Pollution from road traffic

P O L L U T I O N F R O M R OA D T R A F F I C - focus on particles and nitrogen oxides

TA B L E O F CO N T E N T A significant health problem • 3 Particles and nitrogen oxides • 5 Technical solutions • 10 Quit ineffective open filters • 13 Violation the EU-legislation • 15 Case study: Danish environmental zones • 17 Environmental zones for the future • 18 Suing the state • 19 Chip tuning • 21 Non-road diesel engines • 22 Green taxation • 23

ISBN: 978-87-92044-22-8 Text: Kåre Press-Kristensen and Christian Ege Layout: Design Konsortiet, Hanne Koch Photos: Søren Dyck-Madsen, Kåre Press-Kristensen and Dinex Print: Økotryk, printed after the principles of the Nordic swan ecolabel Edition: 1. revised edition, 1. printing – May 2011 The booklet can be downloaded from the homepage of the Danish Ecocouncil: www.ecocoulcil.dk The booklet is free and can be ordered through the Danish Ecocouncil against payment of postage and costs of expedition.

Citation, copying and other use of the booklet is permitted under citation of the source.

This English version is funded by the Danish Ministry of Education's (Tips- and Lotto funding).

Copyright: The Danish Ecocouncil

Published by:

The Danish Ecocouncil Blegdamsvej 4B 2200 Copenhagen N Denmark Phone: (+45) 3315 0977 E-mail:info@ecocouncil.dk www.ecocouncil.dk

2

A S I G N I F I C A N T H E A LT H P R O B L E M Air pollution from traffic is an important cause of

Danes are daily exposed to dangerous air pollu-

cause cardiovascular diseases, blood clots, airway

Environmental Research Institute of Denmark

death in larger cities. The pollution is known to diseases and cancer.

A comprehensive Dutch study shows that there is

approximately 50 % excess mortality among people living less than 50 meters from a road with

tion. And a new report from the National

underlines that the health damages causes

abroad from Danish air pollution are above five times higher than the damages caused in Denmark.

heavy traffic. Heavy traffic is defined as roads with

All road users are exposed to the pollution. Car

100,000 people in Copenhagen are in this group.

the car where the air only slowly replaces. Cyclists

above 10,000 vehicles a day. Approximately

This corresponds to additional 500 deaths every

year. For comparison the average deaths caused by traffic accidents is 10-15 people. Consequently,

more than 30 times more people die from pollu-

tion caused by traffic than by traffic accidents in

Copenhagen. In addition, the air pollution is believed to cause thousand of bronchitis cases, ten

thousands of asthma attacks and other serious

diseases. Finally, air pollution is suspected to be

users as well since the pollution is ventilated into

have a faster breath and can thereby theoretically inhale more pollution. However, the exercise rela-

ted health benefit from riding a bike are much larger than the negative effect of the air pollution.

Air pollution from traffic can as well be a serious work-related problem for drivers, carriers, road

workers etc. Finally, air pollution can enter homes next to roads with heavy traffic.

damaging to foetuses and to contribute to serious

Today it is well documented that air pollutants

Parkinson’s and Alzheimer’s.

ging gas nitrogen dioxide (NO2) is a threat to pub-

diseases in the central nerve system like

However, it is not only the citizens of Copenhagen that suffers from air pollution. According to a

2008-report from OECD about the state of the Danish environment approximately 1 million

from traffic in terms of particles and the dama-

lic health. Ultrafine particles from diesel vehicles

are of special concern in the newest research since the size of these particles allows them to penetrate into the finest parts of the lungs and enter the bloodstream. Furthermore, ultrafine particles are

There is approx. 50 % excess mortality among people living less than 50 meters from a road with heavy traffic 3

Table 1 Heavy vehicles

Vans

Mortality

800

475

Chronic bronchitis

800

475

Hospitalization

Acute bronchitis Asthma attack B-days1

875

2,800

30,600

435,000

525

1,650

22,950

260,000

Taxies 15

20

15

60

650

9,250

Estimation of health effects caused by ultrafine particles from different vehicles categories in Denmark.

1) B-days are days with decreased productivity due to illness. Ref: Samfundsøkonomisk vurdering af partikelfiltre (in Danish), Environmental Assessment Institute of Denmark, 2002. believed to penetrate the nose mucous membrane

Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) reduces the function of

mainly cause a local effect, the larger particles can

Furthermore, NO2 contributes to secondary partic-

and enter the brain. While ultrafine particles

be transported above large distances and thereby expose many people in Denmark and abroad.

Table 1 shows some estimated health effects in

Denmark caused by ultrafine particles from diffe-

rent vehicles categories. To these numbers should

the lungs and lungs resistance towards infections. le formation in the atmosphere and thereby to

pollution far from the primary pollution source.

Finally, NO2 contributes to eutrophication of oli-

gothrophic ecosystems and acid rain (nitric acid) and thereby nature destruction.

be added health effects from the increasing num-

Other sources of particle pollution exists e.g. wood

from larger particles and nitrogen oxides causing

However, in cities with moderate dilution combi-

ber of private diesel cars and the regional effects general damage in Denmark and abroad.

stoves, non-road diesel engines and ships.

ned with high population density the traffic is the

dominating source to pollution with ultrafine par-

ticles and nitrogen dioxide. Especially, diesel vehicles: Trucks, busses, vans, taxies, private diesel cars and non-road diesel engines.

