the change we wish to see in the world’.

Cycle instead. Leidsche Rijn’s local planning team give tour delegates an insight into the development’s many bike-friendly elements

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WALK THE WALK GETTING OUT AND ABOUT CAN DO WONDERS FOR YOUR CITY, NOT JUST YOUR WAIST LINE, WRITES DOINA SMADU

In step. Walking was the mode of choice on the Study Tour as each city provided a comfortable pedestrian environment

Lars Gemzoe of Gehl Architects is on the record proclaiming: “in

the planning process, pedestrians are invisible”. By this he means cities have a lot of data on vehicular traffic and parking, but almost nothing on pedestrians. There is no data and no tradition for using statistics on pedestrian activities when decisions are made that influence public outdoor life. We have a Department for Transport, but we do not have a Department for ‘public life’.

Simply put, Australia is car-dependant. The tendency for mothers to take their children to school by car, even if it is 500 metres from home, is a growing concern.

A major goal in urban design is to reduce automobile dependence in order to address issues of viability and sustainability. One way of cutting down on motor vehicle emissions is to make it more pleasant to visit the city without your car close at hand. We need cities were it is a pleasure to walk. Residents and visitors will be more attracted to neighbourhoods where walking, biking and 82 ECO-CITIES JOURNAL

transit are all viable options for most trips.

Walking is the most universally accessible form of transport, the most natural, affordable, healthy and clean way of getting around, but requires more than feet and legs. It requires walkable streets – the fundamental building blocks of a sustainable city.

Indeed, great cities start with great pedestrian environments.

Copenhagen – a city with a vision Until 1962, all streets in the medieval city centre were filled with cars and all the squares were used as car parks. As car traffic increased, conditions for pedestrians were rapidly deteriorating.

On 17 November 1962, Copenhagen’s main street, Strøget was transformed into a pedestrian zone. This conversion was hotly debated at the time. People argued that a pedestrian street in Denmark would never work. However although scepticism was

high, the new car free environment proved extremely popular with local residents from the first day. This marked the beginning of a gradual transformation that has continued ever since.

Today Copenhagen has a vibrant city centre that attracts visitors throughout the year.

Today the city of Copenhagen has over 96000 m2 (of which 33% is street and 67% city squares) of car-free space. While pedestrian traffic levels have remained largely unchanged over past decades, activities connected with stopping and staying are almost four times greater than in 1968. During the summer months many of the pedestrian streets are full to capacity with people enjoying the many outdoor social and cultural activities. In the winter months attractions include festivals and outdoor ice-skating with cafés providing blankets to lure customers in and keep them there.

As the streets and squares in the city centre have been pedestrianised and improved, the area has become more attractive yet also less accessible for the motorist. The city authority has adopted an integrated traffic management strategy for its centre by:

Finally, reduce car parks and car access to the city, but do this slowly, to encounter less resistance. Instead of wide, noisy streets in and out of the city and six storey underground parking all over the city centre, Copenhagen has opted for fewer cars and an extremely attractive city centre. Copenhagen is living proof that it works.

Gehl Architects were commissioned to undertake the Public Spaces & Public Life in Perth study in 1994 and to review and update this work in 2009. These two studies, 15 years apart, give us an unique opportunity to compare our city over time, to see how it has improved as a place for people and where more has to be done.

Perth is at a crossroads. It can take many of Jan Gehl’s suggestions to heart and build a more vibrant city around people, or continue to spread out and reinforce the feeling of safety behind the wheel rather than out and about, walking the beat.

• limiting the number of parking spaces (charges for on-street parking are relatively high),

• reducing the number of lanes on several main routes into the city and using the space for bus and cycle lanes instead,

• restricting through traffic, and • developing the suburban train, bus and bicycle networks.

In the city centre, 80% of all journeys are made on foot, and 14% by bicycle. Car traffic in the city core has been reduced and congestion is not a problem.

The key to the success of these inner city transformations was undoubtedly the gradual way these rather drastic changes were made. This incremental approach has given residents time to adapt, to change from driving and parking their cars to walking, using bicycles and public transport.

Above: The Strøget, Copenhagen’s famous pedestrianised street Below: A disused freight line is transformed into yet another valuable green space

So how does a city bring back people?