Consequently, the main focus of this booklet is on health effects caused by diesel vehicles in cities and methods to limit the pollution.

4

PA RT I C L E S A N D N I T R O G E N OX I D E S Particles are solid matter with a

Table 2

Further classification can be done by size: Coarse, fine, ultrafine and nanoparticles (see Table 2).

Notice that the amount of PM10 and PM2.5 is measured in mass whereas ultrafine particles and

Term and measurement

Size, PMXX (diameter, micrometer)

diameter less than 10 micrometers.

Coarse particles

< 10

Fine particles

< 2.5

Ultrafine particles

< 0.1

Nanoparticles

< 0.03

PM10: Mass PM2.5: Mass

PM0.1: Number PM0.03: Number

Characterization of the different types of particles.

nanoparticles are measured in

numbers. The larger particles constitute the majo-

Ultrafine particles and nanoparticles origins from

of the total particle number. On the other hand,

particles origins form regional transport (back-

rity of the total particle mass but only a small part ultrafine particles (PM0.1) and nanoparticles constitute the majority of the total particle number

but an insignificant part of the total particle mass

the exhaust gas, while the majority of the larger

ground pollution), dust from tearing of road, tires and brakes, road and salt dust etc. (Figure 1)

(see Figure 1).

Number

Mass

Condensates (traffic)

Secondary particles (regional transport) Soot (traffic)

0.001

0.01

0.1

Coarse particles (dust from road, tyres etc.)

Brake dust (traffic) 1

10

100 Âľm

Nanoparticles (PM0.03) Ultrafine particles (PM0.1) Fine particles (PM2.5) Particles in air (PM10) Figure 1: Larger particles dominate the total particle mass, while the total number of particles is dominated by ultrafine particle and nanoparticles.

Ref.: Luftforurening med partikler i Danmark (In Danish), Danish EPA 2005.

5

Danish emission of PM10

Danish emission of PM2.5

Other 13%

Other 7% Transport 13%

Agriculture 6%

Agriculture 1% Transport 16%

Households 65% Households 61% Figure 2: Emissions of PM10 and PM2.5 (measured as mass) from Danish anthropogenic sources.

Particles from households are mainly from private wood burning.

Ref: National Environmental Research Institute.

Ultrafine particles from traffic are considered as

Transport constitutes a smaller part of the Danish

dominate the total number of particles it is of vital

However, at the most polluted roads in Denmark

very hazardous to health. Since these particles

importance to consider the number of particles

and not just the mass. However, there is no legislation on measuring the number of particles or limit

pollution with PM10 and PM2.5 (see figure 2).

(e.g. H.C. Andersens Boulevard in Copenhagen) road transport constitute about 50 % of the PM10 and 25 % of the PM2.5 pollution. About 25 % of the

ledge regarding the pollution sources are mainly

PM10 and 50 % of the PM2.5 pollution originate from the car exhaust gas (see Figure 3).

PM10 pollution from traffic at H.C. Andersen Boulevard

PM2.5 pollution from traffic at H.C. Andersen Boulevard

values for ultrafine particles. Therefore the knowregarding PM10 and PM2.5 (see Figure 2).

Road salt 24%

Road salt 7%

Exhaust 25%

Exhaust 51%

Road dust 32% Brakes 8%

Road dust 43%

Brakes 10%

Figure 3: PM10- and PM2.5 pollution (in mass) from traffic at H. C. Andersens Boulevard in Copenhagen.

Ref; Modified from Luftforurening med partikler i Danmark (in Danish), Danish EPA 2005.

6

Particles (PM2.5) from traffic

Mopeds 2% Cars 21%

Particle number (1014/km) Diesel cars

Delivery vans

Smaller trucks

Delivery vans 44% Figur 4a

Larger trucks Busses

Heavy vehicles 33%

1.1

4.4 36 73

18.3

Figur 4b

Figure 4: Distribution of PM2.5 pollution (measured as mass) and emission factors in numbers distributed among different vehicle categories without particulate filters.

Ref: Modified from Luftforurening med partikler i Danmark (in Danish), Danish EPA 2005.

Consequently, only about 12.5 % of the PM10 and

PM2.5 pollution at H.C Andersens Boulevard is caused by the exhaust from local traffic. However, the exhaust from traffic is the dominating source to ultrafine particles. On roads with heavy traffic more than 90 % of the ultrafine particles will

Catalytic converters have been required on all new gasoline cars since 1993. However, mopeds do not have catalytic converters and together with an

ineffective fuel burning they have a high pollution per km.

often originate from local traffic exhaust. Since

The different types of particles have very different

ful it should be a main focus to reduce the concen-

differently on regional and international scale of

ultrafine particles are considered to be very harmtration (number) of ultrafine particles.

Heavy vehicles and delivery vans account for a significant part of pollution with PM2.5 (figure 4a).

It is believed that these vehicle categories will con-

properties in terms of spreading thus contributing the air pollution. The largest particles (PM10) stay shortly in the air due to their high density and are thereby not transported far. Ultrafine particles

have a rather short lifetime in air and are therefore not transported far either. However, the fine

particles as well due to their high emission factors

particles (PM2.5) have a long lifetime in the atmosphere and can be transported abroad.

vans in terms of numbers accounts for a small

atmosphere as well from gasses.

tribute significantly to the pollution with ultrafine (see figure 4b) even though heavy vehicles and

portion of the overall traffic (Figure 7). The emis-

sion factors vary significantly depending on age, motor maintenance, filter-equipped or not etc.

Gasoline engines create particles too but in much lower concentrations compared to diesel cars. At the same time catalytic converters on gasoline cars remove most of the created particles.

Furthermore, many fine particles are formed in the

Danish pollution thereby contributes to pollution and health effects abroad. And Denmark imports most of the pollution with fine particles from other countries. The European Environmental

Agency has calculated the number of lost years in Europe due to pollution with fine particles (figure 5).

7

Years of life lost (YOLL) Reference year: 2005 Years

0-0.5 0.5-1 1-5 5-10 10-25 25-50 50-100 100-500 500-5000 > 5000 Poor data coverage Outside data coverage

Figure 5: Shortening of the average lifespan caused by pollution with fine particles (PM2.5) in Europe measured as lost years of living per 100 km2.

Ref. The European Environmental Agency, 2010.

Nitrogen oxides (NOX) mainly consist of the two

Other 22%

gasses: Nitrogen oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide

Transport 46%

(NO2). The gasses are formed during burning in engines under high temperature when free nitro-

gen (N2) from air is oxidized. Transport is the largest source to NOX-pollution (Figure 6).

Industry 11%

NO2 is harmful in concentrations measured in

many cities. NO is harmless in normal concentrations. The traffic is the dominating source NOX-

pollution in cities.

Energy production 21% Figure 6: NOX-pollution from Danish sources in 2009.

Ref. National Environmental Research Institute of Denmark, 2011

8

NOx-pollution from traffic

Taxies 8%

Traffic distribution

Cars 49%

Delivery vans 13%

Taxies 8% Delivery vans 11%

Heavy vehicles 30%

Heavy vehicles 4%

Cars 77% Figur 7: NOX-pollution from traffic and traffic distribution in Copenhagen in 2010.

Ref. National Environmental Research Institute of Denmark, 2011

Heavy vehicles cause about 30 % of the pollution

In the street air a part of the harmless NO reacts

traffic (Figure 7). Cars only contribute to a minor

harmful NO2. Ozone is often the limiting reactant.

even though they only make up about 4 % of the

part of the pollution because the majority of cars

are private gasoline cars with catalytic converters

removing 80-90 % of the NOX. The exhaust from a traditional diesel car contains about 90 % NO and

10 % NO2. But some modern diesel cars are equip-

with ozone (O3) and thereby becomes oxidized to In streets with heavy traffic in Copenhagen up to 60 % of the NO2-pollution origins from traffic

while the last 40 % are background pollution from other pollution sources.

ped with oxidizing catalytic converters. Thereby

In the cities the diesel traffic thereby becomes an

NOX in the exhaust gas causing serious air pollu-

with ultrafine particles and NO2.

the share of harmful NO2 can be up to 40 % of the tion.

important pollution source to harmful pollution

9

TECHNICAL SOLUTIONS The major part of particle pollution from the

exhaust of diesel vehicles can be removed by

using closed particulate filters. However, it is of

nies even succeeded in developing a combination of a filter and SCR-system for heavy vehicles.

great importance to distinguish between the

A closed particulate filter consists of a number of

tive open particulate filters. Typically, the closed

walls. Consequently, particles of all sizes are retained

effective closed particulate filters and the ineffecparticulate filters reduce the emission of particles

with efficiencies above 95 % for all particle sizes in the exhaust (PM10, PM2.5, PM0.1). Only 10-15 % of the particle mass is reduced by open particulate

filters and the removal of ultrafine particles is not documented (see page 13).

Consequently, the particle pollution from traffic can be removed efficiently by imple-

mentation of technology. The same goes for pollution

with NOX from heavy die-

sel vehicles. Here a reduc-

closed channels where only air can pass through the in the filter. To receive approval a closed filter must retain at least 80 % of the particles. But the reduc-

tion is often above 95 %. To avoid clogging of the filter an automatic regeneration process is used. The regenerative process typically oxidizes particles in the filter to harmless CO2 and water vapour.

However, some particulate filters increases the

emission of NO2 since NO can be oxidized to NO2 in some filters. Consequently, it can be necessary

to combine particulate filters and SCR-systems. A

SCR-system consists of a catalytic converter and a

pump with NOX sensors and a urea-container. The

tion of 80 % can be

sensor and pump dose just enough urea into the

of SCR-systems (SCR:

The catalytic converter then uses ammonia relea-

achieved by installation

Selective Catalytic

Reduction). Danish compa-

catalytic converter to remove the produced NOX.

sed from urea to reduce the NOX to harmless free

nitrogen (N2) and water vapour.

Danish cleantech companies are among the world leading suppliers of air pollution control technologies.

10

The price of a combined solution (closed particulate filter and SCR-system) for heavy vehicles is approx. 15,000

EUR. The lifetime of the system is min.

5 years i.e. the running costs are about 3,000 EUR per year. This should be

compared to the running costs of an

average truck which is about 100,000

EUR per year (depreciation, diesel, driver salary, maintenance etc.). Consequently, the haulers costs are

increased by 3 %. The installation of a closed particulate filter increases the haulers costs about 1 %.

Due to the cost increase no haulers will buy the air pollution control technologies voluntarily. Thus,

there is need for legislative demands for the technologies. The Euro-norms (see page 15) ensures that this gradually occurs for new vehicles.

However, there is a need for subsequent retrofit-

ting on all existing vehicles. As a minimum there

should be demands in environmental zones in cities (see page 18).