Jan Gehl suggests a range of ideas, some of which have already been adopted in Perth, including widening footpaths to encourage, among other things, the spread of outdoor cafes and other kinds of street life. He recommends installing attractive benches and street paving as people are drawn to crowded, bustling spaces and make detours on their walking journeys to pass through busy streets while pensioners take long bus journeys just to pass a morning. As a Scandinavian proverb puts it: “People come where people are.”

One idea that would work particularly well in Perth is to encourage students to live in the city. Their liveliness and public lifestyles bring instant life and interest to a city.

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ON YA BIKE JASON BOUWHUIS GIVES AN INSIGHT INTO WHY SO MANY EUROPEANS ARE CHOOSING TWO WHEELS OVER FOUR Holland’s love affair with two wheels

WE

There are more bicycles than people in Holland with 16.5 million people compared to 18 million bikes. Indeed, 27% of all trips are made by bike due in part to its flat geography and dense population.

Within the City of Copenhagen, bikes travelling to and from work provide the highest patronage as detailed in the table below.

The Dutch have an inate understanding of what’s required to get people out and about on two wheels. All bicycle planning and construction is funded by the National government with the initial infrastructure cost heavily outweighing expected patronage levels, in full knowledge that the investment will be worthwhile with increased bicycle use sure to be realised at some point in the future.

CPH

MODE

PERCENTAGE

Bike Car Public Transport Walk

36% 27% 33% 5%

The mode share for different modes of commuter transport within Copenhagen

Freiburg gets mobile

Conclusion

Within the municipality of Freiburg, there are many opportunities for bike parking to complement other forms of public transport such as trams, trains or buses. To add to this, car traffic has been limited in the city centre and managed by the implementation of an integrated public transport system.

Higher cycling rates in Europe as compared to Perth are due to a variety of reasons. Densities in European cities are generally much higher than in Australia (80 dwellings per hectare as compared to 10) and houses in Europe are significantly smaller with many in the range of 100m3 to 140m3 as a consequence of coping with the colder climate.

The Mobile, a circular bike parking, hire and repairs facility abutting the tram and major railway station acts as an excellent hib for cyclists to convene from across the city. Its green features are compounded by a purpose-built bridge for the exclusive use of pedestrians and bikes, parking for 1000 bikes and solar panels designed to assist in its energy efficiency.

Perth should seriously consider a similar facility as part of the Perth City Link project. A place to park up to 1000 bikes next to Perth train station would surely be a popular facility for workers and tourists alike.

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However, there are other factors that affect cycling rates that are less difficult to remedy. In Europe, helmets are worn on a voluntary basis because the added acceptance of bikes as a valid and respectable form of transport. This promotes more recreational cycling and safer driving from motorists.

Copenhagen’s cyclists can travel longer distances by incorporating a train trip, on either side of their bike ride, using designated bike carriages inside regional trains Above: Locals ride en masse on Copenhagen’s clearly marked cycle network

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MOVING THE MASSES MANY EUROPEAN CITIES ARE BREAKING FREE OF THEIR OBSESSION WITH CARS AND MOVING ONTO GREENER PASTURES, WRITES LAWRENCE MAN Australians have it pretty lucky.

We step out of our houses, leap into our cars and drive to our places of work or play. But this convenience doesn’t look like it will be able to last forever. In an era of peak oil, climate change and traffic congestion, the likelihood for us being able to rely on our cars this is drawing to an end.

During the Eco-Cities Study Tour, the delegates looked at an ‘ecoresponse’ to our cities, recognising that movement is a critical component in the way we function.

Freiburg – High speed rail into the country and beyond With the Tour starting in Freiburg, all delegates were met with the task of getting to the south-western German town. With a hub and spoke aviation system, delegates left Australia and arrived in one of the major Europeans centres such as Zurich, Frankfurt or London and used the Deutsche Bahn high-speed and regional services to connect to Freiburg, a town of less than 200,000.

By convening outside of a major city all delegates had a variety of transport options, however everyone chose high-speed rail to reach Freiburg. In an Australian context, delegates would have been dependent on driving, using a slower regional bus service to reach the town or transferring to a regional flight – at great cost and questionable availability.

The delegates demonstrated how public transport has replaced the automobile through the provision of a fast, comprehensive and convenient service.

With the challenge of decarbonising our economy, high-speed rail demonstrates that people are prepared to adapt and utilise alternative transport modes. The delegates travelling to Freiburg demonstrated that they could easily choose a significantly less carbon intensive mode of transport when it is readily useable and attractive even when challenged in unfamiliar surroundings.