An obligatory demand for air cleaning technology will - beside cleaner air - allow the business

owners to pass on the additional costs directly to their customers that can pass them on to their

customers and so on until the end user â&#x20AC;&#x201C; the consumer â&#x20AC;&#x201C; pays the costs when buying products.

Consequently, the additional cost finally ends at the consumer which at the same time benefits

from the cleaner air. Since transport charges often constitutes a very little part of the product price an observed increase in every day products will

typically be below 0.1 percent due to legislative

demands on air cleaning systems e.g. below 0.01 eurocent for a liter of milk.

The combination of a particulate filter and SCRsystems makes the exhaust from heavy diesel

vehicles much cleaner

11

”The results underline that society most likely can achieve an overall benefit by retrofitting closed particulate filters on heavy vehicles. The benefit can reach 12 billion EUR during the next 15 years (in Denmark). However, this should be seen as the largest benefit possible.”

Ref. Samfundsøkonomisk vurdering af partikelfiltre (in Danish), Environmental Assessment Institute of Denmark, 2002.

”Retrofitting SCR on heavy vehicles would reduce NOX by 3.279 tons in 2010 … SCR gives a net present value (benefit) of 30 million EUR.” Ref. Samfundsøkonomisk analyse af NOX reduction (in Danish), Danish EPA, 2006

Socio-economic cost-benefit studies performed by different authorities and independent institutes

Today, there has not been developed a SCR-system

ters and SCR-systems are highly favorable. The rea-

demand for the systems since nobody will buy

reveal that legislative standards on particulate filson is that the society costs due to illness and

death are significantly higher than the costs of cleaning the air (see Box).

A legislative enforcement of particulate filters and

or similar for delivery vans because there is no them before they are forced to by regulation.

Therefore there is an urgent need for political ini-

tiatives to promote SCR-systems and subsequently installing SCR-systems or similar technologies.

SCR-systems would be a favorable investment for

Closed particulate filters are automatically atta-

and increase the life span. But still politicians refu-

Euro-norms. Furthermore, SCR-systems or similar

society. It would make life better for many people se to act. It is often claimed that subsequent

installation of closed particulate filters on passenger cars and vans are impossible. However, this is not true. Danish cleantech manufacturers and suppliers are ready.

12

ched to new light diesel vehicles today due to the cleaning technology is automatically attached to

new heavy vehicles. However, there is still no requirements for particulate filters to new heavy

vehicles and NOX-catalytic converters (SCR or similar) on light vehicles.

Q U I T I N E F F E C T I V E O P E N F I LT E R S As mentioned earlier it is very important to distin-

An open particulate filter can retain 30-50 % at

ters which typically remove 95 % of the exhaust

when driving at lower speeds e.g. in cities the effi-

guish between the effective closed particulate fil-

particles (all particle sizes) and the ineffective open particulate filters which are believed to remove 1015 % of the particle mass (larger particles).

Particulate filters on new vehicles are closed filters.

The same goes for retrofitting particulate filters on heavy vehicles. However, retrofitting particulate

filters on light vehicles (passenger cars and vans) is very often inefficient open filters.

A closed particulate filter consists of a number of closed channels where the particles are retained.

An open filter consists of open channels where the majority of the particles pass directly through.

optimal conditions (freeway driving). However,

ciency is much lower â&#x20AC;&#x201C; down to 3-5 %. Open filters are believed to have an average efficiency of 10-15

% particle mass removal, but lower in cities where the particle pollution causes most damage. After urban driving non-combusted particles are pre-

sent in the filter. When the speed is then suddenly

increased the result is a cloud of particles released as black smoke from the exhaust.

An open particulate filter costs about 800 EUR

incl. installation, while a closed particulate filter

costs approx. 1,600 EUR incl. installation. However, since closed particulate filters reduce 7-10 times more than open filters the particle reduction per

invested EUR is significantly higher with closed filters.

Closed filters remove more than 95 % of the particles.

Open filters remove

less than 15 % of the particles

Almost all particles (above 95 %) is retained in the closed particulate filters, while the major part of

particles passes freely through the open particulate filters

13

Still, the Danish government does not distinguish

taxation if they install closed particulate filters

light vehicles. The 1st of April 2010 a tax of 130 EUR

environmental zones). Second, the taxation is too

between open and closed particulate filters for

was introduced in Denmark for vans and diesel

cars without particulate filters. Consequently, car owners can avoid paying the tax by installing an

ineffective open filter. And is it not even required that the efficiency of the filter is documented at MOT tests.

A year after the enforcement 1,000 car owners had installed open particulate filters to avoid the tax

while about approx. 300,000 car owners paid the

tax. This is due to the fact that even installation of an open particulate filter would have a simple

payback time of 6 years which makes it unecono-

mic. And the 0.3 % car owners which for â&#x20AC;&#x153;the sake of the environmentâ&#x20AC;? installed open filters have

been cheated since the environmental effect of

(just like the legislation is for heavy vehicles in the low to ensure installation. The yearly taxation

should be 600 EUR instead. Then the simple payback time would be less than 3 years for closed

particulate filters which would make filter installation profitable.

In German environmental zones there is (contrary

to Danish environmental zones) a requirement for

particulate filters on light diesel vehicles. However,

the requirements are met with ineffective open filters. Consequently, there will only be observed a

limited effect in the reduction of particle pollution due to the filters requirements for light vehicles.