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Duisburg – Light Rail + Metro = Stadtbahn Duisburg, like many former Western Germany cities in the 1960s, pursued a plan of providing light rail for its public transport system during a period of rising vehicle ownership. However, due to limited funding at the time, the intent was for the system to grow with the cities and be progressively upgraded to become a full metro system in the future as budget permitted.

As a result, Duisburg is one of several places internationally that features a type of light rail system that operates underground as well. Known as the Stadtbahn, it is also referred to as tram-train, and pre-metro. Although light rail is generally considered as an above ground mode of transport, what Duisburg has showcased is the use of the same technology but underground in locations such as the inner city and where road space becomes constrained.

Light rail is often described as a panacea to many urban mobility issues but in Duisburg, a hybrid approach has been used to enable subway or metro-like services in areas of peak demand and environmental constraint.

In an Australian context, Melbourne has applied this to some degree with the City Loop that converts it heavy rail system in to an underground metro-esque system while in the city. This evolutionary approach that has been adopted in Duisburg should be taken into consideration with the future undertaking of light rail plans in Australian cities.

Utrecht – rebuilding a TOD Forming part of the Randstad with The Hague, Rotterdam and Amsterdam, Utrecht is the smallest but most centrally located of all the four cities, which has enabled the centre to grow as a transportation hub.

With the Utrecht Centraal train station already operating in excess of capacity, a major initiative is underway to redevelop

and expand. This will improve upon the shopping experience of the existing adjoining and over-congested shopping centre, add new theatres, cinemas and a casino, restore previous canal networks for pedestrian and cycling, and improve connections to the historical city centre.

With the integration of a European high-speed rail network, Utrecht’s role as a key transport hub will continue to grow. The city-scale planning to reconfigure major precincts in preparation of these developments represents foresight in transport-led development.

Groningen – a bike station of Goliath proportions The city of Groningen is synonymous with cycling. With a population of 216,000 people, its residents pride themselves on being the world’s most cycle-mad city with nearly 60% of all trips done by bike. It leads the way for ‘cycling instead’.

But with all this cycling, as a matter of course there are a lot of bikes not in use and bicycle parking is becoming a major issue. Groningen has demonstrated vision by anticipating cycling growth and has successfully undertaken a major renovation to its central station forecourt to accommodate this.

An underground facility was designed to accommodate 4150 bicycles, which is manned by facility managers and monitored by CCTV to improve security. To accompany this facility is a shop selling and repairing bikes as well operators promoting cycletourism.

The popularity of the facility is extremely apparent with the facility needing to be expanded with double storey bike parking racks and the provision of additional temporary and short term parking due to burgeoning demand. This long-term foresight has been instrumental in enhancing cycling as an alternative mode of transport in Groningen and has become a model for both Netherlands and the rest of the world.

Copenhagen – road space is for all In Australia, when we think roads the usual first reaction would be about bitumen and the number of lanes – a rather cardominated perspective when it comes to the consideration of all road users. Through the work of various urbanists including the widely acclaimed Jan Gehl, the concept is changing with road space thought to be shared among all users regardless if they are pedestrians, cyclists or alfresco diners.

Copenhagen has been a world leader in pedestrianisation and transforming roads into public spaces. Pioneers in sharedspace, all modes of transport including pedestrians and cars share the available road area for transport. Although the Danes comprehensively provide cycle lanes to separate road users, when car speeds are significantly reduced and the environment permits, separate bike paths are removed altogether.

Wide pedestrian paths are provided to encourage ‘humanspeed’ traffic and allows for shops, restaurants, bars and cafes to overflow onto the street. Copenhagen has demonstrated a better approach to transform roads into great streets.

To the minute. The Deutsche Bahn regional rail system connects Freiburg to the rest of Germany and beyond. Stations are easy to navigate, scheduling is accurate and trains provide a comfortable, fast service - often making rail the number one choice for regional and international travel

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ARTICLES A GUIDE TO MAKING YOUR CITY GREEN AND SEEN FREIBURG HAS BROUGHT THE CONCEPT OF SUSTAINABILITY OUT OF THE TEXTBOOK AND ONTO THE STREET, WRITES EMIKO WATANABE YES IN MY BACKYARD MATT BEER EXPLAINS WHY POWER GENERATION WITHIN STONE’S THROW IS A MORE THAN JUST A GOOD IDEA

GREEN

_GREEN

A GUIDE TO MAKING YOUR CITY GREEN AND SEEN FREIBURG HAS BROUGHT THE CONCEPT OF SUSTAINABILITY OUT OF THE TEXTBOOK AND ONTO THE STREET, WRITES EMIKO WATANABE The picturesque city of Freiburg, located on the edge of the Black Forest, is known as Germany’s ‘green capital’. Since the 1970s, the residents of Freiburg have been committed to sustainable development. By 1986, the City of Freiburg adopted a vision that embraced long-term energy supply options, giving birth to the SolarRegion vision. This policy approach favoured renewable energy over the conventional energy generation of fossil fuels and nuclear.

Thanks to those progressive decisions, Freiburg can now boast over 500 solar energy projects ranging from residential houses, office buildings, institutions and clubs, public buildings to hotels and department stores. In addition, trams in Freiburg are powered from a mix of 80% hydropower and 20% other renewables.

Currently co-generation plants supply 50% of the city’s electricity with another 30% sourced from nuclear. The common objective in Freiburg’s energy reduction targets and renewable energy policies is to reduce the dependence on nuclear energy. Between 1993 and 2007, the city reduced its carbon dioxide emissions by 16%. An enormous effort considering their resolution in 1996 was to reduce emissions by 25% by 2010 (on 1992 levels).

The SolarRegion policy is a seven-pronged approach and is truly an example of sustainable development, taking into account the social, economic and environmental aspects of developing a city and a region. The policy addresses the following areas.

Employment Encouraging the increase of the solar industry in Freiburg also secures jobs and contributes to the economy. Solar-Fabrik (Solar Factory) was established in 1996 as a small to medium size enterprise and has become the most successful producer of 90 ECO-CITIES JOURNAL

photovoltaic panels in the German market. Being able to attract and foster the solar industry also means that any photovoltaics used in the City’s projects is all produced locally and contributing to the local economy.

Community commitment The City of Freiburg acknowledges that economics, political will and municipal decision-making processes are only part of the equation of a successful transition to renewable energy. The residents and overall community of Freiburg must be actively engaged and committed to achieving the vision. The ‘Regio’ solar power plant is a network of large photovoltaic installations in various locations, where individuals are involved as shareholders.

One such project is the solar installation on the roof of the Freiburg soccer stadium. Involving the community and creating makes these projects possible.

Tourism There are various solar energy installations at tourist destinations, including the Hotel Victoria, solar café in Kirchzarten and the Strandbad swimming pool heated by solar thermal absorbers.

There are also two Solar Towers at the central station, providing an entry statement to tourists and visitors to the city. Freiburg now has a reputation globally as being an innovative city in terms of its renewable energy policies and projects, and attracts tourists who visit purely to see these projects firsthand as evidenced by Freiburg being on the itinerary of this study tour.

Building and housing The City acknowledges that just putting solar photovoltaics on every roof is not going to be a sustainable and viable approach.

A bright future. Green developments, such as the mixed-use ‘Sonnenschiff’ in Freiburg, have shown how modern sustainable architecture can be woven into the existing city with great success. This building was the first ‘plus energy’ commercial development in the world

For this reason, there have been various experiments in energy efficient and solar passive design in building and housing projects. Notable examples include the self-sufficient solar house by the Fraunhofer Institute and Rolf Disch’s rotating solar house Heliotrope, which is one of the earliest residential experiments in solar architecture being built in 1994.

Plusenergiehäuser (“surplus energy houses”) is a concept that has been applied to the Schlierberg solar estate to generate more energy than is consumed operationally. Vauban and Reiselfeld are newer districts that have adopted low-energy housing standards that are stricter than the German average standard for housing.

Research and development Freiburg is home to the Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems, one of the largest European solar energy research institutes. The Fraunhofer Institute develops systems, components, materials processes for buildings and building services technology, solar cells, off-grid power supplies and grid-connected renewable energy systems. The International Solar Energy Society also has its headquarters in Freiburg since 1995 and relocated from the

United States due to the solar infrastructure in the region. Having a reputation for research and development goes hand in hand with attracting solar industry players to Freiburg.