But the age requirements in the German environmental zones will limit the pollution significantly.

their open filters is very poor.

In Denmark exists some of the worlds leading

There are two lessons to be learned. First, people

filters and SCR-systems.

should only be allowed to be exempted from the

manufacturers and suppliers of closed particulate

Danish manufacturers and suppliers of closed particulate filters and SCR-systems are world leading.

Closed filters Purefi: www.purefi.dk Dinex: www.dinex.dk

Notox: www.notoxcf.com LiqTech: www.liqtech.dk

H. Daugbjerg: www.scan-filter.com

14

SCR-systems Haldor Topsoe: www.topsoe.com

Emitec Denmark: www.emitec.com

V I O L AT I O N T H E E U - L E G I S L AT I O N EU regulates the emission of air pollution from

ted from gasoline cars. Even so, 10-15 years will pass

transport sector the Euro-norms, the Air Quality

ced with newer models. Consequently, the future

member states through different directives. For the Directive (AQD) and the NEC-directive are of particular interest.

The pollution from vehicles in EU is regulated by

Euro-norms (Table 3). This creates a motivation for the industry to develop new and cheaper air cle-

aning and transportation technologies. However, this is only true if the emission norms are strict enough to stimulate such a development. The

before the existing diesel cars and vans are repla-

for clean air is pretty far sighted unless politicians

intervene by creating environmental zones or introducing green taxes regulating consumer behavior

(see page 18 and 23). Euro-norms for heavy vehicles are in emission per kWh engine performance

under different working cycles and are thus not

directly comparable to the pollution emitted from light vehicles.

Euro-norms are totally harmonized thus the single

The Euro-norms only puts demands on the mass of

terms of e.g. particulate filters and SCR-systems.

is not a sound measurement for the health hazar-

member states cannot make stricter demands in

The pollution from diesel cars far exceeds the pol-

lution from gasoline cars both in terms of particles and NOX. Only diesel cars and vans sold later than 2014-15 (Euro VI) will approach the pollution emit-

the particles (Table 3). However, as mentioned this dous ultrafine particles. In doing so, the truck pro-

ducers have no incentive to reduce the number of

ultrafine particles. On the contrary, truck producers focus on reducing larger particles.

Table 3 Vehicle

Euro III

Gasoline cars

2000

Delivery vans

2001

Diesel cars

Trucks/buses

Gasoline cars Euro IV

Diesel cars

Delivery vans Trucks/buses

Gasoline cars Euro V

Diesel cars

Delivery vans Trucks/buses

Gasoline cars Euro VI

Year of enforcement

Diesel cars

Delivery vans Trucks/buses

2000 2001

2005 2005

2006

Particle limits

NOX-limits ---

50 mg/km

100 mg/km

100 mg/kWh ---

25 mg/km

60 mg/km

5 mg/km

2014 2014 2015 2013

250 mg/km

5 mg/km 1)

2009 2009

5 g/kWh

80 mg/km

390 mg/km

20 mg/kWh

2010

780 mg/km

60 mg/km

2005

2009

150 mg/km

500 mg/km

3.5 g/kWh

180 mg/km

5 mg/km

280 mg/km

5 mg/km 1)

60 mg/km

5 mg/km

125 mg/km

20 mg/kWh 5 mg/km

7 mg/kWh

2 g/kWh

80 mg/km

0.4 g/kWh

Ref. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_emission_standards 1) Only for gasoline cars with direct injection

15

Instead EU should make standards for the number

Commission for a dispensation allowing Denmark

expected that closed particulate filters will be

according to the National Environmental Research

of ultrafine particles emitted in the exhaust. It is required to fulfill the Euro V for diesel cars and

vans. However, the demand for closed particulate

filters on heavy vehicles is first introduced in 2013

with the Euro VI norm. Consequently, this will put an effective end to the pollution with ultrafine particles from new diesel vehicles.

first to fulfill the limit value in 2015. However,

Institute Denmark will not even be able to fulfill

the limit value in 2015 unless political actions are

taken to limit the air pollution. The limit value plus the so called margin of tolerance have been exceeded in Copenhagen since it was enforced in 2002.

The Danish government has failed to act. Even

though, more ambitious environmental zones (see

Limit values

The Air Quality Directive (AQD) determines concrete limit values for a number of pollutants in city

page 18) and smaller traffic reductions would make Denmark able to fulfill all limit values in the AQD.

air including particles and NO2 which are of parti-

But the conservative-liberal government has decli-

It should be noted that there is no limit values for

ambitious environmental zones in Danish cities.

cular interest for the transport sector (see table 4). the hazardous ultrafine particles (PM0.1) yet.

Thereby there is no limit value for the key pollutant from diesel exhaust.

The limit value for PM10 (enforced in 2005) was

ned all suggestions for traffic reductions and more Consequently, with the present government there is no sign of will to fulfillment of the limit values in the AQD or to limit the pollution with health hazardous ultrafine particles.

exceeded in Denmark from 2005 to 2009 without

The upper limit of air pollution emissions from

the air pollution. First when the Danish Ecocouncil

(National Emission Ceilings). In relation to the

any serious action from the authorities to reduce

and other Danish NGOs was ready to sue the state something happened (see page 19).

Denmark is not able to fulfill the limit value for

NO2 (yearly average) which was enforced in 2010.

Instead of trying to reduce the air pollution the minister of environment has applied the

member states is controlled by the NEC-directive transport sector the NEC-directive is of particular

interest, as road traffic is responsible for about 46 % of the Danish NOX-emission (See Figure 6).

Denmark barely fulfilled the NOX-requirements in the NEC-directive by 2010 and is required to

accomplish additional reductions to fulfill future emission limits under the directive.

Table 4

Partikler

NO2

Year of enforcement

Target Limit

2005

PM10

Daily average value

2010

PM2.5

Annual average value

2010

NO2

1)

0.05 mg/m3

Annual average value Hourly average value

0.04 mg/m3

0.025 mg/m3 2)

Annual average value

Table 4: Limit values for particles and NO2 according to the air quality directive.

1) Not to be exceeded more than 35 times each calendar year.

2) Not to be exceeded more than 18 times each calendar year.

16

0.2 mg/m3

0.04 mg/m3

C A S E ST U DY: DA N I S H E N V I R O N M E N TA L Z O N E S Environmental zones with strict emission stan-

But the final environmental zones had very strict

to reduce air pollution in places with high popula-

implemented in four cities: Copenhagen, Ă&#x2026;rhus,

dards for vehicles in big cities are an effective way tion density, much traffic and limited dilution. But the story of the environmental zones in Denmark underlines that it is not necessarily an easy way.

The Danish Road Traffic Act was adjusted in 2000

limitations. The environmental zones could only be Aalborg and Odense. And the municipalities could only require closed filters on heavy vehicles. Thus

the environmental zones were far from ambitious from a health perspective

exclusively with the purpose of introducing envi-

Copenhagen was first to introduce environmental

should be approved by the Danish Ministry of

heavy vehicles older than Euro III and came into

ronmental zones. However, environmental zones Justice before they could come into force.

In 2002 and 2003 a large Danish governmental

report about health effects of particle pollution

was published together with the first socio-economical cost-benefit analysis and a number of technical articles on the hazardous health effects of particle pollution in the Weekly Journal for Physicians. All these studies supported the

demand for closed particulate filters and hereby supported the demand proposed by The Danish

zones. First stage included filter requirements for force in September 2008. But the first stage did not cover the complete municipality of

Copenhagen. This was changed after intensive lobbyism from the Danish Ecocouncil. In 2009 almost all parts of Copenhagen was included in the environmental zone. Second stage included filter requirements for heavy vehicles older than Euro IV

and came into force in July 2010. Aalborg, Odense and Ă&#x2026;rhus have established environmental zones as well.

Ecocouncil back in 1997. The municipality of

The environmental zones will not reduce the pol-

However, the application was denied by the

only a small share of these pollutants origins from

Copenhagen applied for an environmental zone.

Ministry of Justice after two years. The reason was that the environmental zone would be expropriation of the heavy vehicles right to pollute.

However, a lawyer investigation rejected the

expropriation argument from the Ministry of

Justice. Then all environmental regulations would

lution with PM10 and PM2.5 significantly since

the exhaust. However, the environmental zones

will have an effect on the pollution with ultrafine particles and NO2 due to the filter requirements and the fact that some old heavy vehicles are replaced with newer models fitted with SCRsystems.

be expropriation. The Danish Ecocouncil started an active media campaign for environmental zones.

An amendment of the law of environmental pro-

tection by the end of 2006 improved the possibilities for environmental zones since the capability was moved from the Ministry of Justice to the Ministry of Environment.

17

E N V I R O N M E N TA L Z O N E S F O R T H E F U T U R E The Danish Ecocouncil proposes the following basic requirements for environmental zones:

1) Closed particulate filters for all diesel vehicles and diesel engines.

2) Catalytic converters for diesel vehicles (SCR) and all gasoline cars.

3) Emission- and noise demands to two-wheeled vehicles (mopeds etc.).

Furthermore, it should be allowed for all medium to large size cities to implement environmental

Mopeds

Mopeds with a combustion engine pollute with a disproportionate large amount of particles and

unburnt hydrocarbons since their engines are inefficient and most mopeds are without catalytic

converters. Moreover, mopeds contribute signifi-

cantly to noise pollution. In cities, where there are

good alternative ways of transport environmental zones should prevent polluting mopeds. This

would promote sales of electric mopeds, electric bicycles and less polluting mopeds.

zones and to limit traffic by road pricing.

More environmental zones

Particulate filter demands

zones in larger cities (In Denmark: Copenhagen,

An investigation done by the Danish EPA on new heavy Euro IV and Euro V vehicles showed that

these vehicles pollute above 100 times more in terms of ultrafine particles compared to older heavy vehicles with closed particulate filters.

Consequently, new Euro IV and Euro V vehicles as

Today there are only implemented environmental Ă&#x2026;rhus, Aalborg and Odense). However, many

middle sized cities suffer from air pollution as well. Therefore middle sized cities (e.g. above

25.000 citizens) should implement environmental zones.

well as all light diesel vehicles and non road diesel

Traffic limitations

ronmental zones. The requirements should be clo-

necessary to limit traffic (on top of environmental

engines (see page 22) should be included in envised particulate filters.

Catalytic converters

Since heavy vehicles is responsible for about 30 % of the NOX pollution from traffic SCR-systems (or

just as efficient technologies) should be required

in the environmental zones. A demand for vans to

have SCR-systems or similar should be enforced as soon as the technology is available. Demands to

gasoline cars should be made since 7-10 % of gasoline cars in Danish cities are cars from before the

requirement for catalytic converters thereby polluting 7-8 times as much as newer cars per km.