Financing and marketing Badenova is the regional power supply provider and offers a subsidy scheme for customers who install photovoltaic panels and for thermal collectors. The program is financed from electricity sold under the name ‘regiostrom’, where the tariff is slightly higher than the standard rate and funds from the tariff are invested directly into further regiostrom plants including photovoltaics, biomass and small-scale hydropower. This allows Badenova to continually increase sustainable electricity generation options into the energy mix. Other examples of financing options that have been successfully implemented include cooperative models of participation and financing on a shareholder basis.

Education and training Underpinning the success of creating a solar region are appropriate skills training and education. The Richard Fehrenbach vocational college provides technical skills in planning, installation ECO-CITIES JOURNAL 91

_GREEN and maintenance of solar energy applications. In addition to technical training, more than a quarter of schools in Freiburg run their own solar projects.

The City acknowledges that renewables still made up only 3% of the electricity supply mix as of in 2003 and that without subsidies in place, solar photovoltaics are still costly in the market for builders and developers. The German Federal government’s Renewable Energy Sources Act adopted in 2000 and revised in 2009 stipulates a feed-in tariff of 45.7 Euro cents per kilowatt hour, guaranteed over 20 years. The standard electricity rate is

15 – 20 Euro cents. The outcome of this was to increase the Federal share of renewable energy in the electricity market from 5% to 10% by 2010. In 2009, Germany’s renewable energy as a share of total gross electricity consumption was 16.1%.

Germany now aims to boost the share of renewable energy to 50% of its electricity generation by 2030.

In August 2010, Western Australia announced a residential net feed-in tariff of 40 cents per kilowatt-hour (kWh) for exported energy (approximately .28 Euro/kWh) to encourage the uptake of renewable energy at the residential scale. This heavily influenced the residential demand for solar panels, to the point where the State government was forced to halve and later abolished the feed-in tariff to reduce costs to the budget. Whilst not ideal, the policy stimulated demand, although we still have a long way to go before reaching the levels of uptake in Freiburg.

Housing energy standards: Germany and Australia Home energy rating systems used in Germany and Australia are not directly comparable, as the German system takes into account both primary energy as well as the thermal performance of the building envelope (i.e. energy required to heat or cool the home) and energy use in hot water, whereas the Australian system only takes into account thermal performance of the building envelope.

Therefore, the German system is more holistic and considers the whole life cycle of the energy consumed in a home.

In Australia, the Building Code of Australia 2010 stipulates the minimum energy requirements of residential buildings. Buildings must achieve a minimum of a 6-star rating as per the National House Energy Rating Scheme. Star ratings are set for various climate zones. A 6-star rating in a typical Perth climate equates to a maximum annual energy consumption of 70 MJ/m2 or 19.4 kWh/m2 for heating and cooling. Energy certificates that assess the building are not mandatory.

Top: Sport Club Stadion, Freiburg. An array of solar panels on the roof of the local soccer stadium Above: Europe’s first zero-emissions solar module factory which uses only renewable energy sources for electricity and heat. Modules cover the entire facade and are angled for optimum solar passive design. Some 575 m2 of pbotovoltaic modules supply around one-fifth of the electricity needed in the factory Below: Solar power plant on the roof of the Fair & Convention Centre. The “Neue Messe” installation has long been the biggest solar array in the state of BadenWürttemberg [Solar-Fabrik AG, Freiburg]

The average annual energy standard for new homes in Germany constructed between 1995 and 2000 was about 100 kWh/m2 and the standard of older houses is about 200 kWh/m2. The German legislation is governed by ENEV 2009 and energy certificates that assess buildings are mandatory.

In Vauban and Rieselfeld, the neighbourhood set a new building standard, requiring all new buildings to be built with an annual energy use of at least 65 kWh/m2. These two districts are examples of low-energy construction developments, a direct outcome of a move towards energy efficiency in housing with low-energy standards having been made a requirement as part of the land development contract.

REFERENCES www.bcap-ocean.org/state-country/germany www.vauban.de

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Little Miss Sunshine: Freiburg or Perth?

Freiburg isn’t just comparable to California because of its solar energy installations.

The City is also in one of the sunniest regions in Germany, which is what makes solar energy so attractive and why SolarRegion works. But wait, isn’t Perth even sunnier?

Approximate solar irradiation data for Freiburg and Australian cities are provided below.