18

In Copenhagen and many other European cities it is zones) to fulfill the EU limit values. Consequently, road pricing seems to be a promising solution â&#x20AC;&#x201C; underlined by the successes from London and

Stockholm. This would lower traffic jam as well (in Copenhagen above 130.000 hours is wasted every day due to traffic jam. That corresponds to more

than 17.000 people employed full time to be stuck in traffic). And traffic jam is strongly increasing.

The prices in road pricing systems should be differentiated depending on the pollution from the vehicles.

S U I N G T H E STAT E In the fall 2008 the Danish Ecocouncil, Agenda 21

As mentioned above had Denmark (as Bayern)

Society for Nature Conservation chose to prepare a

tion (PM10) for years. This has been demonstrated

Green Noerrebro, NOAH Traffic and the Danish

been exceeding the limit value for particle pollu-

lawsuit against the Danish state to force the state

by measurements in both Copenhagen and

only way to get the attention of the government.

value was back in 2005. In the following years the

to reduce air pollution. A lawsuit seemed to be the

The inspiration for the lawsuit was achieved

through a court ruling from the EF-court (verdict of 25/7 2008 in case C-237/07) where a German

citizen won a similar lawsuit against the federal

state of Bayern. The verdict was a prejudicial ruling i.e. it commits the member states. The verdict was about the exceeding of the AQD limit value for particles (PM10) and it stated that the federal

state of Bayern was obligated to compose and launch an action plan to reduce air pollution.

Odense. The first exceeding of the PM10-limit

majority of the Danish parliament consisting of the liberal-conservative government outvoted

several proposals on stricter environmental zones

and traffic limitations in major cities. Not even an action plan to reduce air pollution was made. The minister of environment just referred to a small

report on air pollution called â&#x20AC;&#x153;Clean air for everyoneâ&#x20AC;? published by the government which should

address the issue. However, this report contained no actions and it contains no new initiatives to reduce air pollution.

The Danish state is sued for air pollution.

19

After massive press coverage of the organizations

given if a member state documents that it already

officers from the EPA quickly guaranteed to com-

value. Since the liberal-conservative government

plans to sue the state highly ranked government pose all necessary action plans immediately. The

NGOs thereby avoided going through a resource demanding lawsuit against the state.

Meanwhile, the minister of environment asked EU for dispensation from fulfilling the limit value for PM10. However, such dispensation can only be

has taken all appropriate actions to fulfill the limit had outvoted all serious suggestions to improve

air quality it was quite easy for the NGOs to com-

plain to the Commission by documenting that the Danish state had certainly not taken appropriate actions.

In 2009 the NGOs won since Denmark did not

receive dispensation from the limit value as applied. On the contrary, the Commission sent an opening letter to the state of Denmark for violating

the air quality directive. Afterwards, the environ-

mental agency swiftly composed the action plan to reduce air pollution with PM10.

As mentioned earlier Denmark can not comply

with the limit value for the harmful NO2 pollution.

Consequently, the environmental agency applied for another dispensation trying to push fulfilling the NO2 limit value until 2015 instead of taking action to reduce the pollution. The limit value

could be fulfilled by a simple combination of stricter environmental zones and minor traffic reductions. But both these actions had been outvoted by the Danish government. Consequently, the

Danish Ecocouncil and other NGOs need to prepare a new complaint to the Commission to avoid

the dispensation and thereby forcing the Danish state to reduce air pollution with NO2.

Denmark has with the liberal-conservative government developed into a land of dispensation in

regards to environmental aspects. Nothing serious is done to reduce the pollution. Instead the limit

values of the EU directives are exceeded with premeditation and applications for dispensation

directly follows. This is not the Danish spirit. The

strategy of dispensation should be replaced with a strategy of action. Denmark should not continue watering down the environmental policy of EU.

20

CHIPTUNING Chip tuning of diesel cars constitute a significant

1st of August 2006. This is why the chip tuning devi-

increase the car owners “Cool” factor e.g. faster

inspection. Concurrently, the device needs to be able

pollution problem. Diesel cars are chip tuned to

acceleration, more noise and higher speed. This is

done by buying and installing a chip tuning device between the steering unit and the diesel pump.

Thereby too much fuel is pumped into the engine

and hereby the pollution increases. Sometime the

engine can no longer sustain the Euro-norm it was approved for. However, this is not the impression

you get from the retailer of the chip tuning devices (see Box).

ce should be easy to detach when the car is up for

to detach swiftly and without a trace in case of traffic accidents due to insurance policies. The retailer

knows this and they do not even hesitate to use it

as a tool when marketing the chip tuning devices.

According to the Danish Technological Institute

were up to half of all diesel cars in Denmark chip

tuned prior to the legislation enforced in 2006 and

the particle pollution was increased up to 300 % by chip tuning.

Notice the sentence “and optimizes the fuel supply

The main issue is that it is impossible to control if

the case. Of course the cars are made with the most

bought online through Danish and foreign retailers

with chip tuning”. It is the total opposite of what is optimal fuel supply from the producer’s hand. Also notice the sentence “when the box is removed the car will be as it was before”. Chip tuning which

increases the pollution was banned in Denmark the

the rules are violated. Chip tuning devices can be with an easy do-it-yourself installation guide.

Furthermore, it is doubtful that buyers of the devi-

ces pay for a car inspection (pollution control) after installing the chip tuning device. Consequently,

there should be set aside resources to control and make information cam-

With DTK Chip tuning the effect of a BMW 118d is

increased. DTK effect box for chip tuning is installed between the steering unit and the diesel pump and optimizes the fuel supply with chip tuning. All DTKproducts is delivered with original switches which gives a very easy and swift installation. This is an

advanced digital box which fits to every single car

model. Some cars are more demanding than others and this box satisfies the demands of the most

paigns to limit the chip tuning problem.

Finally, chip tuning of mopeds have

become a significant problem. Chip

tuning is significantly harder to detect than “old fashion re-boring”. None the

less, chip tuning increase the pollution, the noise and the risk of accidents.

demanding. There is no intervention of the engine system and when the box is removed the car will

again be as it originally was. This is an incredible safe

way of chip tuning. Installation manual with pictures is included.

21

N O N - R OA D D I E S E L E N G I N E S The emission of particles from non-road diesel

any stricter due to a high content of sulfur in the

next years contribute with a fast increasing share

fur diesel for road traffic in 2007 but the fuel will

engines and diesel locomotives will within the

of the particle emission since these engines are

regulated after their own directive which allows much higher emissions than the Euro-norms.

These engines are often used in cities e.g. road

sweepers, various contractor equipment etc. Nonroad diesel engines are both an issue of public

US and other countries. The US introduced low sulonly be introduced gradually for diesel engines

from 2011-14. It is difficult to understand why the EU must wait for this. Retrofitting closed parti-

culate filters and SCR-systems on non-road diesel engines seems like an urgent requirement.

health and in relation to working environment. In

There have been tests with combining a diesel

are a key issue of concern.

electric motor will be used around stations in

indoor stations in larger cities diesel locomotives

In 2004 an EU-directive was adopted which would set higher standards for non-road diesel engines

in terms of emissions. However, the high emission allowed in the directive was defended by saying

that the market for non-road diesel engines is global and that the emission standards could not be

engine and an electric motor on locomotives. The large cities. The diesel engine will only be started at a certain distance from the stations. If these

experiments succeed it will reduce the local pollution significantly. The experiments with particulate filters for locomotives have not yet been successful.

Particle pollution from nonroad diesel engines will

increase to a much higher share of the total particle and NOX-pollution if no

further action is taken.

22

G R E E N TA X AT I O N

Economic instruments in the form of green taxa-

Green taxes within the transport sector are

instruments in terms of reducing pollution. This

is to implement higher taxes on pollution and use

tion and subsidies are some of the most effective counts for the transport sectior as well. Green

taxes are a national affair i.e. the different member states can freely decide to introduce green

taxes. Consequently, it is not true when politicians claim that they cannot do anything in regards to

air pollution because of EU legislation. EU regulates emission standards of new vehicles while the member states can regulate the pollution from

the existing fleet through green taxes as long as the taxes are not anti-competitive

In a number of cases green taxation is even a requirement to obtain an optimal socio-economic environmental regulation because the tax can

introduce the polluter pays principle. Furthermore green taxes motivate companies to produce, market and use more environmentally friendly vehicles.

By introducing a tax on trucks without particulate

recommended both by EU and OECD. The principle of resources, and to use the yield to reduce e.g. the tax on income. This mean that the activities (pollution and use of limited resources) that society

wants to reduce get the highest taxes while the tax is lowered for activities which the society

wants to promote (employment). In regards to particle- and NOx-pollution the yield could be used for financial support for filters and SCRsystems.

The Danish Ecocouncil supports the use of intelligent green taxations as a cost-efficient instru-

ment to reduce pollution. Already within the sec-

tor of transport there should be introduced a significantly more environmentally differentiated

taxation on vehicles that pollutes with CO2, NOX, particles and noise. In the long term should as

well be introduced a road-pricing systems based on GPS.

filters and SCR-systems it is possible to redirect

the bill for the pollution (sickness and death) to

the haulier. By doing so, the haulier gets an economic incentive to install filters and SCR-systems â&#x20AC;&#x201C; and hereby reduce pollution.

23

P O L L U T I O N F R O M R OA D TRAFFIC – focus on particles and nitrogen oxides

A comprehensive Dutch study shows that there is approximately 50 % excess mortality among people living less than 50 meters from a road with heavy traffic. Approximately 100,000 people in Copenhagen are in this group. This corresponds to additional 500 deaths every year. For comparison the average deaths caused by traffic accidents is 10-15 peoples in Copenhagen. In addition, the air pollution is believed to cause thousand of bronchitis cases, ten thousands of asthma attacks and other serious diseases. Finally, air pollution is suspected to be damaging to foetuses and to contribute to serious diseases in the central nerve system like Parkinson’s and Alzheimer’s.

Especially, ultrafine particles and the health hazardous gas nitrogen dioxide are serious problems. The most significant source of particles is diesel vehicles: Trucks, busses, delivery vans, private diesel cars and taxies. But the share of pollution from non-road vehicles is increasing. Consequently, this booklets main priority is the pollution caused by diesel vehicles, the technical solutions – closed particulate filters and SCR-systems - along with the instruments used to introduce the solutions.

However, it is only through political action that air pollution can be reduced. Consequently, it is our hope that especially politicians will be inspired by this booklet – but it is also suitable for teaching and for interested citizens, who wish to know more about air pollutants from traffic and the technical solutions.