CITY Freiburg Perth / Brisbane Sydney Melbourne

ANNUAL AVERAGE

DAILY AVERAGE

1,117 kWh/m

3.1 kWh/m2

1,615 kWh/m2

4.43 kWh/m2

1,367 kWh/m2

3.74 kWh/m2

1,118 kWh/m2

3.06 kWh/m2

2

A real plus. These houses form part of Freiburg’s ‘Sonnenschiff’ development and generate more energy than they use

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YES IN MY BACKYARD MATT BEER EXPLAINS WHY POWER GENERATION WITHIN STONE’S THROW IS A MORE THAN JUST A GOOD IDEA The

thought of living next door to a small coal-fired power station would appal most Australians however for the citizens of Freiburg, this is starting to become the norm. Why might you ask?

Well it is all to do with efficiency. Most of the modern world relies on a centralised energy generation, which generally is around 25-40% efficient yet the small power stations in Freiburg are around 90% efficient. How is this possible?

The high efficiency is possible by the use of a technology called ‘cogeneration’ also known as ‘cogen’ or ‘combined heat and power’. Traditional power generation relies on burning a material (usually a fossil fuel) to produce heat, which is then used to heat water into steam and spin a turbine. The inherent inefficiency of this type of generation is that most of the energy produced is heat which is usually wasted. As a general rule of thumb, traditional power stations produce roughly one third electricity and two thirds heat so this is a significant proportion being wasted. Cogen plants operate in much the same manner however the capture this heat for domestic or industrial purposes. In fact you could say cogeneration isn’t a new technology but rather a form of energy recycling or waste heat recovery.

The advantage of cogeneration is that it avoids the production of this heat later on as the image below notes. The Combined Heat & Power (CHP) side uses approximately 40% less fuel than separate power & heat generation which results in a similar reduction for greenhouse gas emissions. The secret to successful cogeneration is not the technology of electricity production but how this ‘waste heat’ can be used and how the plant can be integrated into the surrounding environment. There are two issues with using this heat that need to be overcome before cogeneration is possible: distance and purpose.

As the majority of energy production in Australia is large (200MW+) coal based power plants, usually located in close proximity of coal mines and far away from the population it is providing for, there is very little environment to integrate with and find ways for this heat to be used. This is why cogeneration plants need to be small (5MW or less) and decentralised, preferably near population centres. This maximises the opportunity for residents, businesses or industry to use this heat.

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The quality of heat is also a major factor in how it can be used.

What determines the quality of the heat is the energy density of the substance (heat capacity) and the temperature of it. For electricity generation the water produced from the boiler can be in the range of 300-500°C while the flue gases (hot air) that heated this water can be above 1000°C. In this case the heated water has a better ‘heat quality’ as is easier to use despite it being a lower temperature.

For cogeneration both these heat streams have the capability of being used after they have surpassed their usefulness in power generation. The use with other industrial processes is an obvious choice due to the degree in which high temperatures are required. But here lies the rub. Engineers generally consider water of around 100°C or lower as ‘used up’ as the cost benefit to extract the remaining energy never stacks up. This, in energy terms, is far from the truth and this is exactly the temperature range that is required for residential heating.

The above logic is why the city of Freiburg, and indeed many other European cities, are achieve their goals of creating more sustainable cities by increasingly turning to small-scale decentralised cogeneration as a means of energy production.

The overall energy and cost efficiency of this approach makes a lot of sense as well as being a significant strategy towards reducing greenhouse gas emissions.

Currently Freiburg has approximately 50% of its energy supplied from around 90 cogeneration plants. This is in contrast to a 4% contribution that renewable energies, such as solar, account for despite the higher profile these technologies enjoy. Cogeneration plants are scattered throughout the town in a decentralised manner. New housing projects such as Rieselfeld have been built on top of a district heating grid of insulated pipes to better utilise the heat from these plants.

There is in fact a small lie in the first paragraph with regards to all the people of Freiburg living next to a coal-fired power station. A wide manner of fuels are being used in cogeneration plants, coal being just one of them. In Germany, coal accounts for roughly 51% of cogeneration, natural gas 42%, with other

“

FREIBURG HAS AROUND HALF OF ITS ENERGY SUPPLIED FROM MORE THAN 80 COGENERATION PLANTS

”

Not afraid to try new technology. A woodchip fired cogeneration plant has been installed in the Vauban district of Freiburg [Image: Franziska Breyer, 2009]

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_GREEN fuels accounting for the remaining 7%. There is, however, great promise in ‘other fuels’. Biomass based fuels such as biogas from landfill or wastewater treatment, wood or even vegetable oils have been used in cogeneration plants. This enables cogeneration to be carbon neutral as the eventual waste product has come from the atmosphere. There have been some teething problems with these new technologies, as the wood chip based cogeneration plant next to the Freiburg suburb of Vauban has experienced, but the advantages of using waste streams which are less carbon intensive should see these issues resolved in the near future.

It is true that there is less of an argument for cogeneration in Australia than countries with colder and less variable climates, but it is not to say there is no argument. Rather we will have to be more creative in integrating systems within our community. Good urban planning which factors in a more decentralised approach and these linkages is critical to laying the platform on which cogeneration can grow.

So what lessons can we in Australia take from the approach being rapidly adopted in Europe? Well admittedly it does make much more sense for district heating systems in the colder European climate than it does in Australia. However energy statistics suggest this opinion might not be strictly true. As demonstrated below, in 2007 heating water and rooms in our homes accounted for roughly 60% of residential energy use compared to 3% for cooling which shows there is plenty of opportunity for district heating in Australia, especially for hot water requirements.

Common sense still dictates that district heating makes much more sense for cities and towns in Victoria or Tasmania than those in Queensland. Besides what happens during summer? It is possible to cool things using waste heat via absorption chillers. However it is likely that this will only make practical and economic sense in areas of very high density such as a CBD. All this goes to show that there will have to be more investigation into possible uses of low-grade heat in the Australian landscape and justification for the higher investment costs, but it is an energy source that can be exploited.

Stepping back from all this it is important to note the inherent inefficiencies of Australia’s current centralised energy generation system. Cogeneration is a relatively unknown but important approach to improving the energy efficiency of electrical grids while simultaneously reducing carbon emissions. It achieves this through the utilisation of the main form of waste – heat.

Having a more decentralised grid with many small generation units increases the opportunities of how this heat can be used.

Water Heating 23%

Space Cooling 3% Appliances 31%

38% Space Heating

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5% Cooking

Top: Heat extractors add a touch of class to an outdoor area, Freiburg Above: Although it may look technical, cogen plants are relatively easy to maintain Left: Breakdown of energy use in the Australian residential sector [DEHWA, 2008]

Not just a pretty face. This large scale co-gen plant services the Utrecht University but also serves as a striking architectual statement within the De Uithof campus grounds [Image: @Dr_Bob]

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Full-page photo descriptions Front page: To scale. A detailed model shows the regeneration planned for Utrecht’s Centraal Train Station and surrounds Page 2 – 3: Taking the plunge. A groups of Danes enjoy a swim in the crystal clear waters of Copenhagen’s harbour, rehabilitated from its industrial past by progressive cleaning programs.

Pages 4 – 5: (large image) The Swedes prove their design credentials aren’t limited to IKEA at Bo01, Malmö. (Small images – left to right) ‘Smarties’ student housing building at de Uithof University, Utrecht; an illuminative stairwell in Zollverein, a former coal-fired power plant, Essen; locals soak in the sun along a regenerated waterfront, Copenhagen; Active travel takes many forms, Groningen; A solar array at the main train station welcomes visitors to Germany’s SolarRegion, Freiburg Page 11: On track. A 14-hour night train from Utrecht to Copenhagen was a highlight for many delegates Page 13: Striptease! A disused train line has been transformed into a well-used linear park come median strip in Vesterbro, Copenhagen Page 33: No longer an ugly duckling. The transformation of Werhahnmühle, a former flour mill, has helped to reshape Europe’s largest inland harbour into a hub for living, commerce, entertainment and culture, Duisburg Pages 50 – 51: A bright future. The Ruhr Valley has injected life and colour into its industrial relics, such as Landschaftspark, which has, in turn, created worldfamous cultural and tourist destinations, Duisburg [Image: @Nitram75] Page 55: At play. A father overlooks his kids as they play along one of the many child-friendly paths in Vauban, Freiburg Pages 66 – 67: A ray of light. Solar arrays have been incorporated into this revitalised Hedebygade apartment block, Copenhagen Page 71: Tricky stuff! Young people engaging with public spaces, such as Jahrhunderthalle, is something to be encouraged, not shunned, Bochum Pages 80 – 81: Learning by playing. Scooters are the mode of choice for German kindergartens, Freiburg Page 89: Swale of a time. Reed beds and waterways remediate Westpark’s contaminated soils, Bochum Back page: A street festival reminds the Dutch to keep thinking big, Utrecht

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